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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 11, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 5
+       "Gassendi, Pierre" to "Geocentric"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August 31, 2011 [EBook #37282]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 11 SL 5 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE GAUDEN, JOHN: "... and on the fact that it was admitted by
+      Clarendon, who should have had means of being acquainted with the
+      truth." 'should' amended from 'sould'.
+
+    ARTICLE GAWAIN: "In the later Historia of Geoffrey of Monmouth, and
+      its French translation by Wace, Gawain plays an important and
+      'pseudo-historic' rôle." 'Geoffrey' amended from 'Goeffrey'.
+
+    ARTICLE GAYA: "... and at which a religious fair is held each
+      September, attended by 10,000 to 20,000 pilgrims." '20,000' amended
+      from '20,0000'.
+
+    ARTICLE GECKO: "The arrangement of the lamellae and pads differs
+      much in the various genera and is used for classificatory
+      purposes." 'classificatory' amended from 'classificactory'.
+
+    ARTICLE GEDDES, ALEXANDER: "Although under ecclesiastical censures,
+      he had never swerved from a consistent profession of faith as a
+      Catholic; and on his death-bed he duly received the last rites of
+      his communion." 'Although' amended from 'Athough'.
+
+    ARTICLE GELSEMIUM: "It was first described in 1640 by John
+      Parkinson, who grew it in his garden from seed sent by Tradescant
+      from Virginia; at the present time it is but rarely seen, even in
+      botanical gardens, in Great Britain." 'Britain' amended from
+      'Britian'.
+
+    ARTICLE GEM: "From the Byzantine period downward one peculiarity of
+      gem-engraving becomes noticeable." 'peculiarity' amended from
+      'peculiarty'.
+
+    ARTICLE GENEALOGY: "... or that Bilhan points to an old clan
+      associated with Reuben (Gen. xxxv. 22) or Edom (Bilhan, Gen. xxxvi.
+      27), ..." 'Bilhan' amended from 'Bilhah'.
+
+    ARTICLE GENTIANACEAE: "... bright blue corolla, is visited by
+      bumble bees; and G. verna, with a still longer narrower tube, is
+      visited by Lepidoptera." 'bumble' amended from 'humble'.
+
+    ARTICLE GENTZ, FRIEDRICH VON: "... but partly supplemented in
+      Österreichs Teilnahme an den Befreiungskriegen (Vienna, 1887) ..."
+      'Österreichs' amended from 'Öesterreichs'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME XI, SLICE V
+
+       Gassendi, Pierre to Geocentric
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  GASSENDI, PIERRE                  GEFLE
+  GASTEIN                           GEGENBAUR, CARL
+  GASTRIC ULCER                     GEGENSCHEIN
+  GASTRITIS                         GEIBEL, EMANUEL
+  GASTROPODA                        GEIGE
+  GASTROTRICHA                      GEIGER, ABRAHAM
+  GATAKER, THOMAS                   GEIJER, ERIK GUSTAF
+  GATCHINA                          GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD
+  GATE                              GEIKIE, JAMES
+  GATEHOUSE                         GEIKIE, WALTER
+  GATES, HORATIO                    GEILER VON KAISERSBERG, JOHANN
+  GATESHEAD                         GEINITZ, HANS BRUNO
+  GATH                              GEISHA
+  GATLING, RICHARD JORDAN           GEISLINGEN
+  GATTY, MARGARET                   GEISSLER, HEINRICH
+  GAU, JOHN                         GELA
+  GAUDEN, JOHN                      GELADA
+  GAUDICHAUD-BEAUPRÉ, CHARLES       GELASIUS
+  GAUDRY, JEAN ALBERT               GELATI
+  GAUDY                             GELATIN
+  GAUERMANN, FRIEDRICH              GELDERLAND (duchy)
+  GAUGE                             GELDERLAND (province of Holland)
+  GAUHATI                           GELDERN
+  GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM             GELL, SIR WILLIAM
+  GAUL                              GELLERT, CHRISTIAN FÜRCHTEGOTT
+  GAULT                             GELLERT
+  GAUNTLET                          GELLIUS, AULUS
+  GAUR (ruined city of India)       GELLIVARA
+  GAUR (wild ox)                    GELNHAUSEN
+  GAUSS, KARL FRIEDRICH             GELO
+  GAUSSEN, FRANÇOIS SAMUEL LOUIS    GELSEMIUM
+  GAUTIER, ÉMILE THÉODORE LÉON      GELSENKIRCHEN
+  GAUTIER, THÉOPHILE                GEM
+  GAUTIER D'ARRAS                   GEM, ARTIFICIAL
+  GAUZE                             GEMBLOUX
+  GAVARNI                           GEMINI
+  GAVAZZI, ALESSANDRO               GEMINIANI, FRANCESCO
+  GAVELKIND                         GEMISTUS PLETHO, GEORGIUS
+  GAVESTON, PIERS                   GEMMI PASS
+  GAVOTTE                           GENDARMERIE
+  GAWAIN                            GENEALOGY
+  GAWLER                            GENELLI, GIOVANNI BUONAVENTURA
+  GAY, JOHN                         GENERAL
+  GAY, MARIE FRANÇOISE SOPHIE       GENERATION
+  GAY, WALTER                       GENESIS
+  GAYA                              GENET
+  GAYAL                             GENEVA (New York, U.S.A.)
+  GAYANGOS Y ARCE, PASCUAL DE       GENEVA (Switzerland)
+  GAYARRÉ, CHARLES ÉTIENNE ARTHUR   GENEVA CONVENTION
+  GAY-LUSSAC, JOSEPH LOUIS          GENEVA, LAKE OF
+  GAZA, THEODORUS                   GENEVIÈVE, ST
+  GAZA                              GENEVIÈVE, OF BRABANT
+  GAZALAND                          GENGA, GIROLAMO
+  GAZEBO                            GENISTA
+  GAZETTE                           GENIUS
+  GEAR                              GENUS, STÉPHANIE DE SAINT-AUBIN
+  GEBER                             GENNA
+  GEBHARD TRUCHSESS VON WALDBURG    GENNADIUS II.
+  GEBWEILER                         GENOA
+  GECKO                             GENOVESI, ANTONIO
+  GED, WILLIAM                      GENSONNÉ, ARMAND
+  GEDDES, ALEXANDER                 GENTIAN
+  GEDDES, ANDREW                    GENTIANACEAE
+  GEDDES, JAMES LORRAINE            GENTILE
+  GEDDES, SIR WILLIAM DUGUID        GENTILE DA FABRIANO
+  GEDYMIN                           GENTILESCHI, ARTEMISIA and ORAZIO DE'
+  GEE, THOMAS                       GENTILI, ALBERICO
+  GEEL, JACOB                       GENTLE
+  GEELONG                           GENTLEMAN
+  GEESTEMÜNDE                       GENTZ, FRIEDRICH VON
+  GEFFCKEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH      GEOCENTRIC
+  GEFFROY, MATHIEU AUGUSTE
+
+
+
+
+GASSENDI[1] [GASSEND], PIERRE (1592-1655), French philosopher, scientist
+and mathematician, was born of poor parents at Champtercier, near Digne,
+in Provence, on the 22nd of January 1592. At a very early age he gave
+indications of remarkable mental powers and was sent to the college at
+Digne. He showed particular aptitude for languages and mathematics, and
+it is said that at the age of sixteen he was invited to lecture on
+rhetoric at the college. Soon afterwards he entered the university of
+Aix, to study philosophy under P. Fesaye. In 1612 he was called to the
+college of Digne to lecture on theology. Four years later he received
+the degree of doctor of theology at Avignon, and in 1617 he took holy
+orders. In the same year he was called to the chair of philosophy at
+Aix, and seems gradually to have withdrawn from theology. He lectured
+principally on the Aristotelian philosophy, conforming as far as
+possible to the orthodox methods. At the same time, however, he followed
+with interest the discoveries of Galileo and Kepler, and became more and
+more dissatisfied with the Peripatetic system. It was the period of
+revolt against the Aristotelianism of the schools, and Gassendi shared
+to the full the empirical tendencies of the age. He, too, began to draw
+up objections to the Aristotelian philosophy, but did not at first
+venture to publish them. In 1624, however, after he had left Aix for a
+canonry at Grenoble, he printed the first part of his _Exercitationes
+paradoxicae adversus Aristoteleos_. A fragment of the second book was
+published later at La Haye (1659), but the remaining five were never
+composed, Gassendi apparently thinking that after the _Discussiones
+Peripateticae_ of Francesco Patrizzi little field was left for his
+labours.
+
+After 1628 Gassendi travelled in Flanders and Holland. During this time
+he wrote, at the instance of Mersenne, his examination of the mystical
+philosophy of Robert Fludd (_Epistolica dissertatio in qua praecipua
+principia philosophiae Ro. Fluddi deteguntur_, 1631), an essay on
+parhelia (_Epistola de parheliis_), and some valuable observations on
+the transit of Mercury which had been foretold by Kepler. He returned to
+France in 1631, and two years later became provost of the cathedral
+church at Digne. Some years were then spent in travelling through
+Provence with the duke of Angoulême, governor of the department. The
+only literary work of this period is the _Life of Peiresc_, which has
+been frequently reprinted, and was translated into English. In 1642 he
+was engaged by Mersenne in controversy with Descartes. His objections to
+the fundamental propositions of Descartes were published in 1642; they
+appear as the fifth in the series contained in the works of Descartes.
+In these objections Gassendi's tendency towards the empirical school of
+speculation appears more pronounced than in any of his other writings.
+In 1645 he accepted the chair of mathematics in the Collège Royal at
+Paris, and lectured for many years with great success. In addition to
+controversial writings on physical questions, there appeared during this
+period the first of the works by which he is known in the history of
+philosophy. In 1647 he published the treatise _De vita, moribus, et
+doctrina Epicuri libri octo_. The work was well received, and two years
+later appeared his commentary on the tenth book of Diogenes Laërtius,
+_De vita, moribus, et placitis Epicuri, seu Animadversiones in X. librum
+Diog. Laër_. (Lyons, 1649; last edition, 1675). In the same year the
+more important _Syntagma philosophiae Epicuri_ (Lyons, 1649; Amsterdam,
+1684) was published.
+
+In 1648 ill-health compelled him to give up his lectures at the Collège
+Royal. He travelled in the south of France, spending nearly two years at
+Toulon, the climate of which suited him. In 1653 he returned to Paris
+and resumed his literary work, publishing in that year lives of
+Copernicus and Tycho Brahe. The disease from which he suffered, lung
+complaint, had, however, established a firm hold on him. His strength
+gradually failed, and he died at Paris on the 24th of October 1655. A
+bronze statue of him was erected by subscription at Digne in 1852.
+
+His collected works, of which the most important is the _Syntagma
+philosophicum_ (_Opera_, i. and ii.), were published in 1658 by Montmort
+(6 vols., Lyons). Another edition, also in 6 folio volumes, was
+published by N. Averanius in 1727. The first two are occupied entirely
+with his _Syntagma philosophicum_; the third contains his critical
+writings on Epicurus, Aristotle, Descartes, Fludd and Lord Herbert, with
+some occasional pieces on certain problems of physics; the fourth, his
+_Institutio astronomica_, and his _Commentarii de rebus celestibus_; the
+fifth, his commentary on the tenth book of Diogenes Laërtius, the
+biographies of Epicurus, N.C.F. de Peiresc, Tycho Brahe, Copernicus,
+Georg von Peuerbach, and Regiomontanus, with some tracts on the value of
+ancient money, on the Roman calendar, and on the theory of music, to all
+which is appended a large and prolix piece entitled _Notitia ecclesiae
+Diniensis_; the sixth volume contains his correspondence. The _Lives_,
+especially those of Copernicus, Tycho and Peiresc, have been justly
+admired. That of Peiresc has been repeatedly printed; it has also been
+translated into English. Gassendi was one of the first after the revival
+of letters who treated the _literature_ of philosophy in a lively way.
+His writings of this kind, though too laudatory and somewhat diffuse,
+have great merit; they abound in those anecdotal details, natural yet
+not obvious reflections, and vivacious turns of thought, which made
+Gibbon style him, with some extravagance certainly, though it was true
+enough up to Gassendi's time--"le meilleur philosophe des littérateurs,
+et le meilleur littérateur des philosophes."
+
+  Gassendi holds an honourable place in the history of physical science.
+  He certainly added little to the stock of human knowledge, but the
+  clearness of his exposition and the manner in which he, like Bacon,
+  urged the importance of experimental research, were of inestimable
+  service to the cause of science. To what extent any place can be
+  assigned him in the history of philosophy is more doubtful. The
+  _Exercitationes_ on the whole seem to have excited more attention than
+  they deserved. They contain little or nothing beyond what had been
+  already advanced against Aristotle. The first book expounds clearly,
+  and with much vigour, the evil effects of the blind acceptance of the
+  Aristotelian dicta on physical and philosophical study; but, as is the
+  case with so many of the anti-Aristotelian works of this period, the
+  objections show the usual ignorance of Aristotle's own writings. The
+  second book, which contains the review of Aristotle's dialectic or
+  logic, is throughout Ramist in tone and method. The objections to
+  Descartes--one of which at least, through Descartes's statement of it
+  in the appendix of objections in the _Meditationes_ has become
+  famous--have no speculative value, and in general are the outcome of
+  the crudest empiricism. His labours on Epicurus have a certain
+  historical value, but the want of consistency inherent in the
+  philosophical system raised on Epicureanism is such as to deprive it
+  of genuine worth. Along with strong expressions of empiricism we find
+  him holding doctrines absolutely irreconcilable with empiricism in any
+  form. For while he maintains constantly his favourite maxim "that
+  there is nothing in the intellect which has not been in the senses"
+  (_nihil in intellectu quod non prius fuerit in sensu_), while he
+  contends that the imaginative faculty (_phantasia_) is the counterpart
+  of sense--that, as it has to do with material images, it is itself,
+  like sense, material, and essentially the same both in men and brutes;
+  he at the same time admits that the intellect, which he affirms to be
+  immaterial and immortal--the most characteristic distinction of
+  humanity--attains notions and truths of which no effort of sensation
+  or imagination can give us the slightest apprehension (Op. ii. 383).
+  He instances the capacity of forming "general notions"; the very
+  conception of universality itself (_ib._ 384), to which he says
+  brutes, who partake as truly as men in the faculty called _phantasia_,
+  never attain; the notion of God, whom he says we may imagine to be
+  corporeal, but understand to be incorporeal; and lastly, the reflex
+  action by which the mind makes its own phenomena and operations the
+  objects of attention.
+
+  The _Syntagma philosophicum_, in fact, is one of those eclectic
+  systems which unite, or rather place in juxtaposition, irreconcilable
+  dogmas from various schools of thought. It is divided, according to
+  the usual fashion of the Epicureans, into logic (which, with Gassendi
+  as with Epicurus, is truly _canonic_), physics and ethics. The logic,
+  which contains at least one praiseworthy portion, a sketch of the
+  history of the science, is divided into theory of right apprehension
+  (_bene imaginari_), theory of right judgment (_bene proponere_),
+  theory of right inference (_bene colligere_), theory of right method
+  (_bene ordinare_). The first part contains the specially empirical
+  positions which Gassendi afterwards neglects or leaves out of account.
+  The senses, the sole source of knowledge, are supposed to yield us
+  immediately cognition of individual things; phantasy (which Gassendi
+  takes to be material in nature) reproduces these ideas; understanding
+  compares these ideas, which are particular, and frames general ideas.
+  Nevertheless, he at the same time admits that the senses yield
+  knowledge--not of things--but of qualities only, and holds that we
+  arrive at the idea of thing or substance by induction. He holds that
+  the true method of research is the analytic, rising from lower to
+  higher notions; yet he sees clearly, and admits, that inductive
+  reasoning, as conceived by Bacon, rests on a general proposition not
+  itself proved by induction. He ought to hold, and in disputing with
+  Descartes he did apparently hold, that the evidence of the senses is
+  the only convincing evidence; yet he maintains, and from his special
+  mathematical training it was natural he should maintain, that the
+  evidence of reason is absolutely satisfactory. The whole doctrine of
+  judgment, syllogism and method is a mixture of Aristotelian and Ramist
+  notions.
+
+  In the second part of the _Syntagma_, the physics, there is more that
+  deserves attention; but here, too, appears in the most glaring manner
+  the inner contradiction between Gassendi's fundamental principles.
+  While approving of the Epicurean physics, he rejects altogether the
+  Epicurean negation of God and particular providence. He states the
+  various proofs for the existence of an immaterial, infinite, supreme
+  Being, asserts that this Being is the author of the visible universe,
+  and strongly defends the doctrine of the foreknowledge and particular
+  providence of God. At the same time he holds, in opposition to
+  Epicureanism, the doctrine of an immaterial rational soul, endowed
+  with immortality and capable of free determination. It is altogether
+  impossible to assent to the supposition of Lange (_Gesch. des
+  Materialismus_, 3rd ed., i. 233), that all this portion of Gassendi's
+  system contains nothing of his own opinions, but is introduced solely
+  from motives of self-defence. The positive exposition of atomism has
+  much that is attractive, but the hypothesis of the _calor vitalis_
+  (vital heat), a species of _anima mundi_ (world-soul) which is
+  introduced as physical explanation of physical phenomena, does not
+  seem to throw much light on the special problems which it is invoked
+  to solve. Nor is his theory of the weight essential to atoms as being
+  due to an inner force impelling them to motion in any way reconcilable
+  with his general doctrine of mechanical causes.
+
+  In the third part, the ethics, over and above the discussion on
+  freedom, which on the whole is indefinite, there is little beyond a
+  milder statement of the Epicurean moral code. The final end of life is
+  happiness, and happiness is harmony of soul and body (_tranquillitas
+  animi et indolentia corporis_). Probably, Gassendi thinks, perfect
+  happiness is not attainable in this life, but it may be in the life to
+  come.
+
+  The _Syntagma_ is thus an essentially unsystematic work, and clearly
+  exhibits the main characteristics of Gassendi's genius. He was
+  critical rather than constructive, widely read and trained thoroughly
+  both in languages and in science, but deficient in speculative power
+  and original force. Even in the department of natural science he shows
+  the same inability steadfastly to retain principles and to work from
+  them; he wavers between the systems of Brahe and Copernicus. That his
+  revival of Epicureanism had an important influence on the general
+  thinking of the 17th century may be admitted; that it has any real
+  importance in the history of philosophy cannot be granted.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Gassendi's life is given by Sorbière in the first
+  collected edition of the works, by Bugerel, _Vie de Gassendi_ (1737;
+  2nd ed., 1770), and by Damiron, _Mémoire sur Gassendi_ (1839). An
+  abridgment of his philosophy was given by his friend, the celebrated
+  traveller, Bernier (_Abrégé de la philosophie de Gassendi_, 8 vols.,
+  1678; 2nd ed., 7 vols., 1684). The most complete surveys of his work
+  are those of G.S. Brett (_Philosophy of Gassendi_, London, 1908),
+  Buhle (_Geschichte der neuern Philosophie_, iii. 1, 87-222), Damiron
+  (_Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de philosophie au XVII^e siècle_),
+  and P.F. Thomas (_La Philosophie de Gassendi_, Paris, 1889). See also
+  Ritter, _Geschichte der Philosophie_, x. 543-571; Feuerbach, _Gesch.
+  d. neu. Phil. von Bacon bis Spinoza_, 127-150; F.X. Kiefl, _P.
+  Gassendis Erkenntnistheorie und seine Stellung zum Materialismus_
+  (1893) and "Gassendi's Skepticismus" in _Philos. Jahrb._ vi. (1893);
+  C. Güttler, "Gassend oder Gassendi?" in _Archiv f. Gesch. d. Philos._
+  x. (1897), pp. 238-242.     (R. Ad.; X.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] It was formerly thought that _Gassendi_ was really the genitive
+    of the Latin form _Gassendus_. C. Güttler, however, holds that it is
+    a modernized form of the O. Fr. _Gassendy_ (see paper quoted in
+    bibliography).
+
+
+
+
+GASTEIN, in the duchy of Salzburg, Austria, a side valley of the Pongau
+or Upper Salzach, about 25 m. long and 1¼ m. broad, renowned for its
+mineral springs. It has an elevation of between 3000 and 3500 ft. Behind
+it, to the S., tower the mountains Mallnitz or Nassfeld-Tauern (7907
+ft.) and Ankogel (10,673 ft.), and from the right and left of these
+mountains two smaller ranges run northwards forming its two side walls.
+The river Ache traverses the valley, and near Wildbad-Gastein forms two
+magnificent waterfalls, the upper, the Kesselfall (196 ft.), and the
+lower, the Bärenfall (296 ft.). Near these falls is the Schleierfall
+(250 ft.), formed by the stream which drains the Bockhart-see. The
+valley is also traversed by the so-called Tauern railway (opened up to
+Wildbad-Gastein in September 1905), which goes to Mallnitz, piercing the
+Tauern range by a tunnel 9260 yds. in length. The principal villages of
+the valley are Hof-Gastein, Wildbad-Gastein and Böckstein.
+
+HOF-GASTEIN, pop. (1900) 840, the capital of the valley, is also a
+watering-place, the thermal waters being conveyed here from
+Wildbad-Gastein by a conduit 5 m. long, constructed in 1828 by the
+emperor Francis I. of Austria. Hof-Gastein was, after Salzburg, the
+richest place in the duchy, owing to its gold and silver mines, which
+were already worked during the Roman period. During the 16th century
+these mines were yielding annually 1180 lb. of gold and 9500 lb. of
+silver, but since the 17th century they have been much neglected and
+many of them are now covered by glaciers.
+
+WILDBAD-GASTEIN, commonly called _Bad-Gastein_, one of the most
+celebrated watering-places in Europe, is picturesquely situated in the
+narrow valley of the Gasteiner Ache, at an altitude of 3480 ft. The
+thermal springs, which issue from the granite mountains, have a
+temperature of 77°-120° F., and yield about 880,000 gallons of water
+daily. The water contains only 0.35 to 1000 of mineral ingredients and
+is used for bathing purposes. The springs are resorted to in cases of
+nervous affections, senile and general debility, skin diseases, gout and
+rheumatism. Wildbad-Gastein is annually visited by over 8500 guests. The
+springs were known as early as the 7th century, but first came into fame
+by a successful visit paid to them by Duke Frederick of Austria in 1436.
+Gastein was a favourite resort of William I. of Prussia and of the
+Austrian imperial family, and it was here that, on the 14th of August
+1865, was signed the agreement known as the Gastein Convention, which by
+dividing the administration of the conquered provinces of Schleswig and
+Holstein between Austria and Prussia postponed for a while the outbreak
+of war between the two powers. It was also here (August-September 1879)
+that Prince Bismarck negotiated with Count Julius Andrássy the
+Austro-German treaty, which resulted in the formation of the Triple
+Alliance.
+
+  See Pröll, _Gastein, Its Springs and Climate_ (Vienna, 5th ed., 1893).
+
+
+
+
+GASTRIC ULCER (ulcer of the stomach), a disease of much gravity,
+commonest in females, and especially in anaemic domestic servants. It is
+connected in many instances with impairment of the circulation in the
+stomach and the formation of a clot in a small blood-vessel
+(thrombosis). It may be due to an impoverished state of the blood
+(anaemia), but it may also arise from disease of the blood-vessels, the
+result of long-continued indigestion and gastric catarrh.
+
+When clotting takes place in a blood-vessel the nutrition of that
+limited area of the stomach is cut off, and the patch undergoes
+digestion by the unresisted action of the gastric juices, an ulcer being
+formed. The ulcer is usually of the size of a silver threepence or
+sixpence, round or oval, and, eating deeply, is apt to make a hole right
+through the coats of the stomach. Its usual site is upon the posterior
+wall of the upper curvature, near to the pyloric orifice. It may undergo
+a healing process at any stage, in which case it may leave but little
+trace of its existence; while, on the other hand, it may in the course
+of cicatrizing produce such an amount of contraction as to lead to
+stricture of the pylorus, or to a peculiar hour-glass deformity of the
+stomach. Perforation is in most cases quickly fatal, unless previously
+the stomach has become adherent to some neighbouring organ, by which the
+dangerous effects of this occurrence may be averted, or unless the
+condition has been promptly recognized and an operation has been quickly
+done. Usually there is but one ulcer, but sometimes there are several
+ulcers.
+
+The symptoms of ulcer of the stomach are often indefinite and obscure,
+and in some cases the diagnosis has been first made on the occurrence of
+a fatal perforation. First among the symptoms is pain, which is present
+at all times, but is markedly increased after food. The pain is situated
+either at the lower end of the breast-bone or about the middle of the
+back. Sometimes it is felt in the sides. It is often extremely severe,
+and is usually accompanied with localized tenderness and also with a
+sense of oppression, and by an inability to wear tight clothing. The
+pain is due to the movements of the stomach set up by the presence of
+the food, as well as to the irritation of the inflamed nerve filaments
+in the floor of the ulcer. Vomiting is a usual symptom. It occurs either
+soon after the food is swallowed or at a later period, and generally
+relieves the pain and discomfort. Vomiting of blood (haematemesis) is a
+frequent and important symptom. The blood may show itself in the form of
+a brown or coffee-like mixture, or as pure blood of dark colour and
+containing clots. It comes from some vessel or vessels which the
+ulcerative process has ruptured. Blood is also found mixed with the
+discharges from the bowels, rendering them dark or tarry-looking. The
+general condition of the patient with gastric ulcer is, as a rule, that
+of extreme ill-health, with pallor, emaciation and debility. The tongue
+is red, and there is usually constipation. In most of the cases the
+disease is chronic, lasting for months or years; and in those cases
+where the ulcers are large or multiple, incomplete healing may take
+place, relapses occurring from time to time. But the ulcers may give
+rise to no marked symptoms, and there have been instances where fatal
+perforation suddenly took place, and where post-mortem examination
+revealed the existence of long-standing ulcers which had given rise to
+no suggestive symptoms. While gastric ulcer is to be regarded as
+dangerous, its termination, in the great majority of cases, is in
+recovery. It frequently, however, leaves the stomach in a delicate
+condition, necessitating the utmost care as regards diet. Occasionally
+the disease proves fatal by sudden haemorrhage, but a fatal result is
+more frequently due to perforation and the escape of the contents of the
+stomach into the peritoneal cavity, in which case death usually occurs
+in from twelve to forty-eight hours, either from shock or from
+peritonitis. Should the stomach become adherent to another organ, and
+fatal perforation be thus prevented, chronic "indigestion" may persist,
+owing to interference with the natural movements of the stomach.
+Stricture of the pylorus and consequent dilatation of the stomach may be
+caused by the cicatrization of an ulcer.
+
+The patient should at once be sent to bed and kept there, and allowed
+for a while nothing stronger than milk and water or milk and lime water.
+But if bleeding has recently taken place no food whatever should be
+allowed by the stomach, and the feeding should be by nutrient enemata.
+As the symptoms quiet down, eggs may be given beaten up with milk, and
+later, bread and milk and home-made broths and soups. Thus the diet
+advances to chicken and vegetables rubbed through a sieve, to custard
+pudding and bread and butter. As regards medicines, iron is the most
+useful, but no pills of any sort should be given. Under the influence of
+rest and diet most gastric ulcers get well. The presence of
+healthy-looking scars upon the surface of the stomach, which are
+constantly found in operating upon the interior of the abdomen, or as
+revealed in post-mortem examinations, are evidence of the truth of this
+statement. It is unlikely that under the treatment just described
+perforation of the stomach will take place, and if the surgeon is called
+in to assist he will probably advise that operation is inadvisable.
+Moreover, he knows that if he should open the abdomen to search for an
+ulcer of the stomach he might fail to find it; more than that, his
+search might also be in vain if he opened the stomach itself and
+examined the interior. Serious haemorrhages, however, may make it
+necessary that a prompt and thorough search should be made in order that
+the surgeon may endeavour to locate the ulcer, and, having found it,
+secure the damaged vessel and save the patient from death by bleeding.
+
+Perforation of a gastric ulcer having taken place, the septic germs,
+which were harmless whilst in the stomach, escape with the rest of the
+contents of the stomach into the general peritoneal cavity. The
+immediate effects of this leakage are sudden and severe pain in the
+upper part of the abdomen and a great shock to the system (collapse).
+The muscles of the abdominal wall become hard and resisting, and as
+peritonitis appears and the intestines are distended with gas, the
+abdomen is distended and becomes greatly increased in size and ceases to
+move, the respiratory movements being short and quick. At first, most
+likely, the temperature drops below normal, and the pulse quickens.
+Later, the temperature rises. If nothing is done, death from the septic
+poisoning of peritonitis is almost certain.
+
+The treatment of ruptured gastric ulcer demands immediate operation. An
+incision should be made in the upper part of the middle line of the
+abdomen, and the perforation should be looked for. There is not, as a
+rule, much difficulty in finding it, as there are generally deposits of
+lymph near the spot, and other signs of local inflammation; moreover,
+the contents of the stomach may be seen escaping from the opening. The
+ulcer is to be closed by running a "purse-string" suture in the healthy
+tissue around it, and the place is then buried in the stomach by picking
+up small folds of the stomach-wall above and below it and fixing them
+together by suturing. This being done, the surface of the stomach, and
+the neighbouring viscera which have been soiled by the leakage, are
+wiped clean and the abdominal wound is closed, provision being made for
+efficient drainage. A large proportion of cases of perforated gastric
+ulcer thus treated recover.     (E. O.*)
+
+
+
+
+GASTRITIS (Gr. [Greek: gastêr], stomach), an inflammatory affection of
+the stomach, of which the condition of catarrh, or irritation of its
+mucous membrane, is the most frequent and most readily recognized. This
+may exist in an acute or a chronic form, and depends upon some
+condition, either local or general, which produces a congested state of
+the circulation in the walls of the stomach (see DIGESTIVE ORGANS:
+_Pathology_).
+
+_Acute Gastritis_ may arise from various causes. The most intense forms
+of inflammation of the stomach are the toxic conditions which follow the
+swallowing of corrosive poisons, such as strong mineral acids of alkalis
+which may extensively destroy the mucous membrane. Other non-corrosive
+poisons cause acute degeneration of the stomach wall (see POISONS).
+Acute inflammatory conditions may be secondary to zymotic diseases such
+as diphtheria, pyaemia, typhus fever and others. Gastritis is also
+caused by the ingestion of food which has begun to decompose, or may
+result from eating unsuitable articles which themselves remain
+undigested and so excite acute catarrhal conditions. These give rise to
+the symptoms well known as characterizing an acute "bilious attack,"
+consisting in loss of appetite, sickness or nausea, and headache,
+frontal or occipital, often accompanied with giddiness. The tongue is
+furred, the breath foetid, and there is pain or discomfort in the region
+of the stomach, with sour eructations, and frequently vomiting, first of
+food and then of bilious matter. An attack of this kind tends to subside
+in a few days, especially if the exciting cause be removed. Sometimes,
+however, the symptoms recur with such frequency as to lead to the more
+serious chronic form of the disease.
+
+The treatment bears reference, in the first place, to any known source
+of irritation, which, if it exist, may be expelled by an emetic or
+purgative (except in cases due to poisoning). This, however, is seldom
+necessary, since vomiting is usually present. For the relief of sickness
+and pain the sucking of ice and counter-irritation over the region of
+the stomach are of service. Further, remedies which exercise a soothing
+effect upon an irritable mucous membrane, such as bismuth or weak
+alkaline fluids, and along with these the use of a light milk diet, are
+usually sufficient to remove the symptoms.
+
+_Chronic Gastric Catarrh_ may result from the acute or may arise
+independently. It is not infrequently connected with antecedent disease
+in other organs, such as the lungs, heart, liver or kidneys, and it is
+especially common in persons addicted to alcoholic excess. In this form
+the texture of the stomach is more altered than in the acute form,
+except in the toxic and febrile forms above referred to. It is
+permanently in a state of congestion, and its mucous membrane and
+muscular coat undergo thickening and other changes, which markedly
+affect the function of digestion. The symptoms are those of dyspepsia in
+an aggravated form (see DYSPEPSIA), of which discomfort and pain after
+food, with distension and frequently vomiting, are the chief; and the
+treatment must be conducted in reference to the causes giving rise to
+it. The careful regulation of the diet, alike as to the amount, the
+quality, and the intervals between meals, demands special attention.
+Feeding on artificially soured milk may in many cases be useful. Lavage
+or washing out of the stomach with weak alkaline solutions has been used
+with marked success in the treatment of chronic gastritis. Of medicinal
+agents, bismuth, arsenic, nux vomica, and the mineral acids are all of
+acknowledged efficacy, as are also preparations of pepsin.
+
+
+
+
+GASTROPODA, the second of the five classes of animals constituting the
+phylum Mollusca. For a discussion of the relationship of the Gastropoda
+to the remaining classes of the phylum, see MOLLUSCA.
+
+  The Gastropoda are mainly characterized by a loss of symmetry,
+  produced by torsion of the visceral sac. This torsion may be resolved
+  into two successive movements. The first is a ventral flexure in the
+  antero-posterior or sagittal plane; the result of this is to
+  approximate the two ends of the alimentary canal. In development, the
+  openings of the mantle-cavity and the anus are always originally
+  posterior; later they are brought forward ventrally. During this first
+  movement flexure is also produced by the coiling of the visceral sac
+  and shell; primitively the latter was bowl-shaped; but the ventral
+  flexure, which brings together the two extremities of the digestive
+  tube, gives the visceral sac the outline of a more or less acute cone.
+  The shell necessarily takes this form also, and then becomes coiled in
+  a dorsal or anterior plane--that is to say, it becomes exogastric.
+  This condition may be seen in embryonic _Patellidae, Fissurellidae_
+  and _Trochidae_ (fig. 1, A), and agrees with the method of coiling of
+  a mollusc without lateral torsion, such as _Nautilus_. But ultimately
+  the coil becomes ventral or endogastric, in consequence of the second
+  torsion movement then apparent.
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.
+
+  FIG. 1.--Three stages in the development of Trochus, during the
+  process of torsion. (After Robert.)
+
+    A, Nearly symmetrical larva (veliger).
+    B, A stage 1½ hours later than A.
+    C, A stage 3½ hours later than B.
+    f, Foot.
+    op, Operculum.
+    pac, Pallial cavity.
+    ve, Velum.]
+
+  The shell is represented as fixed, while the head and foot rotate from
+  left to right. In reality the head and foot are fixed and the shell
+  rotates from right to left.
+
+  The second movement is a lateral torsion of the visceral mass, the
+  foot remaining a fixed point; this torsion occurs in a plane
+  approximately at right angles to that of the first movement, and
+  carries the pallial aperture and the anus from behind forwards. If, at
+  this moment, the animal were placed with mouth and ventral surface
+  turned towards the observer, this torsion carries the circumanal
+  complex in a clockwise direction (along the right side in dextral
+  forms) through 180° as compared with its primitive condition. The
+  (primitively) right-hand organs of the complex thus become left-hand,
+  and vice versa. The visceral commissure, while still surrounding the
+  digestive tract, becomes looped; its right half, with its proper
+  ganglion, passes to the left side over the dorsal face of the
+  alimentary canal (whence the name supra-intestinal), while the left
+  half passes below towards the right side, thus originating the name
+  infra-intestinal given to this half and to its ganglion. Next, the
+  shell, the coil of which was at first exogastric, being also included
+  in this rotation through 180°, exhibits an endogastric coiling (fig.
+  1, B, C). This, however, is not generally retained in one plane, and
+  the spire projects, little by little, on the side which was originally
+  left, but finally becomes right (in dextral forms, with a clockwise
+  direction, if viewed from the side of the spire; but counter-clockwise
+  in sinistral forms). Finally, the original symmetry of the circumanal
+  complex vanishes; the anus leaves the centre of the pallial cavity and
+  passes towards the right side (left side in sinistral forms); the
+  organs of this side become atrophied and disappear. The essential
+  feature of the asymmetry of Gastropoda is the atrophy or disappearance
+  of the primitively left half of the circumanal complex (the right half
+  in sinistral forms), including the gill, the auricle, the osphradium,
+  the hypobranchial gland and the kidney.
+
+  In dextral Gastropods the only structure found on the topographically
+  right side of the rectum is the genital duct. But this is not part of
+  the primitive complex. It is absent in the most primitive and
+  symmetrical forms, such as _Haliotis_ and _Pleurotomaria_. Originally
+  the gonads opened into the kidneys. In the most primitive existing
+  Gastropods the gonad opens into the right kidney (_Patellidae,
+  Trochidae, Fissurellidae_). The gonaduct, therefore, is derived from
+  the topographically right kidney. The transformation has been
+  actually shown to take place in the development of Paludina. In a
+  dextral Gastropod the shell is coiled in a right-handed spiral from
+  apex to mouth, and the spiral also projects to the right of the median
+  plane of the animal.
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 2.--Four stages in the development of a Gastropod showing the
+  process of body torsion. (After Robert.)
+
+    A, Embryo without flexure.
+    B, Embryo with ventral flexure of the intestine.
+    C, Embryo with ventral flexure and exogastric shell.
+    D, Embryo with lateral torsion and an endogastric shell.
+    a, Anus.
+    f, Foot.
+    m, Mouth.
+    pa, Mantle.
+    pac, Pallial cavity.
+    ve, Velum.]
+
+  When the shell is sinistral the asymmetry of the organs is usually
+  reversed, and there is a complete situs _inversus viscerum_, the
+  direction of the spiral of the shell corresponding to the position of
+  the organs of the body. _Triforis, Physa, Clausilia_ are examples
+  of sinistral Gastropods, but reversal also occurs as an individual
+  variation among forms normally dextral. But there are forms in which
+  the involution is "hyperstrophic," that is to say, the turns of the
+  spire projecting but slightly, the spire, after flattening out
+  gradually, finally becomes re-entrant and transformed into a false
+  umbilicus; at the same time that part which corresponds to the
+  umbilicus of forms with a normal coil projects and constitutes a false
+  spire; the coil thus appears to be sinistral, although the asymmetry
+  remains dextral, and the coil of the operculum (always the opposite to
+  that of the shell) sinistral (e.g. _Lanistes_ among Streptoneura,
+  _Limacinidae_ among Opisthobranchia). The same, _mutatis mutandis_,
+  may occur in sinistral shells.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG 3.--Sketch of a model designed so as to show the
+  effect of torsion or rotation of the visceral hump in Streptoneurous
+  Gastropoda.
+
+    A, Unrotated ancestral condition.
+    B, Quarter-rotation.
+    C, Complete semi-rotation (the limit).
+    an, Anus.
+    ln, rn, Primarily left nephridium and primarily right nephridium.
+    lvg, Primarily left (subsequently the sub-intestinal) visceral
+      ganglion.
+    rvg, Primarily right (subsequently the sub-intestinal) visceral
+      ganglion.
+    cerg, Cerebral ganglion.
+    plg, Pleural ganglion.
+    pedg, Pedal ganglion.
+    abg, Abdominal ganglion.
+    bucc, Buccal mass.
+    W, Wooden arc representing the base-line of the wall of the visceral
+      hump.
+    x, 'x, Pins fastening the elastic cord (representing the visceral
+      nerve loop) to W.]
+
+  The problem of the causes of the torsion of the Gastropod body has
+  been much discussed. E.R. Lankester in the ninth edition of this work
+  attributed it to the pressure of the shell and visceral hump towards
+  the right side. He referred also to the nautiloid shell of the larva
+  falling to one side. But these are two distinct processes. In the
+  larva a nautiloid shell is developed which is coiled exogastrically,
+  that is, dorsally, and the pallial cavity is posterior or ventral
+  (fig. 2, C): the larva therefore resembles _Nautilus_ in the relations
+  of body and shell. The shell then rotates towards the left side
+  through 180°, so that it becomes ventral or endogastric (fig. 2, D).
+  The pallial cavity, with its organs, is by this torsion moved up the
+  _right_ side of the larva to the dorsal surface, and thus the left
+  organs become right and vice versa. In the subsequent growth of the
+  shell the spire comes to project on the right side, which was
+  originally the left. Neither the rotation of the shell as a whole nor
+  its helicoid spiral coiling is the immediate cause of the torsion of
+  the body in the individual, for the direction of the torsion is
+  indicated in the segmentation of the ovum, in which there is a
+  complete reversal of the cleavage planes in sinistral as compared
+  with dextral forms. The facts, however, strongly suggest that the
+  original cause of the torsion was the weight of the exogastric shell
+  and visceral hump, which in an animal creeping on its ventral surface
+  necessarily fell over to one side. It is not certain that the
+  projection of the spire to the originally left side of the shell has
+  anything to do with the falling over of the shell to that side. The
+  facts do not support such a suggestion. In the larva there is no
+  projection at the time the torsion takes place. In some forms the
+  coiling disappears in the adult, leaving the shell simply conical as
+  in _Patellidae, Fissurellidae_, &c., and in some cases the shell is
+  coiled in one plane, e.g. _Planorbis_. In all these cases the torsion
+  and asymmetry of the body are unaffected.
+
+  The characteristic torsion attains its maximum effect among the
+  majority of the Streptoneura. It is followed in some specialized
+  Heteropoda and in the Euthyneura by a torsion in the opposite
+  direction, or detorsion, which brings the anus farther back and
+  untwists the visceral commissure (see Euthyneura, below). This
+  conclusion has shown that the Euthyneura do not represent an archaic
+  form of Gastropoda, but are themselves derived from streptoneurous
+  forms. The difference between the two sub-classes has been shown to be
+  slight; certain of the more archaic Tectibranchia (_Actaeon_) and
+  Pulmonata (_Chilina_) still have the visceral commissure long and not
+  untwisted. The fact that all the Euthyneura are hermaphrodite is not a
+  fundamental difference; several Streptoneura are so, likewise
+  _Valvata, Oncidiopsis, Marsenina, Odostomia, Bathysciadium,
+  Entoconcha_.
+
+  _Classification._--The class Gastropoda is subdivided as follows:
+
+    Sub-class I. Streptoneura.
+       Order 1. Aspidobranchia.
+          Sub-order 1. Docoglossa.
+               "    2. Rhipidoglossa.
+       Order 2. Pectinibranchia.
+          Sub-order 1. Taenioglossa.
+              Tribe 1. Platypoda.
+                "   2. Heteropoda.
+          Sub-order 2. Stenoglossa.
+              Tribe 1. Rachiglossa.
+                "   2. Toxiglossa.
+
+    Sub-class II. Euthyneura.
+       Order 1. Opisthobranchia.
+          Sub-order 1. Tectibranchia.
+              Tribe 1. Bullomorpha.
+                "   2. Aplysiomorpha.
+                "   3. Pleurobranchomorpha.
+          Sub-order 2. Nudibranchia.
+              Tribe 1. Tritoniomorpha.
+                "   2. Doridomorpha.
+                "   3. Eolidomorpha.
+                "   4. Elysiomorpha.
+       Order 2. Pulmonata.
+          Sub-order 1. Basommatophora.
+               "    2. Stylommatophora.
+              Tribe 1. Holognatha.
+                "   2. Agnatha.
+                "   3. Elasmognatha.
+                "   4. Ditremata.
+
+
+Sub-Class I.--STREPTONEURA
+
+In this division the torsion of the visceral mass and visceral
+commissure is at its maximum, the latter being twisted into a figure of
+eight. The right half of the commissure with its ganglion is
+supra-intestinal, the left half with its ganglion infra-intestinal. In
+some cases each pleural ganglion is connected with the opposite branch
+of the visceral commissure by anastomosis with the pallial nerve, a
+condition which is called dialyneury; or there may be a direct
+connective from the pleural ganglion to the visceral ganglion of the
+opposite side, which is called zygoneury. The head bears only one pair
+of tentacles. The radular teeth are of several different kinds in each
+transverse row. The heart is usually posterior to the branchia
+(proso-branchiate). The sexes are usually separate.
+
+The old division into Zygobranchia and Azygobranchia must be abandoned,
+for the Azygobranchiate Rhipidoglossa have much greater affinity to the
+Zygobranchiate _Haliotidae_ and _Fissurellidae_ than to the
+Azygobranchia in general. This is shown by the labial commissure and
+pedal cords of the nervous system, by the opening of the gonad into the
+right kidney, and by other points. Further, the _Pleurotomariidae_ have
+been discovered to possess two branchiae. The sub-class is now divided
+into two orders: the Aspidobranchia in which the branchia or ctenidium
+is bipectinate and attached only at its base, and the Pectinibranchia in
+which the ctenidium is monopectinate and attached to the mantle
+throughout its length.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--The Common Limpet (_Patella vulgata_) in its
+  shell, seen from the pedal surface. (Lankester.)
+
+    x, y, The median antero-posterior axis.
+    a, Cephalic tentacle.
+    b, Plantar surface of the foot.
+    c, Free edge of the shell.
+    d, The branchial efferent vessel carrying aerated blood to the
+      auricle, and here interrupting the circlet of gill lamellae.
+    e, Margin of the mantle-skirt.
+    f, Gill lamellae (_not_ ctenidia, but special pallial growths,
+      comparable with those of Pleurophyllidia).
+    g, The branchial efferent vessel.
+    h, Factor of the branchial advehent vessel.
+    i, Interspaces between the muscular bundles of the root of the foot,
+      causing the separate areae seen in fig. 5, c.]
+
+  Order I. ASPIDOBRANCHIA.--These are the most primitive Gastropods,
+  retaining to a great degree the original symmetry of the organs of the
+  pallial complex, having two kidneys, in some cases two branchiae, and
+  two auricles. The gonad has no accessory organs and except in
+  _Neritidae_ no duct, but discharges into the right kidney.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Dorsal surface of the Limpet removed from its
+  shell and deprived of its black pigmented epithelium; the internal
+  organs are seen through the transparent body-wall. (Lankester.)
+
+    c, Muscular bundles forming the root of the foot, and adherent to
+      the shell.
+    e, Free mantle-skirt.
+    em, Tentaculiferous margin of the same.
+    i, Smaller (left) nephridium.
+    k, Larger (right) nephridium.
+    l, Pericardium.
+    lx, Fibrous septum, behind the pericardium.
+    n, Liver.
+    int, Intestine.
+    ecr, Anterior area of the mantle-skirt over-hanging the head
+      (cephalic hood).]
+
+  Forms adapted to terrestrial life and to aerial respiration occur in
+  various divisions of Gastropods, and do not constitute a single
+  homogeneous group. Thus the _Helicinidae_, which are terrestrial, are
+  now placed among the Aspidobranchia. In these there are neither
+  branchia nor osphradium, and the pallial chamber which retains its
+  large opening serves as a lung. Degeneration of the shell occurs in
+  some members of the order. It is largely covered by the mantle in some
+  _Fissurellidae_, is entirely internal in _Pupilia_ and absent in
+  _Titiscaniidae_.
+
+  The common limpet is a specially interesting and abundant example of
+  the more primitive Aspidobranchia. The foot of the limpet is a nearly
+  circular disk of muscular tissue; in front, projecting from and raised
+  above it, are the head and neck (figs. 4, 13). The visceral hump forms
+  a low conical dome above the sub-circular foot, and standing out all
+  round the base of this dome so as completely to overlap the head and
+  foot, is the circular mantle-skirt. The depth of free mantle-skirt is
+  greatest in front, where the head and neck are covered in by it. Upon
+  the surface of the visceral dome, and extending to the edge of the
+  free mantle-skirt, is the conical shell. When the shell is taken away
+  (best effected by immersion in hot water) the surface of the visceral
+  dome is found to be covered by a black-coloured epithelium, which may
+  be removed, enabling the observer to note the position of some organs
+  lying below the transparent integument (fig. 5). The muscular columns
+  (c) attaching the foot to the shell form a ring incomplete in front,
+  external to which is the free mantle-skirt. The limits of the large
+  area formed by the flap over the head and neck (ecr) can be traced,
+  and we note the anal papilla showing through and opening on the right
+  shoulder, so to speak, of the animal into the large anterior region of
+  the sub-pallial space. Close to this the small renal organ (i, mediad)
+  and the larger renal organ (k, to the right and posteriorly) are seen,
+  also the pericardium (l) and a coil of the intestine (int) embedded
+  in the compact liver.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 6.--Anterior portion of the same Limpet, with the
+  overhanging cephalic hood removed. (Lankester.)
+
+    a, Cephalic tentacle.
+    b, Foot.
+    c, Muscular substance forming the root of the foot.
+    d, The capito-pedal organs of Lankester (= rudimentary ctenidia).
+    e, Mantle-skirt.
+    f, Papilla of the larger nephridium.
+    g, Anus.
+    h, Papilla of the smaller nephridium.
+    i, Smaller nephridium.
+    k, Larger nephridium.
+    l, Pericardium.
+    m, Cut edge of the mantle-skirt.
+    n, Liver.
+    p, Snout.]
+
+  On cutting away the anterior part of the mantle-skirt so as to expose
+  the sub-pallial chamber in the region of the neck, we find the right
+  and left renal papillae (discovered by Lankester in 1867) on either
+  side of the anal papilla (fig. 6), but no gills. If a similar
+  examination be made of the allied genus _Fissurella_ (fig. 17, d), we
+  find right and left of the two renal apertures a right and left
+  gill-plume or ctenidium, which here as in _Haliotis_ and
+  _Pleurotomaria_ retain their original paired condition. In _Patella_
+  no such plumes exist, but right and left of the neck are seen a pair
+  of minute oblong yellow bodies (fig. 6, d), which were originally
+  described by Lankester as orifices possibly connected with the
+  evacuation of the generative products. On account of their position
+  they were termed by him the "capito-pedal orifices," being placed near
+  the junction of head and foot. J.W. Spengel has, however, in a most
+  ingenious way shown that these bodies are the representatives of the
+  typical pair of ctenidia, here reduced to a mere rudiment. Near to
+  each rudimentary ctenidium Spengel has discovered an olfactory patch
+  or osphradium (consisting of modified epithelium) and an olfactory
+  nerve-ganglion (fig. 8). It will be remembered that, according to
+  Spengel, the osphradium of mollusca is definitely and intimately
+  related to the gill-plume or ctenidium, being always placed near the
+  base of that organ; further, Spengel has shown that the nerve-supply
+  of this olfactory organ is always derived from the visceral loop.
+  Accordingly, the nerve-supply affords a means of testing the
+  conclusion that we have in Lankester's capito-pedal bodies the
+  rudimentary ctenidia. The accompanying diagrams (figs. 9, 10) of the
+  nervous systems of _Patella_ and of _Haliotis_, as determined by
+  Spengel, show the identity in the origin of the nerves passing from
+  the visceral loop to Spengel's olfactory ganglion of the Limpet, and
+  that of the nerves which pass from the visceral loop of _Haliotis_ to
+  the olfactory patch or osphradium, which lies in immediate relation on
+  the right and on the left side to the right and left gill-plumes
+  (ctenidia) respectively. The same diagrams serve to demonstrate the
+  streptoneurous condition of the visceral loop in Aspidobranchia.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--The same specimen viewed from the left front,
+  so as to show the sub-anal tract (ff) of the larger nephridium, by
+  which it communicates with the pericardium. o, Mouth; other letters as
+  in fig. 6.]
+
+  Thus, then, we find that the limpet possesses a symmetrically disposed
+  pair of ctenidia in a rudimentary condition, and justifies its
+  position among Aspidobranchia. At the same time it possesses a
+  totally distinct series of _functional_ gills, which are not derived
+  from the modification of the typical molluscan ctenidium. These gills
+  are in the form of delicate lamellae (fig. 4, f), which form a series
+  extending completely round the inner face of the depending
+  mantle-skirt. This circlet of gill-lamellae led Cuvier to class the
+  limpets as Cyclobranchiata, and, by erroneous identification of them
+  with the series of metamerically repeated ctenidia of _Chiton_, to
+  associate the latter mollusc with the former. The gill-lamellae of
+  _Patella_ are processes of the mantle comparable with the plait-like
+  folds often observed on the roof of the branchial chamber in other
+  Gastropoda (e.g. _Buccinum_ and _Haliotis_). They are termed pallial
+  gills. The only other molluscs in which they are exactly represented
+  are the curious Opisthobranchs _Phyllidia_ and _Pleurophyllidia_ (fig.
+  55). In these, as in _Patella_, the typical ctenidia are aborted, and
+  the branchial function is assumed by close-set lamelliform processes
+  arranged in a series beneath the mantle-skirt on either side of the
+  foot. In fig. 4, d, the large branchial vein of _Patella_ bringing
+  blood from the gill-series to the heart is seen; where it crosses the
+  series of lamellae there is a short interval devoid of lamellae.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 8.--A, Section in a plane vertical to the surface
+  of the neck of _Patella_ through a, the rudimentary ctenidium
+  (Lankester's organ), and b, the olfactory epithelium (osphradium); c,
+  the olfactory (osphradial) ganglion. (After Spengel.)
+
+  B, Surface view of a rudimentary ctenidium of _Patella_ excised and
+  viewed as a transparent object. (Lankester.)]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 9.--Nervous system of _Patella_; the visceral loop
+  is lightly shaded; the buccal ganglia are omitted. (After Spengel.)
+
+    ce, Cerebral ganglia.
+    c'e, Cerebral commissure.
+    pl, Pleural ganglion.
+    pe, Pedal ganglion. p'e, Pedal nerve.
+    s, s', Nerves (right and left) to the mantle.
+    o, Olfactory ganglion, connected by nerve to the streptoneurous
+    visceral loop.]
+
+  The heart in _Patella_ consists of a single auricle (not two as in
+  _Haliotis_ and _Fissurella_) and a ventricle; the former receives the
+  blood from the branchial vein, the latter distributes it through a
+  large aorta which soon leads into irregular blood-lacunae.
+
+  The existence of two renal organs in _Patella_, and their relation to
+  the pericardium (a portion of the coelom), is important. Each renal
+  organ is a sac lined with glandular epithelium (ciliated cell, with
+  concretions) communicating with the exterior by its papilla, and by a
+  narrow passage with the pericardium. The connexion with the
+  pericardium of the smaller of the two renal organs was demonstrated by
+  Lankester in 1867, at a time when the fact that the renal organ of the
+  Mollusca, as a rule, opens into the pericardium, and is therefore a
+  typical nephridium, was not known. Subsequent investigations carried
+  on under the direction of the same naturalist have shown that the
+  larger as well as the smaller renal sac is in communication with the
+  pericardium. The walls of the renal sacs are deeply plaited and thrown
+  into ridges. Below the surface these walls are excavated with
+  blood-vessels, so that the sac is practically a series of
+  blood-vessels covered with renal epithelium, and forming a meshwork
+  within a space communicating with the exterior. The larger renal sac
+  (remarkably enough, that which is aborted in other Anisopleura)
+  extends between the liver and the integument of the visceral dome very
+  widely. It also bends round the liver as shown in fig. 12, and forms
+  a large sac on half of the upper surface of the muscular mass of the
+  foot. Here it lies close upon the genital body (ovary or testis), and
+  in such intimate relationship with it that, when ripe, the gonad
+  bursts into the renal sac, and its products are carried to the
+  exterior by the papilla on the right side of the anus (Robin, Dall).
+  This fact led Cuvier erroneously to the belief that a duct existed
+  leading from the gonad to this papilla. The position of the gonad,
+  best seen in the diagrammatic section (fig. 13), is, as in other
+  Aspidobranchia, devoid of a special duct communicating with the
+  exterior. This condition, probably an archaic one, distinguishes the
+  Aspidobranchia from other Gastropoda.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Nervous system of _Haliotis_; the visceral
+  loop is lightly shaded; the buccal ganglia are omitted. (After
+  Spengel.)
+
+    ce, Cerebral ganglion.
+    pl.pe, The fused pleural and pedal ganglia.
+    pe, The right pedal nerve.
+    ce.pl, The cerebro-pleural connective.
+    ce.pe, The cerebro-pedal connective.
+    s, s', Right and left mantle nerves.
+    ab, Abdominal ganglion or site of same.
+    o, o, Right and left olfactory ganglia and osphardia receiving nerve
+      from visceral loop.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Nervous system of _Fissurella_. (From
+  Gegenbaur, after Jhering.)
+
+    pl, Pallial nerve.
+    p, Pedal nerve.
+    A, Abdominal ganglia in the streptoneurous visceral commissure, with
+      supra- and sub-intestine ganglion on each side.
+    B, Buccal ganglia.
+    C, C, Cerebral ganglia.
+    es, Cerebral commissure.
+    o, Otocysts attached to the cerebro-pedal connectives.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Diagram of the two renal organs (nephridia),
+  to show their relation to the rectum and to the pericardium.
+  (Lankester.)
+
+    f, Papilla of the larger nephridium.
+    g, Anal papilla with rectum leading from it.
+    h, Papilla of the smaller nephridium, which is only represented by
+      dotted outlines.
+    l, Pericardium indicated by a dotted outline--at its right side are
+      seen the two reno-pericardial pores.
+    ff, The sub-anal tract of the large nephridium given off near its
+      papilla and seen through the unshaded smaller nephridium.
+    ks.a, Anterior superior lobe of the large nephridium.
+    ks.l, Left lobe of same.
+    ks.p, Posterior lobe of same.
+    ks.i, Inferior sub-visceral lobe of same.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Diagram of a vertical antero-postero median
+  section of a Limpet. Letters as in figs. 6, 7, with following
+  additions. (Lankester.)
+
+    q, Intestine in transverse section.
+    r, Lingual sac (radular sac).
+    rd, Radula.
+    s, Lamellated stomach.
+    t, Salivary gland.
+    u, Duct of same.
+    v, Buccal cavity
+    w, Gonad.
+    br.a, Branchial advehent vessel (artery).
+    br.v, Branchial efferent vessel (vein).
+    bv, Blood-vessel.
+    odm, Muscles and cartilage of the odontophore.
+    cor, Heart within the pericardium.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Vertical section in a plane running right and
+  left through the anterior part of the visceral hump of _Patella_ to
+  show the two renal organs and their openings into the pericardium.
+  (J.T. Cunningham.)
+
+    a, Large or external or right renal organ.
+    ab, Narrow process of the same running _below_ the intestine and
+      leading by k into the pericardium.
+    b, Small or median renal organ.
+    c, Pericardium.
+    d, Rectum.
+    e, Liver.
+    f, Manyplies.
+    g, Epithelium of the dorsal surface.
+    h, Renal epithelium lining the renal sacs.
+    i, Aperture connecting the small sac with the pericardium.
+    k, Aperture connecting the large sac with the pericardium.]
+
+  The digestive tract of _Patella_ offers some interesting features. The
+  odontophore is powerfully developed; the radular sac is
+  extraordinarily long, lying coiled in a space between the mass of the
+  liver and the muscular foot. The radula has 160 rows of teeth with
+  twelve teeth in each row. Two pairs of salivary ducts, each leading
+  from a salivary gland, open into the buccal chamber. The oesophagus
+  leads into a remarkable stomach, plaited like the manyplies of a
+  sheep, and after this the intestine takes a very large number of turns
+  embedded in the yellow liver, until at last it passes between the two
+  renal sacs to the anal papilla. A curious ridge (spiral? valve) which
+  secretes a slimy cord is found upon the inner wall of the intestine.
+  The general structure of the Molluscan intestine has not been
+  sufficiently investigated to render any comparison of this structure
+  of _Patella_ with that of other Mollusca possible. The eyes of the
+  limpet deserve mention as examples of the most primitive kind of eye
+  in the Molluscan series. They are found one on each cephalic tentacle,
+  and are simply minute open pits or depressions of the epidermis, the
+  epidermic cells lining them being pigmented and connected with nerves
+  (compare fig. 14, art. CEPHALOPODA). The limpet breeds upon the
+  southern English coast in the early part of April, but its development
+  has not been followed. It has simply been traced as far as the
+  formation of a diblastula which acquires a ciliated band, and becomes
+  a nearly spherical trochosphere. It is probable that the limpet takes
+  several years to attain full growth, and during that period it
+  frequents the same spot, which becomes gradually sunk below the
+  surrounding surface, especially if the rock be carbonate of lime. At
+  low tide the limpet (being a strictly intertidal organism) is exposed
+  to the air, and (according to trustworthy observers) quits its
+  attachment and walks away in search of food (minute encrusting algae),
+  and then once more returns to the identical spot, not an inch in
+  diameter, which belongs, as it were, to it. Several million
+  limpets--twelve million in Berwickshire alone--are annually used on
+  the east coast of Britain as bait.
+
+  Sub-order 1. _Docoglossa._--Nervous system without dialyneury. Eyes
+  are open invaginations without crystalline lens. Two osphradia present
+  but no hypobranchial glands nor operculum. Teeth of radula beam-like,
+  and at most three marginal teeth on each side. Heart has only a single
+  auricle, neither heart nor pericardium traversed by rectum. Shell
+  conical without spire.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Acmaeidae._ A single bipectinate ctenidium on left side.
+    Acmaea, without pallial branchiae, British. Scurria, with pallial
+    branchiae in a circle beneath the mantle.
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Tryblidiidae._ Muscle scar divided into numerous
+    impressions. _Tryblidium_, Silurian.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Patellidae_. No ctenidia but pallial branchiae in a circle
+    between mantle and foot. _Patella_, pallial branchiae forming a
+    complete circle, no epipodial tentacles, British. _Ancistromesus_,
+    radula with median central tooth. _Nacella_, epipodial tentacles
+    present. _Helcion_, circlet of branchiae interrupted anteriorly,
+    British.
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Lepetidae._ Neither ctenidia nor pallial branchiae.
+    _Lepeta_, without eyes. _Pilidium. Propilidium._
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Bathysciadidae._ Hermaphrodite; head with appendage on
+    right side; radula without central tooth. _Bathysciadium_, abyssal.
+
+  Sub-order 2. RHIPIDOGLOSSA.--Aspidobranchia with a palliovisceral
+  anastomosis (dialyneurous); eye-vesicle closed, with crystalline lens;
+  ctenidia, osphradia and hypobranchial glands paired or single. Radula
+  with very numerous marginal teeth arranged like the rays of a fan.
+  Heart with two auricles; ventricle traversed by the rectum, except in
+  the _Helicinidae_. An epipodial ridge on each side of the foot and
+  cephalic expansions between the tentacles often present.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Pleurotomariidae_. Shell spiral; mantle and shell with an
+    anterior fissure; two ctenidia; a horny operculum. _Pleurotomaria_,
+    epipodium without tentacles. Genus includes several hundred extinct
+    species ranging from the Silurian to the Tertiary. Five living
+    species from the Antilles, Japan and the Moluccas. Moluccan species
+    is 19 cm. in height.
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Bellerophontidae._ 300 species, all fossil, from Cambrian
+    to Trias.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Euomphalidae._ Also extinct, from Cambrian to Cretaceous.
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Haliotidae._ Spire of shell much reduced; two bipectinate
+    ctenidia, the right being the smaller; no operculum. Haliotis.
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Velainiellidae_, an extinct family from the Eocene.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--_Halio tistuberculata._ d, Foot; i,
+  tentacular processes of the mantle. (From Owen, after Cuvier.)]
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Fissurellidae._ Shell conical; slit or hole in anterior
+    part of mantle; two symmetrical ctenidia; no operculum.
+    _Emarginula_, mantle and shell with a slit, British. _Scutum_,
+    mantle split anteriorly and reflected over shell, which has no slit.
+    _Puncturella_, mantle and shell with a foramen in front of the apex,
+    British. _Fissurella_, mantle and shell perforated at apex, British.
+
+    Fam. 7.--_Cocculinidae._ Shell conical, symmetrical, without slit or
+    perforation. _Cocculina_, abyssal.
+
+    Fam. 8.--_Trochidae._ Shell spirally coiled; a single ctenidium;
+    eyes perforated; a horny operculum; lobes between the tentacles.
+    _Trochus_, shell umbilicated, spire pointed and prominent, British.
+    _Monodonta_, no jaws, spire not prominent, no umbilicus, columella
+    toothed. _Gibbula_, with jaws, three pairs of epipodial cirri
+    without pigment spots at their bases, British. _Margarita_, five to
+    seven pairs of epipodial cirri with a pigment spot at base of each.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--_Scutum_, seen from the pedal surface.
+  (Lankester.)
+
+    o, Mouth.
+    T, Cephalic tentacle.
+    br, One of the two symmetrical gills placed on the neck.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Dorsal aspect of a specimen of _Fissurella_
+  from which the shell has been removed, whilst the anterior area of the
+  mantle-skirt has been longitudinally slit and its sides reflected.
+  (Lankester.)
+
+    a, Cephalic tentacle.
+    b, Foot.
+    d, Left (archaic right) gill-plume.
+    e, Reflected mantle-flap.
+    fi, The fissure or hole in the mantle-flap traversed by the
+      longitudinal incision.
+    f, Right (archaic left) nephridium's aperture.
+    g, Anus.
+    h, Left (archaic right) aperture of nephridium.
+    p, Snout.]
+
+    Fam. 9.--_Stomatellidae._ Spire of shell much reduced; a single
+    ctenidium. _Stomatella_, foot truncated posteriorly, an operculum
+    present, no epipodial tentacles. _Gena_, foot elongated posteriorly,
+    no operculum.
+
+    Fam. 10.--_Delphinulidae._ Shell spirally coiled; operculum horny;
+    intertentacular lobes absent. _Delphinula._
+
+    Fam. 11.--_Liotiidae_, shell globular, margin of aperture thickened.
+    _Liotia_.
+
+    Fam. 12.--_Cyclostrematidae._ Shell flattened, umbilicated; foot
+    anteriorly truncated with angles produced into lobes. _Cyclostrema._
+    _Teinostoma._
+
+    Fam. 13.--_Trochonematidae._ All extinct, Cambrian to Cretaceous.
+
+    Fam. 14.--_Turbinidae._ Shell spirally coiled; epipodial tentacles
+    present; operculum thick and calcareous. _Turbo. Astralium. Molleria.
+    Cyclonema._
+
+    Fam. 15.--_Phasianellidae._ Shell not nacreous, without umbilicus,
+    with prominent spire and polished surface. _Phasianella._
+
+    Fam. 16.--_Umboniidae._ Shell flattened, not umbilicated, generally
+    smooth; operculum horny. _Umbonium. Isanda._
+
+    Fam. 17.--_Neritopsidae._ Shell semi-globular, with short spire;
+    operculum calcareous, not spiral. _Neritopsis. Naticopsis_,
+    extinct.
+
+    Fam. 18.--_Macluritidae._ Extinct, Cambrian and Silurian.
+
+    Fam. 19.--_Neritidae._ Shell with very low spire, without umbilicus,
+    internal partitions frequently absorbed; a single ctenidium; a
+    cephalic penis present. _Nerita_, marine. _Neritina_, freshwater,
+    British. _Septaria_, shell boat-shaped.
+
+    Fam. 20.--_Titiscaniidae._ Without shell and operculum, but with
+    pallial cavity and ctenidium. _Titiscania_, Pacific.
+
+    Fam. 21.--_Helicinidae._ No ctenidium, but a pulmonary cavity; heart
+    with a single auricle, not traversed by the rectum. _Helicina.
+    Eutrochatella. Stoastoma. Bourceria._
+
+    Fam. 22.--_Hydrocenidae._ No ctenidium, but a pulmonary cavity;
+    operculum with an apophysis. _Hydrocena_, Dalmatia.
+
+    Fam. 23.--_Proserpinidae._ No operculum. _Proserpina_, Central
+    America.
+
+  Order 2. PECTINIBRANCHIA.--In this order there is no longer any trace
+  of bilateral symmetry in the circulatory, respiratory and excretory
+  organs, the topographically right half of the pallial complex having
+  completely disappeared, except the right kidney, which is represented
+  by the genital duct. There is usually a penis in the male. The
+  ctenidium is monopectinate and attached to the mantle along its whole
+  length, except in _Adeorbis_ and _Valvata_; in the latter alone it is
+  bipectinate. There is a single well-developed, often pectinated
+  osphradium. The eye is always a closed vesicle, and the internal
+  cornea is extensive. In the radula there is a single central tooth or
+  none.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Animal and shell of _Pyrula laevigata_. (From
+  Owen.)
+
+    a, Siphon.
+    b, Head-tentacles.
+    C, Head, the letter placed near the right eye.
+    d, The foot, expanded as in crawling.
+    h, The mantle-skirt reflected over the sides of the shell.]
+
+  The former classification into Holochlamyda, Pneumochlamyda and
+  Siphonochlamyda has been abandoned, as it was founded on adaptive
+  characters not always indicative of true affinities. The order is now
+  divided into two sub-orders: the Taenioglossa, in which there are
+  three teeth on each side of the median tooth of the radula, and the
+  Stenoglossa, in which there is only one tooth on each side of the
+  median tooth. In the latter a pallial siphon, a well-developed
+  proboscis and an unpaired oesophageal gland are always present, in the
+  former they are usually absent. The siphon is an incompletely tubular
+  outgrowth of the mantle margin on the left side, contained in a
+  corresponding outgrowth of the edge of the shell-mouth, and serving to
+  conduct water to the respiratory cavity.
+
+  The condition usually spoken of as a "proboscis" appears to be derived
+  from the condition of a simple rostrum (having the mouth at its
+  extremity) by the process of _incomplete introversion_ of that simple
+  rostrum. There is no reason in the actual significance of the word why
+  the term "proboscis" should be applied to an alternately introversible
+  and eversible tube connected with an animal's body, and yet such is a
+  very customary use of the term. The introversible tube may be
+  completely closed, as in the "proboscis" of Nemertine worms, or it may
+  have a passage in it leading into a non-eversible oesophagus, as in
+  the present case, and in the case of the eversible pharynx of the
+  predatory Chaetopod worms. The diagrams here introduced (fig. 19) are
+  intended to show certain important distinctions which obtain amongst
+  the various "introverts," or intro- and e-versible tubes so frequently
+  met with in animal bodies. Supposing the tube to be completely
+  introverted and to commence its eversion, we then find that eversion
+  may take place, either by a forward movement of the side of the tube
+  near its attached base, as in the proboscis of the Nemertine worms,
+  the pharynx of Chaetopods and the eye-tentacle of Gastropods, or by a
+  forward movement of the inverted apex of the tube, as in the proboscis
+  of the Rhabdocoel Planarians, and in that of Gastropods here under
+  consideration. The former case we call "pleurecbolic" (fig. 19, A, B,
+  C, H, I, K), the latter "acrecbolic" tubes or introverts (fig. 19, D,
+  E, F, G). It is clear that, if we start from the condition of full
+  eversion of the tube and watch the process of introversion, we shall
+  find that the pleurecbolic variety is introverted by the apex of the
+  tube sinking inwards; it may be called acrembolic, whilst conversely
+  the acrecbolic tubes are pleurembolic. Further, it is obvious enough
+  that the process either of introversion or of eversion of the tube may
+  be arrested at any point, by the development of fibres connecting the
+  wall of the introverted tube with the wall of the body, or with an
+  axial structure such as the oesophagus; on the other hand, the range
+  of movement of the tubular introvert may be unlimited or complete. The
+  acrembolic proboscis or frontal introvert of the Nemertine worms has a
+  complete range. So has the acrembolic pharynx of Chaetopods, if we
+  consider the organ as terminating at that point where the jaws are
+  placed and the oesophagus commences. So too the acrembolic
+  eye-tentacle of the snail has a complete range of movement, and also
+  the pleurembolic proboscis of the Rhabdocoel prostoma. The introverted
+  rostrum of the Pectinibranch Gastropods presents in contrast to these
+  a limited range of movement. The "introvert" in these Gastropods is
+  not the pharynx as in the Chaetopod worms, but a prae-oral structure,
+  its apical limit being formed by the true lips and jaws, whilst the
+  apical limit of the Chaetopod's introvert is formed by the jaws placed
+  at the junction of pharynx and oesophagus, so that the Chaetopod's
+  introvert is part of the stomodaeum or fore-gut, whilst that of the
+  Gastropod is external to the alimentary canal altogether, being in
+  front of the mouth, not behind it, as is the Chaetopod's. Further, the
+  Gastropod's introvert is pleurembolic (and therefore acrecbolic), and
+  is limited both in eversion and in introversion; it cannot be
+  completely everted owing to the muscular bands (fig. 19, G), nor can
+  it be fully introverted owing to the bands (fig. 19, F) which tie the
+  axial pharynx to the adjacent wall of the apical part of the
+  introvert. As in all such intro- and e-versible organs, eversion of
+  the Gastropod proboscis is effected by pressure communicated by the
+  muscular body-wall to the liquid contents (blood) of the body-space,
+  accompanied by the relaxation of the muscles which directly pull upon
+  either the sides or the apex of the tubular organ. The inversion of
+  the proboscis is effected directly by the contraction of these
+  muscles. In various members of the Pectinibranchia the mouth-bearing
+  cylinder is introversible (i.e. is a _proboscis_)--with rare
+  exceptions these forms have a siphonate mantle-skirt. On the other
+  hand, many which have a siphonate mantle-skirt are not provided with
+  an introversible mouth-bearing cylinder, but have a simple
+  non-introversible rostrum, as it has been termed, which is also the
+  condition presented by the mouth-bearing region in nearly all other
+  Gastropoda. One of the best examples of the introversible
+  mouth-cylinder or proboscis which can be found is that of the common
+  whelk (_Buccinum undatum_) and its immediate allies. In fig. 23 the
+  proboscis is seen in an everted state; it is only so carried when
+  feeding, being withdrawn when the animal is at rest. Probably its use
+  is to enable the animal to introduce its rasping and licking apparatus
+  into very narrow apertures for the purposes of feeding, e.g. into a
+  small hole bored in the shell of another mollusc.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Diagrams explanatory of the nature of
+  so-called proboscides or "introverts." (Lankester.)
+
+    A, Simple introvert completely introverted.
+
+    B, The same, partially everted by eversion of the sides, as in the
+    Nemertine proboscis and Gastropod eye-tentacle = pleurecbolic.
+
+    C, The same, fully everted.
+
+    D, E, A similar simple introvert in course of eversion by the
+    forward movement, not of its sides, but of its apex, as in the
+    proboscidean Rhabdocoels = acrecbolic.
+
+    F, Acrecbolic (= pleurembolic) introvert, formed by the snout of the
+    proboscidiferous Gastropod. al, alimentary canal; d, the true mouth.
+    The introvert is not a simple one with complete range both in
+    eversion and introversion, but is arrested in introversion by the
+    fibrous bands at c, and similarly in eversion by the fibrous bands
+    at b.
+
+    G, The acrecbolic snout of a proboscidiferous Gastropod, arrested
+    short of complete eversion by the fibrous band b.
+
+    H, The acrembolic (= pleurecbolic) pharynx of a Chaetopod fully
+    introverted. al, alimentary canal; at d, the jaws; at a, the mouth;
+    therefore a to d is stomodaeum, whereas in the Gastropod (F) a to d
+    is inverted body-surface.
+
+    I, Partial eversion of H.
+
+    K, Complete eversion of H.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Male of _Littorina littoralis_, Lin., removed
+  from its shell; the mantle-skirt cut along its right line of
+  attachment and thrown over to the left side of the animal so as to
+  expose the organs on its inner face.
+
+    a, Anus.
+    i, Intestine.
+    r, Nephridium (kidney).
+    r', Aperture of the nephridium.
+    c, Heart.
+    br, Ctenidium (gill-plume).
+    pbr, Parabranchia (= the osphradium or olfactory patch).
+    x, Glandular lamellae of the inner face of the mantle-skirt.
+    y, Adrectal (purpuriparous) gland.
+    t, Testis.
+    vd, Vas deferens.
+    p, Penis.
+    mc, Columella muscle (muscular process grasping the shell).
+    v, Stomach.
+    h, Liver.
+
+    N.B.--Note the simple snout or rostrum not introverted as a
+      "proboscis."]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Nervous system of _Paludina_ as a type of the
+  streptoneurous condition. (From Gegenbaur, after Jhering.)
+
+    B, Buccal (suboesophageal) ganglion.
+    C, Cerebral ganglion.
+    Co, Pleural ganglion.
+    P, Pedal ganglion with otocyst attached.
+    p, Pedal nerve.
+    A, Abdominal ganglion at the extremity of the twisted visceral
+      "loop."
+    sp, Supra-intestinal visceral ganglion on the course of the right
+      visceral cord.
+    sb, Sub-intestinal ganglion on the course of the left visceral
+      cord.]
+
+  The very large assemblage of forms coming under this order comprises
+  the most highly developed predaceous sea-snails, numerous vegetarian
+  species, a considerable number of freshwater and some terrestrial
+  forms. The partial dissection of a male specimen of the common
+  periwinkle, _Littorina littoralis_, drawn in fig. 20, will serve to
+  exhibit the disposition of viscera which prevails in the group. The
+  branchial chamber formed by the mantle-skirt overhanging the head has
+  been exposed by cutting along a line extending backward from the
+  letters vd to the base of the columella muscle mc, and the whole roof
+  of the chamber thus detached from the right side of the animal's neck
+  has been thrown over to the left, showing the organs which lie upon
+  the roof. No opening into the body-cavity has been made; the organs
+  which lie in the coiled visceral hump show through its transparent
+  walls. The head is seen in front resting on the foot and carrying a
+  median non-retractile snout or rostrum, and a pair of cephalic
+  tentacles at the base of each of which is an eye. In many Gastropoda
+  the eyes are not thus sessile but raised upon special eye-tentacles
+  (figs. 25, 56). To the right of the head is seen the muscular penis p,
+  close to the termination of the vas deferens (spermatic duct) vd. The
+  testis t occupies a median position in the coiled visceral mass.
+  Behind the penis on the same side is the hook-like columella muscle, a
+  development of the retractor muscle of the foot, which clings to the
+  spiral column or columella of the shell (see fig. 33). This columella
+  muscle is the same thing as the muscles adhering to the shell in
+  _Patella_, and the posterior adductor of Lamellibranchs.
+
+  The surface of the neck is covered by integument forming the floor of
+  the branchial cavity. It has not been cut into. Of the organs lying on
+  the reflected mantle-skirt, that which in the natural state lay
+  nearest to the vas deferens on the right side of the median line of
+  the roof of the branchial chamber is the rectum i', ending in the anus
+  a. It can be traced back to the intestine i near the surface of the
+  visceral hump, and it is found that the apex of the coil formed by the
+  hump is occupied by the liver h and the stomach v. Pharynx and
+  oesophagus are concealed in the head. The enlarged glandular structure
+  of the walls of the rectum is frequent in the Pectinibranchia, as is
+  also though not universal the gland marked y, next to the rectum. It
+  is the adrectal gland, and in the genera _Murex_ and _Purpura_
+  secretes a colourless liquid which turns purple upon exposure to the
+  atmosphere, and was used by the ancients as a dye. Near this and less
+  advanced into the branchial chamber is the single renal organ or
+  nephridium r with its opening to the exterior r'. Internally this
+  glandular sac presents a second slit or aperture which leads into the
+  pericardium (as is now found to be the case in all Mollusca). The
+  heart c lying in the pericardium is seen in close proximity to the
+  renal organ, and consists of a single auricle receiving blood from the
+  gill, and of a single ventricle which pumps it through the body by an
+  anterior and posterior aorta. The surface x of the mantle between the
+  rectum and the gill-plume is thrown into folds which in many
+  sea-snails (whelks or _Buccinidae_, &c.) are very strongly developed.
+  The whole of this surface appears to be active in the secretion of a
+  mucous-like substance. The single gill-plume br lies to the left of
+  the median line in natural position. It corresponds to the right of
+  the two primitive ctenidia in the untwisted archaic condition of the
+  molluscan body, and does not project freely into the branchial cavity,
+  but its axis is attached (by concrescence) to the mantle-skirt (roof
+  of the branchial chamber). It is rare for the gill-plume of a
+  Pectinibranch Gastropod to stand out freely as a plume, but
+  occasionally this more archaic condition is exhibited as in _Valvata_
+  (fig. 30). Next beyond (to the left of) the gill-plume we find the
+  so-called parabranchia, which is here simple, but sometimes lamellated
+  as in _Purpura_ (fig. 22). This organ has, without reason, been
+  supposed to represent the second ctenidium of the typical mollusc,
+  which it cannot do on account of its position. It should be to the
+  right of the anus were this the case. Spengel showed that the
+  parabranchia of Gastropods is the typical olfactory organ or
+  osphradium in a highly developed condition. The minute structure of
+  the epithelium which clothes it, as well as the origin of the nerve
+  which is distributed to the parabranchia, proves it to be the same
+  organ which is found universally in molluscs at the base of each
+  gill-plume, and tests the indrawn current of water by the sense of
+  smell. The nerve to this organ is given off from the superior
+  (original right, see fig. 3) visceral ganglion.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Female of _Purpura lapillus_ removed from its
+  shell; the mantle-skirt cut along its left line of attachment and
+  thrown over to the right side of the animal so as to expose the organs
+  on its inner face.
+
+    a, Anus.
+    vg, Vagina.
+    gp, Adrectal purpuriparous gland.
+    r', Aperture of the nephridium (kidney).
+    br, Ctenidium (branchial plume).
+    br', Parabranchia (= the comb-like osphradium or olfactory organ).]
+
+  The figures which are given here of various Pectinibranchia are in
+  most cases sufficiently explained by the references attached to them.
+  As an excellent general type of the nervous system, attention may be
+  directed to that of _Paludina_ drawn in fig. 21. On the whole the
+  ganglia are strongly individualized in the Pectinibranchia, nerve-cell
+  tissue being concentrated in the ganglia and absent from the cords. At
+  the same time, the junction of the visceral loop above the intestine
+  prevents in all Streptoneura the shortening of the visceral loop, and
+  it is rare to find a fusion of the visceral ganglia with either
+  pleural, pedal or cerebral--a fusion which can and does take place
+  where the visceral loop is not above but below the intestine, e.g. in
+  the Euthyneura (fig. 48), Cephalopoda and Lamellibranchia. As
+  contrasted with the Aspidobranchia, we find that in the
+  Pectinibranchia the pedal nerves are distinctly nerves given off from
+  the pedal ganglia, rather than cord-like nerve-tracts containing both
+  nerve-cells or ganglionic elements and nerve-fibres. Yet in some
+  Pectinibranchia (_Paludina_) a ladder-like arrangement of the two
+  pedal nerves and their lateral branches has been detected. The
+  histology of the nervous system of Mollusca has yet to be seriously
+  inquired into.
+
+  The alimentary canal of the Pectinibranchia presents little diversity
+  of character, except in so far as the buccal region is concerned.
+  Salivary glands are present, and in some carnivorous forms (_Dolium_)
+  these secrete free sulphuric acid (as much as 2% is present in the
+  secretion), which assists the animal in boring holes by means of its
+  rasping tongue through the shells of other molluscs upon which it
+  preys. A crop-like dilatation of the gut and a recurved intestine,
+  embedded in the compact yellowish-brown liver, the ducts of which open
+  into it, form the rest of the digestive tract and occupy a large bulk
+  of the visceral hump. The buccal region presents a pair of shelly jaws
+  placed laterally upon the lips, and a wide range of variation in the
+  form of the denticles of the lingual ribbon or radula.
+
+  Well-developed glandular invaginations occur in different positions on
+  the foot in Pectinibranchia. The most important of these opens by the
+  ventral pedal pore, situated in the median line in the anterior half
+  of the foot. This organ is probably homologous with the byssogenous
+  gland of Lamellibranchs. The aperture, which was formerly supposed to
+  be an aquiferous pore, leads into an extensive and often ramified
+  cavity surrounded by glandular tubules. The gland has been found in
+  both sub-orders of the Pectinibranchia, in _Cyclostoma_ and _Cypraea_
+  among the Taenioglossa, in _Hemifusus, Cassis, Nassa, Murex,
+  Fasciolariidae, Turbinellidae, Olividae, Marginellidae_ and _Conidae_
+  among the Stenoglossa. It was discovered by J.T. Cunningham that in
+  _Buccinum_ the egg-capsules are formed by this pedal gland and not by
+  any accessory organ of the generative system. Such horny egg-capsules
+  doubtless have the same origin in all other species in which they
+  occur, e.g. _Fusus, Pyrula, Purpura, Murex, Nassa, Trophon, Voluta_,
+  &c. The float of the pelagic _Janthina_, to which the egg-capsules are
+  attached, probably is also formed by the secretion of the pedal gland.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--A, _Triton variegatum_, to show the proboscis
+  or buccal introvert (e) in a state of eversion.
+
+    a, Siphonal notch of the shell occupied by the siphonal fold of the
+      mantle-skirt (Siphonochlamyda).
+    b, Edge of the mantle-skirt resting on the shell.
+    c, Cephalic eye.
+    d, Cephalic tentacle.
+    e, Everted buccal introvert (proboscis).
+    f, Foot.
+    g, Operculum.
+    h, Penis.
+    i, Under surface of the mantle-skirt forming the roof of the
+      sub-pallial chamber.
+    B, Sole of the foot of _Pyrula tuba_, to show a, the pore usually
+      said to be "aquiferous" but probably the orifice of a gland; b,
+      median line of foot.]
+
+  Other glands opening on or near the foot are: (1) The suprapedal gland
+  opening in the middle line between the snout and the anterior border
+  of the foot. It is most commonly found in sessile forms and in
+  terrestrial genera such as _Cyclostoma_; (2) the anterior pedal gland
+  opening into the anterior groove of the foot, generally present in
+  aquatic species; (3) dorsal posterior mucous glands in certain
+  _Cyclostomatidae_.
+
+  The foot of the Pectinibranchia, unlike the simple muscular disk of
+  the Isopleura and Aspidobranchia, is very often divided into lobes, a
+  fore, middle and hind lobe (pro-, meso- and meta-podium, see figs. 24
+  and 25). Very usually, but not universally, the metapodium carries an
+  operculum. The division of the foot into lobes is a simple case of
+  that much greater elaboration or breaking up into processes and
+  regions which it undergoes in the class Cephalopoda. Even among some
+  Gastropoda (viz. the Opisthobranchia) we find the lobation of the foot
+  still further carried out by the development of lateral lobes, the
+  parapodia, whilst there are many Pectinibranchia, on the other hand,
+  in which the foot has a simple oblong form without any trace of lobes.
+
+  The development of the Pectinibranchia has been followed in several
+  examples, e.g. _Paludina, Purpura, Nassa, Vermetus, Neritina_. As in
+  other Molluscan groups, we find a wide variation in the early process
+  of the formation of the first embryonic cells, and their arrangement
+  as a diblastula, dependent on the greater or less amount of food-yolk
+  which is present in the egg-cell when it commences its embryonic
+  changes. In fig. 26 the early stages of _Paludina vivipara_ are
+  represented. There is but very little food-material in the egg of this
+  Pectinibranch, and consequently the diblastula forms by invagination;
+  the blastopore or orifice of invagination coincides with the anus, and
+  never closes entirely. A well-marked trochosphere is formed by the
+  development of an equatorial ciliated band; and subsequently, by the
+  disproportionate growth of the lower hemisphere, the trochosphere
+  becomes a veliger. The primitive shell-sac or shell-gland is well
+  marked at this stage, and the pharynx is seen as a new ingrowth (the
+  stomodaeum), about to fuse with and open into the primitively
+  invaginated arch-enteron (fig. 26, F).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Animal and shell of _Phorus exutus_.
+
+    a, Snout (not introversible).
+    b, Cephalic tentacles.
+    c, Right eye.
+    d, Pro- and meso-podium; to the right of this is seen the metapodium
+      bearing the sculptured operculum.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Animal and shell of _Rostellaria
+  rectirostris_. (From Owen.)
+
+    a, Snout or rostrum.
+    b, Cephalic tentacle.
+    c, Eye.
+    d, Propodium and mesopodium.
+    e, Metapodium.
+    f, Operculum.
+    h', Prolonged siphonal notch of the shell occupied by the siphon, or
+      trough-like process of the mantle-skirt.]
+
+  In other Pectinibranchia (and such variations are representative for
+  all Mollusca, and not characteristic only of Pectinibranchia) we find
+  that there is a very unequal division of the egg-cell at the
+  commencement of embryonic development, as in _Nassa_. Consequently
+  there is, strictly speaking, no invagination (emboly), but an
+  overgrowth (epiboly) of the smaller cells to enclose the larger. The
+  general features of this process and of the relation of the blastopore
+  to mouth and anus have been explained in treating of the development
+  of Mollusca generally. In such cases the blastopore may entirely
+  close, and both mouth and anus develop as new ingrowths (stomodaeum
+  and proctodaeum), whilst, according to the observations of N.
+  Bobretzky, the closed blastopore may coincide in position with the
+  mouth in some instances (_Nassa_, &c.), instead of with the anus. But
+  in these epibolic forms, just as in the embolic _Paludina_, the embryo
+  proceeds to develop its ciliated band and shell-gland, passing through
+  the earlier condition of a trochosphere to that of the veliger. In the
+  veliger stage many Pectinibranchia (_Purpura, Nassa_, &c.) exhibit, in
+  the dorsal region behind the head, a contractile area of the
+  body-wall. This acts as a larval heart, but ceases to pulsate after a
+  time. Similar rhythmically contractile areas are found on the foot of
+  the embryo Pulmonate _Limax_ and on the yolk-sac (distended
+  foot-surface) of the Cephalopod _Loligo_. The preconchylian
+  invagination or shell-gland is formed in the embryo behind the velum,
+  on the surface opposite the blastopore. It is surrounded by a ridge of
+  cells which gradually extends over the visceral sac and secretes the
+  shell. In forms which are naked in the adult state, the shell falls
+  off soon after the reduction of the velum, but in _Cenia, Runcina_ and
+  _Vaginula_ the shell-gland and shell are not developed, and the young
+  animal when hatched has already the naked form of the adult.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Development of the River-Snail, _Paludina
+  vivipara_. (After Lankester, 17.)
+
+    dc, Directive corpuscle (outcast cell).
+    ae, Arch-enteron or cavity lined by the enteric cell-layer or
+      endoderm.
+    bl, Blastopore.
+    vr, Velum or circlet of ciliated cells.
+    dv, Velar area or cephalic dome.
+    sm, Site of the as yet unformed mouth.
+    f, Foot.
+    mes, Rudiments of the skeleto-trophic tissues.
+    pi, The pedicle of invagination, the future rectum.
+    shgl, The primitive shell-sac or shell-gland.
+    m, Mouth.
+    an, Anus.
+    A, Diblastula phase (optical section).
+    B, The diblastula has become a trochosphere by the development of
+      the ciliated ring vr (optical section).
+    C, Side view of the trochosphere with commencing formation of the
+      foot.
+    D, Further advanced trochosphere (optical section).
+    E, The trochosphere passing to the veliger stage, dorsal view
+      showing the formation of the primitive shell-sac.
+    F, Side view of the same, showing foot, shell-sac (shgl), velum
+      (vr), mouth and anus.
+    N.B.--In this development the blastopore is not elongated; it
+      persists as the anus. The mouth and stomodaeum form independently
+      of the blastopore.]
+
+  One further feature of the development of the Pectinibranchia deserves
+  special mention. Many Gastropoda deposit their eggs, after
+  fertilization, enclosed in capsules; others, as _Paludina_, are
+  viviparous; others, again, as the Zygobranchia, agree with the
+  Lamellibranch Conchifera (the bivalves) in having simple exits for the
+  ova without glandular walls, and therefore discharge their eggs
+  unenclosed in capsules freely into the sea-water; such unencapsuled
+  eggs are merely enclosed each in its own delicate chorion. When
+  egg-capsules are formed they are often of large size, have tough
+  walls, and in each capsule are several eggs floating in a viscid
+  fluid. In some cases all the eggs in a capsule develop; in other cases
+  one egg only in a capsule (_Neritina_), or a small proportion
+  (_Purpura, Buccinum_), advance in development; the rest are arrested
+  either after the first process of cell-division (cleavage) or before
+  that process. The arrested embryos or eggs are then swallowed and
+  digested by those in the same capsule which have advanced in
+  development. This is clearly the same process in essence as that of
+  the formation of a vitellogenous gland from part of the primitive
+  ovary, or of the feeding of an ovarian egg by the absorption of
+  neighbouring potential eggs; but here the period at which the
+  sacrifice of one egg to another takes place is somewhat late. What it
+  is that determines the arrest of some eggs and the progressive
+  development of others in the same capsule is at present unknown.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--_Oxygyrus Keraudrenii_. (From Owen.)
+
+    a, Mouth and odontophore.
+    b, Cephalic tentacles.
+    c, Eye.
+    d, Propodium (B) and mesopodium.
+    e, Metapodium.
+    f, Operculum.
+    h, Mantle-chamber.
+    i, Ctenidium (gill-plume).
+    k, Retractor muscle of foot.
+    l, Optic tentacle.
+    m, Stomach.
+    n, Dorsal surface overhung by the mantle-skirt; the letter is close
+      to the salivary gland.
+    o, Rectum and anus.
+    p, Liver.
+    q, Renal organ (nephridium).
+    s, Ventricle.
+    u, The otocyst attached to the cerebral ganglion.
+    w, Testis.
+    x, Auricle of the heart.
+    y, Vesicle on genital duct.
+    z, Penis.]
+
+  In the tribe of Pectinibranchia called Heteropoda the foot takes the
+  form of a swimming organ. The nervous system and sense organs are
+  highly developed. The odontophore also is remarkably developed, its
+  lateral teeth being mobile, and it serves as an efficient organ for
+  attacking the other pelagic forms on which the Heteropoda prey. The
+  sexes are distinct, as in all Streptoneura; and genital ducts and
+  accessory glands and pouches are present, as in all Pectinibranchia.
+  The Heteropoda exhibit a series of modifications in the form and
+  proportions of the visceral mass and foot, leading from a condition
+  readily comparable with that of a typical Pectinibranch such as
+  _Rostellaria_, with the three regions of the foot strongly marked and
+  a coiled visceral hump of the usual proportions, up to a condition in
+  which the whole body is of a tapering cylindrical shape, the foot a
+  plate-like vertical fin, and the visceral hump almost completely
+  atrophied. Three steps of this modification may be distinguished as
+  three families:--_Atlantidae, Carinariidae_ and _Pterotrachaeidae_.
+  They are true Pectinibranchia which have taken to a pelagic life, and
+  the peculiarities of structure which they exhibit are strictly
+  adaptations consequent upon their changed mode of life. Such
+  adaptations are the transparency and colourlessness of the tissues,
+  and the modifications of the foot, which still shows in _Atlanta_ the
+  form common in Pectinibranchia (compare fig. 27 and fig. 24). The
+  cylindrical body of _Pterotrachaea_ is paralleled by the slug-like
+  forms of Euthyneura. J.W. Spengel has shown that the visceral loop of
+  the Heteropoda is streptoneurous. Special to the Heteropoda is the
+  high elaboration of the lingual ribbon, and, as an agreement with some
+  of the opisthobranchiate Euthyneura, but as a difference from the
+  Pectinibranchia, we find the otocysts closely attached to the cerebral
+  ganglia. This is, however, less of a difference than it was at one
+  time supposed to be, for it has been shown by H. Lacaze-Duthiers, and
+  also by F. Leydig, that the otocysts of Pectinibranchia even when
+  lying close upon the pedal ganglion (as in fig. 21) yet receive their
+  special nerve (which can sometimes be readily isolated) from the
+  cerebral ganglion (see fig. 11). Accordingly the difference is one of
+  position of the otocyst and not of its nerve-supply. The Heteropoda
+  are further remarkable for the high development of their cephalic
+  eyes, and for the typical character of their osphradium (Spengel's
+  olfactory organ). This is a groove, the edges of which are raised and
+  ciliated, lying near the branchial plume in the genera which possess
+  that organ, whilst in _Firoloida_, which has no branchial plume, the
+  osphradium occupies a corresponding position. Beneath the ciliated
+  groove is placed an elongated ganglion (olfactory ganglion) connected
+  by a nerve to the supra-intestinal (therefore the primitively dextral)
+  ganglion of the long visceral nerve-loop, the strands of which cross
+  one another--this being characteristic of Streptoneura (Spengel).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--_Carinaria mediterranea_. (From Owen.)
+
+    A, The animal. B, The shell removed. C, D, Two views of the shell of
+      _Cardiopoda_.
+    a, Mouth and odontophore.
+    b, Cephalic tentacles.
+    c, Eye.
+    d, The fin-like mesopodium.
+    d', Its sucker.
+    e, Metapodium.
+    f, Salivary glands.
+    h, Border of the mantle-flap.
+    i, Ctenidium (gill-plume).
+    m, Stomach.
+    n, Intestine.
+    o, Anus.
+    p, Liver.
+    t, Aorta, springing from the ventricle.
+    u, Cerebral ganglion.
+    v, Pleural and pedal ganglion.
+    w, Testis.
+    x, Visceral ganglion.
+    y, Vesicula seminalis.
+    z, Penis.]
+
+  The Heteropoda belong to the "pelagic fauna" occurring near the
+  surface in the Mediterranean and great oceans in company with the
+  Pteropoda, the Siphonophorous Hydrozoa, Salpae, Leptocephali, and
+  other specially-modified transparent swimming representatives of
+  various groups of the animal kingdom. In development they pass through
+  the typical trochosphere and veliger stages provided with boat-like
+  shell.
+
+  Sub-order 1.--TAENIOGLOSSA. Radula with a median tooth and three teeth
+  on each side of it. Formula 3 : 1 : 3.
+
+  Tribe 1.--PLATYPODA. Normal Taenioglossa of creeping habit. The foot
+  is flattened ventrally, at all events in its anterior part
+  (_Strombidae_). Otocysts situated close to the pedal nerve-centres.
+  Accessory organs are rarely found on the genital ducts, but occur in
+  _Paludina, Cyclostoma, Naticidae, Calyptraeidae_, &c. Mandibles
+  usually present. This is the largest group of Mollusca, including
+  nearly sixty families, some of which are insufficiently known from the
+  anatomical point of view.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Paludinidae_. Pedal centres in the form of ganglionated
+    cords; kidney provided with a ureter; viviparous; fluviatile.
+    _Paludina_. _Neothauma_, from Lake Tanganyika. _Tylopoma_, extinct,
+    Tertiary.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--_Pterotrachea mutica_ seen from the right
+  side. (After Keferstein.)
+
+    a, Pouch for reception of the snout when retracted.
+    c, Pericardium.
+    ph, Pharynx.
+    oc, Cephalic eye.
+    g, Cerebral ganglion.
+    g', Pleuro-pedal ganglion.
+    pr, Foot (mesopodium).
+    v, Stomach.
+    i, Intestine.
+    n, So-called nucleus.
+    br, Branchial plume (ctenidium).
+    w, Osphradium.
+    mt, Foot (metapodium).
+    z, Caudal appendage.]
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Cyclophoridae_. No ctenidium, pallial cavity transformed
+    into a lung; aperture of shell circular; terrestrial. _Pomatias_,
+    shell turriculated. _Diplommatina. Hybocystis. Cyclophorus_, shell
+    umbilicated, with a short spire and horny operculum. Cyclosurus,
+    shell uncoiled. _Dermatocera_, foot with a horn-shaped protuberance
+    at its posterior end. Spiraculum.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Ampullariidae_. To the left of the ctenidium a pulmonary
+    sac, separated from it by an incomplete septum, amphibious.
+    _Ampullaria_, shell dextral, coiled. _Lanistes_, shell sinistral,
+    spire short or obsolete. _Meladomus._
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Littorinidae._ Oesophageal pouches present; pedal
+    nerve-centres concentrated; a pedal penis near the right tentacle.
+    _Littorina_, shell not umbilicated, littoral habit. _Lacuna_, foot
+    with two posterior appendages, marine, entirely aquatic.
+    _Cremnoconchus_, entirely aerial, Indian. _Risella. Tectarius._
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Fossaridae._ Head with two lobes in some Rhipidoglossa.
+    _Fossaria._
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Purpurinidae_, extinct.
+
+    Fam. 7.--_Planaxidae._ Shell with pointed spire; a short pallial
+    siphon. Planaxis.
+
+    Fam. 8.--_Cyclostomatidae._ Pallial cavity transformed into a lung;
+    pedal centres concentrated; a deep pedal groove. _Cyclostoma_, shell
+    turbinated, operculum calcareous, British. _Omphalotropis._
+
+    Fam. 9.--_Aciculidae._ Pallial cavity transformed into a lung;
+    operculum horny; shell narrow and elongated. _Acicula._
+
+    Fam. 10.--_Valvatidae._ Ctenidium bipectinate, free; hermaphrodite;
+    fluviatile. _Valvata_, British.
+
+    Fam. 11.--_Rissoidae._ Epipodial filaments present; one or two
+    pallial tentacles. _Rissoa. Rissoina. Stiva._
+
+    Fam. 12.--_Litiopidae._ An epipodium bearing three pairs of
+    tentacles and an operculigerous lobe with two appendages;
+    inhabitants of the Sargasso weed. _Litiopa._
+
+    Fam. 13.--_Adeorbiidae._ Mantle with two posterior appendages;
+    ctenidium large and capable of protrusion from pallial cavity.
+    _Adeorbis_, British.
+
+    Fam. 14.--_Jeffreysiidae._ Head with two long labial palps; shell
+    ovoid; operculum horny, semicircular, carinated. _Jeffreysia._
+
+    Fam. 15.--_Homalogyridae._ Shell flattened; no cephalic tentacles.
+    _Homalogyra_, British. _Ammoniceras._
+
+    Fam. 16.--_Skeneidae._ Shell depressed, with rounded aperture;
+    cephalic tentacles long. _Skenea_, British.
+
+    Fam. 17.--_Choristidae._ Shell spiral; four cephalic tentacles; eyes
+    absent; two pedal appendages. _Choristes._
+
+    Fam. 18.--_Assimineidae._ Eyes at free extremities of tentacles.
+    Assiminea, estuarine, British.
+
+    Fam. 19.--_Truncatellidae._ Snout very long, bilobed; foot short.
+    _Truncatella._
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 30.--_Valvata cristata_, Müll.
+
+    o, Mouth.
+    op, Operculum.
+    br, Ctenidium (branchial plume).
+    x, Filiform appendage (? rudimentary ctenidium).
+
+    The freely projecting ctenidium of typical form not having its axis
+      fused to the roof of the branchial chamber is the notable
+      character of this genus.]
+
+    Fam. 20.--_Hydrobiidae._ Shell with prominent spire; penis distant
+    from right tentacle, generally appendiculated; brackish water or
+    fluviatile. _Hydrobia_, British. _Baikalia_, from Lake Baikal.
+    _Pomatiopsis. Bithynella. Lithoglyphus. Spekia_, viviparous, from
+    Lake Tanganyika. _Tanganyicia. Limnotrochus_, from Lake Tanganyika.
+    _Chytra. Littorinida. Bithynia_, British, fluviatile. _Stenothyra._
+
+    Fam. 21.--_Melaniidae._ Spire of shell somewhat elongated;
+    mantle-border fringed; viviparous; fluviatile. _Melania. Faunus.
+    Paludomus. Melanopsis. Nassopsis. Bythoceras_, from Lake
+    Tanganyika.
+
+    Fam. 22.--_Typhobiidae._ Foot wide; shell turriculated, with
+    carinated whorls, the carinae tuberculated or spiny. _Typhobia.
+    Bathanalia_, from Lake Tanganyika.
+
+    Fam. 23.--_Pleuroceridae._ Like _Melaniidae_, but mantle-border not
+    fringed and reproduction oviparous. _Pleurocera. Anculotus._
+
+    Fam. 24.--_Pseudomelaniidae._ All extinct.
+
+    Fam. 25.--_Subulitidae._ All extinct.
+
+    Fam. 26.--_Nerineidae._ All extinct.
+
+    Fam. 27.--_Cerithiidae._ Shell with numerous tuberculated whorls;
+    aperture canaliculated anteriorly; short pallial siphon. _Cerithium.
+    Bittium. Potamides. Triforis. Laeocochlis. Cerithiopsis._
+
+    Fam. 28.--_Modulidae._ Shell with short spire; no siphon.
+    _Modulus._
+
+    Fam. 29.--_Vermetidae._ Animal fixed by the shell, the last whorls
+    of which are not in contact with each other; foot small; two
+    anterior pedal tentacles. _Vermetus. Siliquaria._
+
+    Fam. 30.--_Caecidae._ Shell almost completely uncoiled, in one
+    plane, with internal septa. _Caecum_, British.
+
+    Fam. 31.--_Turritellidae._ Shell very long; head large; foot broad.
+    _Turritella_, British. _Mesalia. Mathilda._
+
+    Fam. 32.--_Struthiolariidae._ Shell conical; aperture slightly
+    canaliculated; siphon slightly developed. _Struthiolaria._
+
+    Fam. 33.--_Chenopodidae._ Shell elongated; aperture expanded; siphon
+    very short. _Chenopus_, British. _Alaria, Spinigera, Diartema_,
+    extinct.
+
+    Fam. 34.--_Strombidae._ Foot narrow, compressed, without sole.
+    _Strombus. Pteroceras. Rostellaria. Terebellum._
+
+    Fam. 35.--_Xenophoridae._ Foot transversely divided into two parts.
+    _Xenophorus. Eotrochus_, Silurian.
+
+    Fam. 36.--_Capulidae._ Shell conical, not coiled, but slightly
+    incurved posteriorly; a tongue-shaped projection between snout and
+    foot. _Capulus. Thyca_, parasitic on asterids. _Platyceras_,
+    extinct.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 31.--Shell of _Crucibulum_, seen from below so as
+  to show the inner whorl b, concealed by the cap-like outer whorl a.]
+
+    Fam. 37.--_Hipponycidae._ Shell conical; foot secreting a ventral
+    calcareous plate; animal fixed. _Hipponyx. Mitrularia._
+
+    Fam. 38.--_Calyptraeidae._ Shell with short spire; lateral cervical
+    lobes present; accessory genital glands. _Calyptraea_, British.
+    _Crepidula. Crucibulum._
+
+    Fam. 39.--_Naricidae._ Foot divided into two, posterior half bearing
+    the operculum; a wide epipodial velum; shell turbinated. Narica.
+
+    Fam. 40.--_Naticidae._ Foot large, with aquiferous system; propodium
+    reflected over head; eyes degenerate; burrowing habit. _Natica_,
+    British. _Amaura. Sigaretus._
+
+    Fam. 41.--_Lamellariidae._ Shell thin, more or less covered by the
+    mantle; no operculum. _Lamellaria. Velutina. Marsenina_,
+    _Oncidiopsis_, hermaphrodite.
+
+    Fam. 42.--_Trichotropidae._ Shell with short spire, carinate and
+    pointed. _Trichotropis._
+
+    Fam. 43.--_Seguenziidae._ Shell trochiform, with canaliculated
+    aperture and twisted columella. _Seguenzia_, abyssal.
+
+    Fam. 44.--_Janthinidae._ Shell thin; operculum absent; tentacles
+    bifid; foot secretes a float; pelagic. _Janthina. Recluzia._
+
+    Fam. 45.--_Cypraeidae._ Shell inrolled, solid, polished, aperture
+    very narrow in adult; short siphon; anus posterior; osphradium with
+    three lobes; mantle reflected over shell. _Cypraea. Pustularia.
+    Ovula. Pedicularia_, attached to corals. _Erato_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Animal and shell of _Ovula_.
+
+    b, Cephalic tentacles.
+    d, Foot.
+    h, Mantle-skirt, which is naturally carried in a reflected condition
+      so as to cover the sides of the shell.]
+
+    Fam. 46.--_Tritonidae._ Shell turriculated and siphonated, thick,
+    each whorl with varices; foot broad and truncated anteriorly;
+    pallial siphon well developed; proboscis present. _Triton. Persona._
+    _Ranella._
+
+    Fam. 47.--_Columbellinidae._ All extinct.
+
+    Fam. 48.--_Cassididae._ Shell ventricose, with elongated aperture,
+    and short spire; proboscis and siphon long; operculum with marginal
+    nucleus. _Cassis. Cassidaria. Oniscia._
+
+    Fam. 49--_Oocorythidae._ Shell globular and ventricose; aperture
+    oval and canaliculated; operculum spiral. _Oocorys_, abyssal.
+
+    Fam. 50.--_Doliidae._ Shell ventricose, with short spire, and wide
+    aperture; no varices and no operculum; foot very broad, with
+    projecting anterior angles; siphon long. _Dolium. Pyrula._
+
+    Fam. 51.--_Solariidae. Solarium. Torinia. Fluxina._
+
+    Fam. 52.--_Scalariidae._ Shell turriculated, with elongated spire;
+    proboscis short; siphon rudimentary. _Scalaria. Eglisia._ Crossea.
+    Aclis.
+
+  The three following families have neither radula nor jaws, and are
+  therefore called _Aglossa_. They have a well-developed proboscis which
+  is used as a suctorial organ; some are abyssal, but the majority are
+  either commensals or parasites of Echinoderms.
+
+    Fam. 53.--_Pyramidellidae._ Summit of spire heterostrophic; a
+    projection, the mentum, between head and foot; operculum present.
+    _Pyramidella. Turbonilla. Odostomia_, British. _Myxa._
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Section of the shell of _Triton_, Cuv. (From
+  Owen.)
+
+    a, Apex.
+    ac, Siphonal notch of the mouth of the shell.
+    ac to pc, Mouth of the shell.
+    w, w, Whorls of the shell.
+    s, s. Sutures.
+
+    Occupying the axis, and exposed by the section, is seen the
+      "columella" or spiral pillar. The upper whorls of the shell are
+      seen to be divided into separate chambers by the formation of
+      successively formed "septa."]
+
+    Fam. 54.--_Eulimidae._ Visceral mass still coiled spirally; shell
+    thin and shining. _Eulima_, foot well developed, with an operculum,
+    animal usually free, but some live in the digestive cavity of
+    Holothurians. _Mucronalia_, foot reduced, but still operculate, eyes
+    present, animal fixed by its very long proboscis which is deeply
+    buried in the tissues of an Echinoderm, no pseudopallium.
+    _Stylifer_, the operculum is lost, animal fixed by a large proboscis
+    which forms a pseudopallium covering the whole shell except the
+    extremity of the spire, parasitic on all groups of Echinoderms.
+    _Entosiphon_, visceral mass still coiled; shell much reduced,
+    proboscis very long forming a pseudopallium which covers the whole
+    body and projects beyond in the form of a siphon, foot and nervous
+    system present, eyes, branchia and anus absent, parasite in the
+    Holothurian _Deima blakei_ in the Indian Ocean.
+
+    Fam. 55.--_Entoconchidae._ No shell; visceral mass not coiled; no
+    sensory organs, nervous system, branchia or anus; body reduced to a
+    more or less tubular sac; hermaphrodite and viviparous; parasitic in
+    Holothurians; larvae are veligers, with shell and operculum.
+    _Entocolax_, mouth at free extremity, animal fixed by aboral orifice
+    of pseudopallium, Pacific. _Entoconcha_, body elongated and tubular,
+    animal fixed by the oral extremity, protandric hermaphrodite,
+    parasitic in testes of Holothurians causing their abortion.
+    _Enteroxenos_, no pseudopallium and no intestine, hermaphrodite,
+    larvae with operculum.
+
+  Tribe 2.--HETEROPODA. Pelagic Taenioglossa with foot large and
+  laterally compressed to form a fin.
+
+    Fam. 1. _Atlantidae._ Visceral sac and shell coiled in one plane;
+    foot divided transversely into two parts, posterior part bearing an
+    operculum, anterior part forming a fin provided with a sucker.
+    _Atlanta. Oxygyrus._
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Carinariidae._ Visceral sac and shell small in proportion
+    to the rest of the body, which cannot be withdrawn into the shell;
+    foot elongated, fin-shaped, with sucker, but without operculum.
+    _Carinaria. Cardiopoda._
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Pterotrachaeidae._ Visceral sac very much reduced; without
+    shell or mantle; anus posterior; foot provided with sucker in male
+    only. _Pterotrachaea. Firoloida. Pterosoma._
+
+  Sub-order 2.--STENOGLOSSA. Radula narrow with one lateral tooth on
+  each side, and one median tooth or none.
+
+  Tribe 1.--RACHIGLOSSA. Radula with a median tooth and a single tooth
+  on each side of it. Formula 1 : 1 : 1. Rudimentary jaws present.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Female _Janthina_, with egg-float (a)
+  attached to the foot; b, egg-capsules; c, ctenidium (gill-plume); d,
+  cephalic tentacles.]
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Turbinellidae._ Shell solid, piriform, with thick folded
+    columella; lateral teeth of radula bicuspidate. _Turbinella.
+    Cynodonta. Fulgur. Hemifusus. Tudicla. Strepsidura._
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Fasciolariidae._ Shell elongated, with long siphon;
+    lateral teeth of radula multicuspidate. _Fasciolaria. Fusus.
+    Clavella. Latirus._
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Mitridae._ Shell fusiform and solid, aperture elongated,
+    columella folded; no operculum; eyes on sides of tentacles. _Mitra.
+    Turricula. Cylindromitra. Imbricaria._
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Buccinidae._ Foot large and broad; eyes at base of
+    tentacles; operculum horny. _Buccinum. Chrysodomus. Liomesus.
+    Cominella. Tritonidea. Pisania. Euthria. Phos. Dipsacus._
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Nassidae._ Foot broad, with two slender posterior
+    appendages; operculum unguiculate. _Nassa_, marine, British.
+    _Canidia_, fluviatile. _Bullia._
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Muricidae._ Shell with moderately long spire and canal,
+    ornamented with ribs, often spiny; foot truncated anteriorly.
+    _Murex_, British. _Trophon_, British. _Typhis. Urosalpinx.
+    Lachesis._
+
+    Fam. 7.--_Purpuridae._ Shell thick, with short spire, last whorl
+    large and canal short; aperture wide; operculum horny. _Purpura_,
+    British. _Rapana. Monoceros. Sistrum. Concholepas._
+
+    Fam. 8.--_Haliidae._ Shell ventricose, thin and smooth, with wide
+    aperture; foot large and thick, without operculum. _Halia._
+
+    Fam. 9.--_Cancellariidae._ Shell ovoid, with short spire and folded
+    columella; foot small, no operculum; siphon short. _Cancellaria._
+
+    Fam. 10.--_Columbellidae._ Spire of shell prominent, aperture
+    narrow, canal very short, columella crenelated; foot large.
+    _Columbella._
+
+    Fam. 11.--_Coralliophilidae._ Shell irregular; radula absent; foot
+    and siphon short; sedentary animals, living in corals.
+    _Coralliophila. Rhizochilus. Leptoconchus. Magilus. Rapa._
+
+    Fam. 12.--_Volutidae._ Head much flattened and wide, with eyes on
+    sides; foot broad; siphon with internal appendages. _Valuta.
+    Guivillea. Cymba._
+
+    Fam. 13.--_Olividae._ Foot with anterior transverse groove; a
+    posterior pallial tentacle; generally burrowing. _Olivia. Olivella.
+    Ancillaria. Agaronia._
+
+    Fam. 14.--_Marginellidae._ Foot very large; mantle reflected over
+    shell. _Marginella. Pseudomarginella._
+
+    Fam. 15.--_Harpidae._ Foot very large; without operculum; shell with
+    short spire and longitudinal ribs; siphon long. _Harpa._
+
+  Tribe 2.--TOXIGLOSSA. No jaws. No median tooth in radula. Formula: 1 :
+  0 : 1. Poison-gland present whose duct traverses the nerve-collar.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Pleurotomatidae._ Shell fusiform, with elongated spire;
+    margin of shell and mantle notched. _Pleurotoma. Clavatula.
+    Mangilia. Bela. Pusionella. Pontiothauma._
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Terebridae._ Shell turriculated, with numerous whorls;
+    aperture and operculum oval; eyes at summits of tentacles; siphon
+    long. _Terebra._
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Conidae._ Shell conical, with very short spire, and narrow
+    aperture with parallel borders; operculum unguiform _Conus._
+
+
+Sub-Class II.--EUTHYNEURA
+
+The most important general character of the Euthyneura is the absence of
+torsion in the visceral commissure, and the more posterior position of
+the anus and pallial organs. Comparative anatomy and embryology prove
+that this condition is due, not as formerly supposed to a difference in
+the relations of the visceral commissure which prevented it from being
+included in the torsion of the visceral hump, but to an actual detorsion
+which has taken place in evolution and is repeated to a great extent in
+individual development. In several of the more primitive forms the same
+torsion occurs as in Streptoneura, viz. in _Actaeon_ and _Limacina_
+among Opisthobranchia, and _Chilina_ among Pulmonata. _Actaeon_ is
+proso-branchiate, the visceral commissure is twisted in _Actaeon_ and
+_Chilina_, and even slightly still in _Bulla_ and _Scaphander_; in
+_Actaeon_ and _Limacina_ the osphradium is to the left, innervated by
+the supra-intestinal ganglion. But in the other members of the sub-class
+the detorsion of the visceral mass has carried back the anus and
+circumanal complex from the anterior dorsal region to the right side, as
+in _Bulla_ and _Aplysia_, or even to the posterior end of the body, as
+in _Philine, Oncidium, Doris_, &c. Different degrees of the same
+process of detorsion are, as we have seen, exhibited by the Heteropoda
+among the Streptoneura, and both in them and in the Euthyneura the
+detorsion is associated with degeneration of the shell. Where the
+modification is carried to its extreme degree, not only the shell but
+the pallial cavity, ctenidium and visceral hump disappear, and the body
+acquires a simple elongated form and a secondary external symmetry, as
+in _Pterotrachaea_ and in _Doris, Eolis_, and other Nudibranchia. These
+facts afford strong support to the hypothesis that the weight of the
+shell is the original cause of the torsion of the dorsal visceral mass
+in Gastropods. But this hypothesis leaves the elevation of the visceral
+mass and the exogastric coiling of the shell in the ancestral form
+unexplained. In those Euthyneura in which the shell is entirely absent
+in the adult, it is, except in the three genera _Cenia, Runcina_ and
+_Vaginula_, developed in the larva and then falls off. In other cases
+(Tectibranchs) the reduced shell is enclosed by upgrowths of the edge of
+the mantle and becomes internal, as in many Cephalopods. A few
+Euthyneura in which the shell is not much reduced retain an operculum in
+the adult state, e.g. _Actaeon, Limacina_, and the marine Pulmonate,
+_Amphibola_. The detorted visceral commissure shows a tendency to the
+concentration of all its elements round the oesophagus, so that except
+in the Bullomorpha and in _Aplysia_ the whole nervous system is
+aggregated in the cephalic region, either dorsally or ventrally. The
+radula has a number of uniform teeth on each side of the median tooth in
+each transverse row. The head in most cases bears two pairs of
+tentacles. All the Euthyneura are hermaphrodite.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--_Acera bullata._ A single row of teeth of the
+Radula. (Formula, x.l.x.)]
+
+In the most primitive condition the genital duct is single throughout
+its length and has a single external aperture; it is therefore said to
+be monaulic. The hermaphrodite aperture is on the right side near the
+opening of the pallial cavity, and a ciliated groove conducts the
+spermatozoa to the penis, which is situated more anteriorly. This is the
+condition in the Bullomorpha, the Aplysiomorpha, and in one Pulmonate,
+_Pythia_. In some cases while the original aperture remains undivided,
+the seminal groove is closed and so converted into a canal. This is the
+modification found in _Cavolinia longirostris_ among the Bullomorpha,
+and in all the _Auriculidae_ except _Pythia_. A further degree of
+modification occurs when the male duct takes its origin from the
+hermaphrodite duct above the external opening, so that there are two
+distinct apertures, one male and one female, the latter being the
+original opening. The genital duct is now said to be diaulic, as in
+_Valvata, Oncidiopsis, Actaeon_, and _Lobiger_ among the Bullomorpha, in
+the _Pleurobranchidae_, in the Nudibranchia, except the Doridomorpha and
+most of the Elysiomorpha, and in the Pulmonata. Originally in this
+condition the female aperture is at some distance from the male, as in
+the Basommatophora and in other cases; but in some forms the female
+aperture itself has shifted and come to be contiguous with the male
+opening and penis as in the Stylommatophora. In all these cases the
+female duct bears a bursa copulatrix or receptaculum seminis. In some
+forms this receptacle acquires a separate external opening remaining
+connected with the oviduct internally. There are thus two female
+openings, one for copulation, the other for oviposition, as well as a
+male opening. The genital duct is now trifurcated or triaulic, a
+condition which is confined to certain Nudibranchs, viz. the
+Doridomorpha and most of the Elysiomorpha.
+
+The Pteropoda, formerly regarded as a distinct class of the Mollusca,
+were interpreted by E.R. Lankester as a branch of the Cephalopoda,
+chiefly on account of the protrusible sucker-bearing processes at the
+anterior end of _Pneumonoderma_. These he considered to be homologous
+with the arms of Cephalopods. He fully recognized, however, the
+similarity of Pteropods to Gastropods in their general asymmetry and in
+the torsion of the visceral mass in _Limacinidae_. It is now understood
+that they are Euthyneurous Gastropods adapted to natatory locomotion and
+pelagic life. The sucker-bearing processes of _Pneumonoderma_ are
+outgrowths of the proboscis. The fins of Pteropods are now interpreted
+as the expanded lateral margins of the foot, termed parapodia, not
+homologous with the siphon of Cephalopods which is formed from epipodia.
+The Thecosomatous Pteropoda are allied to _Bulla_, the Gymnosomatous
+forms to _Aplysia_. The Euthyneura comprises two orders, Opisthobranchia
+and Pulmonata.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 36.
+
+    A, Veliger-larva of an Opisthobranch (_Polycera_). f, Foot; op,
+    operculum; mn, anal papilla; ry, dry, two portions of unabsorbed
+    nutritive yolk on either side of the intestine. The right otocyst is
+    seen at the root of the foot.
+
+    B, Trochosphere of an Opisthobranch (_Pleurobranchidium_)
+    showing--shgr, the shell-gland or primitive shell-sac; v, the cilia
+    of the velum; ph, the commencing stomodaeum or oral invagination;
+    ot, the left otocyst; pg, red-coloured pigment spot.
+
+    C, Diblastula of an Opisthobranch (_Polycera_) with elongated
+    blastopore oi.
+
+    (All from Lankester.)]
+
+  Order 1.--OPISTHOBRANCHIA. Marine Euthyneura, the more archaic forms
+  of which have a relatively large foot and a small visceral hump, from
+  the base of which projects on the right side a short mantle-skirt. The
+  anus is placed in such forms far back beyond the mantle-skirt. In
+  front of the anus, and only partially covered by the mantle-skirt, is
+  the ctenidium with its free end turned backwards. The heart lies in
+  front of, instead of to the side of, the attachment of the
+  ctenidium--hence Opisthobranchia as opposed to "Prosobranchia," which
+  correspond to the Streptoneura. A shell is possessed in the adult
+  state by but few Opisthobranchia, but all pass through a veliger
+  larval stage with a nautiloid shell (fig. 36). Many Opisthobranchia
+  have by a process of atrophy lost the typical ctenidium and the
+  mantle-skirt, and have developed other organs in their place. As in
+  some Pectinibranchia, the free margin of the mantle-skirt is
+  frequently reflected over the shell when a shell exists; and, as in
+  some Pectinibranchia, broad lateral outgrowths of the foot (parapodia)
+  are often developed which may be thrown over the shell or naked dorsal
+  surface of the body.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 37.--_Phyllirhoë bucephala_, twice the natural
+  size, a transparent pisciform pelagic Opisthobranch. The internal
+  organs are shown as seen by transmitted light. (After W. Keferstein.)
+
+    a, Mouth.
+    b, Radular sac.
+    c, Oesophagus.
+    d, Stomach.
+    c', Intestine.
+    f', Anus.
+    g, g', g", g"', The four lobes of the liver.
+    h, The heart (auricle and ventricle).
+    l, The renal sac (nephridium).
+    l', The ciliated communication of the renal sac with the pericardium.
+    m, The external opening of the renal sac.
+    n, The cerebral ganglion.
+    o, The cephalic tentacles.
+    f, The genital pore.
+    y, The ovo-testes.
+    w, The parasitic hydromedusa Mnestra, usually found attached in this
+      position by the aboral pole of its umbrella.]
+
+  The variety of special developments of structure accompanying the
+  atrophy of typical organs in the Opisthobranchia and general
+  degeneration of organization is very great. The members of the order
+  present the same wide range of superficial appearance as do the
+  Pectinibranchiate Streptoneura, forms carrying well-developed spiral
+  shells and large mantle-skirts being included in the group, together
+  with flattened or cylindrical slug-like forms. But in respect of the
+  substitution of other parts for the mantle-skirt and for the gill
+  which the more degenerate Opisthobranchia exhibit, this order stands
+  alone. Some Opisthobranchia are striking examples of degeneration
+  (some Nudibranchia), having none of those regions or processes of the
+  body developed which distinguish the archaic Mollusca from such
+  flat-worms as the Dendrocoel Planarians. Indeed, were it not for
+  their retention of the characteristic odontophore we should have
+  little or no indication that such forms as _Phyllirhoë_ and
+  _Limapontia_ really belong to the Mollusca at all. The interesting
+  little _Rhodope veranyii_, which has no odontophore, has been
+  associated by systematists both with these simplified Opisthobranchs
+  and with Rhabdocoel Planarians.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 38.--Three views of _Aplysia sp._, in various
+  conditions of expansion and retraction. (After Cuvier.)
+
+    t, Anterior cephalic tentacles.
+    t², Posterior cephalic tentacles.
+    e, Eyes.
+    f, Metapodium.
+    ep, Epipodium.
+    g, Gill-plume (ctenidium).
+    m, Mantle-flap reflected over the thin oval shell.
+    os, s, Orifice formed by the unclosed border of the reflected
+      mantle-skirt, allowing the shell to show.
+    pe, The spermatic groove.]
+
+  In many respects the sea-hare (_Aplysia_), of which several species
+  are known (some occurring on the English coast), serves as a
+  convenient example of the fullest development of the organization
+  characteristic of Opisthobranchia. The woodcut (fig. 38) gives a
+  faithful representation of the great mobility of the various parts of
+  the body. The head is well marked and joined to the body by a somewhat
+  constricted neck. It carries two pairs of cephalic tentacles and a
+  pair of sessile eyes. The visceral hump is low and not drawn out into
+  a spire. The foot is long, carrying the oblong visceral mass upon it,
+  and projecting (as metapodium) a little beyond it (f). Laterally the
+  foot gives rise to a pair of mobile fleshy lobes, the parapodia (ep),
+  which can be thrown up so as to cover in the dorsal surface of the
+  animal. Such parapodia are common, though by no means universal, among
+  Opisthobranchia. The torsion of the visceral hump is not carried out
+  very fully, the consequence being that the anus has a posterior
+  position a little to the right of the median line above the
+  metapodium, whilst the branchial chamber formed by the overhanging
+  mantle-skirt faces the right side of the body instead of lying well to
+  the front as in Streptoneura and as in Pulmonate Euthyneura. The
+  gill-plume, which in _Aplysia_ is the typical Molluscan ctenidium, is
+  seen in fig. 39 projecting from the branchial sub-pallial space. The
+  relation of the delicate shell to the mantle is peculiar, since it
+  occupies an oval area upon the visceral hump, the extent of which is
+  indicated in fig. 38, C, but may be better understood by a glance at
+  the figures of the allied genus _Umbrella_ (fig. 40), in which the
+  margin of the mantle-skirt coincides, just as it does in the limpet,
+  with the margin of the shell. But in _Aplysia_ the mantle is reflected
+  over the edge of the shell, and grows over its upper surface so as to
+  completely enclose it, excepting at the small central area s where the
+  naked shell is exposed. This enclosure of the shell is a permanent
+  development of the arrangement seen in many Streptoneura (e.g.
+  _Pyrula, Ovula_, see figs. 18 and 32), where the border of the mantle
+  can be, and usually is, drawn over the shell, though it is withdrawn
+  (as it cannot be in _Aplysia_) when they are irritated. From the fact
+  that _Aplysia_ commences its life as a free-swimming veliger with a
+  nautiloid shell not enclosed in any way by the border of the mantle,
+  it is clear that the enclosure of the shell in the adult is a
+  secondary process. Accordingly, the shell of _Aplysia_ must not be
+  confounded with a primitive shell in its shell-sac, such as we find
+  realized in the shells of _Chiton_ and in the plugs which form in the
+  remarkable transitory "shell-sac" or "shell-gland" of Molluscan
+  embryos (see figs. 26, 60). _Aplysia_, like other Mollusca, develops a
+  primitive shell-sac in its trochosphere stage of development, which
+  disappears and is succeeded by a nautiloid shell (fig. 36). This forms
+  the nucleus of the adult shell, and, as the animal grows, becomes
+  enclosed by a reflection of the mantle-skirt. When the shell of an
+  _Aplysia_ enclosed in its mantle is pushed well to the left, the
+  sub-pallial space is fully exposed as in fig. 39, and the various
+  apertures of the body are seen. Posteriorly we have the anus, in
+  front of this the lobate gill-plume, between the two (hence
+  corresponding in position to that of the Pectinibranchia) we have the
+  aperture of the renal organ. In front, near the anterior attachment of
+  the gill-plume, is the osphradium (olfactory organ) discovered by J.W.
+  Spengel, yellowish in colour, in the typical position, and overlying
+  an olfactory ganglion with typical nerve-connexion (see fig. 43). To
+  the right of Spengel's osphradium is the opening of a peculiar gland
+  which has, when dissected out, the form of a bunch of grapes; its
+  secretion is said to be poisonous. On the under side of the free edge
+  of the mantle are situated the numerous small cutaneous glands which,
+  in the large _Aplysia camelus_ (not in other species), form the purple
+  secretion which was known to the ancients. In front of the osphradium
+  is the single genital pore, the aperture of the common or
+  hermaphrodite duct. From this point there passes forward to the right
+  side of the head a groove--the spermatic groove--down which the
+  spermatic fluid passes. In other Euthyneura this groove may close up
+  and form a canal. At its termination by the side of the head is the
+  muscular introverted penis. In the hinder part of the foot (not shown
+  in any of the diagrams) is the opening of a large mucus-forming gland
+  very often found in the Molluscan foot.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Aplysia leporina_ (_camelus_, Cuv.), with
+  epipodia and mantle reflected away from the mid-line. (Lankester.)
+
+    a, Anterior cephalic tentacle.
+    b, Posterior cephalic tentacle; between a and b, the eyes.
+    c, Right epipodium.
+    d, Left epipodium.
+    e, Hinder part of visceral hump.
+    fp, Posterior extremity of the foot.
+    fa, Anterior part of the foot underlying the head.
+    g, The ctenidium (branchial plume).
+    h, The mantle-skirt tightly spread over the horny shell and pushed
+      with it towards the left side.
+    i, The spermatic groove.
+    k, The common genital pore (male and female).
+    l, Orifice of the grape-shaped (supposed poisonous) gland.
+    m, The osphradium (olfactory organ of Spengel).
+    n, Outline of part of the renal sac (nephridium) below the surface.
+    o, External aperture of the nephridium.
+    p, Anus.]
+
+  With regard to internal organization we may commence with the
+  disposition of the renal organ (nephridium), the external opening of
+  which has already been noted. The position of this opening and other
+  features of the renal organ were determined by J.T. Cunningham.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 40.--_Umbrella mediterranea_. a, mouth; b,
+  cephalic tentacle; h, gill (ctenidium). The free edge of the mantle is
+  seen just below the margin of the shell (compare with _Aplysia_, fig.
+  39). (From Owen.)]
+
+  There is considerable uncertainty with respect to the names of the
+  species of _Aplysia_. There are two forms which are very common in the
+  Gulf of Naples. One is quite black in colour, and measures when
+  outstretched 8 or 9 in. in length. The other is light brown and
+  somewhat smaller, its length usually not exceeding 7 in. The first is
+  flaccid and sluggish in its movements, and has not much power of
+  contraction; its epipodial lobes are enormously developed and extend
+  far forward along the body; it gives out when handled an abundance of
+  purple liquid, which is derived from cutaneous glands situated on the
+  under side of the free edge of the mantle. According to F. Blochmann
+  it is identical with _A. camelus_ of Cuvier. The other species is _A.
+  depilans_; it is firm to the touch, and contracts forcibly when
+  irritated; the secretion of the mantle-glands is not abundant, and is
+  milky white in appearance. The kidney has similar relations in both
+  species, and is identical with the organ spoken of by many authors as
+  the triangular gland. Its superficial extent is seen when the folds
+  covering the shell are cut away and the shell removed; the external
+  surface forms a triangle with its base bordering the pericardium, and
+  its apex directed posteriorly and reaching the the left-hand posterior
+  corner of the shell-chamber. The dorsal surface of the kidney extends
+  to the left beyond the shell-chamber beneath the skin in the space
+  between the shell-chamber and the left parapodium.
+
+  When the animal is turned on its left-hand side and the mantle-chamber
+  widely opened, the gill being turned over to the left, a part of the
+  kidney is seen beneath the skin between the attachment of the gill and
+  the right parapodium (fig. 39). On examination this is found to be the
+  under surface of the posterior limb of the gland, the upper surface of
+  which has just been described as lying beneath the shell. In the
+  posterior third of this portion, close to that edge which is adjacent
+  to the base of the gill, is the external opening (fig. 39, o).
+
+  When the pericardium is cut open from above in an animal otherwise
+  entire, the anterior face of the kidney is seen forming the posterior
+  wall of the pericardial chamber; on the deep edge of this face, a
+  little to the left of the attachment of the auricle to the floor of
+  the pericardium, is seen a depression; this depression contains the
+  opening from the pericardium into the kidney.
+
+  To complete the account of the relations of the organ: the right
+  anterior corner can be seen superficially in the wall of the
+  mantle-chamber above the gill. Thus the base of the gill passes in a
+  slanting direction across the right-hand side of the kidney, the
+  posterior end being dorsal to the apex of the gland, and the anterior
+  end ventral to the right-hand corner.
+
+  As so great a part of the whole surface of the kidney lies adjacent to
+  external surfaces of the body, the remaining part which faces the
+  internal organs is small; it consists of the left part of the under
+  surface; it is level with the floor of the pericardium, and lies over
+  the globular mass formed by the liver and convoluted intestine.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Gonad, and accessory glands and ducts of
+  _Aplysia_. (Lankester.)
+
+    i, Ovo-testis.
+    h, Hermaphrodite duct.
+    g, Albuminiparous gland.
+    f, Vesicula seminalis.
+    k, Opening of the albuminiparous gland into the hermaphrodite duct.
+    e, Hermaphrodite duct (uterine portion).
+    b, Vaginal portion of the uterine duct.
+    c, Spermatheca.
+    d, Its duct.
+    a, Genital pore.]
+
+  Thus the renal organ of _Aplysia_ is shown to conform to the Molluscan
+  type. The heart lying within the adjacent pericardium has the usual
+  form, a single auricle and ventricle. The vascular system is not
+  extensive, the arteries soon ending in the well-marked spongy tissue
+  which builds up the muscular foot, parapodia, and dorsal body-wall.
+
+  The alimentary canal commences with the usual buccal mass; the lips
+  are cartilaginous, but not armed with horny jaws, though these are
+  common in other Opisthobranchs; the lingual ribbon is
+  multidenticulate, and a pair of salivary glands pour in their
+  secretion. The oesophagus expands into a curious gizzard, which is
+  armed internally with large horny processes, some broad and thick,
+  others spinous, fitted to act as crushing instruments. From this we
+  pass to a stomach and a coil of intestine embedded in the lobes of a
+  voluminous liver; a caecum of large size is given off near the
+  commencement of the intestine. The liver opens by two ducts into the
+  digestive tract.
+
+  The generative organs lie close to the coil of intestine and liver, a
+  little to the left side. When dissected out they appear as represented
+  in fig. 41. The essential reproductive organ or gonad consists of both
+  ovarian and testicular cells (see fig. 42). It is an ovo-testis. From
+  it passes a common or hermaphrodite duct, which very soon becomes
+  entwined in the spire of a gland--the albuminiparous gland. The latter
+  opens into the common duct at the point k, and here also is a small
+  diverticulum of the duct f. Passing on, we find not far from the
+  genital pore a glandular spherical body (the spermatheca c) opening by
+  means of a longish duct into the common duct, and then we reach the
+  pore (fig. 39, k). Here the female apparatus terminates. But when the
+  male secretion of the ovo-testis is active, the seminal fluid passes
+  from the genital pore along the spermatic groove (fig. 39) to the
+  penis, and is by the aid of that eversible muscular organ introduced
+  into the genital pore of a second _Aplysia_, whence it passes into the
+  spermatheca, there to await the activity of the female element of the
+  ovo-testis of this second _Aplysia_. After an interval of some
+  days--possibly weeks--the ova of the second _Aplysia_ commence to
+  descend the hermaphrodite duct; they become enclosed in a viscid
+  secretion at the point where the albuminiparous gland opens into the
+  duct intertwined with it; and on reaching the point where the
+  spermathecal duct debouches they are impregnated by the spermatozoa
+  which escape now from the spermatheca and meet the ova.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 42.--Follicles of the hermaphrodite gonads of
+  Euthyneurous Gastropods. A, of _Helix_; B, of _Eolis_; a, ova; b,
+  developing spermatozoa; c, common efferent duct.]
+
+  The development of _Aplysia_ from the egg presents many points of
+  interest from the point of view of comparative embryology, but in
+  relation to the morphology of the Opisthobranchia it is sufficient to
+  point to the occurrence of a trochosphere and a veliger stage (fig.
+  36), and of a shell-gland or primitive shell-sac (fig. 36, _shgr_),
+  which is succeeded by a nautiloid shell.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 43.--Nervous system of _Aplysia_, as a type of the
+  long-looped Euthyneurous condition. The untwisted visceral loop is
+  lightly shaded. (After Spengel.)
+
+    ce, Cerebral ganglion.
+    pl, Pleural ganglion.
+    pe, Pedal ganglion.
+    ab.sp, Abdominal ganglion which represents also the
+      supra-intestinal ganglion of Streptoneura and gives off the nerve
+      to the osphradium (olfactory organ) o, and another to an unlettered
+      so-called "genital" ganglion. The buccal nerves and ganglia are
+      omitted.]
+
+  In the nervous system of _Aplysia_ the great ganglion-pairs are well
+  developed and distinct. The euthyneurous visceral loop is long, and
+  presents only one ganglion (in _Aplysia camelus_, but two distinct
+  ganglia joined to one another in _Aplysia hybrida_ of the English
+  coast), placed at its extreme limit, representing both the right and
+  left visceral ganglia and the third or abdominal ganglion, which are
+  so often separately present. The diagram (fig. 43) shows the nerve
+  connecting this abdomino-visceral ganglion with the olfactory ganglion
+  of Spengel. It is also seen to be connected with a more remote
+  ganglion--the genital. Such special irregularities in the development
+  of ganglia upon the visceral loop, and on one or more of the main
+  nerves connected with it, are very frequent. Our figure of the nervous
+  system of _Aplysia_ does not give the small pair of buccal ganglia
+  which are, as in all glossophorous Molluscs, present upon the nerves
+  passing from the cerebral region to the odontophore.
+
+  For a comparison of various Opisthobranchs, _Aplysia_ will be found to
+  present a convenient starting-point. It is one of the more typical
+  Opisthobranchs, that is to say, it belongs to the section
+  Tectibranchia, but other members of the suborder, namely, _Bulla_ and
+  _Actaeon_ (figs. 44 and 45), are less abnormal than _Aplysia_ in
+  regard to their shells and the form of the visceral hump. They have
+  naked spirally twisted shells which may be concealed from view in the
+  living animal by the expansion and reflection of the parapodia, but
+  are not enclosed by the mantle, whilst _Actaeon_ is remarkable for
+  possessing an operculum like that of so many Streptoneura.
+
+  The great development of the parapodia seen in _Aplysia_ is usual in
+  Tectibranchiate Opisthobranchs. The whole surface of the body becomes
+  greatly modified in those Nudibranchiate forms which have lost, not
+  only the shell, but also the ctenidium. Many of these have peculiar
+  processes developed on the dorsal surface (fig. 46, A, B), or retain
+  purely negative characters (fig. 46, D). The chief modification of
+  internal organization presented by these forms, as compared with
+  _Aplysia_, is found in the condition of the alimentary canal. The
+  liver is no longer a compact organ opening by a pair of ducts into the
+  median digestive tract, but we find very numerous hepatic diverticula
+  on a shortened axial tract (fig. 47). These diverticula extend usually
+  one into each of the dorsal papillae or "cerata" when these are
+  present. They are not merely digestive glands, but are sufficiently
+  wide to act as receptacles of food, and in them the digestion of food
+  proceeds just as in the axial portion of the canal. A precisely
+  similar modification of the liver or great digestive gland is found in
+  the scorpions, where the axial portion of the digestive canal is short
+  and straight, and the lateral ducts sufficiently wide to admit food
+  into the ramifications of the gland there to be digested; whilst in
+  the spiders the gland is reduced to a series of simple caeca.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 44.--_Bulla vexillum_ (Chemnitz), as seen
+  crawling. a', oral hood (compare with Tethys, fig. 46, B), possibly a
+  continuation of the epipodia; b, b', cephalic tentacles. (From Owen.)]
+
+  The typical character is retained by the heart, pericardium, and the
+  communicating nephridium or renal organ in all Opisthobranchs. An
+  interesting example of this is furnished by the fish-like transparent
+  _Phyllirhoë_ (fig. 37), in which it is possible most satisfactorily to
+  study in the living animal, by means of the microscope, the course of
+  the blood-stream, and also the reno-pericardial communication. In many
+  of the Nudibranchiate Opisthobranchs the nervous system presents a
+  concentration of the ganglia (fig. 48), contrasting greatly with what
+  we have seen in _Aplysia_. Not only are the pleural ganglia fused to
+  the cerebral, but also the visceral to these (see in further
+  illustration the condition attained by the Pulmonate _Limnaeus_, fig.
+  59), and the visceral loop is astonishingly short and insignificant
+  (fig. 48, e'). That the parts are rightly thus identified is
+  probable from J.W. Spengel's observation of the osphradium and its
+  nerve-supply in these forms; the nerve to that organ, which is placed
+  somewhat anteriorly--on the dorsal surface--being given off from the
+  hinder part (visceral) of the right compound ganglion--the fellow to
+  that marked A in fig. 48. The Eolid-like Nudibranchs, amongst other
+  specialities of structure, possess (in some cases at any rate)
+  apertures at the apices of the "cerata" or dorsal papillae, which lead
+  from the exterior into the hepatic caeca. Some amongst them
+  (_Tergipes, Eolis_) are also remarkable for possessing peculiarly
+  modified cells placed in sacs (cnidosacs) at the apices of these same
+  papillae, which resemble the "thread-cells" of the Coelentera.
+  According to T.S. Wright and J.H. Grosvenor these nematocysts are
+  derived from the hydroids on which the animals feed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 45.--_Actaeon._ h, shell; b, oral hood; d, foot;
+  f, operculum.]
+
+  The development of many Opisthobranchia has been examined--e.g.
+  _Aplysia, Pleurobranchidium, Elysia, Polycera, Doris, Tergipes_. All
+  pass through trochosphere and veliger stages, and in all a nautiloid
+  or boat-like shell is developed, preceded by a well-marked
+  "shell-gland" (see fig. 36). The transition from the free-swimming
+  veliger larva with its nautiloid shell (fig. 36) to the adult form has
+  not been properly observed, and many interesting points as to the true
+  nature of folds (whether parapodia or mantle or velum) have yet to be
+  cleared up by a knowledge of such development in forms like _Tethys,
+  Doris, Phyllidia_, &c. As in other Molluscan groups, we find even in
+  closely-allied genera (for instance, in _Aplysia_ and
+  _Pleurobranchidium_, and other genera), the greatest differences as to
+  the _amount_ of food-material by which the egg-shell is encumbered.
+  Some form their diblastula by emboly, others by epiboly; and in the
+  later history of the further development of the enclosed cells
+  (arch-enteron) very marked variations occur in closely-allied forms,
+  due to the influence of a greater or less abundance of food-material
+  mixed with the protoplasm of the egg.
+
+  Sub-order 1.--TECTIBRANCHIA. Opisthobranchs provided in the adult
+  state with a shell and a mantle, except _Runcina, Pleurobranchaea,
+  Cymbuliidae_, and some Aplysiomorpha. There is a ctenidium, except in
+  some Thecosomata and Gymnosomata, and an osphradium.
+
+  Tribe 1.--BULLOMORPHA. The shell is usually well developed, except in
+  _Runcina_ and _Cymbuliidae_, and may be external or internal. No
+  operculum, except in _Actaeonidae_ and _Limacinidae_. The pallial
+  cavity is always well developed, and contains the ctenidium, at least
+  in part; ctenidium, except in _Lophocercidae_, of folded type. With
+  the exception of the _Aplustridae, Lophocercidae_ and _Thecosomata_,
+  the head is devoid of tentacles, and its dorsal surface forms a
+  digging disk or shield. The edges of the foot form parapodia, often
+  transformed into fins. Posteriorly the mantle forms a large pallial
+  lobe under the pallial aperture. Stomach generally provided with
+  chitinous or calcified masticatory plates. Visceral commissure fairly
+  long, except in _Runcina, Lobiger_ and _Thecosomata_. Hermaphrodite
+  genital aperture, connected with the penis by a ciliated groove,
+  except in _Actaeon, Lobiger_ and _Cavolinia longirostris_, in which
+  the spermiduct is a closed tube. Animals either swim or burrow.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 46.
+
+    A, _Eolis papillosa_ (Lin.), dorsal view.
+    a, b, Posterior and anterior cephalic tentacles.
+    c, The dorsal "cerata."
+    B, _Tethys leporina_, dorsal view.
+    a, The cephalic hood.
+    b, Cephalic tentacles.
+    c, Neck.
+    d, Genital pore.
+    e, Anus.
+    f, Large cerata.
+    g, Smaller cerata.
+    h, Margin of the foot.
+    C, _Doris (Actinocyclus) tuberculatus_ (Cuv.), seen from the pedal
+      surface.
+    m, Mouth.
+    b, Margin of the head.
+    f, Sole of the foot.
+    sp, The mantle-like epipodium.
+    D, E, Dorsal and lateral view of _Elysia (Actaeon) viridis_.
+    ep, epipodial outgrowths. (After Keferstein.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 47.--Enteric Canal of _Eolis papillosa_. (From
+  Gegenbaur, after Alder and Hancock.)
+
+    ph, Pharynx.
+    m, Midgut, with its hepatic appendages h, all of which are not
+      figured.
+    e, Hind gut.
+    an, Anus.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 48.--Central Nervous System of _Fiona_ (one of the
+  Nudibranchia), showing a tendency to fusion of the great ganglia.
+  (From Gegenbaur, after Bergh.)
+
+    A, Cerebral, pleural and visceral ganglia united.
+    B, Pedal ganglion.
+    C, Buccal ganglion.
+    D, Oesophageal ganglion connected with, the Buccal.
+    a, Nerve to superior cephalic tentacle.
+    b, Nerves to inferior cephalic tentacles.
+    c, Nerve to generative organs.
+    d, Pedal nerve.
+    e, Pedal commissure.
+    e', Visceral loop or commissure (?).]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 49.--_Cavolinia tridentata_, Forsk. from the
+  Mediterranean, magnified two diameters. (From Owen.)
+
+    a, Mouth.
+    b, Pair of cephalic tentacles.
+    C, C, Pteropodial lobes of the foot.
+    d, Median web connecting these.
+    e, e, Processes of the mantle-skirt reflected over the surface of
+      the shell.
+    g, The shell enclosing the visceral hump.
+    h. The median spine of the shell.]
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Actaeonidae._ Cephalic shield bifid posteriorly; margins
+    of foot slightly developed; genital duct diaulic; visceral
+    commissure streptoneurous; shell thick, with prominent spire and
+    elongated aperture; a horny operculum. _Actaeon_, British.
+    _Solidula. Tornatellaea_, extinct. _Adelactaeon. Bullina.
+    Bullinula._
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Ringiculidae._ Cephalic disk enlarged anteriorly, forming
+    an open tube posteriorly; shell external, thick, with prominent
+    spire; no operculum. _Ringicula. Pugnus._
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Tornatinidae._ Margins of foot not prominent; no radula;
+    shell external, with inconspicuous spire. _Tornatina_, British.
+    _Retusa. Volvula._
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Scaphandridae._ Cephalic shield short, truncated
+    posteriorly; eyes deeply embedded; three calcareous stomachal
+    plates; shell external, with reduced spire. _Scaphander_, British.
+    _Atys. Smaragdinella. Cylichna_, British. _Amphisphyra_, British.
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Bullidae._ Margins of foot well developed; eyes
+    superficial; three chitinous stomachal plates; shell external, with
+    reduced spire. Bulla, British. _Haminea_, British.
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Aceratidae._ Cephalic shield continuous with neck; twelve
+    to fourteen stomachal plates; a posterior pallial filament passing
+    through a notch in shell. _Acera_, British. _Cylindrobulla.
+    Volutella._
+
+    Fam. 7.--_Aplustridae._ Foot very broad; cephalic shield with four
+    tentacles; shell external, thin, without prominent spire.
+    _Aplustrum. Hydatina. Micromelo._
+
+    Fam. 8.--_Philinidae._ Cephalic shield broad, thick and simple;
+    shell wholly internal, thin, spire much reduced, aperture very
+    large. _Philine_, British. _Cryptophthalmus. Chelinodura.
+    Phanerophthalmus. Colpodaspis_, British. _Colobocephalus._
+
+    Fam. 9.--_Doridiidae._ Cephalic shield ending posteriorly in a
+    median point; shell internal, largely membranous; no radula or
+    stomachal plates. _Doridium. Navarchus._
+
+    Fam. 10.--_Gastropteridae._ Cephalic shield pointed behind; shell
+    internal, chiefly membranous, with calcified nucleus, nautiloid;
+    parapodia forming fins. _Gastropteron._
+
+    Fam. 11.--_Runcinidae._ Cephalic shield continuous with dorsal
+    integument; no shell; ctenidium projecting from mantle cavity.
+    _Runcina._
+
+    Fam. 12.--_Lophocercidae._ Shell external, globular or ovoid; foot
+    elongated, parapodia separate from ventral surface; genital duct
+    diaulic. _Lobiger. Lophocercus._
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 50.--Shell of _Cavolinia tridentata_, seen from
+  the side.
+
+    f, Postero-dorsal surface.
+    g, Antero-ventral surface.
+    h, Median dorsal spine.
+    i, Mouth of the shell.]
+
+  The next three families form the group formerly known as Thecosomatous
+  Pteropods. They are all pelagic, the foot being entirely transformed
+  into a pair of anterior fins; eyes are absent, and the nerve centres
+  are concentrated on the ventral side of the oesophagus.
+
+    Fam. 13.--_Limacinidae._ Dextral animals, with shell coiled
+    pseudo-sinistrally; operculum with sinistral spiral; pallial cavity
+    dorsal. _Limacina_, British. _Peraclis_, ctenidium present.
+
+    Fam. 14.--_Cymbuliidae._ Adult without shell; a sub-epithelial
+    pseudoconch formed by connective tissue; pallial cavity ventral.
+    _Cymbulia. Cymbuliopsis. Gleba. Desmopterus._
+
+    Fam. 15.--_Cavoliniidae._ Shell not coiled, symmetrical; pallial
+    cavity ventral. _Cavolinia. Clio. Cuvierina._
+
+  Tribe 2.--APLYSIOMORPHA. Shell more or less internal, much reduced or
+  absent. Head bears two pairs of tentacles. Parapodia separate from
+  ventral surface, and generally transformed into swimming lobes.
+  Visceral commissure much shortened, except in _Aplysia_. Genital duct
+  monaulic; hermaphrodite duct connected with penis by a ciliated
+  groove. Animals either swim or crawl.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Aplysiidae_. Shell partly or wholly internal, or absent;
+    foot long, with well-developed ventral surface. _Aplysia. Dolabella.
+    Dolabrifer. Aplysiella. Phyllaplysia. Notarchus_.
+
+  The next six families include the animals formerly known as
+  Gymnosomatous Pteropods, characterized by the absence of mantle and
+  shell, the reduction of the ventral surface of the foot, and the
+  parapodial fins at the anterior end of the body. They are all pelagic.
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Pneumonodermatidae_. Pharynx evaginable, with suckers.
+    _Pneumonoderma. Dexiobranchaea. Spongiobranchaea. Schizobrachium_.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Clionopsidae_. No buccal appendages or suckers; a very
+    long evaginable proboscis; a quadriradiate terminal branchia.
+    _Clionopsis_.
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Notobranchaeidae_. Posterior branchia triradiate.
+    Notobranchaea.
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Thliptodontidae_. Head very large, not marked off from the
+    body; neither branchia nor suckers; fins situated near the middle of
+    the body. _Thliptodon_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 51.--Embryo of _Cavolinia tridentata_. (From
+  Balfour, after Fol.)
+
+    a, Anus.
+    f, Median portion of the foot.
+    pn, Pteropodial lobe of the foot.
+    h, Heart.
+    i, Intestine.
+    m. Mouth.
+    ot, Otocyst.
+    q, Shell.
+    r, Nephridium.
+    s, Oesophagus.
+    [sigma], Sac containing nutritive yolk.
+    mb, Mantle-skirt.
+    mc, Sub-pallial chamber.
+    Kn, Contractile sinus.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 52.--_Styliola acicula_, Rang. sp. enlarged. (From
+  Owen.)
+
+    C, C, The wing-like lobes of the foot.
+    d, Median fold of same.
+    e, Copulatory organ.
+    h, Pointed extremity of the shell.
+    i, Anterior margin of the shell.
+    n, Stomach.
+    o, Liver.
+    u. Hermaphrodite gonad.]
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Clionidae_. No branchia of any kind; a short evaginable
+    pharynx, bearing paired conical buccal appendages or "cephalocones."
+    _Clione. Paraclione. Fowlerina_.
+
+    Fam. 7.--_Halopsychidae_. No branchia; two long and branched buccal
+    appendages. _Halopsyche_.
+
+  Tribe 3.--PLEUROBRANCHOMORPHA. Two pairs of tentacles. Foot without
+  parapodia; no pallial cavity, but always a single ctenidium situated
+  on the right side between mantle and foot. Genital duct diaulic,
+  without open seminal groove; male and female apertures contiguous.
+  Visceral commissure short, tendency to concentration of all ganglia in
+  dorsal side of oesophagus.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Tylodinidae_. Shell external and conical; anterior
+    tentacles form a frontal veil; ctenidium extending only over right
+    side; a distinct osphradium. _Tylodina_.
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Umbrellidae_. Shell external, conical, much flattened;
+    anterior tentacles very small, and situated with the mouth in a
+    notch of the foot below the head; ctenidium very large. _Umbrella_.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Pleurobranchidae_. Shell covered by mantle, or absent;
+    anterior tentacles form a frontal veil; mantle contains spicules.
+    _Pleurobranchus. Berthella. Haliotinella. Oscanius_, British.
+    _Oscaniella. Oscaniopsis. Pleurobranchaea._
+
+  Sub-order 2.--NUDIBRANCHIA. Shell absent in the adult; no ctenidium or
+  osphradium. Body generally slug-like, and externally symmetrical.
+  Visceral mass not marked off from the foot, except in _Hedylidae._
+  Dorsal respiratory appendages frequently present. Visceral commissure
+  reduced; nervous system concentrated on dorsal side of oesophagus.
+  Marine; generally carnivorous, and brightly coloured, affording many
+  instances of protective resemblance.
+
+  Tribe 1.--TRITONIOMORPHA. Liver wholly or partially contained in the
+  visceral mass. Anus lateral, on the right side. Usually two rows of
+  ramified dorsal appendages. Genital duct diaulic; male and female
+  apertures contiguous.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Tritoniidae._ Anterior tentacles form a frontal veil; foot
+    rather broad. _Tritonia_, British. _Marionia._
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Scyllaeidae._ No anterior tentacles; dorsal appendages
+    broad and foliaceous; foot very narrow; stomach with horny plates.
+    _Scyllaea_, pelagic.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Phyllirhoidae._ No anterior tentacles, and no dorsal
+    appendages; body laterally compressed, transparent; pelagic.
+    _Phyllirhoë._
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Tethyidae._ Head broad, surrounded by a funnel-shaped
+    velum or hood; no radula; dorsal appendages foliaceous. _Tethys.
+    Melibe._
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Dendronotidae._ Anterior tentacles forming a scalloped
+    frontal veil; dorsal appendages and tentacles similarly ramified.
+    _Dendronotus. Campaspe._
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Bornellidae._ Dorsum furnished on either side with
+    papillae, at the base of which are ramified appendages. _Bornella._
+
+    Fam. 7.--_Lomanotidae._ Body flattened, the two dorsal borders
+    prominent and foliaceous. _Lomanotus_, British.
+
+  Tribe 2.--DORIDOMORPHA. Body externally symmetrical; anus median,
+  posterior, and generally dorsal, surrounded by ramified pallial
+  appendages, constituting a secondary branchia. Liver not ramified in
+  the integuments. Genital duct triaulic. Spicules present in the
+  mantle.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 53.--_Halopsyche gaudichaudii_, Soul. (From Owen.)
+  Much enlarged; the body-wall removed.
+
+    a, The mouth.
+    c, The pteropodial lobes of the foot.
+    f, The centrally-placed hind-foot.
+    d, l, e, Three pairs of tentacle-like processes placed at the sides
+      of the mouth, and developed (in all probability) from the
+      fore-foot.
+    o', Anus.
+    y, Genital pore.
+    k, Retractor muscles.
+    o and p, The liver.
+    u, v, w, Genitalia.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 54.--_Ancula cristata_, one of the pygobranchiate
+  Opisthobranchs (dorsal view). (From Gegenbaur, after Alder and
+  Hancock.)
+
+    a, Anus.
+    br, Secondary branchia surrounding the anus.
+    t, Cephalic tentacles.
+
+    External to the branchia are seen ten club-like processes of the
+      dorsal wall, these are the "cerata" which are characteristically
+      developed in another suborder of Opisthobranchs.]
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Polyceratidae._ A more or less prominent frontal veil;
+    branchiae non-retractile. _Euplocamus. Polycera_, British.
+    _Thecacera_, British. _Aegirus_, British. _Plocamopherus. Palio.
+    Crimora. Triopa_, British. _Triopella._
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Goniodorididae._ Mantle-border projecting; frontal veil
+    reduced, and often covered by the anterior border of the mantle.
+    _Goniodoris_, British. _Acanthodoris_, British. _Idalia_, British.
+    _Ancula_, British. _Doridunculus_. _Lamellidoris. Ancylodoris_,
+    the only fresh-water Nudibranch, from Lake Baikal.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Heterodorididae_. No branchia. _Heterodoris_.
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Dorididae_. Mantle oval, covering the head and the greater
+    part of the body; anterior tentacles, ill-developed; branchiae
+    generally retractile. _Doris_, British. _Hexabranchus_.
+    _Chromodoris_.
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Doridopsidae_. Pharynx suctorial; no radula; branchial
+    rosette on the dorsal surface, above the mantle-border.
+    _Doridopsis_.
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Corambidae_. Anus and branchia posterior, below the
+    mantle-border. _Corambe_.
+
+    Fam. 7.-_-Phyllidiidae_. Pharynx suctorial; branchiae surrounding
+    the body, between the mantle and foot. _Phyllidia. Fryeria_.
+
+  The last three families constitute the sub-tribe Porostomata,
+  characterized by the reduction of the buccal mass, which is modified
+  into a suctorial apparatus.
+
+  Tribe 3.--EOLIDOMORPHA (_Cladohepatica_). The whole of the liver
+  contained in the integuments and tegumentary papillae. Genital duct
+  diaulic; male and female apertures contiguous. The anus is
+  antero-lateral, except in the _Proctonotidae_, in which it is median.
+  Tegumentary papillae not ramified, and containing cnidosacs with
+  nematocysts.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Eolididae_. Dorsal papillae spindle-shaped or club-shaped.
+    _Eolis_, British. _Facelina_, British. _Tergipes_, British.
+    _Gonieolis. Cuthona. Embletonia. Galvina. Calma. Hero_.
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Glaucidae_. Body furnished with three pairs of lateral
+    lobes, bearing the tegumentary papillae; foot very narrow; pelagic.
+    _Glaucus_.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Hedylidae_. Body elongated; visceral mass marked off from
+    foot posteriorly; dorsal appendages absent, or reduced to a single
+    pair; spicules in the integument. _Hedyle_.
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Pseudovermidae_. Head without tentacles; body elongated;
+    anus on right side. _Pseudovermis_.
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Proctonotidae_. Anus posterior, median; anterior
+    tentacles, atrophied; foot broad. _Janus_, British. _Proctonotus_,
+    British.
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Dotonidae_. Bases of the rhinophores surrounded by a
+    sheath; dorsal papillae tuberculated and club-shaped, in a single
+    row on either side of the dorsum; no cnidosacs. _Doto_, British.
+    _Gellina. Heromorpha_.
+
+    Fam. 7.--_Fionidae_. Dorsal papillae with a membranous expansion;
+    male and female apertures at some distance from each other; pelagic.
+    _Fiona_.
+
+    Fam. 8.--_Pleurophyllidae_. Anterior tentacles in the form of a
+    digging shield; mantle without appendages, but respiratory papillae
+    beneath the mantle-border. _Pleurophyllidia_.
+
+    Fam. 9.--_Dermatobranchidae_. Like the last, but wholly without
+    branchiae. _Dermatobranchus_.
+
+  Tribe 4.--ELYSIOMORPHA. Liver ramifies in integuments and extends into
+  dorsal papillae, but there are no cnidosacs. Genital duct always
+  triaulic, and male and female apertures distant from each other. No
+  mandibles, and radula uniserial. Never more than one pair of
+  tentacles, and these are absent in _Alderia_ and some species of
+  _Limapontia_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 55.--Dorsal and Ventral View of _Pleurophyllidia
+  lineata_ (Otto), one of the Eolidomorph Nudibranchs. (After
+  Keferstein.)
+
+    b, The mouth.
+    l, The lamelliform sub-pallial gills, which (as in Patella) replace
+      the typical Molluscan ctenidium.]
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Hermaeidae_. Foot narrow; dorsal papillae linear or
+    fusiform, in several series. _Hermaea_, British. _Stiliger_.
+    _Alderia_, British.
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Phyllobranchidae_. Foot broad; dorsal papillae flattened
+    and foliaceous. _Phyllobranchus. Cyerce_.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Plakobranchidae_. Body depressed, without dorsal papillae,
+    but with two very large lateral expansions, with dorsal plications.
+    _Plakobranchus_.
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Elysiidae_. Body elongated, with lateral expansions;
+    tentacles large; foot narrow. _Elysia_, British. _Tridachia_.
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Limapontiidae_. No lateral expansions, and no dorsal
+    papillae; body planariform; anus dorsal, median and posterior.
+    _Limapontia_, British. _Actaeonia_, British. _Cenia_.
+
+  Order 2 (of the Euthyneura).--PULMONATA. Euthyneurous Gastropoda,
+  probably derived from ancestral forms similar to the Tectibranchiate
+  Opisthobranchia by adaptation to a terrestrial life. The ctenidium is
+  atrophied, and the edge of the mantle-skirt is fused to the dorsal
+  integument by concrescence, except at one point which forms the
+  aperture of the mantle-chamber, thus converted into a nearly closed
+  sac. Air is admitted to this sac for respiratory and hydrostatic
+  purposes, and it thus becomes a lung. An operculum is present only in
+  _Amphibola_; a contrast being thus afforded with the operculate
+  pulmonate Streptoneura (_Cyclostoma_, &c.), which differ in other
+  essential features of structure from the Pulmonata. The Pulmonata are,
+  like the other Euthyneura, hermaphrodite, with elaborately developed
+  copulatory organs and accessory glands. Like other Euthyneura, they
+  have very numerous small denticles on the lingual ribbon. In aquatic
+  Pulmonata the osphradium is retained.
+
+  In some Pulmonata (snails) the foot is extended at right angles to the
+  visceral hump, which rises from it in the form of a coil as in
+  Streptoneura; in others the visceral hump is not elevated, but is
+  extended with the foot, and the shell is small or absent (slugs).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 56.--A Series of Stylommatophorous Pulmonata,
+  showing transitional forms between snail and slug.
+
+    A, _Helix pomatia_. (From Keferstein.)
+    B, _Helicophanta brevipes_. (From Keferstein, after Pfeiffer.)
+    C, _Testacella haliotidea_. (From Keferstein.)
+    D, _Arion ater_, the great black slug. (From Keferstein.)
+    a, Shell in A, B, C, shell-sac (closed) in D; b, orifice leading
+      into the sub-pallial chamber (lung).]
+
+  Pulmonata are widely distinguished from a small number of Streptoneura
+  at one time associated with them on account of their mantle-chamber
+  being converted, as in Pulmonata, into a lung, and the ctenidium or
+  branchial plume aborted. The terrestrial Streptoneura (represented in
+  England by the common genus _Cyclostoma_) have a twisted visceral
+  nerve-loop, an operculum on the foot, a complex rhipidoglossate or
+  taenio-glossate radula, and are of distinct sexes. The Pulmonata have
+  a straight visceral nerve-loop, usually no operculum even in the
+  embryo, and a multidenticulate radula, the teeth being equi-formal;
+  and they are hermaphrodite. Some Pulmonata (_Limnaea_, &c.) live in
+  fresh waters although breathing air. The remarkable discovery has been
+  made that in deep lakes such _Limnaei_ do not breathe air, but admit
+  water to the lung-sac and live at the bottom. The lung-sac serves
+  undoubtedly as a hydrostatic apparatus in the aquatic Pulmonata, as
+  well as assisting respiration.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 57.--_Ancylus fluviatilis_, a patelliform aquatic
+  Pulmonate.]
+
+  The same general range of body-form is shown in Pulmonata as in the
+  Heteropoda and in the Opisthobranchia; at one extreme we have snails
+  with coiled visceral hump, at the other cylindrical or flattened slugs
+  (see fig. 56). Limpet-like forms are also found (fig. 57, _Ancylus_).
+  The foot is always simple, with its flat crawling surface extending
+  from end to end, but in the embryo _Limnaea_ it shows a bilobed
+  character, which leads on to the condition characteristic of
+  Pteropoda.
+
+  The adaptation of the Pulmonata to terrestrial life has entailed
+  little modification of the internal organization. In one genus
+  (_Planorbis_) the plasma of the blood is coloured red by haemoglobin,
+  this being the only instance of the presence of this body in the blood
+  of Glossophorous Mollusca, though it occurs in corpuscles in the blood
+  of the bivalves _Arca_ and _Solen_ (Lankester).
+
+  [Illustration: _Fig. 58._--Hermaphrodite Reproductive Apparatus of the
+  Garden Snail (_Helix hortensis_).
+
+    [tau], Ovo-testis.
+    ve, Hermaphrodite duct.
+    Ed, Albuminiparous gland.
+    u, Uterine dilatation of the hermaphrodite duct.
+    d, Digitate accessory glands on the female duct.
+    ps, Calciferous gland or dart-sac on the female duct.
+    Rf, Spermatheca or receptacle of the sperm in copulation, opening
+      into the female duct.
+    vd, Male duct (vas deferens).
+    p, Penis.
+    fl, Flagellum.]
+
+  The generative apparatus of the snail (_Helix_) may serve as an
+  example of the hermaphrodite apparatus common to the Pulmonata and
+  Opisthobranchia (fig. 58). From the ovo-testis, which lies near the
+  apex of the visceral coil, a common hermaphrodite duct ve proceeds,
+  which receives the duct of the compact white albuminiparous gland, Ed,
+  and then becomes much enlarged, the additional width being due to the
+  development of glandular folds, which are regarded as forming a uterus
+  u. Where these folds cease the common duct splits into two portions, a
+  male and a female. The male duct vd becomes fleshy and muscular near
+  its termination at the genital pore, forming the penis p. Attached to
+  it is a diverticulum fl, in which the spermatozoa which have descended
+  from the ovo-testis are stored and modelled into sperm ropes or
+  spermatophores. The female portion of the duct is more complex. Soon
+  after quitting the uterus it is joined by a long duct leading from a
+  glandular sac, the spermatheca (Rf). In this duct and sac the
+  spermatophores received in copulation from another snail are lodged.
+  In _Helix hortensis_ the spermatheca is simple. In other species of
+  _Helix_ a second duct (as large in _Helix aspersa_ as the chief one)
+  is given off from the spermathecal duct, and in the natural state is
+  closely adherent to the wall of the uterus. This second duct has
+  normally no spermathecal gland at its termination, which is simple and
+  blunt. But in rare cases in _Helix aspersa_ a second spermatheca is
+  found at the end of this second duct. Tracing the widening female duct
+  onwards we now come to the openings of the digitate accessory glands
+  d, d, which probably assist in the formation of the egg-capsule. Close
+  to them is the remarkable dart-sac ps, a thick-walled sac, in the
+  lumen of which a crystalline four-fluted rod or dart consisting of
+  carbonate of lime is found. It is supposed to act in some way as a
+  stimulant in copulation, but possibly has to do with the calcareous
+  covering of the egg-capsule. Other Pulmonata exhibit variations of
+  secondary importance in the details of this hermaphrodite apparatus.
+
+  The nervous system of _Helix_ is not favourable as an example on
+  account of the fusion of the ganglia to form an almost uniform ring of
+  nervous matter around the oesophagus. The pond-snail (_Limnaeus_)
+  furnishes, on the other hand, a very beautiful case of distinct
+  ganglia and connecting cords (fig. 59). The demonstration which it
+  affords of the extreme shortening of the Euthyneurous visceral
+  nerve-loop is most instructive and valuable for comparison with and
+  explanation of the condition of the nervous centres in Cephalopoda, as
+  also of some Opisthobranchia. The figure (fig. 59) is sufficiently
+  described in the letterpress attached to it; the pair of buccal
+  ganglia joined by the connectives to the cerebrals are, as in most of
+  our figures, omitted. Here we need only further draw attention to the
+  osphradium, discovered by Lacaze-Duthiers, and shown by Spengel to
+  agree in its innervation with that organ in all other Gastropoda. On
+  account of the shortness of the visceral loop and the proximity of the
+  right visceral ganglion to the oesophageal nerve-ring, the nerve to
+  the osphradium and olfactory ganglion is very long. The position of
+  the osphradium corresponds more or less closely with that of the
+  vanished right ctenidium, with which it is normally associated. In
+  _Helix_ and _Limax_ the osphradium has not been described, and
+  possibly its discovery might clear up the doubts which have been
+  raised as to the nature of the mantle-chamber of those genera. In
+  _Planorbis_, which is sinistral (as are a few other genera or
+  exceptional varieties of various Anisopleurous Gastropods), instead of
+  being dextral, the osphradium is on the left side, and receives its
+  nerve from the left visceral ganglion, the whole series of unilateral
+  organs being reversed. This is, as might be expected, what is found
+  to be the case in all "reversed" Gastropods.
+
+  The shell of the Pulmonata, though always light and delicate, is in
+  many cases a well-developed spiral "house" into which the creature can
+  withdraw itself; and, although the foot possesses no operculum, yet in
+  _Helix_ the aperture of the shell is closed in the winter by a
+  complete lid, the "hybernaculum" more or less calcareous in nature,
+  which is secreted by the foot. In _Clausilia_ a peculiar modification
+  of this lid exists permanently in the adult, attached by an elastic
+  stalk to the mouth of the shell, and known as the "clausilium." In
+  _Limnaeus_ the permanent shell is preceded in the embryo by a
+  well-marked shell-gland or primitive shell-sac (fig. 60), at one time
+  supposed to be the developing anus, but shown by Lankester to be
+  identical with the "shell-gland" discovered by him in other Mollusca
+  (_Pisidium, Pleurobranchidium, Neritina_, &c.). As in other Gastropoda
+  Anisopleura, this shell-sac may abnormally develop a plug of chitinous
+  matter, but normally it flattens out and disappears, whilst the
+  cap-like rudiment of the permanent shell is shed out from the
+  dome-like surface of the visceral hump, in the centre of which the
+  shell-sac existed for a brief period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 59.--Nervous System of the Pond-Snail, _Limnaeus
+  stagnalis_, as a type of the short-looped euthyneurous condition. The
+  short visceral "loop" with its three ganglia is lightly-shaded.
+
+    ce, Cerebral ganglion.
+    pe, Pedal ganglion.
+    pl, Pleural ganglion.
+    ab, Abdominal ganglion.
+    sp, Visceral ganglion of the left side; opposite to it is the
+      visceral ganglion of the right side, which gives off the long nerve
+      to the olfactory ganglion and osphradium o.
+
+    In _Planorbis_ and in _Auricula_ (Pulmonata, allied to _Limnaeus_)
+    the olfactory organ is on the _left_ side and receives its nerve
+    from the _left_ visceral ganglion. (After Spengel.)]
+
+  In _Clausilia_, according to the observations of C. Gegenbaur, the
+  primitive shell-sac does not flatten out and disappear, but takes the
+  form of a flattened closed sac. Within this closed sac a plate of
+  calcareous matter is developed, and after a time the upper wall of the
+  sac disappears, and the calcareous plate continues to grow as the
+  nucleus of the permanent shell. In the slug _Testacella_ (fig. 56, C)
+  the shell-plate never attains a large size, though naked. In other
+  slugs, namely, _Limax_ and _Arion_, the shell-sac remains permanently
+  closed over the shell-plate, which in the latter genus consists of a
+  granular mass of carbonate of lime. The permanence of the primitive
+  shell-sac in these slugs is a point of considerable interest. It is
+  clear enough that the sac is of a different origin from that of
+  _Aplysia_ (described in the section treating of Opisthobranchia),
+  being primitive instead of secondary. It seems probable that it is
+  identical with one of the open sacs in which each shell-plate of a
+  _Chiton_ is formed, and the series of plate-like imbrications which
+  are placed behind the single shell-sac on the dorsum of the curious
+  slug, _Plectrophorus_, suggest the possibility of the formation of a
+  series of shell-sacs on the back of that animal similar to those which
+  we find in _Chiton_. Whether the closed primitive shell-sac of the
+  slugs (and with it the transient embryonic shell-gland of all other
+  Mollusca) is precisely the same thing as the closed sac in which the
+  calcareous pen or shell of the Cephalopod _Sepia_ and its allies is
+  formed, is a further question which we shall consider when dealing
+  with the Cephalopoda. It is important here to note that _Clausilia_
+  furnishes us with an exceptional instance of the _continuity_ of the
+  shell or secreted product of the primitive shell-sac with the adult
+  shell. In most other Mollusca (Anisopleurous Gastropods, Pteropods and
+  Conchifera) there is a want of such continuity; the primitive
+  shell-sac contributes no factor to the permanent shell, or only a very
+  minute knob-like particle (_Neritina_ and _Paludina_). It flattens out
+  and disappears before the work of forming the permanent shell
+  commences. And just as there is a break at this stage, so (as observed
+  by A. Krohn in _Marsenia_ = _Echinospira_) there _may_ be a break at a
+  later stage, the nautiloid shell formed on the larva being cast, and a
+  new shell of a different form being formed afresh on the surface of
+  the visceral hump. It is, then, in this sense that we may speak of
+  primary, secondary and tertiary shells in Mollusca recognizing the
+  fact that they _may_ be merely phases fused by continuity of growth so
+  as to form but one shell, or that in other cases they _may_ be
+  presented to us as separate individual things, in virtue of the
+  non-development of the later phases, or in virtue of sudden changes in
+  the activity of the mantle-surface causing the shedding or
+  disappearance of one phase of shell-formation before a later one is
+  entered upon.
+
+  The development of the aquatic Pulmonata from the egg offers
+  considerable facilities for study, and that of _Limnaeus_ has been
+  elucidated by E.R. Lankester, whilst H. Rabl has with remarkable skill
+  applied the method of sections to the study of the minute embryos of
+  _Planorbis_. The chief features in the development of _Limnaeus_ are
+  exhibited in fig. 60. There is not a very large amount of
+  food-material present in the egg of this snail, and accordingly the
+  cells resulting from division are not so unequal as in many other
+  cases. The four cells first formed are of equal size, and then four
+  smaller cells are formed by division of these four so as to lie at one
+  end of the first four (the pole corresponding to that at which the
+  "directive corpuscles" are extruded and remain). The smaller cells now
+  divide and spread over the four larger cells; at the same time a
+  space--the cleavage cavity or blastocoel--forms in the centre of the
+  mulberry-like mass. Then the large cells recommence the process of
+  division and sink into the hollow of the sphere, leaving an elongated
+  groove, the blastopore, on the surface. The invaginated cells (derived
+  from the division of the four big cells) form the endoderm or
+  arch-enteron; the outer cells are the ectoderm. The blastopore now
+  closes along the middle part of its course, which coincides in
+  position with the future "foot." One end of the blastopore becomes
+  nearly closed, and an ingrowth of ectoderm takes place around it to
+  form the stomodaeum or fore-gut and mouth. The other extreme end
+  closes, but the invaginated endoderm cells remain in continuity with
+  this extremity of the blastopore, and form the "rectal peduncle" or
+  "pedicle of invagination" of Lankester, although the endoderm cells
+  retain no contact with the middle region of the now closed-up
+  blastopore. The anal opening forms at a late period by a very short
+  ingrowth or proctodaeum coinciding with the blind termination of the
+  rectal peduncle (fig. 60, pi).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 60.--Embryo of _Limnaeus stagnalis_, at a stage
+  when the Trochosphere is developing foot and shell-gland and becoming
+  a Veliger, seen as a transparent object under slight pressure.
+  (Lankester.)
+
+    ph, Pharynx (stomodaeal invagination).
+    v, v, The ciliated band marking out the velum.
+    ng, Cerebral nerve-ganglion.
+    re, Stiebel's canal (left side), probably an evanescent embryonic
+      nephridium.
+    sh, The primitive shell-sac or shell-gland.
+    pi, The rectal peduncle or pedicle of invagination; its attachment
+      to the ectoderm is coincident with the hindmost extremity of the
+      elongated blastopore of fig. 3, C.
+    tge, Mesoblastic (skeleto-trophic and muscular) cells investing
+      gs, the bilobed arch-enteron or lateral vesicles of invaginated
+      endoderm, which will develop into liver.
+    f, The foot.]
+
+  The body-cavity and the muscular, fibrous and vascular tissues are
+  traced partly to two symmetrically disposed "mesoblasts," which bud
+  off from the invaginated arch-enteron, partly to cells derived from
+  the ectoderm, which at a very early stage is connected by long
+  processes with the invaginated endoderm. The external form of the
+  embryo goes through the same changes as in other Gastropods, and is
+  not, as was held previously to Lankester's observations, exceptional.
+  When the middle and hinder regions of the blastopore are closing in,
+  an equatorial ridge of ciliated cells is formed, converting the embryo
+  into a typical trochosphere.
+
+  The foot now protrudes below the mouth, and the post-oral hemisphere
+  of the trochosphere grows more rapidly then the anterior or velar
+  area. The young foot shows a bilobed form. Within the velar area the
+  eyes and the cephalic tentacles commence to rise up, and on the
+  surface of the post-oral region is formed a cap-like shell and an
+  encircling ridge, which gradually increases in prominence and becomes
+  the freely depending mantle-skirt. The outline of the velar area
+  becomes strongly emarginated and can be traced through the more mature
+  embryos to the cephalic lobes or labial processes of the adult
+  _Limnaeus_ (fig. 61).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 61.--A, B, C. Three views of _Limnaeus stagnalis_,
+  in order to show the persistence of the larval velar area v, as the
+  circum-oral lobes of the adult. m, Mouth; f, foot; v, velar area, the
+  margin v corresponding with the ciliated band which demarcates the
+  velar area or velum of the embryo Gastropod (see fig. 4, D, E, F, H,
+  I, v). (Original.)]
+
+  The increase of the visceral dome, its spiral twisting, and the
+  gradual closure of the space overhung by the mantle-skirt so as to
+  convert it into a lung-sac with a small contractile aperture, belong
+  to stages in the development later than any represented in our
+  figures.
+
+  We may now revert briefly to the internal organization at a period
+  when the trochosphere is beginning to show a prominent foot growing
+  out from the area where the mid-region of the elongated blastopore was
+  situated, and having therefore at one end of it the mouth and at the
+  other the anus. Fig. 60 represents such an embryo under slight
+  compression as seen by transmitted light. The ciliated band of the
+  left side of the velar area is indicated by a line extending from v to
+  v; the foot f is seen between the pharynx ph and the pedicle of
+  invagination pi. The mass of the arch-enteron or invaginated
+  endodermal sac has taken on a bilobed form, and its cells are swollen
+  (gs and tge). This bilobed sac becomes _entirely_ the liver in the
+  adult; the intestine and stomach are formed from the pedicle of
+  invagination, whilst the pharynx, oesophagus and crop form from the
+  stomodaeal invagination ph. To the right (in the figure) of the rectal
+  peduncle is seen the deeply invaginated shell-gland ss, with a
+  secretion sh protruding from it. The shell-gland is destined in
+  _Limnaeus_ to become very rapidly stretched out, and to disappear.
+  Farther up, within the velar area, the rudiments of the cerebral
+  nerve-ganglion ng are seen separating from the ectoderm. A remarkable
+  cord of cells having a position just below the integument occurs on
+  each side of the head. In the figure the cord of the left side is
+  seen, marked re. This paired organ consists of a string of cells which
+  are perforated by a duct opening to the exterior and ending internally
+  in a flame-cell. Such cannulated cells are characteristic of the
+  nephridia of many worms, and the organs thus formed in the embryo
+  _Limnaeus_ are embryonic nephridia. The most important fact about them
+  is that they disappear, and are in no way connected with the typical
+  nephridium of the adult. In reference to their first observer they
+  were formerly called "Stiebel's canals." Other Pulmonata possess, when
+  embryos, Stiebel's canals in a more fully developed state, for
+  instance, the common slug _Limax_. Here too they disappear during
+  embryonic life. Similar larval nephridia occur in other Gastropoda. In
+  the marine Streptoneura they are ectodermic projections which
+  ultimately fall off; in the Opisthobranchs they are closed pouches; in
+  _Paludina_ and _Bithynia_ they are canals as in Pulmonata.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 62.--_Oncidium tonganum_, a littoral Pulmonate,
+  found on the shores of the Indian and Pacific Oceans (Mauritius,
+  Japan).]
+
+  _Marine Pulmonata._--Whilst the Pulmonata are essentially a
+  terrestrial and fresh-water group, there is one genus of slug-like
+  Pulmonates which frequent the sea-coast (_Oncidium_, fig. 62). Karl
+  Semper has shown that these slugs have, in addition to the usual pair
+  of cephalic eyes, a number of eyes developed upon the dorsal
+  integument. These dorsal eyes are very perfect in elaboration,
+  possessing lens, retinal nerve-end cells, retinal pigment and optic
+  nerve. Curiously enough, however, they differ from the cephalic
+  Molluscan eye in the fact that, as in the vertebrate eye, the
+  filaments of the optic nerve penetrate the retina, and are connected
+  with the surfaces of the nerve-end cells nearer the lens instead of
+  with the opposite end. The significance of this arrangement is not
+  known, but it is important to note, as shown by V. Henson, S.J.
+  Hickson and others, that in the bivalves _Pecten_ and _Spondylus_,
+  which also have eyes upon the mantle quite distinct from typical
+  cephalic eyes, there is the same relationship as in Oncidiidae of the
+  optic nerve to the retinal cells. In both Oncidiidae and _Pecten_ the
+  pallial eyes have probably been developed by the modification of
+  tentacles, such as coexist in an unmodified form with the eyes. The
+  Oncidiidae are, according to K. Semper, pursued as food by the leaping
+  fish _Periophthalmus_, and the dorsal eyes are of especial value to
+  them in aiding them to escape from this enemy.
+
+  Sub-order 1.--BASOMMATOPHORA. Pulmonata with an external shell. The
+  head bears a single pair of contractile but not invaginable tentacles,
+  at the base of which are the eyes. Penis at some distance from the
+  female aperture, except in _Amphibola_ and _Siphonaria_. All have an
+  osphradium, except the _Auriculidae_, which are terrestrial, and it is
+  situated outside the pallial cavity in those forms in which water is
+  not admitted into the lung. There is a veliger stage in development,
+  but the velum is reduced.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Auriculidae_. Terrestrial and usually littoral; genital
+    duct monaulic, the penis being connected with the aperture by an
+    open or closed groove; shell with a prominent spire, the internal
+    partitions often absorbed and the aperture denticulated. _Auricula.
+    Cassidula. Alexia. Melampus. Carychium_, terrestrial, British.
+    _Scarabus. Leuconia_, British. _Blauneria. Pedipes_.
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Otinidae_. Shell with short spire, and wide oval aperture;
+    tentacles short. _Otina_, British. _Camptonyx_, terrestrial.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Amphibolidae_. Shell spirally coiled; head broad, without
+    prominent tentacles; foot short, operculated; marine. _Amphibola_.
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Siphonariidae_. Visceral mass and shell conical; tentacles
+    atrophied; head expanded; genital apertures contiguous; marine
+    animals, with an aquatic pallial cavity containing secondary
+    branchial laminae. _Siphonaria_.
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Gadiniidae_. Visceral mass and shell conical; head
+    flattened; pallial cavity aquatic, but without a branchia; genital
+    apertures separated. _Gadinia_.
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Chilinidae_. Shell ovoid, with short spire, wide aperture
+    and folded columella; inferior pallial lobe thick; visceral
+    commissure still twisted. _Chilina_.
+
+    Fam. 7.--_Limnaeidae_. Shell thin, dextral, with prominent spire and
+    oval aperture; no inferior pallial lobe. _Limnaea_, British.
+    _Amphipeplea_, British.
+
+    Fam. 8.--_Pompholygidae_. Shell dextral, hyperstrophic, animal
+    sinistral. _Pompholyx. Choanomphalus_.
+
+    Fam. 9.--_Planorbidae_. Visceral mass and shell sinistral; inferior
+    pallial lobe very prominent, and transformed into a branchia.
+    _Planorbis_, British. _Bulinus. Miratesta_.
+
+    Fam. 10.--_Ancylidae_. Shell conical, not spiral; inferior pallial
+    lobe transformed into a branchia. _Ancylus_, British. _Latia.
+    Grundlachia_.
+
+    Fam. 11.--_Physidae_. Visceral mass and shell sinistrally coiled;
+    shell thin, with narrow aperture; no inferior pallial lobe. _Physa_,
+    British. _Aplexa_, British.
+
+  Sub-order 2.--STYLOMMATOPHORA. Pulmonata with two pairs of tentacles,
+  except _Janellidae_ and _Vertigo_; these tentacles are invaginable,
+  and the eyes are borne on the summits of the posterior pair. Male and
+  female genital apertures open into a common vestibule, except in
+  _Vaginulidae_ and _Oncidiidae_. Except in _Oncidium_, there is no
+  longer a veliger stage in development.
+
+  Tribe 1.--HOLOGNATHA. Jaw simple, without a superior appendage.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Selenitidae_. Radula with elongated and pointed teeth,
+    like those of the Agnatha; a jaw present. _Plutonia.
+    Trigonochlamys_.
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Zonitidae_. Shell external, smooth, heliciform or
+    flattened; radula with pointed marginal teeth. _Zonites_, British.
+    _Ariophanta. Orpiella. Vitrina. Helicarion_.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Limacidae_. Shell internal. _Limax_, British. _Parmacella.
+    Urocyclus. Parmarion. Amalia. Agriolimax. Mesolimax. Monochroma.
+    Paralimax. Metalimax_.
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Philomycidae_. No shell; mantle covers the whole surface
+    of the body; radula with squarish teeth. _Philomycus_.
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Ostracolethidae_. Shell largely chitinous, not spiral, its
+    calcareous apex projecting through a small hole in the mantle.
+    _Ostracolethe_.
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Arionidae_. Shell internal, or absent; mantle restricted
+    to the anterior and middle part of the body; radula with squarish
+    teeth. _Arion_, British. _Geomalacus. Ariolimax. Anadenus_.
+
+    Fam. 7.--_Helicidae_. Shell with medium spire, external or partly
+    covered by the mantle; genital aperture below the right posterior
+    tentacle; genital apparatus generally provided with a dart-sac and
+    multifid vesicles. _Helix_, British. _Bulimus. Hemphillia.
+    Berendtia. Cochlostyla. Rhodea_.
+
+    Fam. 8.--_Endodontidae_. Shell external, spiral, generally
+    ornamented with ribs; borders of aperture thin and not reflected;
+    radula with square teeth; genital ducts without accessory organs.
+    _Endodonta. Punctum. Sphyradium. Laoma. Pyramidula._
+
+    Fam. 9.--_Orthalicidae._ Shell external, ovoid, the last whorl
+    swollen, aperture oval with a simple border; radular teeth in
+    oblique rows. _Orthalicus._
+
+    Fam. 10.--_Bulimulidae._ Jaw formed of folds imbricated externally
+    and meeting at an acute angle near the base. _Bulimulus. Peltella.
+    Amphibulimus._
+
+    Fam. 11.--_Cylindrellidae._ Shell turriculated, with numerous
+    whorls, the last more or less detached. _Cylindrella._
+
+    Fam. 12.--_Pupidae._ Shell external, with elongated spire and
+    numerous whorls, aperture generally narrow; male genital duct
+    without multifid vesicles. _Pupa_, British. _Eucalodium. Vertigo_,
+    British. _Buliminus_, British. _Clausilia_, British. _Balea.
+    Zospeum. Megaspira. Strophia. Anostoma._
+
+    Fam. 13.--_Stenogyridae._ Shell elongated, with a more or less
+    obtuse summit; aperture with a simple border. _Achatina. Stenogyra.
+    Ferussacia_, British. _Cionella. Caecilianella. Azeca. Opeas._
+
+    Fam. 14.--_Helicteridae._ Shell bulimoid, dextral or sinistral;
+    radular teeth, expanded at their extremities and multicuspidate.
+    _Helicter. Tornatellina._
+
+  Tribe 2.--AGNATHA. No jaws; teeth narrow and pointed; carnivorous.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Oleacinidae._ Shell oval, elongated, with narrow aperture;
+    neck very long; labial palps prominent. _Oleacina (Glandina).
+    Streptostyla._
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Testacellidae._ Shell globular or auriform, external or
+    partly covered by the mantle. _Streptaxis. Gibbulina. Aerope.
+    Rhytida. Daudebardia. Testacella. Chlamydophorus. Schizoglossa._
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Rathouisiidae._ No shell, a carinated mantle covering the
+    whole body; male and female apertures distant, the female near the
+    anus. _Rathouisia. Atopos._
+
+  Tribe 3.--ELASMOGNATHA. Jaw with a well-developed dorsal appendage.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Succineidae._ Anterior tentacles much reduced; male and
+    female apertures contiguous but distinct; shell thin, spiral, with
+    short spire. _Succinea_, British. _Homalonyx. Hyalimax.
+    Neohyalimax._
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Janellidae._ Limaciform, with internal rounded shell;
+    mantle very small and triangular; pulmonary chamber with tracheae;
+    no anterior tentacles. _Janella. Aneitella. Aneitea.
+    Triboniophorus._
+
+  Tribe 4.--DITREMATA. Male and female apertures distant.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Vaginulidae._ No shell; limaciform; terrestrial; female
+    aperture on right side in middle of body; anus posterior.
+    _Vaginula._
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Oncidiidae._ No shell; limaciform; littoral; female
+    aperture posterior, near anus; a reduced pulmonary cavity with a
+    distinct aperture. _Oncidium. Oncidiella_, British. _Peronia._
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--L. Boutan, "La Cause principale de l'asymétrie des
+  mollusques gastéropodes," _Arch. de zool. expér._ (3), vii. (1899); A.
+  Lang, "Versuch einer Erklärung der Asymmetrie der Gastropoder,"
+  _Vierteljahrsschr. naturforsch. Gesellschaft_, Zürich, 36 (1892); A.
+  Robert, "Recherches sur le développement des Troques," _Arch. de zool.
+  expér._ (3), x. (1903); P. Pelseneer, "Report on the Pteropoda,"
+  _Zool. "Challenger" Expedit._ pts. lviii., lxv., lxvi. (1887, 1888);
+  P. Pelseneer, "Protobranches aériens et Pulmonés branchifères," _Arch.
+  de biol._ xiv. (1895); W.A. Herdman, "On the Structure and Functions
+  of the Cerata or Dorsal Papillae in some Nudibranchiate Mollusca,"
+  _Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci._ (1892); J.T. Cunningham, "On the Structure
+  and Relations of the Kidney in Aplysia," _Mitt. Zool. Stat. Neapel_,
+  iv. (1883); Böhmig, "Zur feineren Anatomie von _Rhodope veranyi_,
+  Kölliker," _Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool._ vol. lvi. (1893).
+
+  TREATISES.--S.P. Woodward, _Manual of the Mollusca_ (2nd ed., with
+  appendix, London, 1869); E. Forbes and S. Hanley, _History of British
+  Mollusca_ (4 vols., London, 1853); Alder and Hancock, _Monograph of
+  British Nudibranchiate Mollusca_ (London, Roy. Society, 1845); P.
+  Pelseneer, _Mollusca. Treatise on Zool._, edited by E. Ray Lankester,
+  pt. v. (1906); E. Ray Lankester, "Mollusca," in 9th ed. of this
+  Encyclopaedia, to which this article is much indebted.     (J. T. C)
+
+
+
+
+GASTROTRICHA, a small group of fairly uniform animals which live among
+Rotifers and Protozoa at the bottom of ponds and marshes, biding amongst
+the recesses of the algae and sphagnum and other fresh-water plants and
+eating organic débris and Infusoria. They are of minute size varying
+from one-sixtieth to one-three-hundredth of an inch, and they move by
+means of long cilia. Two ventral bands composed of regular transverse
+rows of cilia are usually found. The head bears some especially large
+cilia. The cuticle which covers the body is here and there raised into
+overlapping scales which may be prolonged into bristles. An enlarged,
+frontal scale may cover the head, and a row of scales separates the
+ventral ciliated areas from one another, whilst two series of
+alternating rows cover the back and side. The body, otherwise circular
+in section, is slightly flattened ventrally. The mouth is anterior and
+slightly ventral; it leads into a protrusible pharynx armed with
+recurved teeth that can be everted. This leads to a muscular oesophagus
+with a triradiate lumen, which acts as a sucking pump and ends in a
+funnel-valve projecting into the stomach. The last named is oval and
+formed of four rows of large cells; it is separated by a sphincter from
+the rectum, which opens posteriorly and dorsally. The nitrogenous
+excretory apparatus consists of a coiled tube on each side of the
+stomach; internally the tubes end in large flame-cells, and externally
+by small pores which lie on the edges of the ventral row of scales. A
+cerebral ganglion rests on the oesophagus and supplies the cephalic
+cilia and hairs; it is continued some way back as two dorsal nerve
+trunks. The sense organs are the hairs and bristles and in some species
+eyes. The muscles are simple and unstriated and for the most part run
+longitudinally.
+
+[Illustration: From _Zeitschrift für Wissenschaft Zoologie_, vol. xlix.
+p. 209, by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann.
+
+  _Chaetonotus maximus_, Ehrb., ventral side. (After Zelinka.)
+  Bo, Bristles surrounding the mouth.
+  ds, Dorsal bristles.
+  hCi, Posterior lateral cilia.
+  Ke, Cuticular dome.
+  Mr, Oral cavity.
+  lT, Lateral sensory hairs.
+  Pl, Cuticular plates.
+  Sa, Dorsal bristle of the basal part.
+  Sch, Plates.
+  Se, Lateral bristles.
+  Vb, Point of union of ciliated tract.
+  vCi, Anterior group of cilia.
+  vS, Ventral bristles of the basal part.]
+
+The two ovaries lie at the level of the juncture of the stomach and
+rectum. The eggs become very large, sometimes half the length of the
+mother; they are laid amongst water weeds. The male reproductive system
+is but little known, a small gland lying between the ovaries has been
+thought to be a testis, and if it be, the Gastrotricha are
+hermaphrodite.
+
+  Zelinka classifies the group as follows:--
+
+  Sub-order 1.--EUICHTHYDINA with a forked tail.
+
+  (i.) Fam. Ichthydidae, without bristles. Genera: _Ichthydium,
+  Lepidoderma_.
+
+  (ii.) Fam. Chaetonotidae, with bristles. Genera: _Chaetonotus,
+  Chaetura_.
+
+  Sub-order 2.--APODINA, tail not forked. Genera: _Dasydytes, Gossea,
+  Stylochaeta_.
+
+  The genus _Aspidiophorus_ recently described by Voigt seems in some
+  respects intermediate between _Lepidoderma_ and _Chaetonotus_.
+  _Zelinkia_ and _Philosyrtis_ are two slightly aberrant forms described
+  by Giard from certain diatomaceous sands. Altogether there must be
+  some forty to fifty described species.
+
+  The group is an isolated one and shows no clear affinities with any of
+  the great phyla. Those that are usually dwelt on are treated with the
+  Rotifers and Nematoda and Turbellaria.
+
+  LITERATURE.--A.C. Stokes, _The Microscope_ (Detroit, 1887-1888); C.
+  Zelinka, _Zeitschr. wiss. Zool._ xlix., 1890, p. 209; M. Voigt,
+  _Forschber. Plön._ Th. ix., 1904, p. 1; A. Giard, _C. R. Soc. Biol._
+  lvi. pp. 1061 and 1063; E. Daday, _Termes. Fuzetek._ xxiv. p. 1; F.
+  Zschokke, _Denk. Schweiz. Ges._ xxxvii. p. 109; S. Hlava, _Zool. Anz._
+  xxviii., 1905, p. 331.     (A. E. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GATAKER, THOMAS (1574-1654), English divine, was born in London in
+September 1574, and educated at St John's College, Cambridge. From 1601
+to 1611 he held the appointment of preacher to the society of Lincoln's
+Inn, which he resigned on accepting the rectory of Rotherhithe. In 1642
+he was chosen a member of the assembly of divines at Westminster, and
+annotated for that assembly the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and
+Lamentations. He disapproved of the introduction of the Covenant, and
+declared himself in favour of episcopacy. He was one of the forty-seven
+London clergymen who disapproved of the trial of Charles I. He was
+married four times, and died in July 1654.
+
+  His principal works, besides some volumes of sermons are--_On the
+  Nature and Use of Lots_ (1619), a curious treatise which led to his
+  being accused of favouring games of chance; _Dissertatio de stylo Novi
+  Testamenti_ (1648); _Cinnus, sive Adversaria miscellanea, in quibus
+  Sacrae Scripturae primo, deinde aliorum scriptorum, locis aliquam
+  multis lux redditur_ (1651), to which was afterwards subjoined
+  _Adversaria Posthuma_; and his edition of _Marcus Antoninus_ (1652),
+  which, according to Hallam, is the "earliest edition of any classical
+  writer published in England with original annotations," and, for the
+  period at which it was written, possesses remarkable merit. His
+  collected works were published at Utrecht in 1698.
+
+
+
+
+GATCHINA, a town of Russia, in the government of St Petersburg, 29 m. by
+rail S. of the city of St Petersburg, in 59° 34' N. and 30° 6' E. Pop.
+(1860) 9184; (1897) 14,735. It is situated in a flat, well-wooded, and
+partly marshy district, and on the south side of the town are two lakes.
+Among its more important buildings are the imperial palace, which was
+founded in 1770 by Prince Orlov, and constructed according to the plans
+of the Italian architect Rinaldi; a military orphanage, founded in 1803;
+and a school for horticulture. Among the few industrial establishments
+is a porcelain factory. At Gatchina an alliance was concluded between
+Russia and Sweden on the 29th of October 1799.
+
+
+
+
+GATE, an opening into any enclosure for entrance or exit, capable of
+being closed by a barrier at will. The word is of wide application,
+embracing not only the defensive entrance ways into a fortified place,
+with which this article mainly deals, or the imposing architectural
+features which form the main entrances to palaces, colleges, monastic
+buildings, &c., but also the common five-barred barrier which closes an
+opening into a field. The most general distinction that can be made
+between "door" and "gate" is that of size, the greater entrance into a
+court containing other buildings being the "gate," the smaller entrances
+opening directly into the particular buildings the "doors," or that of
+construction, the whole entrance way being a "gate" or gateway, the
+barrier which closes it a "door." A further distinction is drawn by
+applying "door" to the solid barriers or "valves" of wood, metal, &c.,
+made in panels and fitted to a framework, and "gate" to an openwork
+structure, whether of metal or wood (see further DOOR and METAL-WORK).
+The ultimate origin of the word is obscure; the early forms appear with
+a palatalized initial letter, still surviving in such dialectical forms
+as "yate," or in Scots "yett." It is probably connected with the root of
+"get," in the sense either of "means of access" or of "holding,"
+"receptacle"; cf. Dutch _gat_, hole. There may be a connexion, however,
+with "gate," now usually spelled "gait," a manner of walking,[1] but
+originally a way, passage; cf. Ger. _Gasse_, narrow street, lane.
+
+The entrance through the enclosing walls of a city or fortification has
+been from the earliest times a place of the utmost importance,
+considered architecturally, socially or from the point of view of the
+military engineer. In the East the "gate" was and still is in many
+Mahommedan countries the central place of civic life. Here was the seat
+of justice and of audience, the most important market-place, the spot
+where men gathered to receive and exchange news. The references in the
+Bible to the gates of the city in all these varied aspects are
+innumerable (cf. Gen. xix. 1; Deut. xxv. 7; Ruth iv. 1; 2 Sam. xix. 8; 2
+Kings vii. 1). Later the seat of justice and of government is
+transferred to the gate of the palace of the king (cf. Dan. ii. 49, and
+Esther ii. 19), and this use is preserved to-day in the official title
+of the seat of government of the Turkish empire at Constantinople, the
+"Sublime Porte," a translation of the Turkish _Bab Aliy_ (_bab_, gate,
+and _aliy_, high). A full account with many modern instances of Eastern
+customs will be found in Sir Charles Warren's article "Gate" in
+Hastings's _Dict. of Bible_. For the "pylon," the typical gate of
+Egyptian architecture, see ARCHITECTURE.
+
+The gates into a walled town or other fortified place were necessarily
+in early times the chief points on which the attack concentrated, and
+the features, common throughout the ages, of flanking or surmounting
+towers and of galleries over the entrance way, are found in the Assyrian
+gate at Khorsabad (cf. 2 Chron. xxvi. 9; 2 Sam. xviii. 24). With the
+coming of peaceful times to a city or the removal of the fear of sudden
+attack, the gateways would take a form adapted more for ready exit and
+entrance than for defence, though the possibility of defending them was
+not forgotten. Such city gates often had separate openings for entrance
+and exit, and again for foot passengers and for vehicles. The
+Gallo-Roman gate at Autun has four entrances, two just wide enough to
+admit carriages, and two narrow alleys for foot passengers. A fine
+example of a Roman city gate, dating from the time of Constantine, is at
+Trèves. It is four storeys high, with ornamental windows, and decorated
+with columns on each storey. The two outer wings project beyond the
+central part, the two entrance ways are 14 ft. wide, and could be closed
+by doors and a portcullis. The chambers in the storeys above were used
+for the purposes of civil administration. In more modern times city
+gateways have often followed the type of the Roman triumphal arch, with
+a single wide opening and purely ornamental superstructure. On the other
+hand, the defensive gate formed by an archway entering as it were
+through a tower has been constantly followed as a type of entrance to
+buildings of an entirely peaceful character. A fine example of such a
+gateway, originally built for defence, is at Battle Abbey; this was
+built by Abbot Retlynge in 1338, when Edward III. granted a licence to
+fortify and crenellate the abbey. Such gateways are typical of Tudor
+palaces, as at St James's or at Hampton Court, and are the most common
+form in the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge. The Tom Gate at Christ
+Church, Oxford, with its surmounted domed bell tower, or the cupola
+resting on columns at Queen's College, Oxford, are further examples of
+the gate architecturally considered.
+
+The changes the fortified gateway has undergone in construction and the
+varying relative importance it has held in the scheme of defence follow
+the lines of development taken by the history of FORTIFICATION AND
+SIEGECRAFT (q.v.). The following is a short sketch of the main stages in
+its history. A good example of the Roman fortified city gate still
+remains at Pompeii. Here there is one passage way for vehicles, 14 ft.
+wide; this is open to the sky. The two footways on either side are
+arched, with openings in the centre on to the central way. The doors of
+the gate are on the city side, but a portcullis (_cataracta_) closed it
+on the country side. The gateways of the Roman permanent camps (_castra
+stativa_) were four in number, the _porta praetoria_ and _Decumana_ at
+either end, with _principalis dextra_ and _sinistra_ on the side (see
+also CAMP). At Pevensey (_Anderida_) a small postern on the north side
+of the Roman walls was laid bare in 1906-1907, in which the passage
+curves in the thickness of the wall, and from a width admitting two men
+abreast narrows so that one alone could block it. Flanking towers or
+bastions guarded the main entrances, while in front were built outworks,
+of palisades, &c., to protect it; these were known as _procastra_ or
+_antemuralia_, and the entrances to these were placed so that they could
+be flanked from the main walls.
+
+In the defence of a fortified place the gate had not only to be
+protected from sudden surprise, but also had to undergo protracted
+attacks concentrated upon it during a siege. Thus until the coming of
+gunpowder, the ingenuity of military engineers was exhausted in
+accumulating the most complicated defences round the gateways, and the
+strength of a fortified place could be estimated by the fewness of its
+gates. Viollet-le-Duc (_Dict. de l'arch. du moyen âge_, s.v. _Porte_)
+takes the Narbonne and Aude gates (E. and W.) of Carcassonne as typical
+instances of this complication. The following brief account of the
+Narbonne Gate (fig. 1), one of the principal parts of the work on the
+fortifications begun by Philip the Bold in 1285, will give some idea of
+the varied means of defence, which may be found individually if not
+always in such collective abundance in the fortified gateways of the
+middle ages. Two massive towers flanked the actual entrance and were
+linked across by an iron chain; over the entrance (E) was a
+machicolation, further added to in time of war by a hoarding of timber;
+and an outer portcullis fell in front of the heavy iron-lined doors. On
+to the passage way between the first and second doors opened a square
+machicolation (G) from which the defenders in the upper chambers of the
+gate could attack an enemy that had succeeded in breaking through the
+first entrance or had been trapped by the falling of the first
+portcullis. Another machicolation (I) opened from the roof in front of
+the second portcullis and second door. So much for the gate itself; but
+before an attack could reach that point, the following defences had to
+be passed: an immense circular barbican (A) protected the entrance
+across the moat and through the outer _enceinte_ of the city. This
+entrance was flanked by a masked return of the wall (C), while palisades
+(P) still further hampered the assailant in his passage across the
+"lists" to the foot of the gate towers. Here sappers would find
+themselves exposed to a fire from the loopholes and from the
+machicolated hoardings above them, while the projecting horns with which
+the face of the towers terminated forced them to uncover themselves to a
+flanking fire from the indents in the main curtain on either side of the
+towers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Plan of the Narbonne Gate of the city of
+Carcassonne.]
+
+The later history of the gateway is merged in that of modern
+fortification. The more elaborate the gate defences the greater was the
+inducement for the besieger to attack the walls, and improvements in
+methods of siegecraft ultimately compelled the defender to develop the
+_enceinte_ from its medieval form of a ring wall with flanking towers to
+the 17th century form of bastions, curtains, tenailles and ravelins, all
+intimately connected in one general scheme of defence. By Vauban's time
+there is little to distinguish the position and defences of the gateways
+from the rest of the fortifications surrounding a town. A road from the
+country usually entered one of the ravelins, sinking into the glacis,
+crossing the ditch of the ravelin and piercing the parapet almost at
+right angles to its proper direction (see fig. 2, which also shows a
+typical arrangement of minor communications such as ramps and
+staircases). From the interior of the ravelin it passed across the main
+ditch to a gate in the curtain of the enceinte. The road was in fact
+artificially made to wind in such a way that it was kept under fire from
+the defences throughout, while the part of it inside the works was bent
+so as to place a covering mass between the enemy's fire and troops using
+the road for a sortie. Thus the gate itself was merely a barrier against
+a _coup de main_ and to keep out unauthorized persons. In conditions
+precluding the making of a breach in the walls, i.e. in surprises and
+assaults _de vive force_, the gateway and accompanying drawbridge
+continue to play their part in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, but
+they seldom or never appear as the objectives of a siege _en règle_. In
+Vauban's works, and those of most other engineers, there was generally a
+postern giving access to the floor of the main ditch, in the centre of
+the curtain escarp. The gates of Vauban's and later fortresses are
+strong heavy wooden doors, and the gateways more or less ornamental
+archways, exactly as in many private mansions of castellar form. In
+modern fortresses the gate of a detached fort or an _enceinte de sureté_
+is intended purely as a defence against an unexpected rush. The usual
+method is to have two gates, the outer one a lattice or portcullis of
+iron bars and the inner one a plate of half-inch steel armour, backed by
+wood and loopholed. The defenders of the gate can by this arrangement
+fire from the inner loopholes through the outer gate upon the
+approaches, and also keep the enemy under fire whilst he is trying to
+force the outer gate itself. The ditches are crossed either by
+drawbridges or by ramps leading the road down to the floor of the ditch.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Plan of Gate Arrangements of an 18th Century
+Fortress.]
+
+The "gate" as a barrier to be removed and as an entrance to be passed is
+of constant occurrence in figurative language and in symbolical usage.
+The gates of the temple of Janus (q.v.) at Rome stood open in war and
+closed in peace. The _pylon_ of ancient Egypt had a symbolical meaning
+in the Book of the Dead, and religious significance attaches to the
+_torii_, one of the outward signs of the Shinto religion in Japan, the
+Buddhist _toran_, and to the Chinese _pai-loo_, the honorific gateways
+erected to ancestors. The gates of heaven and hell, the gates of death
+and darkness, the wide and narrow gates that lead to destruction and
+life (Matt. vii. 13 and 14), are familiar metaphorical phrases in the
+Bible. In Greek and Roman legend dreams pass through gates of
+transparent horn if true, if deceptive and false through opaque gates of
+ivory (Hom. _Od_. xix. 560 sq.; Virg. _Aen_. vi. 893).     (C. We.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The spelling "gait" is confined to this meaning--the only
+    literary one surviving. In the form "gate" it appears dialectally in
+    this sense and in such particular meanings as a right to run cattle
+    on common or private ground or as a passage way in mines. The
+    principal survival is in names of streets in the north and midlands
+    of England and in Scotland, e.g. Briggate at Leeds, Wheeler Gate and
+    Castle Gate at Nottingham, Gallow Tree Gate at Leicester, and
+    Canongate and Cowgate at Edinburgh.
+
+
+
+
+GATEHOUSE. In the second half of the 16th century in England the
+entrance gateway, which formed part of the principal front of the
+earlier feudal castles, became a detached feature attached to the
+mansions only by a wall enclosing the entrance court. The gatehouse then
+constituted a structure of some importance, and included sometimes many
+rooms as at Stanway Hall, Gloucestershire, where it measures 44 ft. by
+22 ft. and has three storeys; at Westwood, Worcestershire, it had a
+frontage of 54 ft. with two storeys; and at Burton Agnes, Yorkshire, it
+was still larger and was flanked by great octagonal towers at the angles
+and had three storeys. At a later period smaller accommodation was
+provided so that it virtually became a lodge, but being designed to
+harmonize with the mansion it presented sometimes a monumental
+structure. On the continent of Europe the gatehouse forms a much more
+important building, as it formed part of the town fortifications, where
+it sometimes defended the passage of a bridge across the stream or moat.
+There are numerous examples in France and Germany.
+
+
+
+
+GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806), American general, was born at Maldon in
+Essex, England, in 1728. He entered the English army at an early age,
+and was rapidly promoted. He accompanied General Braddock in his
+disastrous expedition against Fort Duquesne in 1755, and was severely
+wounded in the battle of July 9; and he saw other active service in the
+Seven Years' War. After the peace of 1763 he purchased an estate in
+Virginia, where he lived till the outbreak of the War of Independence
+in 1775, when he was named by Congress adjutant-general. In 1776 he was
+appointed to command the troops which had lately retreated from Canada,
+and in August 1777, as a result of a successful intrigue, was appointed
+to supersede General Philip Schuyler in command of the Northern
+Department. In the two battles of Saratoga (q.v.) his army defeated
+General Burgoyne, who, on the 17th of October, was forced to surrender
+his whole army. This success was, however, largely due to the previous
+manoeuvres of Schuyler and to Gates's subordinate officers. The
+intrigues of the Conway Cabal to have Washington superseded by Gates
+completely failed, but Gates was president for a time of the Board of
+War, and in 1780 was placed in chief command in the South. He was
+totally defeated at Camden, S. C., by Cornwallis on the 17th of August
+1780, and in December was superseded by Greene, though an investigation
+into his conduct terminated in acquittal (1782). He then retired to his
+Virginian estate, whence he removed to New York in 1790, after
+emancipating his slaves and providing for those who needed assistance.
+He died in New York on the 10th of April 1806.
+
+
+
+
+GATESHEAD, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Durham,
+England; on the S. bank of the Tyne opposite Newcastle, and on the North
+Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 85,692; (1901) 109,888. Though one of the
+largest towns in the county, neither its streets nor its public
+buildings, except perhaps its ecclesiastical buildings, have much claim
+to architectural beauty. The parish church of St Mary is an ancient
+cruciform edifice surmounted by a lofty tower; but extensive restoration
+was necessitated by a fire in 1854 which destroyed a considerable part
+of the town. The town-hall, public library and mechanic's institute are
+noteworthy buildings. Education is provided by a grammar school, a large
+day school for girls, and technical and art schools. There is a service
+of steam trams in the principal streets, and three fine bridges connect
+the town with Newcastle-upon-Tyne. There are large iron works (including
+foundries and factories for engines, boilers, chains and cables),
+shipbuilding yards, glass manufactories, chemical, soap and candle
+works, brick and tile works, breweries and tanneries. The town also
+contains a depot of the North Eastern railway, with large stores and
+locomotive works. Extensive coal mines exist in the vicinity; and at
+Gateshead Fell are large quarries for grindstones, which are much
+esteemed and are exported to all parts of the world. Large gas-works of
+the Newcastle and Gateshead Gas Company are also situated in the
+borough. The parliamentary borough returns one member. The corporation
+consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen, and 27 councillors. Area, 3132 acres.
+
+Gateshead (Gateshewed) probably grew up during late Saxon times, the
+mention of the church there in which Bishop Walcher was murdered in 1080
+being the first evidence of settlement. The borough probably obtained
+its charter during the following century, for Hugh de Puiset, bishop of
+Durham (1153-1195), confirmed to his burgesses similar rights to those
+of the burgesses of Newcastle, freedom of toll within the palatinate and
+other privileges. The bishop had a park here in 1348, and in 1438 Bishop
+Nevill appointed a keeper of the "tower." The position of the town led
+to a struggle with Newcastle over both fishing and trading rights. An
+inquisition of 1322 declared that the water of the Tyne was divided into
+three parts: the northern, belonging to Northumberland; the southern to
+Durham; and the central, common to all. At another inquisition held in
+1336 the men of Gateshead claimed liberty of trading and fishing along
+the coast of Durham, and freedom to sell their fish where they would. In
+1552, on the temporary extinction of the diocese of Durham, Gateshead
+was attached to Newcastle, but in 1554 was regranted to Bishop Tunstall.
+As compensation the bishop granted to Newcastle, at a nominal rent, the
+Gateshead salt-meadows, with rights of way to the High Street, thus
+abolishing the toll previously paid to the bishop. During the next
+century Bishop Tunstall's successors incorporated nearly all the various
+trades of Gateshead, and Cromwell continued this policy. The town
+government during this period was by the bishop's bailiff, and the
+holders of the burgages composed the juries of the bishop's courts leet
+and baron. No charter of incorporation is extant, but in 1563 contests
+were carried on under the name of the bailiffs, burgesses and
+commonalty, and a list of borough accounts exists for 1696. The bishop
+appointed the last borough bailiff in 1681, and though the inhabitants
+in 1772 petitioned for a bailiff the town remained under a steward and
+grassmen until the 19th century. As part of the palatinate of Durham,
+Gateshead was not represented in parliament until 1832. At the
+inquisition of 1336 the burgesses claimed an annual fair on St Peter's
+Day, and depositions in 1577 mention a borough market held on Tuesday
+and Friday, but these were apparently extinct in Camden's day, and no
+grant of them is extant. The medieval trade seems to have centred round
+the fisheries and the neighbouring coal mines which are mentioned in
+1364 and also by Leland.
+
+
+
+
+GATH, one of the five chief cities of the Philistines. It is frequently
+mentioned in the historical books of the Old Testament, and from Amos
+vi. 2 we conclude that, like Ashdod, it fell to Sargon in 711. Its site
+appears to have been known in the 4th century, but the name is now lost.
+Eusebius (in the _Onomasticon_) places it near the road from
+Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrïn) to Diospolis (Ludd) about five Roman miles
+from the former. The Roman road between these two towns is still
+traceable, and its milestones remain in places. East of the road at the
+required distance rises a white cliff, almost isolated, 300 ft. high and
+full of caves. On the top is the little mud village of Tell es-Safi
+("the shining mound"), and beside the village is the mound which marks
+the site of the Crusaders' castle of Blanchegarde (Alba Custodia), built
+in 1144. Tell es-Safi was known by its present name as far back as the
+12th century; but it appears not improbable that the strong site here
+existing represents the ancient Gath. The cliff stands on the south side
+of the mouth of the Valley of Elah, and Gath appears to have been near
+this valley (1 Sam. xvii. 2, 52). This identification is not certain,
+but it is at least much more probable than the theory which makes Gath,
+Eleutheropolis, and Beit Jibrïn one and the same place. The site was
+partially excavated by the Palestine Exploration Fund in 1899, and
+remains extending in date back to the early Canaanite period were
+discovered.
+
+
+
+
+GATLING, RICHARD JORDAN (1818-1903), American inventor, was born in
+Hertford county, North Carolina, on the 12th of September 1818. He was
+the son of a well-to-do planter and slave-owner, from whom he inherited
+a genius for mechanical invention and whom he assisted in the
+construction and perfecting of machines for sowing cotton seeds, and for
+thinning the plants. He was well educated and was successively a school
+teacher and a merchant, spending all his spare time in developing new
+inventions. In 1839 he perfected a practical screw propeller for
+steamboats, only to find that a patent had been granted to John Ericsson
+for a similar invention a few months earlier. He established himself in
+St Louis, Missouri, and taking the cotton-sowing machine as a basis he
+adapted it for sowing rice, wheat and other grains, and established
+factories for its manufacture. The introduction of these machines did
+much to revolutionize the agricultural system in the country. Becoming
+interested in the study of medicine through an attack of smallpox, he
+completed a course at the Ohio Medical College, taking his M.D. degree
+in 1850. In the same year he invented a hemp-breaking machine, and in
+1857 a steam plough. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was living in
+Indianapolis, and devoted himself at once to the perfecting of
+fire-arms. In 1861 he conceived the idea of the rapid fire machine-gun
+which is associated with his name. By 1862 he had succeeded in
+perfecting a gun that would discharge 350 shots per minute; but the war
+was practically over before the Federal authorities consented to its
+official adoption. From that time, however, the success of the invention
+was assured, and within ten years it had been adopted by almost every
+civilized nation. Gatling died in New York City on the 26th of February
+1903.
+
+
+
+
+GATTY, MARGARET (1809-1873), English writer, daughter of the Rev.
+Alexander Scott (1768-1840), chaplain to Lord Nelson, was born at
+Burnham, Essex, in 1809. She early began to draw and to etch on copper,
+being a regular visitor to the print-room of the British Museum from the
+age of ten. She also illuminated on vellum, copying the old strawberry
+borders and designing initials. In 1839 Margaret Scott married the Rev.
+Alfred Gatty, D.D., vicar of Ecclesfield near Sheffield, subdean of York
+cathedral, and the author of various works both secular and religious.
+In 1842 she published in association with her husband a life of her
+father; but her first independent work was _The Fairy Godmother and
+other Tales_, which appeared in 1851. This was followed in 1855 by the
+first of five volumes of _Parables from Nature_, the last being
+published in 1871. It was under the _nom de plume_ of Aunt Judy, as a
+pleasant and instructive writer for children, that Mrs Gatty was most
+widely known. Before starting _Aunt Judy's Magazine_ in May 1866, she
+had brought out _Aunt Judy's Tales_ (1858) and _Aunt Judy's Letters_
+(1862), and among the other children's books which she subsequently
+published were _Aunt Judy's Song Book for Children_ and _The Mother's
+Book of Poetry_. "Aunt Judy" was the nickname given by her daughter
+Juliana Horatia Ewing (q.v.). The editor of the magazine was on the
+friendliest terms with her young correspondents and subscribers, and her
+success was largely due to the sympathy which enabled her to look at
+things from the child's point of view. Besides other excellences her
+children's books are specially characterized by wholesomeness of
+sentiment and cheerful humour. Her miscellaneous writings include, in
+addition to several volumes of tales, _The Old Folks from Home_, an
+account of a holiday ramble in Ireland; _The Travels and Adventures of
+Dr Wolff the Missionary_ (1861), an autobiography edited by her;
+_British Sea Weeds_ (1862); _Waifs and Strays of Natural History_
+(1871); _A Book of Emblems_ and _The Book of Sun-Dials_ (1872). She died
+at Ecclesfield vicarage on the 4th of October 1873.
+
+
+
+
+GAU, JOHN (c. 1495-? 1553), Scottish translator, was born at Perth
+towards the close of the 15th century. He was educated in St Salvator's
+College at St Andrews. He appears to have been in residence at Malmö in
+1533, perhaps as chaplain to the Scots community there. In that year
+John Hochstraten, the exiled Antwerp printer, issued a book by Gau
+entitled: _The Richt vay to the Kingdome of Heuine_, of which the chief
+interest is that it is the first Scottish book written on the side of
+the Reformers. It is a translation of Christiern Pedersen's _Den rette
+vey till Hiemmerigis Rige_ (Antwerp, 1531), for the most part direct,
+but showing intimate knowledge in places of the German edition of
+Urbanus Rhegius. Only one copy of Gau's text is extant, in the library
+of Britwell Court, Bucks. It has been assumed that all the copies were
+shipped from Malmö to Scotland, and that the cargo was intercepted by
+the Scottish officers on the look out for the heretical works which were
+printed abroad in large numbers. This may explain the silence of all the
+historians of the Reformed Church--Knox, Calderwood and Spottiswood. Gau
+married in 1536 a Malmö citizen's daughter, bearing the Christian name
+Birgitta. She died in 1551, and he in or about 1553.
+
+  The first reference to the _Richt Vay_ appeared in Chalmers's
+  _Caledonia_, ii. 616. Chalmers, who was the owner of the unique volume
+  before it passed into the Britwell Court collection, considered it to
+  be an original work. David Laing printed extracts for the Bannatyne
+  Club (_Miscellany_, iii., 1855). The evidence that the book is a
+  translation was first given by Sonnenstein Wendt in a paper "Om
+  Reformatorerna i Malmö," in Rördam's _Ny Kirkehistoriske Samlinger_,
+  ii. (Copenhagen, 1860). A complete edition was edited by A.F. Mitchell
+  for the Scottish Text Society (1888). See also Lorimer's _Patrick
+  Hamilton_.
+
+
+
+
+GAUDEN, JOHN (1605-1662), English bishop and writer, reputed author of
+the _Eikon Basilike_, was born in 1605 at Mayland, Essex, where his
+father was vicar of the parish. Educated at Bury St Edmunds school and
+at St John's College, Cambridge, he took his M.A. degree in 1625/6. He
+married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir William Russell of Chippenham,
+Cambridgeshire, and was tutor at Oxford to two of his wife's brothers.
+He seems to have remained at Oxford until 1630, when he became vicar of
+Chippenham. His sympathies were at first with the parliamentary party.
+He was chaplain to Robert Rich, second earl of Warwick, and preached
+before the House of Commons in 1640. In 1641 he was appointed to the
+rural deanery of Bocking. Apparently his views changed as the
+revolutionary tendency of the Presbyterian party became more pronounced,
+for in 1648/9 he addressed to Lord Fairfax _A Religious and Loyal
+Protestation_ ... against the proceedings of the parliament. Under the
+Commonwealth he faced both ways, keeping his ecclesiastical preferment,
+but publishing from time to time pamphlets on behalf of the Church of
+England. At the Restoration he was made bishop of Exeter. He immediately
+began to complain to Hyde, earl of Clarendon, of the poverty of the see,
+and based claims for a better benefice on a certain secret service,
+which he explained on the 20th of January 1661 to be the sole invention
+of the _Eikon Basilike, The Pourtraicture of his sacred Majestie in his
+Solitudes and Sufferings_ put forth within a few hours after the
+execution of Charles I. as written by the king himself. To which
+Clarendon replied that he had been before acquainted with the secret and
+had often wished he had remained ignorant of it. Gauden was advanced in
+1662, not as he had wished to the see of Winchester, but to Worcester.
+He died on the 23rd of May of the same year.
+
+The evidence in favour of Gauden's authorship rests chiefly on his own
+assertions and those of his wife (who after his death sent to her son
+John a narrative of the claim), and on the fact that it was admitted by
+Clarendon, who should have had means of being acquainted with the truth.
+Gauden's letters on the subject are printed in the appendix to vol. iii.
+of the _Clarendon Papers_. The argument is that Gauden had prepared the
+book to inspire sympathy with the king by a representation of his pious
+and forgiving disposition, and so to rouse public opinion against his
+execution. In 1693 further correspondence between Gauden, Clarendon, the
+duke of York, and Sir Edward Nicholas was published by Mr Arthur North,
+who had found them among the papers of his sister-in-law, a
+daughter-in-law of Bishop Gauden; but doubt has been thrown on the
+authenticity of these papers. Gauden stated that he had begun the book
+in 1647 and was entirely responsible for it. But it is contended that
+the work was in existence at Naseby,[1] and testimony to Charles's
+authorship is brought forward from various witnesses who had seen
+Charles himself occupied with it at various times during his
+imprisonment. It is stated that the MS. was delivered by one of the
+king's agents to Edward Symmons, rector of Raine, near Bocking, and that
+it was in the handwriting of Oudart, Sir Edward Nicholas's secretary.
+The internal evidence has, as is usual in such cases, been brought
+forward as a conclusive argument in favour of both contentions. Doubt
+was thrown on Charles's authorship in Milton's _Eikonoklastes_ (1649),
+which was followed almost immediately by a royalist answer, _The
+Princely Pelican. Royall Resolves--Extracted from his Majesty's Divine
+Meditations, with satisfactory reasons ... that his Sacred Person was
+the only Author of them_ (1649). The history of the whole controversy,
+which has been several times renewed, was dealt with in Christopher
+Wordsworth's tracts in a most exhaustive way. He eloquently advocated
+Charles's authorship. Since he wrote in 1829, some further evidence has
+been forthcoming in favour of the Naseby copy. A correspondence relating
+to the French translation of the work has also come to light among the
+papers of Sir Edward Nicholas. None of the letters show any doubt that
+King Charles was the author. S.R. Gardiner (_Hist. of the Great Civil
+War_, iv. 325) regards Mr Doble's articles in the _Academy_ (May and
+June 1883) as finally disposing of Charles's claim to the authorship,
+but this is by no means the attitude of other recent writers. If Gauden
+was the author, he may have incorporated papers, &c., by Charles, who
+may have corrected the work and thus been joint-author. This theory
+would reconcile the conflicting evidence, that of those who saw Charles
+writing parts and read the MS. before publication, and the deliberate
+statements of Gauden.
+
+  See also the article by Richard Hooper in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._;
+  Christopher Wordsworth, _Who wrote Eikon Basilike?_ two letters
+  addressed to the archbishop of Canterbury (1824), and _King Charles
+  the First, the Author of Icon Basilikè_ (1828); H.J. Todd, _A Letter
+  to the Archbishop of Canterbury concerning Eikon Basilike_ (1825);
+  _Bishop Gauden, The Author of the Icôn Basilikè_ (1829); W.G.
+  Broughton, _A Letter to a Friend_ (1826), _Additional Reasons ..._
+  (1829), supporting the contention in favour of Dr Gauden; Mr E.J.L.
+  Scott's introduction to his reprint (1880) of the original edition;
+  articles in the _Academy_, May and June 1883, by Mr C.E. Doble;
+  another reprint edited by Mr Edward Almack for the King's Classics
+  (1904); and Edward Almack, _Bibliography of the King's Book_ (1896).
+  This last book contains a summary of the arguments on either side, a
+  full bibliography of works on the subject, and facsimiles of the title
+  pages, with full descriptions of the various extant copies.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See a note in Archbishop Tenison's handwriting in his copy of the
+    _Eikon Basilike_ preserved at Lambeth Palace, and quoted in Almack's
+    _Bibliography_, p. 15.
+
+
+
+
+GAUDICHAUD-BEAUPRÉ, CHARLES (1789-1854), French botanist, was born at
+Angoulême on the 4th of September 1789. He studied pharmacy first in the
+shop of a brother-in-law at Cognac, and then under P.J. Robiquet at
+Paris, where from R.L. Desfontaines and L.C. Richard he acquired a
+knowledge of botany. In April 1810 he was appointed dispenser in the
+military marine, and from July 1811 to the end of 1814 he served at
+Antwerp. In 1817 he joined the corvette "Uranie" as pharmaceutical
+botanist to the circumpolar expedition commanded by D. de Freycinet. The
+wreck of the vessel on the Falkland Isles, at the close of 1819,
+deprived him of more than half the botanical collections he had made in
+various parts of the world. In 1830-1833 he visited Chile, Peru and
+Brazil, and in 1836-1837 he acted as botanist to "La Bonite" during its
+circumnavigation of the globe. His theory accounting for the growth of
+plants by the supposed coalescence of elementary "phytons" involved him,
+during the latter years of his life, in much controversy with his
+fellow-botanists, more especially C.F.B. de Mirbel. He died in Paris on
+the 16th of January 1854.
+
+  Besides accounts of his voyages round the world, Gaudichaud-Beaupré
+  wrote "Lettres sur l'organographie et la physiologie," _Arch. de
+  botanique_, ii., 1883; "Recherches générales sur l'organographie," &c.
+  (prize essay, 1835), _Mém. de l'Académie des Sciences_, t. viii. and
+  kindred treatises, with memoirs on the potato-blight, the
+  multiplication of bulbous plants, the increase in diameter of
+  dicotyledonous plants, and other subjects; and _Réfutation de toutes
+  les objections contre les nouveaux principes physiologiques_ (1852).
+
+
+
+
+GAUDRY, JEAN ALBERT (1827-1908), French geologist and palaeontologist,
+was born at St Germain-en-Laye on the 16th of September 1827, and was
+educated at the college, Stanislas. At the age of twenty-five he made
+explorations in Cyprus and Greece, residing in the latter country from
+1855 to 1860. He then investigated the rich deposit of fossil vertebrata
+at Pikermi and brought to light a remarkable mammalian fauna, Miocene in
+age, and intermediate in its forms between European, Asiatic and African
+types. He also published an account of the geology of the island of
+Cyprus (_Mém. Soc. Géol. de France_, 1862). In 1853, while still in
+Cyprus, he was appointed assistant to A. d'Orbigny, who was the first to
+hold the chair of palaeontology in the museum of natural history at
+Paris. In 1872 he succeeded to this important post; in 1882 he was
+elected member of the Academy of Sciences; and in 1900 he presided over
+the meetings of the eighth International Congress of Geology then held
+in Paris. He died on the 27th of November 1908. He is distinguished for
+his researches on fossil mammalia, and for the support which his studies
+have rendered to the theory of evolution.
+
+  PUBLICATIONS.--_Animaux fossiles et géologie de l'Attique_ (2 vols.,
+  1862-1867); _Cours de paléontologie_ (1873); _Animaux fossiles du Mont
+  Lebéron_ (1873); _Les Enchaînements du monde animal dans les temps
+  géologiques_ (_Mammifères Tertiaires_, 1878; _Fossiles primaires_,
+  1883; _Fossiles secondaires_, 1890); _Essai de paléontologie
+  philosophique_ (1896). Brief memoir with portrait in _Geol. Mag._
+  (1903), p. 49.     (H. B. W.)
+
+
+
+
+GAUDY, an adjective meaning showy, very bright, gay, especially with a
+sense of tasteless or vulgar extravagance, of colour or ornament. The
+accurate origin of the various senses which this word and the
+substantive "gaud" have taken are somewhat difficult to trace. They are
+all ultimately to be referred to the Lat. _gaudere_, to rejoice,
+_gaudium_, joy, some of them directly, others to the French derivative
+_gaudir_, to rejoice, and O. Fr. _gaudie_. As a noun, in the sense of
+rejoicing or feast, "gaudy" is still used of a commemoration dinner at a
+college at the university of Oxford. "Gaud," meaning generally a toy, a
+gay adornment, a piece of showy jewelry, is more specifically applied to
+larger and more decorative beads in a rosary.
+
+
+
+
+GAUERMANN, FRIEDRICH (1807-1862), Austrian painter, son of the landscape
+painter Jacob Gauermann (1773-1843), was born at Wiesenbach near
+Gutenstein in Lower Austria on the 20th of September 1807. It was the
+intention of his father that he should devote himself to agriculture,
+but the example of an elder brother, who, however, died early, fostered
+his inclination towards art. Under his father's direction he began
+studies in landscape, and he also diligently copied the works of the
+chief masters in animal painting which were contained in the academy and
+court library of Vienna. In the summer he made art tours in the
+districts of Styria, Tirol and Salzburg. Two animal pieces which he
+exhibited at the Vienna Exhibition of 1824 were regarded as remarkable
+productions for his years, and led to his receiving commissions in 1825
+and 1826 from Prince Metternich and Caraman, the French ambassador. His
+reputation was greatly increased by his picture "The Storm," exhibited
+in 1829, and from that time his works were much sought after and
+obtained correspondingly high prices. His "Field Labourer" was regarded
+by many as the most noteworthy picture in the Vienna exhibition of 1834,
+and his numerous animal pieces have entitled him to a place in the first
+rank of painters of that class of subjects. The peculiarity of his
+pictures is the representation of human and animal figures in connexion
+with appropriate landscapes and in characteristic situations so as to
+manifest nature as a living whole, and he particularly excels in
+depicting the free life of animals in wild mountain scenery. Along with
+great mastery of the technicalities of his art, his works exhibit
+patient and keen observation, free and correct handling of details, and
+bold and clear colouring. He died at Vienna on the 7th of July 1862.
+
+  Many of his pictures have been engraved, and after his death a
+  selection of fifty-three of his works was prepared for this purpose by
+  the Austrian _Kunstverein_ (Art Union).
+
+
+
+
+GAUGE, or GAGE (Med. Lat. _gauja, jaugia_, Fr. _jauge_, perhaps
+connected with Fr. _jale_, a bowl, _galon_, gallon), a standard of
+measurement, and also the name given to various instruments and
+appliances by which measurement is effected. The word seems to have been
+primarily used in connexion with the process of ascertaining the
+contents of wine casks; the name gauger is still applied to certain
+custom-house officials in the United States, and in Scotland it means an
+exciseman. Thence it was extended to other measurements, and used of the
+instruments used in making them or of the standards to which they were
+referred. In the mechanical arts gauges are employed in great variety to
+enable the workmen to ascertain whether the object he is making is of
+the proper dimensions (see TOOL), and similar gauges of various forms
+are employed to ascertain and to specify the sizes of manufactured
+articles such as wire and screws. A rain gauge is an apparatus for
+measuring the amount of the rainfall at any locality, and a wind gauge
+indicates the pressure and force of the wind. The boilers of steam
+engines are provided with a water gauge and a steam or pressure gauge.
+The purpose of the former is to enable the attendant to see whether or
+not there is a sufficient quantity of water in the boiler. It consists
+of two cocks or taps communicating with the interior, one being placed
+at the lowest point to which it is permissible for the water to fall,
+and the other at the point above which it should not rise; a glass tube
+connects the two cocks, and when they are both open the water in this
+stands at the same level as in the boiler. The steam gauge shows the
+pressure of the steam in the boiler. One of the commonest forms, known
+as the Bourdon gauge, depends on the fact that a curved tube tends to
+straighten itself if the pressure within it is greater than that outside
+it. This gauge therefore consists of a curved or coiled tube of elastic
+material, and preferably of elliptic section, connected with the boiler
+and arranged with a multiplying gear so that its bending or unbending
+actuates a pointer moving over a graduated scale. If the pressure within
+the tube is less than that outside it, the tube tends to bend or coil
+itself up further; with a pointer arranged as before, the gauge then
+becomes a vacuum gauge, indicating how far the pressure in the vessel to
+which it is attached is below that of the atmosphere. In railway
+engineering the gauge of a line is the distance between the two rails
+(see RAILWAY). In nautical language, a ship is said to have the weather
+gage when she is to windward of another, and similarly the lee gage when
+to leeward of another; in this sense the word is usually spelt "gage," a
+spelling which prevails in America for all senses.
+
+
+
+
+GAUHATI, a town of British India, in the Kamrup district of Eastern
+Bengal and Assam, mainly on the left or south, but partly on the right
+bank of the Brahmaputra. Pop. (1901) 14,244. It is beautifully situated,
+with an amphitheatre of wooded hills to the south, but is not very
+healthy. There are many evidences, such as ancient earthworks and tanks,
+of its historical importance. During the 17th century it was taken and
+retaken by Mahommedans and Ahoms eight times in fifty years, but in 1681
+it became the residence of the Ahom governor of lower Assam, and in 1786
+the capital of the Ahom raja. On the cession of Assam to the British in
+1826 it was made the seat of the British administration of Assam, and so
+continued till 1874, when the headquarters were removed to Shillong in
+the Khasi hills, 67 m. distant, with which Gauhati is connected by an
+excellent cart-road. Two much-frequented places of Hindu pilgrimage are
+situated in the immediate vicinity, the temple of Kamakhya on a hill 2
+m. west of the town, and the rocky island of Umananda in the mid-channel
+of the Brahmaputra. Gauhati is still the headquarters of the district
+and of the Brahmaputra Valley division, though no longer a military
+cantonment. It is the river terminus of a section of the Assam-Bengal
+railway. There are a second-grade college, a government high school, a
+law class and a training school for masters. Gauhati is an important
+centre of river trade, and the largest seat of commerce in Assam.
+Cotton-ginning, flour-milling, and an export trade in mustard seed,
+cotton, silk and forest produce are carried on. Gauhati suffered very
+severely from the earthquake of the 12th of June 1897.
+
+
+
+
+GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855-   ), American artist, was born in Jersey
+City, New Jersey, on the 31st of March 1855. He was a pupil of J.G.
+Brown and L.E. Wilmarth, and he became a painter of military pictures,
+portraying incidents of the American Civil War. He was elected an
+associate of the National Academy of Design in 1880, and in 1882 a full
+academician, and in the latter year became a member of the Society of
+American Artists. His important works include: "Charging the Battery,"
+"News from Home," "Cold Comfort on the Outpost," "Silenced," "On the
+Look-out," and "Guerillas returning from a Raid."
+
+
+
+
+GAUL, the modern form of the Roman _Gallia_, the name of the two chief
+districts known to the Romans as inhabited by Celtic-speaking peoples,
+(a) _Gallia Cisalpina_ (or _Citerior_, "Hither"), i.e. north Italy
+between Alps and Apennines and (b) the far more important _Gallia
+Transalpina_ (or _Ulterior_, "Further"), usually called _Gallia_ (Gaul)
+simply, the land bounded by the Alps, the Mediterranean, the Pyrenees,
+the Atlantic, the Rhine, i.e. modern France and Belgium with parts of
+Holland, Germany and Switzerland. The Greek form of _Gallia_ was [Greek:
+Galatia], but Galatia in Latin denoted another Celtic region in central
+Asia Minor, sometimes styled _Gallograecia_.
+
+(a) Gallia Cisalpina was mainly conquered by Rome by 222 B.C.; later it
+adopted Roman civilization; about 42 B.C. it was united with Italy and
+its subsequent history is merged in that of the peninsula. Its chief
+distinctions are that during the later Republic and earlier Empire it
+yielded excellent soldiers, and thus much aided the success of Caesar
+against Pompey and of Octavian against Antony, and that it gave Rome the
+poet Virgil (by origin a Celt), the historian Livy, the lyrist Catullus,
+Cornelius Nepos, the elder and the younger Pliny and other distinguished
+writers.[1]
+
+(b) Gaul proper first enters ancient history when the Greek colony of
+Massilia was founded (? 600 B.C.). Roman armies began to enter it about
+218 B.C. In 121 B.C. the coast from Montpellier to the Pyrenees (i.e.
+all that was not Massiliot) with its port of Narbo (mod. _Narbonne_) and
+its trade route by Toulouse to the Atlantic, was formed into the
+province of Gallia Narbonensis and Narbo itself into a Roman
+municipality. Commercial motives prompted the step, and Roman traders
+and land speculators speedily flocked in. Gradually the province was
+extended north of Massilia, up the Rhone, while the Greek town itself
+became weak and dependent on Rome.
+
+It is not, however, until the middle of the 1st century B.C. that we
+have any detailed knowledge of pre-Roman Gaul. The earliest account is
+that contained in the _Commentaries_ of Julius Caesar. According to this
+authority, Gaul was at that time divided among three peoples, more or
+less distinct from one another, the Aquitani, the Gauls, who called
+themselves Celts, and the Belgae. The first of these extended from the
+Pyrenees to the Garumna (Garonne); the second, from that river to the
+Sequana (Seine) and its chief tributary the Matrona (Marne), reaching
+eastward presumably as far as the Rhenus (Rhine); and the third, from
+this bounding line to the mouth of the last-named river, thus bordering
+on the Germans. By implication Caesar recognizes as a fourth division
+the province of Gallia Narbonensis. By far the greater part of the
+country was a plain watered by numerous rivers, the chief of which have
+already been mentioned, with the exception of its great central stream,
+the Liger or Ligeris (Loire). Its principal mountain ranges were Cebenna
+or Gebenna (Cévennes) in the south, and Jura, with its continuation
+Vosegus or Vogesus (Vosges), in the east. The tribes inhabiting Gaul in
+Caesar's time, and belonging to one or other of the three races
+distinguished by him, were numerous. Prominent among them, and dwelling
+in the division occupied by the Celts, were the Helvetii, the Sequani
+and the Aedui, in the basins of the Rhodanus and its tributary the Arar
+(Saône), who, he says, were reckoned the three most powerful nations in
+all Gaul; the Arverni in the mountains of Cebenna; the Senones and
+Carnutes in the basin of the Liger; the Veneti and other Armorican
+tribes between the mouths of the Liger and Sequana. The Nervii,
+Bellovaci, Suessiones, Remi, Morini, Menapii and Aduatuci were Belgic
+tribes; the Tarbelli and others were Aquitani; while the Allobroges
+inhabited the north of the Provincia, having been conquered in 121 B.C.
+The ethnological divisions thus set forth by Caesar have been much
+discussed (see CELT, and articles on the chief tribes).
+
+The Gallic Wars (58-51) of Caesar (q.v.) added all the rest of Gaul,
+north-west of the Cévennes, to the Rhine and the Ocean, and in 49 also
+annexed Massilia. All Gaul was now Roman territory. Now the second
+period of her history opens; it remained for Roman territory to become
+romanized.
+
+Caesar had no time to organize his conquest; this work was left to
+Augustus. As settled by him, and in part perhaps also by his successor
+Tiberius, it fell into the following five administrative areas.
+
+(i) _Narbonensis_, that is, the land between Alps, sea and Cévennes,
+extending up the Rhone to Vienne, was as Augustus found it, distinct in
+many ways from the rest of Gaul. By nature it is a sun-steeped southern
+region, the home of the vine and olive, of the minstrelsy of the
+Provençal and the exuberance of Tartarin, distinct from the colder and
+more sober north. By history it had already (in the time of Augustus)
+been Roman for from 80 to 100 years and was familiar with Roman ways. It
+was ready to be Italianized and it was civilized enough to need no
+garrison. Accordingly, it was henceforward governed by a proconsul
+(appointed by the senate) and freed from the burden of troops, while its
+local government was assimilated to that of Italy. The old Celtic tribes
+were broken up: instead, municipalities of Roman citizens were founded
+to rule their territories. Thus the Allobroges now disappear and the
+_colonia_ of Vienna takes their place: the Volcae vanish and we find
+Nemausus (Nîmes). Thus thrown into Italian fashion, the province took
+rapidly to Italian ways. By A.D. 70 it was "Italia verius quam
+provincia" (Pliny). The Gauls obviously had a natural bias towards the
+Italian civilization, and there soon became no difference between Italy
+and southern Gaul. But though education spread, the results were
+somewhat disappointing. Trade flourished; the corporations of bargemen
+and the like on the Rhone made money; the many towns grew rich and could
+afford splendid public buildings. But no great writer and no great
+administrator came from Narbonensis; itinerant lecturers and journalists
+alone were produced in plenty, and at times minor poets.
+
+(ii.-iv.) Across the Cévennes lay Caesar's conquests, Atlantic in
+climate, new to Roman ways. The whole area, often collectively styled
+"Gallia Comata," often "Tres Provinciae," was divided into three
+provinces, each under a _legatus pro praetore_ appointed by the emperor,
+with a common capital at Lugudunum (Lyons). The three provinces were:
+_Aquitania_, reaching from the Pyrenees almost to the Loire;
+_Lugudunensis_, the land between Loire and Seine, reaching from Brittany
+in the west to Lyons in the south-east; and _Belgica_ in the north. The
+boundaries, it will be observed, were wholly artificial. Here also it
+was found possible to dispense with garrisons, not because the provinces
+were as peaceful as Narbonensis, but because the Rhine army was close at
+hand. As befitted an unromanized region, the local government was unlike
+that of Italy or Narbonensis. Roman municipalities were not indeed
+unknown, but very few: the local authorities were the magistrates of the
+old tribal districts. Local autonomy was here carried to an extreme. But
+the policy succeeded. The Gauls of the Three Provinces, or some of them,
+revolted in A.D. 21 under Florus and Sacrovir, in 68 under Vindex, and
+in 70 under Classicus and Tutor (see CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS). But all five
+leaders were romanized nobles, with Roman names and Roman citizenship,
+and their risings were directed rather against the Roman government than
+the Roman empire. In general, the Gauls of these provinces accepted
+Roman civilization more or less rapidly, and in due course became hardly
+distinguishable from the Italian. In particular, they eagerly accepted
+the worship of "Augustus and Rome," devised by the first emperor as a
+bond of state religion connecting the provinces with Rome. Each August,
+despite the heat, representatives from the 60 (or 64) tribes of Gallia
+Comata met at Lyons, elected a priest, "sacerdos ad aram Augusti et
+Romae," and held games. The post of representative, and still more that
+of priest, was eagerly coveted and provided a scope for the ambitions
+which despotism usually crushes. It agrees with the vigorous development
+of this worship that the Three Provinces, though romanized, retained
+their own local feeling. Even in the 3rd century the cult of Celtic
+deities (Hercules Magusanus, Deusoniensis, &c.) were revived, the Celtic
+_leuga_ reintroduced instead of the Roman mile on official milestones,
+and a brief effort made to establish an independent, though romanized,
+Gaul under Postumus and his short-lived successors (A.D. 250-273). Not
+only was the area too large and strong to lose its individuality: it was
+also too rural and too far from the Mediterranean to be romanized as
+fully and quickly as Narbonensis. It is even probable that Celtic was
+spoken in forest districts into the 4th century A.D. Town life, however,
+grew. The _chefs-lieux_ of the tribes became practically, though not
+officially, municipalities, and many of these towns reached considerable
+size and magnificence of public buildings. But they attest their tribal
+relations by their appellations, which are commonly drawn from the name
+of the tribe and not of the town itself. Thus the capitals of the Remi
+and Parisii were actually Durocortorum and Lutetia: the appellations in
+use were Remis or Remus, Parisiis or Parisius--these forms being
+indeclinable nouns formed from a sort of locative of the tribe names.
+Literature also flourished. In the latest empire Ausonius, Symmachus,
+Apollinaris, Sidonius and other Gaulish writers, chiefly of Gallia
+Comata, kept alive the classical literary tradition, not only for Gaul
+but for the world.
+
+(v.) The fifth division of Gaul was the Rhenish military frontier.
+Augustus had planned the conquest of Germany up to the Elbe. His plans
+were foiled by the courage of Arminius and the inability of the Roman
+exchequer to pay a larger army. Instead, his successor Tiberius
+organized the Rhine frontier in two military districts. The northern one
+was the valley of the Meuse and that of the Rhine to a point just south
+of Bonn: the southern was the rest of the Rhine valley to Switzerland.
+Each district was garrisoned at first by four, later by fewer legions,
+which were disposed at various times in some of the following
+fortresses: Vetera (Xanten), Novaesium (Neuss), Bonne (Bonn),
+Moguntiacum (Mainz), Argentorate (Strassburg) and Vindonissa (Windisch
+in Switzerland). At first the districts were purely military, were
+called, after the garrisons, "exercitus Germanicus superior" (south) and
+"inferior" (north). Later one or two municipalities were
+founded--Colonia Agrippinensis at Cologne (A.D. 51), Colonia Augusta
+Treverorum at Trier (date uncertain), Colonia Ulpia Traiana outside
+Vetera--and about 80-90 A.D. the two "Exercitus" were turned into the
+two provinces of Upper and Lower Germany. The armies in these districts
+formed the defence of Gaul against German invaders. They also helped to
+keep Gaul itself in order and their presence explains why the four
+provinces of Gaul proper contained no troops.
+
+These provincial divisions were modified by Diocletian but without
+seriously affecting the life of Gaul. The whole country, indeed,
+continued Roman and fairly safe from barbarian invasions till after 400.
+In 407 a multitude of Franks, Vandals, &c., burst over Gaul: Roman rule
+practically ceased and the three kingdoms of the Visigoths, Burgundians
+and Franks began to form. There were still a Roman general and Roman
+troops when Attila was defeated in the _campi Catalaunici_ in A.D. 451,
+but the general, Aetius, was "the last of the Romans," and in 486 Clovis
+the Frank ended the last vestige of Roman rule in Gaul.
+
+  For Roman antiquities in Gaul see, beside articles on the modern towns
+  (ARLES, NÎMES, ORANGE &c.), BIBRACTE, ALESIA, ITIUS PORTUS, AQUEDUCT,
+  ARCHITECTURE, AMPHITHEATRE, &c.; for religion see DRUIDISM; for the
+  famous schools of Autun, Lyons, Toulouse, Nîmes, Vienne, Marseilles
+  and Narbonne, see J.E. Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_ (ed.
+  1906-1908), i. pp. 247-250; for the Roman provinces, Th. Mommsen,
+  _Provinces of the Roman Empire_ (trans. 1886), vol. i. chap. iii. See
+  also Desjardins, _Géographie historique et administrative de la Gaule
+  romaine_ (Paris, 1877); Fustel de Coulanges, _Histoire des
+  institutions politiques de l'ancienne France_ (Paris, 1877); for
+  Caesar's campaigns, article CAESAR, JULIUS, and works quoted; for
+  coins, art. NUMISMATICS and articles in the _Numismatische
+  Zeitschrift_ and _Revue numismatique_ (e.g. Blanchet, 1907, pp. 461
+  foll.).     (F. J. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] When Cisalpine Gaul became completely Romanized, it was often
+    known as "Gallia Togata," while the Province was distinguished as
+    "Gallia Bracata" (_bracae_, incorrectly _braccae_, "trousers"), from
+    the long trousers worn by the inhabitants, and the rest of Gaul as
+    "Gallia Comata," from the inhabitants wearing their hair long.
+
+
+
+
+GAULT, in geology, one of the members of the Lower Cretaceous System.
+The name is still employed provincially in parts of England for a stiff
+blue clay of any kind; by the earlier writers it was sometimes spelt
+"Galt" or "Golt."
+
+The formation now known as Gault in England has been variously
+designated "Blue Marle," "Brick Earth," "Golt Brick Earth" and
+"Oak-tree-soil." In certain parts of the south of England the Gault
+appears as a well-marked deposit of clay, lying between two sandy
+formations; the one above came to be known as the "Upper Greensand," the
+one below being the "Lower Greensand" (see GREENSAND). Since the typical
+clayey Gault is continually taking on a sandy facies as it is traced
+both horizontally and vertically; and since the fossils of the Upper
+Greensand and Gault are inseparably related, it has been proposed by
+A.J. Jukes-Browne that these two series of beds should be regarded as
+the arenaceous and argillaceous phases of a single formation, to which
+he has given the name "Selbornian" (from the village of Selborne where
+the beds are well developed). Lithologically, then, the Selbornian
+includes the blue and grey clays and marls of the Gault proper; the
+glauconitic sands of the Upper Greensand, and their local equivalent,
+the "malm," "malm rock" or "firestone," which in places passes into the
+micaceous sandstone containing sponge spicules and globules of silica,
+the counterpart of the rock called "gaize" on the same horizon in
+northern France. In Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and parts of Norfolk the
+Selbornian is represented by the Red Chalk. The malm is a ferruginous
+siliceous rock, the silica being mainly in the colloidal condition in
+the form of globules and sponge spicules; some quartz grains, mica and
+glauconite are usually present along with from 2 to 25% of calcareous
+matter. Chert-bands and nodules are common in the Upper Greensand of
+certain districts; and calcareous concretions, locally recognized as
+cowstones (Lyme Regis), doggers or buhrstones, are not infrequent.
+
+The principal divisions of the Selbornian stage with their
+characteristic zonal fossils are as follows:--
+
+
+    Warminster Beds   _Pecten asper_ and _Cardiaster fossarius_.
+
+    Upper Gault       Devizes Beds or Merstham Beds with
+                        _Schloenbachia rostralus_.
+
+                    / _Hoplites lautus._
+    Lower Gault    <  _H. interruptus._
+                    \ _Acanthoceras mammillatum._
+
+  The Gault (with Upper Greensand) crops out all round the Wealden area;
+  it extends beneath the London basin and reappears from beneath the
+  northern scarp of the Chalk along the foot of the Chiltern Hills to
+  near Tring. In the south of England the Gault clay is fairly constant
+  in the lower part, with the Greensand above; the clay, however, passes
+  into sand as it is followed westward and, as already pointed out, the
+  clay and sand appear to pass into a red chalk towards the north-east.
+  The Gault overlaps the Lower Greensand towards the east, where it
+  rests upon the old Paleozoic axis; it also overlaps the same formation
+  towards the west about Frome, and thence passes unconformably across
+  the Portlandian beds, Kimeridge Clay, Corallian beds and Oxford Clay;
+  in south Dorsetshire it rests upon the Wealden Series. The Gault (with
+  Upper Greensand) passes on to the Jurassic and Rhaetic rocks near
+  Axmouth, and oversteps farther westward, in the Haldon Hills, on to
+  the Permian. A large outlier occurs on the Blackdown Hills of
+  Devonshire. Good localities for fossils are Folkestone--where many of
+  the shells are preserved with their original pearly nacre,--Burnham,
+  Merstham, Isle of Wight, the Blackdown and Haldon Hills, Warminster,
+  Hunstanton and Speeton, Black Venn near Lyme Regis, and Devizes
+  (malmstone and gaize). The beds are well developed in the vale of
+  Wardour, and in the Isle of Wight; the Gault forms the so-called "blue
+  slipper" at Ventnor which has been the cause of the landslip or
+  undercliff.
+
+  The Gault of north France is very similar to that in the south of
+  England, but the French term _Albien_ includes only a portion of the
+  Selbornian formation. The Gault of north-west Germany embraces beds
+  that would be classed as _Albien_ and _Aptien_ by French authors; it
+  comprises the "Flammenmergel"--a pale siliceous marl shot with
+  flame-shaped darker patches--a clay with _Belemnites minimus_, and the
+  "Gargasmergel" (Aptian). In the Diester and Teutoberger Wald, and in
+  the region of Halberstadt, the clays and marls are replaced by
+  sandstones, the so-called _Gault-Quader_. Continental writers usually
+  place the Gault or Albian at the summit of the Lower Cretaceous; while
+  with English geologists the practice is to commence the Upper
+  Cretaceous with this formation. In addition to the fossils already
+  noticed, the following may be mentioned: _Acanthoceras Desmoceras
+  Beaudanti, Hoplites splendens, Hamites, Scaphites, Turrilites,
+  Aporrhais retusa, Trigonia aliforme_, also _Ichthyosaurus_ and
+  _Ornithocheirus_ (Pterodactyl). From the clays, bricks and tiles are
+  made at Burham, Barnwell, Dunton Green, Arlesey, Hitchin, &c. The
+  cherts in the Greensand portion are used for road metal, and in the
+  Blackdown Hills, for scythe stones; hearthstone is obtained about
+  Merstham; phosphatic nodules occur at several horizons.
+
+  See CRETACEOUS SYSTEM; ALBIAN; APTIAN; also A.J. Jukes-Browne, "The
+  Gault and Upper Greensand of England." vol. i., _Cretaceous Rocks of
+  Britain_; _Mem. Geol. Survey_, 1900.
+
+
+
+
+GAUNTLET (a diminutive of the Fr. _gant_, glove), a large form of glove,
+and especially the steel-plated glove of medieval armour. To "run the
+gauntlet," i.e. to run between two rows of men who, armed with sticks,
+rope-ends or other weapons, beat and strike at the person so running,
+was formerly a punishment for military and naval offences. It was
+abolished in the Prussian army by Scharnhorst. As a method of torturing
+prisoners, it was employed among the North American Indians. "Gauntlet"
+(earlier "gantlet") in this expression is a corruption of "gantlope,"
+from a Swedish _gatlope_, from _gata_, lane, and _lopp_, a course (cf.
+Ger. _gassenlaufen_, to run the gauntlet). According to the _New English
+Dictionary_ the word became familiar in England at the time of the
+Thirty Years' War.
+
+
+
+
+GAUR, or LAKHNAUTI, a ruined city of British India, in Malda district of
+Eastern Bengal and Assam. The ruins are situated about 8 m. to the south
+of English Bazar, the civil station of the district of Malda, and on the
+eastern bank of the Bhagirathi, an old channel of the Ganges. It is said
+to have been founded by Lakshman, and its most ancient name was
+Lakshmanavati, corrupted into Lakhnauti. Its known history begins with
+its conquest in A.D. 1198 by the Mahommedans, who retained it as the
+chief seat of their power in Bengal for more than three centuries. When
+the Afghan kings of Bengal established their independence, they
+transferred their seat of government (about 1350) to Pandua (q.v.), also
+in Malda district, and to build their new capital they plundered Gaur of
+every monument that could be removed. When Pandua was in its turn
+deserted (A.D. 1453), Gaur once more became the capital under the name
+of Jannatabad; it remained so as long as the Mahommedan kings retained
+their independence. In A.D. 1564 Sulaiman Kirani, a Pathan adventurer,
+abandoned it for Tanda, a place somewhat nearer the Ganges. Gaur was
+sacked by Sher Shah in 1539, and was occupied by Akbar's general in
+1575, when Daud Shah, the last of the Afghan dynasty, refused to pay
+homage to the Mogul emperor. This occupation was followed by an outbreak
+of the plague, which completed the downfall of the city, and since then
+it has been little better than a heap of ruins, almost overgrown with
+jungle.
+
+The city in its prime measured 7½ m. from north to south, with a breadth
+of 1 to 2 m. With suburbs it covered an area of 20 to 30 sq. m., and in
+the 16th century the Portuguese historian Faria y Sousa described it as
+containing 1,200,000 inhabitants. The ramparts of this walled city,
+which was surrounded by extensive suburbs, still exist; they were works
+of vast labour, and were on the average about 40 ft. high, and 180 to
+200 ft. thick at the base. The facing of masonry and the buildings with
+which they were covered have now disappeared, and the embankments
+themselves are overgrown with dense jungle. The western side of the city
+was washed by the Ganges, and within the space enclosed by these
+embankments and the river stood the city of Gaur proper, with the fort
+containing the palace in its south-west corner. Radiating north, south
+and east from the city, other embankments are to be traced running
+through the suburbs and extending in certain directions for 30 or 40 m.
+Surrounding the palace is an inner embankment of similar construction to
+that which surrounds the city, and even more overgrown with jungle. A
+deep moat protects it on the outside. To the north of the outer
+enbankment lies the Sagar Dighi, a great reservoir, 1600 yds. by 800
+yds., dating from A.D. 1126.
+
+Fergusson in his _History of Eastern Architecture_ thus describes the
+general architectural style of Gaur:--"It is neither like that of Delhi
+nor Jaunpore, nor any other style, but one purely local and not without
+considerable merit in itself; its principal characteristic being heavy
+short pillars of stone supporting pointed arches and vaults in
+brick--whereas at Jaunpore, for instance, light pillars carried
+horizontal architraves and flat ceilings." Owing to the lightness of the
+small, thin bricks, which were chiefly used in the making of Gaur, its
+buildings have not well withstood the ravages of time and the weather;
+while much of its enamelled work has been removed for the ornamentation
+of the surrounding cities of more modern origin. Moreover, the ruins
+long served as a quarry for the builders of neighbouring towns and
+villages, till in 1900 steps were taken for their preservation by the
+government. The finest ruin in Gaur is that of the Great Golden Mosque,
+also called Bara Darwaza, or twelve-doored (1526). An arched corridor
+running along the whole front of the original building is the principal
+portion now standing. There are eleven arches on either side of the
+corridor and one at each end of it, from which the mosque probably
+obtained its name. These arches are surmounted by eleven domes in fair
+preservation; the mosque had originally thirty-three.
+
+The Small Golden or Eunuch's mosque, in the ancient suburb of Firozpur,
+has fine carving, and is faced with stone fairly well preserved. The
+Tantipara mosque (1475-1480) has beautiful moulding in brick, and the
+Lotan mosque of the same period is unique in retaining its glazed tiles.
+The citadel, of the Mahommedan period, was strongly fortified with a
+rampart and entered through a magnificent gateway called the Dakhil
+Darwaza (?1459-1474). At the south-east corner was a palace, surrounded
+by a wall of brick 66 ft. high, of which a part is standing. Near by
+were the royal tombs. Within the citadel is the Kadam Rasul mosque
+(1530), which is still used, and close outside is a tall tower called
+the Firoz Minar (perhaps signifying "tower of victory"). There are a
+number of Mahommedan buildings on the banks of the Sagar Dighi,
+including, notably, the tomb of the saint Makhdum Shaikh Akhi Siraj (d.
+1357), and in the neighbourhood is a burning ghat, traditionally the
+only one allowed to the use of the Hindus by their Mahommedan
+conquerors, and still greatly venerated and frequented by them. Many
+inscriptions of historical importance have been found in the ruins.
+
+  See M. Martin (Buchanan Hamilton), _Eastern India_, vol. iii. (1831);
+  G.H. Ravenshaw, _Gaur_ (1878); James Fergusson, _History of Indian and
+  Eastern Architecture_ (1876); _Reports of the Archaeological Surveyor,
+  Bengal Circle_ (1900-1904).
+
+
+
+
+GAUR, the native name of the wild ox, _Bos (Bibos) gaurus_, of India,
+miscalled bison by sportsmen. The gaur, which extends into Burma and the
+Malay Peninsula, where it is known as seladang, is the typical
+representative of an Indo-Malay group of wild cattle characterized by
+the presence of a ridge on the withers, the compressed horns, and the
+white legs. The gaur, which reaches a height of nearly 6 ft. at the
+shoulder, is specially characterized by the forward curve and great
+elevation of the ridge between the horns. The general colour is
+blackish-grey. Hill-forests are the resort of this species.
+
+
+
+
+GAUSS, KARL FRIEDRICH (1777-1855), German mathematician, was born of
+humble parents at Brunswick on the 30th of April 1777, and was indebted
+for a liberal education to the notice which his talents procured him
+from the reigning duke. His name became widely known by the publication,
+in his twenty-fifth year (1801), of the _Disquisitiones arithmeticae_.
+In 1807 he was appointed director of the Göttingen observatory, an
+office which he retained to his death: it is said that he never slept
+away from under the roof of his observatory, except on one occasion,
+when he accepted an invitation from Baron von Humboldt to attend a
+meeting of natural philosophers at Berlin. In 1809 he published at
+Hamburg his _Theoria motus corporum coelestium_, a work which gave a
+powerful impulse to the true methods of astronomical observation; and
+his astronomical workings, observations, calculations of orbits of
+planets and comets, &c., are very numerous and valuable. He continued
+his labours in the theory of numbers and other analytical subjects, and
+communicated a long series of memoirs to the Royal Society of Sciences
+(_Königliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_) at Göttingen. His first
+memoir on the theory of magnetism, _Intensitas vis magneticae terrestris
+ad mensuram absolutam revocata_, was published in 1833, and he shortly
+afterwards proceeded, in conjunction with Wilhelm Weber, to invent new
+apparatus for observing the earth's magnetism and its changes; the
+instruments devised by them were the declination instrument and the
+bifilar magnetometer. With Weber's assistance he erected in 1833 at
+Göttingen a magnetic observatory free from iron (as Humboldt and F.J.D.
+Arago had previously done on a smaller scale), where he made magnetic
+observations, and from this same observatory he sent telegraphic signals
+to the neighbouring town, thus showing the practicability of an
+electromagnetic telegraph. He further instituted an association
+(_Magnetischer Verein_), composed at first almost entirely of Germans,
+whose continuous observations on fixed term-days extended from Holland
+to Sicily. The volumes of their publication, _Resultate am den
+Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins_, extend from 1836 to 1839; and
+in those for 1838 and 1839 are contained the two important memoirs by
+Gauss, _Allgemeine Theorie des Erdmagnetismus, and the Allgemeine
+Lehrsätze_--on the theory of forces attracting according to the inverse
+square of the distance. The instruments and methods thus due to him are
+substantially those employed in the magnetic observatories throughout
+the world. He co-operated in the Danish and Hanoverian measurements of
+an arc and trigonometrical operations (1821-1848), and wrote (1843,
+1846) the two memoirs _Über Gegenstände der höheren Geodäsie_. Connected
+with observations in general we have (1812-1826) the memoir _Theoria
+combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxia_, with a second
+part and a supplement. Another memoir of applied mathematics is the
+_Dioptrische Untersuchungen_ (1840). Gauss was well versed in general
+literature and the chief languages of modern Europe, and was a member of
+nearly all the leading scientific societies in Europe. He died at
+Göttingen on the 23rd of February 1855. The centenary of his birth was
+celebrated (1877) at his native place, Brunswick.
+
+  Gauss's collected works were published by the Royal Society of
+  Göttingen, in 7 vols. 4to (Gött., 1863-1871), edited by E.J.
+  Schering--(1) the _Disquisitiones arithmeticae_, (2) _Theory of
+  Numbers_, (3) _Analysis_, (4) _Geometry and Method of Least Squares_,
+  (5) _Mathematical Physics_, (6) _Astronomy_, and (7) the _Theoria
+  motus corporum coelestium_. Additional volumes have since been
+  published, _Fundamente der Geometrie usw_. (1900), and _Geodatische
+  Nachträge zu Band iv_. (1903). They include, besides his various works
+  and memoirs, notices by him of many of these, and of works of other
+  authors in the _Göttingen gelehrte Anzeigen_, and a considerable
+  amount of previously unpublished matter, _Nachlass_. Of the memoirs in
+  pure mathematics, comprised for the most part in vols, ii., iii. and
+  iv. (but to these must be added those on _Attractions_ in vol. v.), it
+  may be safely said there is not one which has not signally contributed
+  to the progress of the branch of mathematics to which it belongs, or
+  which would not require to be carefully analysed in a history of the
+  subject. Running through these volumes in order, we have in the second
+  the memoir, _Summatio quarundam serierum singularium_, the memoirs on
+  the theory of biquadratic residues, in which the notion of complex
+  numbers of the form a + _bi_ was first introduced into the theory of
+  numbers; and included in the _Nachlass_ are some valuable tables. That
+  for the conversion of a fraction into decimals (giving the complete
+  period for all the prime numbers up to 997) is a specimen of the
+  extraordinary love which Gauss had for long arithmetical calculations;
+  and the amount of work gone through in the construction of the table
+  of the number of the classes of binary quadratic forms must also have
+  been tremendous. In vol. iii. we have memoirs relating to the proof of
+  the theorem that every numerical equation has a real or imaginary
+  root, the memoir on the _Hypergeometric Series_, that on
+  _Interpolation_, and the memoir _Determinatio attractionis_--in which
+  a planetary mass is considered as distributed over its orbit according
+  to the time in which each portion of the orbit is described, and the
+  question (having an implied reference to the theory of secular
+  perturbations) is to find the attraction of such a ring. In the
+  solution the value of an elliptic function is found by means of the
+  _arithmetico-geometrical mean_. The _Nachlass_ contains further
+  researches on this subject, and also researches (unfortunately very
+  fragmentary) on the lemniscate-function, &., showing that Gauss was,
+  even before 1800, in possession of many of the discoveries which have
+  made the names of N.H. Abel and K.G.J. Jacobi illustrious. In vol. iv.
+  we have the memoir _Allgemeine Auflösung_, on the graphical
+  representation of one surface upon another, and the _Disquisitiones
+  generales circa superficies curvas_. (An account of the treatment of
+  surfaces which he originated in this paper will be found in the
+  article SURFACE.) And in vol. v. we have a memoir _On the Attraction
+  of Homogeneous Ellipsoids_, and the already mentioned memoir
+  _Allgemeine Lehrsätze_, on the theory of forces attracting according
+  to the inverse square of the distance.     (A. Ca.)
+
+
+
+
+GAUSSEN, FRANÇOIS SAMUEL ROBERT LOUIS (1790-1863), Swiss Protestant
+divine, was born at Geneva on the 25th of August 1790. His father, Georg
+Markus Gaussen, a member of the council of two hundred, was descended
+from an old Languedoc family which had been scattered at the time of the
+religious persecutions in France. At the close of his university career
+at Geneva, Louis was in 1816 appointed pastor of the Swiss Reformed
+Church at Satigny near Geneva, where he formed intimate relations with
+J.E. Cellérier, who had preceded him in the pastorate, and also with the
+members of the dissenting congregation at Bourg-de-Four, which, together
+with the Église du témoignage, had been formed under the influence of
+the preaching of James and Robert Haldane in 1817. The Swiss revival was
+distasteful to the pastors of Geneva (_Vénérable Compagnie des
+Pasteurs_), and on the 7th of May 1817 they passed an ordinance hostile
+to it. As a protest against this ordinance, in 1819 Gaussen published in
+conjunction with Cellérier a French translation of the Second Helvetic
+Confession, with a preface expounding the views he had reached upon the
+nature, use and necessity of confessions of faith; and in 1830, for
+having discarded the official catechism of his church as being
+insufficiently explicit on the divinity of Christ, original sin and the
+doctrines of grace, he was censured and suspended by his ecclesiastical
+superiors. In the following year he took part in the formation of a
+_Société Évangélique_ (_Evangelische Gesellschaft_). When this society
+contemplated, among other objects, the establishment of a new
+theological college, he was finally deprived of his charge. After some
+time devoted to travel in Italy and England, he returned to Geneva and
+ministered to an independent congregation until 1834, when he joined
+Merle d'Aubigné as professor of systematic theology in the college which
+he had helped to found. This post he continued to occupy until 1857,
+when he retired from the active duties of the chair. He died at Les
+Grottes, Geneva, on the 18th of June 1863.
+
+His best-known work, entitled _La Théopneustie ou pleine inspiration des
+saintes écritures_, an elaborate defence of the doctrine of "plenary
+inspiration," was originally published in Paris in 1840, and rapidly
+gained a wide popularity in France, as also, through translations, in
+England and America. It was followed in 1860 by a supplementary treatise
+on the canon (_Le Canon des saintes écritures au double point de vue de
+la science et de la foi_), which, though also popular, has hardly been
+so widely read.
+
+  See the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (1899).
+
+
+
+
+GAUTIER, ÉMILE THÉODORE LÉON (1832-1897), French literary historian, was
+born at Hâvre on the 8th of August 1832. He was educated at the École
+des Chartes, and became successively keeper of the archives of the
+department of Haute-Marne and of the imperial archives at Paris under
+the empire. In 1871 he became professor of palaeography at the École des
+Chartes. He was elected member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1887,
+and became chief of the historical section of the national archives in
+1893. Léon Gautier rendered great services to the study of early French
+literature, the most important of his numerous works on medieval
+subjects being a critical text (Tours, 1872) with translation and
+introduction of the _Chanson de Roland_, and _Les Épopées françaises_ (3
+vols., 1866-1867; 2nd ed., 5 vols., 1878-1897, including a
+_Bibliographie des chansons de geste_). He died in Paris on the 25th of
+August 1897.
+
+
+
+
+GAUTIER, THÉOPHILE (1811-1872), French poet and miscellaneous writer,
+was born at Tarbes on the 31st of August 1811. He was educated at the
+grammar school of that town, and afterwards at the Collège Charlemagne
+in Paris, but was almost as much in the studios. He very early devoted
+himself to the study of the older French literature, especially that of
+the 16th and the early part of the 17th century. This study qualified
+him well to take part in the Romantic movement, and enabled him to
+astonish Sainte-Beuve by the phraseology and style of some literary
+essays which, when barely eighteen years old, he put into the critic's
+hands. In consequence of this introduction he at once came under the
+influence of the great Romantic _cénacle_, to which, as to Victor Hugo
+in particular, he was also introduced by his gifted but ill-starred
+schoolmate Gérard de Nerval. With Gérard, Petrus Borel, Corot, and many
+other less known painters and poets whose personalities he has
+delightfully sketched in the articles collected under the titles of
+_Histoire du Romantisme_, &c., he formed a minor romantic clique who
+were distinguished for a time by the most extravagant eccentricity. A
+flaming crimson waistcoat and a great mass of waving hair were the
+outward signs which qualified Gautier for a chief rank among the
+enthusiastic devotees who attended the rehearsals of _Hernani_ with red
+tickets marked "Hierro," performed mocking dances round the bust of
+Racine, and were at all times ready to exchange word or blow with the
+_perruques_ and _grisâtres_ of the classical party. In Gautier's case
+these freaks were not inconsistent with real genius and real devotion to
+sound ideals of literature. He began (like Thackeray, to whom he
+presents in other ways some striking points of resemblance) as an
+artist, but soon found that his true powers lay in another direction.
+
+His first considerable poem, _Albertus_ (1830), displayed a good deal of
+the extravagant character which accompanied rather than marked the
+movement, but also gave evidence of uncommon command both of language
+and imagery, and in particular of a descriptive power hardly to be
+excelled. The promise thus given was more than fulfilled in his
+subsequent poetry, which, in consequence of its small bulk, may well be
+noticed at once and by anticipation. The _Comédie de la mort_, which
+appeared soon after (1832), is one of the most remarkable of French
+poems, and though never widely read has received the suffrage of every
+competent reader. Minor poems of various dates, published in 1840,
+display an almost unequalled command over poetical form, an advance even
+over _Albertus_ in vigour, wealth and appropriateness of diction, and
+abundance of the special poetical essence. All these good gifts reached
+their climax in the _Émaux et camées_, first published in 1856, and
+again, with additions, just before the poet's death in 1872. These poems
+are in their own way such as cannot be surpassed. Gautier's poetical
+work contains in little an expression of his literary peculiarities.
+There are, in addition to the peculiarities of style and diction already
+noticed, an extraordinary feeling and affection for beauty in art and
+nature, and a strange indifference to anything beyond this range, which
+has doubtless injured the popularity of his work.
+
+But it was not, after all, as a poet that Gautier was to achieve either
+profit or fame. For the theatre, he had but little gift, and his
+dramatic efforts (if we except certain masques or ballets in which his
+exuberant and graceful fancy came into play) are by far his weakest. It
+was otherwise with his prose fiction. His first novel of any size, and
+in many respects his most remarkable work, was _Mademoiselle de Maupin_
+(1835). Unfortunately this book, while it establishes his literary
+reputation on an imperishable basis, was unfitted by its subject, and in
+parts by its treatment, for general perusal, and created, even in
+France, a prejudice against its author which he was very far from really
+deserving. During the years from 1833 onwards, his fertility in novels
+and tales was very great. _Les Jeunes-France_ (1833), which may rank as
+a sort of prose _Albertus_ in some ways, displays the follies of the
+youthful Romantics in a vein of humorous and at the same time
+half-pathetic satire. _Fortunio_ (1838) perhaps belongs to the same
+class. _Jettatura_, written somewhat later, is less extravagant and more
+pathetic. A crowd of minor tales display the highest literary qualities,
+and rank with Mérimée's at the head of all contemporary works of the
+class. First of all must be mentioned the ghost-story of _La Morte
+amoureuse_, a gem of the most perfect workmanship. For many years
+Gautier continued to write novels. _La Belle Jenny_ (1864) is a not very
+successful attempt to draw on his English experience, but the earlier
+_Militona_ (1847) is a most charming picture of Spanish life. In
+_Spirite_ (1866) he endeavoured to enlist the fancy of the day for
+supernatural manifestations, and a _Roman de la momie_ (1856) is a
+learned study of ancient Egyptian ways. His most remarkable effort in
+this kind, towards the end of his life, was _Le Capitaine Fracasse_
+(1863), a novel, partly of the picaresque school, partly of that which
+Dumas was to make popular, projected nearly thirty years earlier, and
+before Dumas himself had taken to the style. This book contains some of
+the finest instances of his literary power.
+
+Yet neither in poems nor in novels did the main occupation of Gautier as
+a literary man consist. He was early drawn to the more lucrative task of
+feuilleton-writing, and for more than thirty years he was among the most
+expert and successful practitioners of this art. Soon after the
+publication of _Mademoiselle de Maupin_, in which he had not been too
+polite to journalism, he became irrevocably a journalist. He was
+actually the editor of _L'Artiste_ for a time: but his chief newspaper
+connexions were with _La Presse_ from 1836 to 1854 and with the
+_Moniteur_ later. His work was mainly theatrical and art criticism. The
+rest of his life was spent either at Paris or in travels of considerable
+extent to Spain, the Netherlands, Italy, Turkey, England, Algeria and
+Russia, all undertaken with a more or less definite purpose of
+book-making. Having absolutely no political opinions, he had no
+difficulty in accepting the Second Empire, and received from it
+considerable favours, in return for which, however, he in no way
+prostituted his pen, but remained a literary man pure and simple. He
+died on the 23rd of December 1872.
+
+Accounts of his travels, criticisms of the theatrical and literary works
+of the day, obituary notices of his contemporaries and, above all, art
+criticism occupied him in turn. It has sometimes been deplored that this
+engagement in journalism should have diverted Gautier from the
+performance of more capital work in literature. Perhaps, however, this
+regret springs from a certain misconception. Gautier's power was
+literary power pure and simple, and it is as evident in his slightest
+sketches and criticisms as in _Émaux et camées or La Morte amoureuse_.
+On the other hand, his weakness, if he had a weakness, lay in his almost
+total indifference to the matters which usually supply subjects for art
+and therefore for literature. He has thus been accused of "lack of
+ideas" by those who have not cleared their own minds of cant; and in the
+recent set-back of the critical current against form and in favour of
+"philosophic" treatment, comment upon him has sometimes been
+unfavourable. But this injustice will, beyond all question, be redressed
+again. He was neither immoral, irreligious nor unduly subservient to
+despotism, but morals, religion and politics (to which we may add
+science and material progress) were matters of no interest to him. He
+was to all intents a humanist, as the word was understood in the 15th
+century. But he was a humorist as well, and this combination, joined to
+his singularly kindly and genial nature, saved him from some dangers and
+depravations as well as some absurdities to which the humanist temper is
+exposed. As time goes on it may be predicted that, though Gautier may
+not be widely read, yet his writings will never cease to be full of
+indescribable charm and of very definite instruction to men of letters.
+Besides those of his works which have been already cited, we may notice
+_Une Larme du diable_ (1839), a charming mixture of humour and
+tenderness; _Les Grotesques_ (1844), a volume of early criticisms on
+some oddities of 17th-century literature; _Caprices et zigzags_ (1845),
+miscellanies dealing in part with English life; _Voyage en Espagne_
+(1845), _Constantinople_ (1854), _Voyage en Russie_ (1866), brilliant
+volumes of travel; _Ménagerie intime_ (1869) and _Tableaux de siège_
+(1872), his two latest works, which display his incomparable style in
+its quietest but not least happy form.
+
+  There is no complete edition of Gautier's works, and the vicomte
+  Spoelberch de Lovenjoul's _Histoire des oeuvres de Théophile Gautier_
+  (1887) shows how formidable such an undertaking would be. But since
+  his death numerous further collections of articles have been made:
+  _Fusains et eaux-fortes_ and _Tableaux à la plume_ (1880); _L'Orient_
+  (2 vols., 1881); _Les Vacances du lundi_ (new ed., 1888); _La Nature
+  chez elle_ (new ed., 1891). In 1879 his son-in-law, E. Bergerat, who
+  had married his younger daughter Estelle (the elder, Mme Judith
+  Gautier--herself a writer of distinction--was at one time Mme Catulle
+  Mendès), issued a biography, _Théophile Gautier_, which has been often
+  reprinted. With it should be compared Maxime du Camp's volume in the
+  _Grands Écrivains français_ (1890) and the numerous references in the
+  _Journal des Goncourt_. Critical eulogies, from Sainte-Beuve
+  (repeatedly in the _Causeries_) and Baudelaire (two articles in _L'Art
+  romantique_) downwards, are numerous. The chief of the decriers is
+  Émile Faguet in his _Études littéraires sur le XIX^e siècle_. In 1902
+  and 1903 there appeared two respectable academic _éloges_ by H. Menai
+  and H. Potez.     (G. Sa.)
+
+
+
+
+GAUTIER D'ARRAS, French _trouvère_, flourished in the second half of the
+12th century. Nothing is known of his biography except what may be
+gleaned from his works. He dedicated his romance of _Éracle_ to Theobald
+V., count of Blois (d. 1191); among his other patrons were Marie,
+countess of Champagne, daughter of Louis VII. and Eleanor of Guienne and
+Baldwin IV., count of Hainaut. _Éracle_, the hero of which becomes
+emperor of Constantinople as Heraclius, is purely a _roman d'aventures_
+and enjoyed great popularity. His second romance, _Ille et Galeron_,
+dedicated to Beatrix, the second wife of Frederick Barbarossa, treats of
+a similar situation to that outlined in the lay of "_Eliduc_" by Marie
+de France.
+
+  See the _Oeuvres de Gautier d'Arras_, ed. E. Löseth (2 vols., Paris,
+  1890); _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. xxii. (1852); A. Dinaux, _Les
+  Trouvères_ (1833-1843), vol. iii.
+
+
+
+
+GAUZE, a light, transparent fabric, originally of silk, and now
+sometimes made of linen or cotton, woven in an open manner with very
+fine yarn. It is said to have been originally made at Gaza in Palestine,
+whence the name. Some of the gauzes from eastern Asia were brocaded with
+flowers of gold or silver. In the weaving of gauze the warp threads, in
+addition to being crossed as in plain weaving, are twisted in pairs from
+left to right and from right to left alternately, after each shot of
+weft, thereby keeping the weft threads at equal distances apart, and
+retaining them in their parallel position. The textures are woven either
+plain, striped or figured; and the material receives many designations,
+according to its appearance and the purposes to which it is devoted. A
+thin cotton fabric, woven in the same way, is known as leno, to
+distinguish it from muslin made by plain weaving. Silk gauze was a
+prominent and extensive industry in the west of Scotland during the
+second half of the 18th century, but on the introduction of
+cotton-weaving it greatly declined. In addition to its use for dress
+purposes silk gauze is much employed for bolting or sifting flour and
+other finely ground substances. The term gauze is applied generally to
+transparent fabrics of whatever fibre made, and to the fine-woven
+wire-cloth used in safety-lamps, sieves, window-blinds, &c.
+
+
+
+
+GAVARNI, the name by which SULPICE GUILLAUME CHEVALIER (1801-1866),
+French caricaturist, is known. He is said to have taken the _nom de
+plume_ from the place where he made his first published sketch. He was
+born in Paris of poor parents, and started in life as a workman in an
+engine-building factory. At the same time he attended the free school of
+drawing. In his first attempts to turn his abilities to some account he
+met with many disappointments, but was at last entrusted with the
+drawing of some illustrations for a journal of fashion. Gavarni was then
+thirty-four years of age. His sharp and witty pencil gave to these
+generally commonplace and unartistic figures a life-likeness and an
+expression which soon won for him a name in fashionable circles.
+Gradually he gave greater attention to this more congenial work, and
+finally ceased working as an engineer to become the director of the
+journal _Les Gens du monde_. His ambition rising in proportion to his
+success, Gavarni from this time followed the real bent of his
+inclination, and began a series of lithographed sketches, in which he
+portrayed the most striking characteristics, foibles and vices of the
+various classes of French society. The letterpress explanations attached
+to his drawings were always short, but were forcible and highly
+humorous, if sometimes trivial, and were admirably adapted to the
+particular subjects. The different stages through which Gavarni's talent
+passed, always elevating and refining itself, are well worth being
+noted. At first he confined himself to the study of Parisian manners,
+more especially those of the Parisian youth. To this vein belong _Les
+Lorettes_, _Les Actrices_, _Les Coulisses_, _Les Fashionables_, _Les
+Gentilshommes bourgeois_, _Les Artistes_, _Les Débardeurs_, _Clichy_,
+_Les Étudiants de Paris_, _Les Baliverneries parisiennes_, _Les Plaisirs
+champêtres_, _Les Bals masqués_, _Le Carnaval_, _Les Souvenirs du
+carnaval_, _Les Souvenirs du bal Chicard_, _La Vie des jeunes hommes_,
+_Les Patois de Paris_. He had now ceased to be director of _Les Gens du
+monde_; but he was engaged as ordinary caricaturist of _Le Charivari_,
+and, whilst making the fortune of the paper, he made his own. His name
+was exceedingly popular, and his illustrations for books were eagerly
+sought for by publishers. _Le Juif errant_, by Eugène Sue (1843, 4 vols.
+8vo), the French translation of Hoffman's tales (1843, 8vo), the first
+collective edition of Balzac's works (Paris, Houssiaux, 1850, 20 vols.
+8vo), _Le Diable à Paris_ (1844-1846, 2 vols. 4to), _Les Français peints
+par eux-mêmes_ (1840-1843, 9 vols. 8vo), the collection of
+_Physiologies_ published by Aubert in 38 vols. 18mo (1840-1842),--all
+owed a great part of their success at the time, and are still sought
+for, on account of the clever and telling sketches contributed by
+Gavarni. A single frontispiece or vignette was sometimes enough to
+secure the sale of a new book. Always desiring to enlarge the field of
+his observations, Gavarni soon abandoned his once favourite topics. He
+no longer limited himself to such types as the _lorette_ and the
+Parisian student, or to the description of the noisy and popular
+pleasures of the capital, but turned his mirror to the grotesque sides
+of family life and of humanity at large. _Les Enfants terribles_, _Les
+Parents terribles_, _Les Fourberies des femmes_, _La Politique des
+femmes_, _Les Maris vengés_, _Les Nuances du sentiment_, _Les Rêves_,
+_Les Petits Jeux de société_, _Les Petits Malheurs du bonheur_, _Les
+Impressions de menage_, _Les Interjections_, _Les Traductions en langue
+vulgaire_, _Les Propos de Thomas Vireloque_, &c., were composed at this
+time, and are his most elevated productions. But whilst showing the same
+power of irony as his former works, enhanced by a deeper insight into
+human nature, they generally bear the stamp of a bitter and even
+sometimes gloomy philosophy. This tendency was still more strengthened
+by a visit to England in 1849. He returned from London deeply impressed
+with the scenes of misery and degradation which he had observed among
+the lower classes of that city. In the midst of the cheerful atmosphere
+of Paris he had been struck chiefly by the ridiculous aspects of
+vulgarity and vice, and he had laughed at them. But the debasement of
+human nature which he saw in London appears to have affected him so
+forcibly that from that time the cheerful caricaturist never laughed or
+made others laugh again. What he had witnessed there became the almost
+exclusive subject of his drawings, as powerful, as impressive as ever,
+but better calculated to be appreciated by cultivated minds than by the
+public, which had in former years granted him so wide a popularity. Most
+of these last compositions appeared in the weekly paper
+_L'Illustration_. In 1857 he published in one volume the series entitled
+_Masques et visages_ (1 vol. 12mo), and in 1869, about two years after
+his death, his last artistic work, _Les Douze Mois_ (1 vol. fol.), was
+given to the world. Gavarni was much engaged, during the last period of
+his life, in scientific pursuits, and this fact must perhaps be
+connected with the great change which then took place in his manner as
+an artist. He sent several communications to the Académie des Sciences,
+and till his death on the 23rd of November 1866 he was eagerly
+interested in the question of aerial navigation. It is said that he made
+experiments on a large scale with a view to find the means of directing
+balloons; but it seems that he was not so successful in this line as his
+fellow-artist, the caricaturist and photographer, Nadar.
+
+  Gavarni's _Oeuvres choisies_ were edited in 1845 (4 vols. 4to) with
+  letterpress by J. Janin, Th. Gautier and Balzac, followed in 1850 by
+  two other volumes named _Perles et parures_; and some essays in prose
+  and in verse written by him were collected by one of his biographers,
+  Ch. Yriarte, and published in 1869. See also E. and J. de Goncourt,
+  _Gavarni, l'homme et l'oeuvre_ (1873, 8vo). J. Claretie has also
+  devoted to the great French caricaturist a curious and interesting
+  essay. A catalogue _raisonné_ of Gavarni's works was published by J.
+  Armelhault and E. Bocher (Paris, 1873, 8vo).
+
+
+
+
+GAVAZZI, ALESSANDRO (1809-1889), Italian preacher and patriot, was born
+at Bologna on the 21st of March 1809. He at first became a monk (1825),
+and attached himself to the Barnabites at Naples, where he afterwards
+(1829) acted as professor of rhetoric. In 1840, having already expressed
+liberal views, he was removed to Rome to fill a subordinate position.
+Leaving his own country after the capture of Rome by the French, he
+carried on a vigorous campaign against priests and Jesuits in England,
+Scotland and North America, partly by means of a periodical, the
+_Gavazzi Free Word_. While in England he gradually went over (1855) to
+the Evangelical church, and became head and organizer of the Italian
+Protestants in London. Returning to Italy in 1860, he served as
+army-chaplain with Garibaldi. In 1870 he became head of the Free Church
+(_Chiesa libera_) of Italy, united the scattered Congregations into the
+"Unione delle Chiese libere in Italia," and in 1875 founded in Rome the
+theological college of the Free Church, in which he himself taught
+dogmatics, apologetics and polemics. He died in Rome on the 9th of
+January 1889.
+
+  Amongst his publications are _No Union with Rome_ (1871); _The Priest
+  in Absolution_ (1877); _My Recollections of the Last Four Popes_, &c.,
+  in answer to Cardinal Wiseman (1858); _Orations_, 2 decades (1851).
+
+
+
+
+GAVELKIND,[1] a peculiar system of tenure associated chiefly with the
+county of Kent, but found also in other parts of England. In Kent all
+land is presumed to be holden by this tenure until the contrary is
+proved, but some lands have been disgavelled by particular statutes. It
+is more correctly described as socage tenure, subject to the custom of
+gavelkind. The chief peculiarities of the custom are the following. (1)
+A tenant can alienate his lands by feoffment at fifteen years of age.
+(2) There is no escheat on attainder for felony, or as it is expressed
+in the old rhyme--
+
+  "The father to the bough,
+   The son to the plough."
+
+(3) Generally the tenant could always dispose of his lands by will. (4)
+In case of intestacy the estate descends not to the eldest son but to
+all the sons (or, in the case of deceased sons, their representatives)
+in equal shares. "Every son is as great a gentleman as the eldest son
+is." It is to this remarkable peculiarity that gavelkind no doubt owes
+its local popularity. Though females claiming in their own right are
+postponed to males, yet by representation they may inherit together with
+them. (5) A wife is dowable of one-half, instead of one-third of the
+land. (6) A widower may be tenant by courtesy, without having had any
+issue, of one-half, but only so long as he remains unmarried. An act of
+1841, for commuting manorial rights in respect of lands of copyhold and
+customary tenure, contained a clause specially exempting from the
+operation of the act "the custom of gavelkind as the same now exists and
+prevails in the county of Kent." Gavelkind is one of the most
+interesting examples of the customary law of England; it was, previous
+to the Conquest, the general custom of the realm, but was then
+superseded by the feudal law of primogeniture. Its survival in this
+instance in one part of the country is regarded as a concession extorted
+from the Conqueror by the superior bravery of the men of Kent. _Irish
+gavelkind_ was a species of tribal succession, by which the land,
+instead of being divided at the death of the holder amongst his sons,
+was thrown again into the common stock, and redivided among the
+surviving members of the sept. The equal division amongst children of an
+inheritance in land is of common occurrence outside the United Kingdom
+and is discussed under SUCCESSION.
+
+  See INHERITANCE; TENURE. Also Robinson, _On Gavelkind_; Digby,
+  _History of the Law of Real Property_; Pollock and Maitland, _History
+  of English Law_; Challis, _Real Property_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This word is generally taken to represent in O. Eng.
+    _gafolgecynd_, from _gafol_, payment, tribute, and _gecynd_, species,
+    kind, and originally to have meant tenure by payment of rent or
+    non-military services, cf. gafol-land, and thence to have been
+    applied to the particular custom attached to such tenure in Kent.
+    _Gafol_ apparently is derived from the Teutonic root seen in "to
+    give"; the Med. Lat. _gabulum, gablum_ gives the Fr. _gabelle_, tax.
+
+
+
+
+GAVESTON, PIERS (d. 1312), earl of Cornwall, favourite of the English
+king Edward II., was the son of a Gascon knight, and was brought up at
+the court of Edward I. as companion to his son, the future king. Strong,
+talented and ambitious, Gaveston gained great influence over young
+Edward, and early in 1307 he was banished from England by the king; but
+he returned after the death of Edward I. a few months later, and at once
+became the chief adviser of Edward II. Made earl of Cornwall, he
+received both lands and money from the king, and added to his wealth and
+position by marrying Edward's niece, Margaret, daughter of Gilbert de
+Clare, earl of Gloucester (d. 1295). He was regent of the kingdom during
+the king's short absence in France in 1308, and took a very prominent
+part at Edward's coronation in February of this year. These proceedings
+aroused the anger and jealousy of the barons, and their wrath was
+diminished neither by Gaveston's superior skill at the tournament, nor
+by his haughty and arrogant behaviour to themselves. They demanded his
+banishment; and the king, forced to assent, sent his favourite to
+Ireland as lieutenant, where he remained for about a year. Returning to
+England in July 1309, Edward persuaded some of the barons to sanction
+this proceeding; but as Gaveston was more insolent than ever the old
+jealousies soon broke out afresh. In 1311 the king was forced to agree
+to the election of the "ordainers," and the ordinances they drew up
+provided _inter alia_ for the perpetual banishment of his favourite.
+Gaveston then retired to Flanders, but returned secretly to England at
+the end of 1311. Soon he was publicly restored by Edward, and the barons
+had taken up arms. Deserted by the king he surrendered to Aymer de
+Valence, earl of Pembroke (d. 1324), at Scarborough in May 1312, and was
+taken to Deddington in Oxfordshire, where he was seized by Guy de
+Beauchamp, earl of Warwick (d. 1315). Conveyed to Warwick castle he was
+beheaded on Blacklow Hill near Warwick on the 19th of June 1312.
+Gaveston, whose body was buried in 1315 at King's Langley, left an only
+daughter.
+
+  See W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1896); and
+  _Chronicles of the Reigns of Edward I. and Edward II._, edited by W.
+  Stubbs. Rolls series (London, 1882-1883).
+
+
+
+
+GAVOTTE (a French word adopted from the Provençal _gavoto_), properly
+the dance of the Gavots or natives of Gap, a district in the Upper Alps,
+in the old province of Dauphiné. It is a dance of a brisk and lively
+character, somewhat resembling the minuet, but quicker and less stately
+(see DANCE); hence also the use of this name for a corresponding form of
+musical composition.
+
+
+
+
+GAWAIN (Fr. _Walwain (Brut), Gauvain, Gaugain_; Lat. _Walganus_,
+_Walwanus_; Dutch, _Walwein_, Welsh, _Gwalchmei_), son of King Loth of
+Orkney, and nephew to Arthur on his mother's side, the most famous hero
+of Arthurian romance. The first mention of his name is in a passage of
+William of Malmesbury, recording the discovery of his tomb in the
+province of Ros in Wales. He is there described as "_Walwen qui fuit
+haud degener Arturis ex sorore nepos_." Here he is said to have reigned
+over Galloway; and there is certainly some connexion, the character of
+which is now not easy to determine, between the two. In the later
+_Historia_ of Geoffrey of Monmouth, and its French translation by Wace,
+Gawain plays an important and "pseudo-historic" rôle. On the receipt by
+Arthur of the insulting message of the Roman emperor, demanding tribute,
+it is he who is despatched as ambassador to the enemy's camp, where his
+arrogant and insulting behaviour brings about the outbreak of
+hostilities. On receipt of the tidings of Mordred's treachery, Gawain
+accompanies Arthur to England, and is slain in the battle which ensues
+on their landing. Wace, however, evidently knew more of Gawain than he
+has included in his translation, for he speaks of him as
+
+  Li quens Walwains
+  Qui tant fu preudom de ses mains (11. 9057-58).
+
+and later on says
+
+  Prous fu et de mult grant mesure,
+  D'orgoil et de forfait n'ot qure
+  Plus vaut faire qu'il ne dist
+  Et plus doner qu'il ne pramist (10. 106-109).
+
+The English Arthurian poems regard him as the type and model of
+chivalrous courtesy, "the fine father of nurture," and as Professor
+Maynadier has well remarked, "previous to the appearance of Malory's
+compilation it was Gawain rather than Arthur, who was the typical
+English hero." It is thus rather surprising to find that in the earliest
+preserved MSS. of Arthurian romance, i.e. in the poems of Chrétien de
+Troyes, Gawain, though generally placed first in the list of knights, is
+by no means the hero _par excellence_. The latter part of the _Perceval_
+is indeed devoted to the recital of his adventures at the _Chastel
+Merveilleus_, but of none of Chrétien's poems is he the protagonist. The
+anonymous author of the _Chevalier à l'epée_ indeed makes this apparent
+neglect of Gawain a ground of reproach against Chrétien. At the same
+time the majority of the short episodic poems connected with the cycle
+have Gawain for their hero. In the earlier form of the prose romances,
+e.g. in the _Merlin_ proper, Gawain is a dominant personality, his feats
+rivalling in importance those ascribed to Arthur, but in the later forms
+such as the _Merlin_ continuations, the _Tristan_, and the final
+_Lancelot_ compilation, his character and position have undergone a
+complete change, he is represented as cruel, cowardly and treacherous,
+and of indifferent moral character. Most unfortunately our English
+version of the romances, Malory's _Morte Arthur_, being derived from
+these later forms (though his treatment of Gawain is by no means
+uniformly consistent), this unfavourable aspect is that under which the
+hero has become known to the modern reader. Tennyson, who only knew the
+Arthurian story through the medium of Malory, has, by exaggeration,
+largely contributed to this misunderstanding. Morris, in _The Defence of
+Guinevere_, speaks of "gloomy Gawain"; perhaps the most absurdly
+misleading epithet which could possibly have been applied to the "gay,
+gratious, and gude" knight of early English tradition.
+
+The truth appears to be that Gawain, the Celtic and mythic origin of
+whose character was frankly admitted by the late M. Gaston Paris,
+belongs to the very earliest stage of Arthurian tradition, long
+antedating the crystallization of such tradition into literary form. He
+was certainly known in Italy at a very early date; Professor Rajna has
+found the names of Arthur and Gawain in charters of the early 12th
+century, the bearers of those names being then grown to manhood; and
+Gawain is figured in the architrave of the north doorway of Modena
+cathedral, a 12th-century building. Recent discoveries have made it
+practically certain that there existed, prior to the extant romances, a
+collection of short episodic poems, devoted to the glorification of
+Arthur's famous nephew and his immediate kin (his brother Ghaeris, or
+Gareth, and his son Guinglain), the authorship of which was attributed
+to a Welshman, Bleheris; fragments of this collection have been
+preserved to us alike in the first continuation of Chrétien de Troyes
+_Perceval_, due to Wauchier de Denain, and in our vernacular _Gawain_
+poems. Among these "Bleheris" poems was one dealing with Gawain's
+adventures at the Grail castle, where the Grail is represented as
+non-Christian, and presents features strongly reminiscent of the ancient
+Nature mysteries. There is good ground for believing that as Grail
+quester and winner, Gawain preceded alike Perceval and Galahad, and that
+the solution of the mysterious Grail problem is to be sought rather in
+the tales connected with the older hero than in those devoted to the
+glorification of the younger knights. The explanation of the very
+perplexing changes which the character of Gawain has undergone appears
+to lie in a misunderstanding of the original sources of that character.
+Whether or no Gawain was a sun-hero, and he certainly possessed some of
+the features--we are constantly told how his strength waxed with the
+waxing of the sun till noontide, and then gradually decreased; he owned
+a steed known by a definite name le Gringalet; and a light-giving sword,
+Escalibur (which, as a rule, is represented as belonging to Gawain, not
+to Arthur)--all traits of a sun-hero--he certainly has much in common
+with the primitive Irish hero Cuchullin. The famous head-cutting
+challenge, so admirably told in _Syr Gawayne and the Grene Knighte_, was
+originally connected with the Irish champion. Nor was the lady of
+Gawain's love a mortal maiden, but the queen of the other-world. In
+Irish tradition the other-world is often represented as an island,
+inhabited by women only; and it is this "Isle of Maidens" that Gawain
+visits in _Diu Crone_; returning therefrom dowered with the gift of
+eternal youth. The Chastel Merveilleus adventure, related at length by
+Chrétien and Wolfram is undoubtedly such an "other-world" story. It
+seems probable that it was this connexion which won for Gawain the title
+of the "Maidens' Knight," a title for which no satisfactory explanation
+is ever given. When the source of the name was forgotten its meaning was
+not unnaturally misinterpreted, and gained for Gawain the reputation of
+a facile morality, which was exaggerated by the pious compilers of the
+later Grail romances into persistent and aggravated wrong-doing; at the
+same time it is to be noted that Gawain is never like Tristan and
+Lancelot, the hero of an illicit connexion maintained under
+circumstances of falsehood and treachery. Gawain, however, belonged to
+the pre-Christian stage of Grail tradition, and it is not surprising
+that writers, bent on spiritual edification, found him somewhat of a
+stumbling-block. Chaucer, when he spoke of Gawain coming "again out of
+faërie," spoke better than he knew; the home of that very gallant and
+courteous knight is indeed Fairy-land, and the true Gawain-tradition is
+informed with fairy glamour and grace.
+
+  See _Syr Gawayne_, the English poems relative to that hero, edited by
+  Sir Frederick Madden for the Bannatyne Club, 1839 (out of print and
+  difficult to procure); _Histoire littéraire de la France_, vol. xxx.;
+  introduction and summary of episodic "Gawain" poems by Gaston Paris;
+  _The Legend of Sir Gawain_, by Jessie L. Weston, Grimm Library, vol.
+  vii.; _The Legend of Sir Perceval_, by Jessie L. Weston, Grimm
+  Library, vol. xvii.; "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight," "Sir Gawain at
+  the Grail Castle" and "Sir Gawain and the Lady of Lys," vols. i., vi
+  and vii. of _Arthurian Romances_ (Nutt).
+
+
+
+
+GAWLER, a town of Gawler county, South Australia, on the Para river, 24¾
+m. by rail N.E. of Adelaide. It is one of the most thriving places in
+the colony, being the centre of a large wheat-growing district; it has
+also engineering works, foundries, flour-mills, breweries and saw-mills,
+while gold, silver, copper and lead are found in the neighbouring hills.
+The inhabitants of the town and its extensive suburbs number about 7000;
+though the population of the town itself in 1901 was 1996.
+
+
+
+
+GAY, JOHN (1685-1732), English poet, was baptized on the 16th of
+September 1685 at Barnstaple, where his family had long been settled. He
+was educated at the grammar school of the town under Robert Luck, who
+had published some Latin and English poems. On leaving school he was
+apprenticed to a silk mercer in London, but being weary, according to Dr
+Johnson, "of either the restraint or the servility of his occupation,"
+he soon returned to Barnstaple, where he spent some time with his uncle,
+the Rev. John Hanmer, the Nonconformist minister of the town. He then
+returned to London, and though no details are available for his
+biography until the publication of _Wine_ in 1708, the account he gives
+in _Rural Sports_ (1713), of years wasted in attending on courtiers who
+were profuse in promises never kept, may account for his occupations.
+Among his early literary friends were Aaron Hill and Eustace Budgell. In
+_The Present State of Wit_ (1711) Gay attempted to give an account of
+"all our periodical papers, whether monthly, weekly or diurnal." He
+especially praised the _Tatler_ and the _Spectator_, and Swift, who knew
+nothing of the authorship of the pamphlet, suspected it to be inspired
+by Steele and Addison. To Lintot's _Miscellany_ (1712) Gay contributed
+"An Epistle to Bernard Lintot," containing some lines in praise of Pope,
+and a version of the story of Arachne from the sixth book of the
+_Metamorphoses_ of Ovid. In the same year he was received into the
+household of the duchess of Monmouth as secretary, a connexion which
+was, however, broken before June 1714.
+
+The dedication of his _Rural Sports_ (1713) to Pope was the beginning of
+a lasting friendship. Gay could have no pretensions to rivalry with
+Pope, who seems never to have tired of helping his friend. In 1713 he
+produced a comedy, _The Wife of Bath_, which was acted only three
+nights, and _The Fan_, one of his least successful poems; and in 1714
+_The Shepherd's Week_, a series of six pastorals drawn from English
+rustic life. Pope had urged him to undertake this last task in order to
+ridicule the Arcadian pastorals of Ambrose Philips, who had been praised
+by the _Guardian_, to the neglect of Pope's claims as the first pastoral
+writer of the age and the true English Theocritus. Gay's pastorals
+completely achieved this object, but his ludicrous pictures of the
+English swains and their loves were found to be abundantly entertaining
+on their own account. Gay had just been appointed secretary to the
+British ambassador to the court of Hanover through the influence of
+Jonathan Swift, when the death of Queen Anne three months later put an
+end to all his hopes of official employment. In 1715, probably with some
+help from Pope, he produced _What d'ye call it?_ a dramatic skit on
+contemporary tragedy, with special reference to Otway's _Venice
+Preserved_. It left the public so ignorant of its real meaning that
+Lewis Theobald and Benjamin Griffin (1680-1740) published a _Complete
+Key to what d'ye call it_ by way of explanation. In 1716 appeared his
+_Trivia, or the Art of Walking the Streets of London_, a poem in three
+books, for which he acknowledged having received several hints from
+Swift. It contains graphic and humorous descriptions of the London of
+that period. In January 1717 he produced the comedy of _Three Hours
+after Marriage_, which was grossly indecent without being amusing, and
+was a complete failure. There is no doubt that in this piece he had
+assistance from Pope and Arbuthnot, but they were glad enough to have it
+assumed that Gay was the sole author.
+
+Gay had numerous patrons, and in 1720 he published _Poems on Several
+Occasions_ by subscription, realizing £1000 or more. In that year James
+Craggs, the secretary of state, presented him with some South Sea stock.
+Gay, disregarding the prudent advice of Pope and other of his friends,
+invested his all in South Sea stock, and, holding on to the end, he lost
+everything. The shock is said to have made him dangerously ill. As a
+matter of fact Gay had always been a spoilt child, who expected
+everything to be done for him. His friends did not fail him at this
+juncture. He had patrons in William Pulteney, afterwards earl of Bath,
+in the third earl of Burlington, who constantly entertained him at
+Chiswick or at Burlington House, and in the third earl of Queensberry.
+He was a frequent visitor with Pope, and received unvarying kindness
+from Congreve and Arbuthnot. In 1724 he produced a tragedy called _The
+Captives_. In 1727 he wrote for Prince William, afterwards duke of
+Cumberland, his famous _Fifty-one Fables in Verse_, for which he
+naturally hoped to gain some preferment, although he has much to say in
+them of the servility of courtiers and the vanity of court honours. He
+was offered the situation of gentleman-usher to the Princess Louisa, who
+was still a child. He refused this offer, which all his friends seem to
+have regarded, for no very obvious reason, as an indignity. As the
+_Fables_ were written for the amusement of one royal child, there would
+appear to have been a measure of reason in giving him a sinecure in the
+service of another. His friends thought him unjustly neglected by the
+court, but he had already received (1722) a sinecure as lottery
+commissioner with a salary of £150 a year, and from 1722 to 1729 he had
+lodgings in the palace at Whitehall. He had never rendered any special
+services to the court.
+
+He certainly did nothing to conciliate the favour of the government by
+his next production, the _Beggars' Opera_, a lyrical drama produced on
+the 29th of January 1728 by Rich, in which Sir Robert Walpole was
+caricatured. This famous piece, which was said to have made "Rich gay
+and Gay rich," was an innovation in many respects, and for a time it
+drove Italian opera off the English stage. Under cover of the thieves
+and highwaymen who figured in it was disguised a satire on society, for
+Gay made it plain that in describing the moral code of his characters he
+had in mind the corruptions of the governing class. Part of the success
+of the _Beggars' Opera_ may have been due to the acting of Lavinia
+Fenton, afterwards duchess of Bolton, in the part of Polly Peachum. The
+play ran for sixty-two nights, though the representations, four of which
+were "benefits" of the author, were not, as has sometimes been stated,
+consecutive. Swift is said to have suggested the subject, and Pope and
+Arbuthnot were constantly consulted while the work was in progress, but
+Gay must be regarded as the sole author. He wrote a sequel, _Polly_, the
+representation of which was forbidden by the lord chamberlain, no doubt
+through the influence of Walpole. This act of "oppression" caused no
+loss to Gay. It proved an excellent advertisement for _Polly_, which was
+published by subscription in 1729, and brought its author more than
+£1000. The duchess of Queensberry was dismissed from court for enlisting
+subscribers in the palace. The duke of Queensberry gave him a home, and
+the duchess continued her affectionate patronage until Gay's death,
+which took place on the 4th of December 1732. He was buried in
+Westminster Abbey. The epitaph on his tomb is by Pope, and is followed
+by Gay's own mocking couplet:--
+
+  "Life is a jest, and all things show it,
+   I thought so once, and now I know it."
+
+_Acis and Galatea_, an English pastoral opera, the music of which was
+written by Handel, was produced at the Haymarket in 1732. The profits of
+his posthumous opera of _Achilles_ (1733), and a new volume of _Fables_
+(1738) went to his two sisters, who inherited from him a fortune of
+£6000. He left two other pieces, _The Distressed Wife_ (1743), a comedy,
+and _The Rehearsal at Goatham_ (1754), a farce. The _Fables_, slight as
+they may appear, cost him more labour than any of his other works. The
+narratives are in nearly every case original, and are told in clear and
+lively verse. The moral which rounds off each little story is never
+strained. They are masterpieces in their kind, and the very numerous
+editions of them prove their popularity. They have been translated into
+Latin, French and Italian, Urdu and Bengali.
+
+  See his _Poetical Works_ (1893) in the Muses' Library, with an
+  introduction by Mr John Underhill; also Samuel Johnson's _Lives of the
+  Poets_, John Gay's _Singspiele_ (1898), edited by G. Sarrazin
+  (_Englische Textbibliothek II._); and an article by Austin Dobson in
+  vol. 21 of the _Dictionary of National Biography_; _Gay's Chair_
+  (1820), edited by Henry Lee, a fellow-townsman, contained a
+  biographical sketch by his nephew, the Rev. Joseph Baller.
+
+
+
+
+GAY, MARIE FRANÇOISE SOPHIE (1776-1852), French author, was born in
+Paris on the 1st of July 1776. Madame Gay was the daughter of M.
+Nichault de la Valette and of Francesca Peretti, an Italian lady. In
+1793 she was married to M. Liottier, an exchange broker, but she was
+divorced from him in 1799, and shortly afterwards was married to M. Gay,
+receiver-general of the department of the Roër or Ruhr. This union
+brought her into intimate relations with many distinguished personages;
+and her salon came to be frequented by all the distinguished
+littérateurs, musicians, actors and painters of the time, whom she
+attracted by her beauty, her vivacity and her many amiable qualities.
+Her first literary production was a letter written in 1802 to the
+_Journal de Paris_, in defence of Madame de Staël's novel, _Delphine_;
+and in the same year she published anonymously her first novel _Laure
+d'Estell_. _Léonie de Montbreuse_, which appeared in 1813, is considered
+by Sainte-Beuve her best work; but _Anatole_ (1815), the romance of a
+deaf-mute, has perhaps a higher reputation. Among her other works,
+_Salons célèbres_ (2 vols., 1837) may be especially mentioned. Madame
+Gay wrote several comedies and opera libretti which met with
+considerable success. She was also an accomplished musician, and
+composed both the words and music of a number of songs. She died in
+Paris on the 5th of March 1852. For an account of her daughter, Delphine
+Gay, Madame de Girardin, see GIRARDIN.
+
+  See her own _Souvenirs d'une vieille femme_ (1834); also Théophile
+  Gautier, _Portraits contemporains_; and Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du
+  lundi_, vol. vi.
+
+
+
+
+GAY, WALTER (1856-   ), American artist, was born at Hingham,
+Massachusetts, on the 22nd of January 1856. In 1876 he became a pupil of
+Léon Bonnat in Paris. He received an honourable mention in the Salon of
+1885; a gold medal in 1888, and similar awards at Vienna (1894), Antwerp
+(1895), Berlin (1896) and Munich (1897). He became an officer of the
+Legion of Honour and a member of the Society of Secession, Munich. Works
+by him are in the Luxembourg, the Tate Gallery (London), and the Boston
+and Metropolitan (New York) Museums of Art. His compositions are mainly
+figure subjects portraying French peasant life.
+
+
+
+
+GAYA, a city and district of British India, in the Patna division of
+Bengal. The city is situated 85 m. S. of Patna by rail. Pop. (1901)
+71,288. It consists of two distinct parts, adjoining each other; the
+part containing the residences of the priests is Gaya proper; and the
+other, which is the business quarter, is called Sahibganj. The civil
+offices and residences of the European inhabitants are situated here.
+Gaya derives its sanctity from incidents in the life of Buddha. But a
+local legend also exists concerning a pagan monster of great sanctity,
+named Gaya, who by long penance had become holy, so that all who saw or
+touched him were saved from perdition. Yama, the lord of hell, appealed
+to the gods, who induced Gaya to lie down in order that his body might
+be a place of sacrifice; and once down, Yama placed a large stone on him
+to keep him there. The tricked demon struggled violently, and, in order
+to pacify him, Vishnu promised that the gods should take up their
+permanent residence in him, and that any one who made a pilgrimage to
+the spot where he lay should be delivered from the terrors of the Hindu
+place of torment. This may possibly be a Brahmanic rendering of Buddha's
+life and work. There are forty-five sacred spots (of which the temple of
+Vishnupada is the chief) in and around the city, and these are visited
+by thousands of pilgrims annually. During the Mutiny the large store of
+treasure here was conveyed safely to Calcutta by Mr A. Money. The city
+contains a government high school and an hospital, with a Lady Elgin
+branch for women.
+
+The DISTRICT OF GAYA comprises an area of 4712 sq. m. Generally
+speaking, it consists of a level plain, with a ridge of prettily wooded
+hills along the southern boundary, whence the country falls with a
+gentle slope towards the Ganges. Rocky hills occasionally occur, either
+detached or in groups, the loftiest being Maher hill about 12 m. S.E. of
+Gaya city, with an elevation of 1620 ft. above sea-level. The eastern
+part of the district is highly cultivated; the portions to the north and
+west are less fertile; while in the south the country is thinly peopled
+and consists of hills, the jungles on which are full of wild animals.
+The principal river is the Son, which marks the boundary between Gaya
+and Shahabad, navigable by small boats throughout the year, and by craft
+of 20-tons burden in the rainy season. Other rivers are the Punpun,
+Phalgu and Jamuna. Two branches of the Son canal system, the eastern
+main canal and the Patna canal, intersect the district. In 1901 the
+population was 2,059,933, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. Among
+the higher castes there is an unusually large proportion of Brahmans, a
+circumstance due to the number of sacred places which the district
+contains. The Gayawals, or priests in charge of the holy places, are
+held in high esteem by the pilgrims; but they are not pure Brahmans, and
+are looked down upon by those who are. They live an idle and dissolute
+life, but are very wealthy, from contributions extorted from the
+pilgrims. Buddh Gaya, about 6 m. S. of Gaya city, is one of the holiest
+sites of Buddhism, as containing the tree under which Sakyamuni attained
+enlightenment. In addition to many ruins and sculptures, there is a
+temple restored by the government in 1881. Another place of religious
+interest is a temple of great antiquity, which crowns the highest peak
+of the Barabar hills, and at which a religious fair is held each
+September, attended by 10,000 to 20,000 pilgrims. At the foot of the
+hill are numerous rock caves excavated about 200 B.C. The opium poppy is
+largely cultivated. There are a number of lac factories. Manufactures
+consist of common brass utensils, black stone ornaments, pottery,
+tussur-silk and cotton cloth. Formerly paper-making was an important
+manufacture in the district, but it has entirely died out. The chief
+exports are food grains, oil seeds, indigo, crude opium (sent to Patna
+for manufacture), saltpetre, sugar, blankets, brass utensils, &c. The
+imports are salt, piece goods, cotton, timber, bamboos, tobacco, lac,
+iron, spices and fruits. The district is traversed by four branches of
+the East Indian railway. In 1901 it suffered severely from the plague.
+
+  See _District Gazetteer_ (1906); Sir A. Cunningham, _Mahabodhi_
+  (1892).
+
+
+
+
+GAYAL, a domesticated ox allied to the Gaur, but distinguished, among
+other features, by the more conical and straighter horns, and the
+straight line between them. Gayal are kept by the natives of the
+hill-districts of Assam and parts of Tenasserim and Upper Burma.
+Although it has received a distinct name, _Bos (Bibos) frontalis_, there
+can be little doubt that the gayal is merely a domesticated breed of the
+gaur, many gayal-skulls showing characters approximating to those of the
+gaur.
+
+
+
+
+GAYANGOS Y ARCE, PASCUAL DE (1809-1897), Spanish scholar and
+Orientalist, was born at Seville on the 21st of June 1809. At the age of
+thirteen he was sent to be educated at Pont-le-Voy near Blois, and in
+1828 began the study of Arabic under Silvestre de Sacy. After a visit to
+England, where he married, he obtained a post in the Spanish treasury,
+and was transferred to the foreign office as translator in 1833. In 1836
+he returned to England, wrote extensively in English periodicals, and
+translated Almakkari's _History of the Mahommedan Dynasties in Spain_
+(1840-1843) for the Royal Asiatic Society. In England he also made the
+acquaintance of Ticknor, to whom he was very serviceable. In 1843 he
+returned to Spain as professor of Arabic at the university of Madrid,
+which post he held until 1881, when he was made director of public
+instruction. This office he resigned upon being elected senator for the
+district of Huelva. His latter years were spent in cataloguing the
+Spanish manuscripts in the British Museum; he had previously continued
+Bergenroth's catalogue of the manuscripts relating to England in the
+Simancas archives. His best-known original work is his dissertation on
+Spanish romances of chivalry in Rivadeneyra's _Biblioteca de autores
+españoles_. He died in London on the 4th of October 1897.
+
+
+
+
+GAYARRÉ, CHARLES ÉTIENNE ARTHUR (1805-1895), American historian, was
+born in New Orleans, Louisiana, on the 9th of January 1805. After
+studying at the Collège d'Orléans he began, in 1826, to study law in
+Philadelphia, and three years later was admitted to the bar. In 1830 he
+was elected a member of the House of Representatives of Louisiana, in
+1831 was appointed deputy attorney-general of his state, in 1833 became
+presiding judge of the city court of New Orleans, and in 1834 was
+elected as a Jackson Democrat to the United States Senate. On account of
+ill-health, however, he immediately resigned without taking his seat,
+and for the next eight years travelled in Europe and collected
+historical material from the French and the Spanish archives. In
+1844-1845 and in 1856-1857 he was again a member of the state House of
+Representatives, and from 1845 to 1853 was secretary of state of
+Louisiana. He supported the Southern Confederacy during the Civil War,
+in which he lost a large fortune, and after its close lived chiefly by
+his pen. He died in New Orleans on the 11th of February 1895. He is best
+known as the historian of Louisiana. He wrote _Histoire de la Louisiane_
+(1847); _Romance of the History of Louisiana_ (1848); _Louisiana: its
+Colonial History and Romance_ (1851), reprinted in _A History of
+Louisiana_; _History of Louisiana: the Spanish Domination_ (1854);
+_Philip II. of Spain_ (1866); and _A History of Louisiana_ (4 vols.,
+1866), the last being a republication and continuation of his earlier
+works in this field, the whole comprehending the history of Louisiana
+from its earliest discovery to 1861. He wrote also several dramas and
+romances, the best of the latter being _Fernando de Lemos_ (1872).
+
+
+
+
+GAY-LUSSAC, JOSEPH LOUIS (1778-1850), French chemist and physicist, was
+born at St Léonard, in the department of Haute Vienne, on the 6th of
+December 1778. He was the elder son of Antoine Gay, _procureur du roi_
+and judge at Pont-de-Noblac, who assumed the name Lussac from a small
+property he had in the neighbourhood of St Léonard. Young Gay-Lussac
+received his early education at home under the direction of the abbé
+Bourdieux and other masters, and in 1794 was sent to Paris to prepare
+for the École Polytechnique, into which he was admitted at the end of
+1797 after a brilliant examination. Three years later he was transferred
+to the École des Ponts et Chaussées, and shortly afterwards was assigned
+to C.L. Berthollet, who wanted an able student to help in his
+researches. The new assistant scarcely came up to expectations in
+respect of confirming certain theoretical views of his master's by the
+experiments set him to that end, and appears to have stated the
+discrepancy without reserve; but Berthollet nevertheless quickly
+recognized the ability displayed, and showed his appreciation not only
+by desiring to be Gay-Lussac's "father in science," but also by making
+him in 1807 an original member of the Société d'Arcueil. In 1802 he was
+appointed demonstrator to A.F. Fourcroy at the École Polytechnique,
+where subsequently (1809) he became professor of chemistry, and from
+1808 to 1832 he was professor of physics at the Sorbonne, a post which
+he only resigned for the chair of chemistry at the Jardin des Plantes.
+In 1831 he was elected to represent Haute Vienne in the chamber of
+deputies, and in 1839 he entered the chamber of peers. He died in Paris
+on the 9th of May 1850.
+
+Gay-Lussac's earlier researches were mostly physical in character and
+referred mainly to the properties of gases, vapour-tensions, hygrometry,
+capillarity, &c. In his first memoir (_Ann. de Chimie_, 1802) he showed
+that different gases are dilated in the same proportion when heated from
+0° to 100° C. Apparently he did not know of Dalton's experiments on the
+same point, which indeed were far from accurate; but in a note he
+explained that "le cit. Charles avait remarqué depuis 15 ans la même
+propriété dans ces gaz; mais n'ayant jamais publié ses résultats, c'est
+par le plus grand hasard que je les ai connus." In consequence of his
+candour in thus rescuing from oblivion the observation which his
+fellow-citizen did not think worth publishing, his name is sometimes
+dissociated from this law, which instead is known as that of Charles. In
+1804 he had an opportunity of prosecuting his researches on air in
+somewhat unusual conditions, for the French Academy, desirous of
+securing some observations on the force of terrestrial magnetism at
+great elevations above the earth, through Berthollet and J.E. Chaptal
+obtained the use of the balloon which had been employed in Egypt, and
+entrusted the task to him and J.B. Biot. In their first ascent from the
+garden of the Conservatoire des Arts on the 24th of August 1804 an
+altitude of 4000 metres (about 13,000 ft.) was attained. But this
+elevation was not considered sufficient by Gay-Lussac, who therefore
+made a second ascent by himself oh the 16th of September, when the
+balloon rose 7016 metres (about 23,000 ft.) above sea-level. At this
+height, with the thermometer marking 9½ degrees below freezing, he
+remained for a considerable time, making observations not only on
+magnetism, but also on the temperature and humidity of the air, and
+collecting several samples of air at different heights. The magnetic
+observations, though imperfect, led him to the conclusion that the
+magnetic effect at all attainable elevations above the earth's surface
+remains constant; and on analysing the samples of air he could find no
+difference of composition at different heights. (For an account of both
+ascents see _Journ. de phys._ for 1804.) On the 1st of October in the
+same year, in conjunction with Alexander von Humboldt, he read a paper
+on eudiometric analysis (_Ann. de Chim._, 1805), which contained the
+germ of his most important generalization, the authors noting that when
+oxygen and hydrogen combine together by volume, it is in the proportion
+of one volume of the former to two volumes of the latter. But his law of
+combination by volumes was not enunciated in its general form until
+after his return from a scientific journey through Switzerland, Italy
+and Germany, on which with Humboldt he started from Paris in March 1805.
+This journey was interrupted in the spring of 1806 by the news of the
+death of M.J. Brisson, and Gay-Lussac hurried back to Paris in the hope,
+which was gratified, that he would be elected to the seat thus vacated
+in the Academy. In 1807 an account of the magnetic observations made
+during the tour with Humboldt was published in the first volume of the
+_Mémoires d'Arcueil_, and the second volume, published in 1809,
+contained the important memoir on gaseous combination (read to the
+Société Philomathique on the last day of 1808), in which he pointed out
+that gases combining with each other in volume do so in the simplest
+proportions--1 to 1, 1 to 2, 1 to 3--and that the volume of the compound
+formed bears a simple ratio to that of the constituents.
+
+About this time Gay-Lussac's work, although he by no means entirely
+abandoned physical questions, became of a more chemical character; and
+in three instances it brought him into direct rivalry with Sir Humphry
+Davy. In the first case Davy's preparation of potassium and sodium by
+the electric current spurred on Gay-Lussac and his collaborator L.J.
+Thénard, who had no battery at their disposal, to search for a chemical
+method of obtaining those metals, and by the action of red-hot iron on
+fused potash--a method of which Davy admitted the advantages--they
+succeeded in 1808 in preparing potassium, going on to make a full study
+of its properties and to use it, as Davy also did, for the reduction of
+boron from boracic acid in 1809. The second concerned the nature of
+"oxymuriatic acid" (chlorine). While admitting the possibility that it
+was an elementary body, after many experiments they finally declared it
+to be a compound (_Mém. d'Arcueil_, 1809). Davy, on the other hand,
+could see no reason to suppose it contained oxygen, as they surmised,
+and ultimately they had to accept his view of its elementary character.
+The third case roused most feeling of all. Davy, passing through Paris
+on his way to Italy at the end of 1813, obtained a few fragments of
+iodine, which had been discovered by Bernard Courtois (1777-1838) in
+1811, and after a brief examination by the aid of his limited portable
+laboratory perceived its analogy to chlorine and inferred it to be an
+element. Gay-Lussac, it is said, was nettled at the idea of a foreigner
+making such a discovery in Paris, and vigorously took up the study of
+the new substance, the result being the "Mémoire sur l'iode," which
+appeared in the _Ann. de chim._ in 1814. He too saw its resemblance to
+chlorine, and was obliged to agree with Davy's opinion as to its simple
+nature, though not without some hesitation, due doubtless to his
+previous declaration about chlorine. Davy on his side seems to have felt
+that the French chemist was competing with him, not altogether fairly,
+in trying to appropriate the honour of discovering the character of the
+substance and of its compound, hydriodic acid.
+
+In 1810 he published a paper which contains some classic experiments on
+fermentation, a subject to which he returned in a second paper published
+in 1815. At the same time he was working with Thénard at the improvement
+of the methods of organic analysis, and by combustion with oxidizing
+agents, first potassium chlorate and subsequently copper oxide, he
+determined the composition of a number of organic substances. But his
+last great piece of pure research was on prussic acid. In a note
+published in 1811 he described the physical properties of this acid, but
+he said nothing about its chemical composition till 1815, when he
+described cyanogen as a compound radicle, prussic acid as a compound of
+that radicle with hydrogen alone, and the prussiates (cyanides) as
+compounds of the radicle with metals. The proof that prussic acid
+contains hydrogen but no oxygen was a most important support to the
+hydrogen-acid theory, and completed the downfall of Lavoisier's oxygen
+theory; while the isolation of cyanogen was of equal importance for the
+subsequent era of compound radicles in organic chemistry.
+
+After this research Gay-Lussac's attention began to be distracted from
+purely scientific investigation. He had now secured a leading if not the
+foremost place among the chemists of the French capital, and the demand
+for his services as adviser in technical problems and matters of
+practical interest made great inroads on his available time. He had been
+a member of the consultative committee on arts and manufactures since
+1805; he was attached to the "administration des poudres et salpêtres"
+in 1818, and in 1829 he received the lucrative post of assayer to the
+mint. In these new fields he displayed the powers so conspicuous in his
+scientific inquiries, and he was now to introduce and establish
+scientific accuracy where previously there had been merely practical
+approximations. His services to industry included his improvements in
+the processes for the manufacture of sulphuric acid (1818) and oxalic
+acid (1829); methods of estimating the amount of real alkali in potash
+and soda by the volume of standard acid required for neutralization, and
+for estimating the available chlorine in bleaching powder by a solution
+of arsenious acid; directions for the use of the centesimal
+alcoholometer published in 1824 and specially commended by the
+Institute; and the elaboration of a method of assaying silver by a
+standard solution of common salt, a volume on which was published in
+1833. Among his research work of this period may be mentioned the
+improvements in organic analysis and the investigation of fulminic acid
+made with the help of Liebig, who gained the privilege of admission to
+his private laboratory in 1823-1824.
+
+Gay-Lussac was patient, persevering, accurate to punctiliousness,
+perhaps a little cold and reserved, and not unaware of his great
+ability. But he was also bold and energetic, not only in his work but
+also in support and defence of his friends. His early childish
+adventures, as told by Arago, herald the fearless aeronaut and the
+undaunted investigator of volcanic eruptions (Vesuvius was in full
+eruption when he visited it during his tour in 1805); and the endurance
+he exhibited under the laboratory accidents that befell him shows the
+power of will with which he would face the prospect of becoming blind
+and useless for the prosecution of the science which was his very life,
+and of which he was one of the most distinguished ornaments. Only at the
+very end, when the disease from which he was suffering left him no hope,
+did he complain with some bitterness of the hardship of leaving this
+world where the many discoveries being made pointed to yet greater
+discoveries to come.
+
+  The most complete list of Gay-Lussac's papers is contained in the
+  Royal Society's _Catalogue of Scientific Papers_, which enumerates
+  148, exclusive of others written jointly with Humboldt, Thénard,
+  Welter and Liebig. Many of them were published in the _Annales de
+  chimie_, which after it changed its title to _Annales de chimie et
+  physique_ he edited, with Arago, up to nearly the end of his life; but
+  some are to be found in the _Mémoires d'Arcueil_ and the _Comptes
+  rendus_, and in the _Recherches physiques et chimiques_, published
+  with Thénard in 1811.
+
+
+
+
+GAZA, THEODORUS (c. 1400-1475), one of the Greek scholars who were the
+leaders of the revival of learning in the 15th century, was born at
+Thessalonica. On the capture of his native city by the Turks in 1430 he
+fled to Italy. During a three years' residence in Mantua he rapidly
+acquired a competent knowledge of Latin under the teaching of Vittorino
+da Feltre, supporting himself meanwhile by giving lessons in Greek, and
+by copying manuscripts of the ancient classics.[1] In 1447 he became
+professor of Greek in the newly founded university of Ferrara, to which
+students in great numbers from all parts of Italy were soon attracted by
+his fame as a teacher. He had taken some part in the councils which were
+held in Siena (1423), Ferrara (1438), and Florence (1439), with the
+object of bringing about a reconciliation between the Greek and Latin
+Churches; and in 1450, at the invitation of Pope Nicholas V., he went to
+Rome, where he was for some years employed by his patron in making Latin
+translations from Aristotle and other Greek authors. After the death of
+Nicholas (1455), being unable to make a living at Rome, Gaza removed to
+Naples, where he enjoyed the patronage of Alphonso the Magnanimous for
+two years (1456-1458). Shortly afterwards he was appointed by Cardinal
+Bessarion to a benefice in Calabria, where the later years of his life
+were spent, and where he died about 1475. Gaza stood high in the opinion
+of most of his learned contemporaries, but still higher in that of the
+scholars of the succeeding generation. His Greek grammar (in four
+books), written in Greek, first printed at Venice in 1495, and
+afterwards partially translated by Erasmus in 1521, although in many
+respects defective, especially in its syntax, was for a long time the
+leading text-book. His translations into Latin were very numerous,
+including the _Problemata_, _De partibus animalium_ and _De generatione
+animalium_ of Aristotle; the _Historia plantarum_ of Theophrastus; the
+_Problemata_ of Alexander Aphrodisias; the _De instruendis aciebus_ of
+Aelian; the _De compositione verborum_ of Dionysius of Halicarnassus;
+and some of the _Homilies_ of John Chrysostom. He also turned into Greek
+Cicero's _De senectute_ and _Somnium Scipionis_--with much success, in
+the opinion of Erasmus; with more elegance than exactitude, according to
+the colder judgment of modern scholars. He was the author also of two
+small treatises entitled _De mensibus_ and _De origine Turcarum_.
+
+  See G. Voigt, _Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums_ (1893),
+  and article by C.F. Bähr in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine
+  Encyklopädie_. For a complete list of his works, see Fabricius,
+  _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (ed. Harles), x.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] According to Voigt, Gaza came to Italy some ten years later from
+    Constantinople, where he had been a teacher or held some clerical
+    office.
+
+
+
+
+GAZA (or 'AZZAH, mod. _Ghuzzeh_), the most southerly of the five
+princely Philistine cities, situated near the sea, at the point where
+the old trade routes from Egypt, Arabia and Petra to Syria met. It was
+always a strong border fortress and a place of commercial importance, in
+many respects the southern counterpart of Damascus. The earliest notice
+of it is in the Tell el-Amarna tablets, in a letter from the local
+governor, who then held it for Egypt, with which country it always stood
+in close connexion. It never passed for long into Israelite hands,
+though subject for a while to Hezekiah of Judah; from him it passed to
+Assyria. In Amos i. 6 the city is denounced for giving up Hebrew slaves
+to Edom. To Herodotus (iii. 5) the place seemed as important as Sardis.
+The city withstood Alexander the Great for five months (332 B.C.), and
+in 96 B.C. was razed to the ground by Alexander Jannaeus. It was rebuilt
+by Aulus Gabinius, 57 B.C., but on a new site; the old site was
+remembered and spoken of as "Old" or "Desert Gaza": compare Acts viii.
+26. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries Gaza was a thriving Greek city, with
+good schools and famous temples, especially one to the local god Marna
+(i.e. "Lord" or "Our Lord"). A statue of this god has been found near
+Gaza; it much resembles the Greek representation of Zeus. The struggle
+with Christianity here was long and intense. Egyptian monks gradually
+won over the country folk, and in 402, under the influence of Theodosius
+and Porphyry the local bishop, the Marneion was destroyed and the cross
+made politically supreme. In the 5th and 6th centuries Gaza was held in
+high repute as a place of learning. But after it passed into Moslem
+hands (635) it gradually lost all save commercial importance, and even
+the Crusaders did little to revive its old military glory. It finally
+was captured by the Moslems in 1244. Napoleon captured it in 1799.
+
+The modern town (pop. 16,000) is divided into four quarters, one of
+which is built on a low hill. A magnificent grove of very ancient olives
+forms an avenue 4 m. long to the north. There are many lofty minarets in
+various parts of the town, and a fine mosque built of ancient materials.
+A 12th century church towards the south side of the hill has also been
+converted into a mosque. On the east is shown the tomb of Samson (an
+erroneous tradition dating back to the middle ages). The ancient walls
+are now covered up beneath green mounds of rubbish. The water-supply is
+from wells sunk through the sandy soil to the rock; of these there are
+more than twenty--an unusual number for a Syrian town. The land for the
+3 m. between Gaza and the sea consists principally of sand dunes. There
+is no natural harbour, but traces of ruins near the shore mark the site
+of the old Maiuma Gazae or Port of Gaza, now called el Mineh, which in
+the 5th century was a separate town and episcopal see, under the title
+Constantia or Limena Gaza. Hashem, an ancestor of Mahomet, lies buried
+in the town. On the east are remains of a race-course, the corners
+marked by granite shafts with Greek inscriptions on them. To the south
+is a remarkable hill, quite isolated and bare, with a small mosque and a
+graveyard. It is called el Muntar, "the watch tower," and is supposed to
+be the mountain "before (or facing) Hebron," to which Samson carried the
+gates of Gaza (Judg. xvi. 3). The bazaars of Gaza are considered good.
+An extensive pottery exists in the town, and black earthenware peculiar
+to the place is manufactured there. The climate is dry and comparatively
+healthy, but the summer temperature often exceeds 110° Fahr. The
+surrounding country is partly cornland, partly waste, and is inhabited
+by wandering Arabs. The prosperity of Ghuzzeh has partially revived
+through the growing trade in barley, of which the average annual export
+to Great Britain for 1897-1899 was over 30,000 tons. The dress of the
+people is Egyptian rather than Syrian. Gaza is an episcopal see both of
+the Greek and the Armenian church. The Church Missionary Society
+maintains a mission, with schools for both sexes, and a hospital.
+
+
+
+
+GAZALAND, a district of Portuguese East Africa, extending north from the
+Komati or Manhissa river, Delagoa Bay, to the Pungwe river. It is a
+well-watered, fertile country. Gazaland is one of the chief recruiting
+grounds for negro labour in the Transvaal gold mines. The country
+derives its name from a Swazi chief named Gaza, a contemporary of Chaka,
+the Zulu king. Refugees from various clans oppressed by Dingaan (Chaka's
+successor) were welded into one tribe by Gaza's son Manikusa, who took
+the name of Sotshangana, his followers being known generally as
+Matshangana. A section of them was called Maviti or Landeens (i.e.
+couriers), a designation which persists as a tribal name. Between 1833
+and 1836 Manikusa made himself master of the country as far north as the
+Zambezi and captured the Portuguese posts at Delagoa Bay, Inhambane,
+Sofala and Sena, killing nearly all the inhabitants. The Portuguese
+reoccupied their posts, but held them with great difficulty, while in
+the interior the Matshangana continued their ravages unchecked,
+depopulating large regions. Manikusa died about 1860, and his son
+Umzila, receiving some help from the Portuguese at Delagoa Bay in a
+struggle against a brother for the chieftainship, ceded to them the
+territory south of the Manhissa river. North of that stream as far as
+the Zambezi and inland to the continental plateau Umzila established
+himself in independence, a position he maintained till his death (c.
+1884). His chief rival was a Goanese named Gouveia, who came to Africa
+about 1850. Having obtained possession of a _prazo_ in the Gorongoza
+district, he ruled there as a feudal lord while acknowledging himself a
+Portuguese subject. Gouveia recovered from the Matshangana and other
+troublers of the peace much of the country in the Zambezi valley, and
+was appointed by the Portuguese captain-general of a large region. From
+1868 onward the country began to be better known. Probably the first
+European to penetrate any distance inland from the Sofala coast since
+the Portuguese gold-seekers of the 16th century was St Vincent W.
+Erskine, who explored the region between the Limpopo and Pungwe
+(1868-1875). Portugal's hold on the coast had been more firmly
+established at the time of Umzila's death, and Gungunyana, his
+successor, was claimed as a vassal, while efforts were made to open up
+the interior. This led in 1890-1891 to collisions on the borderland of
+the plateau with the newly established British South Africa Company, and
+to the arrest by the company's agents of Gouveia, who was, however, set
+at liberty and returned to Mozambique via Cape Town. An offer made by
+Gungunyana (1891) to come under British protection was not accepted. In
+1892 Gouveia was killed in a war with a native chief. Gungunyana
+maintained his independence until 1895, when he was captured by a
+Portuguese force and exiled, first to Lisbon and afterwards to Angola,
+where he died in 1906. With the capture of Gungunyana opposition to
+Portuguese rule largely ceased.
+
+In flora, fauna and commerce Gazaland resembles the neighbouring regions
+of Portuguese East Africa. (q.v.).
+
+  See G. McCall Theal, _History of South Africa since 1795_, vol. v.
+  (London, 1908).
+
+
+
+
+GAZEBO (usually explained as a comic Latinism, for "I will gaze"; the
+_New English Dictionary_ suggests a possible oriental origin now lost),
+a term used in the 18th century for a structure on the outer wall of a
+garden, having an upper storey with windows on each side so as to
+overlook the road. Similar buildings are found in Holland on the borders
+of the canals, which in some cases form very picturesque features.
+
+
+
+
+GAZETTE, a name given to news-sheets or newspapers having an abstract of
+current events (see NEWSPAPERS). The _London Gazette_ is the title of
+the English official organ for announcements by the government, and is
+published every Tuesday and Friday. It contains all proclamations,
+orders of council, promotions and appointments to commissions in the
+army and navy, all appointments to offices of state, and such other
+orders, rules and regulations as are directed by act of parliament to be
+published therein. It also contains notices of proceedings in
+bankruptcy, dissolutions of partnership, &c. By the Documentary Evidence
+Act 1868 the production of a copy of the _Gazette_ is prima facie
+evidence of royal proclamations and government orders and regulations.
+Similar gazettes are also published in Edinburgh and Dublin. Most
+countries (the United States excepted) have official journals containing
+information more or less similar to that of the _London Gazette_, as the
+French _Journal officiel_, the German _Deutscher Reichs-und Kgl. Preuss.
+Staats-Anzeiger_, &c. The word "gazetteer" was originally applied to one
+who wrote for "gazettes," but is now only used for a geographical
+dictionary arranged on an alphabetical plan.
+
+
+
+
+GEAR (connected with "garb," properly elegance, fashion, especially of
+dress, and with "gar," to cause to do, only found in Scottish and
+northern dialects; the root of the word is seen in the Old Teut.
+_garwjan_, to make ready), an outfit, applied to the wearing apparel of
+a person, or to the harness and trappings of a horse or any draft
+animal, as riding-gear, hunting-gear, &c.; also to household goods or
+stuff. The phrase "out of gear," though now connected with the
+mechanical application of the word, was originally used to signify "out
+of harness" or condition, not ready to work, not fit. The word is also
+used of apparatus generally, and especially of the parts collectively in
+a machine by which motion is transmitted from one part to another by a
+series of cog-wheels, continuous bands, &c. It is used in a special
+sense in reference to a bicycle, meaning the diameter of an imaginary
+wheel, the circumference of which is equal to the distance accomplished
+by one revolution of the pedals (see BICYCLE).
+
+
+
+
+GEBER. The name Geber has long been used to designate the author of a
+number of Latin treatises on alchemy, entitled _Summa perfectionis
+magisterii, De investigatione perfectionis, De inventione veritatis,
+Liber fornacum, Testamentum Geberi Regis Indiae and Alchemia Geberi_,
+and these writings were generally regarded as translations from the
+Arabic originals of Abu Abdallah Jaber ben Hayyam (Haiyan) ben Abdallah
+al-Kufi, who is supposed to have lived in the 8th or 9th century of the
+Christian era. About him, however, there is considerable uncertainty.
+According to the _Kitab-al-Fihrist_ (10th century), which gives his name
+as above, the authorities disagree, some asserting him to have been a
+writer on philosophy and rhetoric, and others claiming for him the first
+place among the adepts of his time in the art of making gold and silver.
+The writer of the _Kitab-al-Fihrist_ says he had been assured that Jaber
+only wrote one book and even that he never existed at all, but these
+statements he scouts as ridiculous, and expressing the conviction that
+Jaber really did exist, and that his works were numerous and important,
+goes on to quote the titles of some 500 treatises attributed to him. He
+is said to have resided most frequently at Kufa, where he prepared the
+"elixir," but, according to others, he never spent long in one place,
+having reason to keep his whereabouts unknown. His patron or master is
+variously given as Ja'far ben Yahya, and as Ja'far es-Sadiq; in the
+Arabic _Book of Royalty_, professedly written by him, he addresses the
+last-named as his master. In addition to these details the Fihrist
+mentions a tradition that he originally came from Khorasan. Another
+story given by d'Herbelot (_Bibliothèque orientale_, s.v. "Giaber")
+makes him a native of Harran in Mesopotamia and a Sabaean. Leo
+Africanus, who in 1526 gave an account of the Alchemists of Fez in
+Africa (see the English translation of his _Africae descriptio_ by John
+Pory, _A Geographical History of Africa_, London, 1600, p. 155), states
+that their principal authority was Geber, a Greek who had apostatized to
+Mahommedanism and lived a century after Mahomet. In Albertus Magnus the
+name Geber occurs only once and then with the epithet "of Seville";
+doubtless the reference is to the Arabian Jabir ben Aflah, who lived in
+that city in the 11th century, and wrote an astronomy in 9 books which
+is of importance in the history of trigonometry.
+
+The great puzzle connected with the name Geber lies in the character of
+the writings attributed to him, their style and matter differentiating
+them strongly from those of even the best authors of the later
+alchemical period, and making it difficult to account for their
+existence at all. The researches of M.P.E. Berthelot threw a great deal
+of light on this question. Taking the six treatises enumerated above he
+concluded, after critical examination, that the two last may be
+disregarded as of later date than the others, and that the _De
+investigatione perfectionis_, the _De inventione_ and the _Liber
+fornacum_ are merely extracts from or summaries of the _Summa
+perfectionis_ with later additions. The _Summa_ he therefore regarded as
+representative of the work of the Latin Geber, and study of it convinced
+him that it contains no indication of an Arabic origin, either in its
+method, which is conspicuous for clearness of reasoning and logical
+co-ordination of material, or in its facts, or in the words and persons
+quoted. Without going so far as to deny that some words and phrases may
+be taken from the writings of the Arabian Jaber, he was disposed to hold
+that it is the original work of some unknown Latin author, who wrote it
+in the second half of the 13th century and put it under the patronage of
+the venerated name of Geber. The MS. of this work in the Bibliothèque
+Nationale at Paris dates from about the year 1300. Berthelot further
+investigated Arabic MSS. existing in the Paris library and in the
+university of Leiden, and containing works attributed to Jaber, and had
+translations made of six treatises--two, of which he gives the titles as
+_Livre de la royauté_ and _Petit Livre de la miséricorde_,--from Paris,
+and four--_Livre des balances, Livre de la miséricorde, Livre de la
+concentration_ and _Livre de la mercure orientale_--from Leiden.
+Berthelot was not prepared to assert that these treatises were actually
+written by Jaber, but he held it certain that they are works written in
+Arabic between the 9th and 12th centuries, at a period anterior to the
+relations of the Latins with the Arabs. In style these treatises are
+entirely different from the _Summa_ of Geber. Their language is vague
+and allegorical, full of allusions and pious Mussulman invocations; the
+author continually announces that he is about to speak without mystery
+or reserve, but all the same never gives any precise details of the
+secrets he professes to reveal. He holds the doctrine that everything
+endowed with an apparent quality possesses an opposite occult quality in
+much the same terms as it is found in Latin writers of the middle ages,
+but he makes no allusion to the theory of the generation of the metals
+by sulphur and mercury, a theory generally attributed to Geber, who also
+added arsenic to the list. Again he fully accepts the influence of the
+stars on the production of the metals, whereas the Latin Geber disputes
+it, and in general the chemical knowledge of the two is on a different
+plane. Here again the inference is that the Latin treatises printed from
+the 15th century onwards as the work of Geber are not authentic,
+regarded as translations of the Arabic author Jaber, always supposing
+that the Arabic MSS. transcribed and translated for Berthelot are
+really, as they profess to be, the work of Jaber, and as representative
+of his opinions and attainments.
+
+But while Berthelot thus deprived the world of what were long regarded
+as genuine Latin versions of Jaber's works, he also gave it something in
+their place, for among the Paris MSS. he found a mutilated treatise,
+hitherto unpublished, entitled _Liber de Septuaginta (Johannis),
+translatus a Magistro Renaldo Cremonensi_, which he considered the only
+known Latin work that can be regarded as a translation from the Arabic
+Jaber. The latter states in the Arabic works referred to above that
+under that title he collected 70 of the 500 little treatises or tracts
+of which he was the author, and the titles of those tracts enumerated in
+the _Kitab-al-Fihrist_ as forming the chapters of the _Liber de
+Septuaginta_ correspond in general with those of the Latin work, which
+further is written in a style similar to that of the Arabic Jaber and
+contains the same doctrines. Hence Berthelot felt justified in assigning
+it to Jaber, although no Arabic original is known.
+
+The evidence collected by Berthelot has an important bearing on the
+history of chemistry. Most of the chemical knowledge attributed to the
+Arabs has been attributed to them on the strength of the reputed Latin
+writings of Geber. If, therefore, these are original works rather than
+translations, and contain facts and doctrines which are not to be found
+in the Arabian Jaber, it follows that, on the one hand, the chemical
+knowledge of the Arabs has been overestimated and, on the other, that
+more progress was made in the middle ages than has generally been
+supposed.
+
+  See M.P.E. Berthelot's works on the history of alchemy and especially
+  his _Chimie au moyen âge_ (3 vols., Paris, 1893), the third volume of
+  which contains a French translation of Jaber's works together with the
+  Arabic text.
+
+
+
+
+GEBHARD TRUCHSESS VON WALDBURG (1547-1601), elector and archbishop of
+Cologne, was the second son of William, count of Waldburg, and nephew of
+Otto, cardinal bishop of Augsburg (1514-1573). Belonging thus to an old
+and distinguished Swabian family, he was born on the 10th of November
+1547, and after studying at the universities of Ingolstadt, Perugia,
+Louvain and elsewhere began his ecclesiastical career at Augsburg.
+Subsequently he held other positions at Strassburg, Cologne and
+Augsburg, and in December 1577 was chosen elector of Cologne after a
+spirited contest. Gebhard is chiefly noted for his conversion to the
+reformed doctrines, and for his marriage with Agnes, countess of
+Mansfeld, which was connected with this step. After living in
+concubinage with Agnes he decided, perhaps under compulsion, to marry
+her, doubtless intending at the same time to resign his see. Other
+counsels, however, prevailed. Instigated by some Protestant supporters
+he declared he would retain the electorate, and in December 1582 he
+formally announced his conversion to the reformed faith. The marriage
+with Agnes was celebrated in the following February, and Gebhard
+remained in possession of the see. This affair created a great stir in
+Germany, and the clause concerning ecclesiastical reservation in the
+religious peace of Augsburg was interpreted in one way by his friends,
+and in another way by his foes; the former holding that he could retain
+his office, the latter that he must resign. Anticipating events Gebhard
+had collected some troops, and had taken measures to convert his
+subjects to Protestantism. In April 1583 he was deposed and
+excommunicated by Pope Gregory XIII.; a Bavarian prince, Ernest, bishop
+of Liége, Freising and Hildesheim, was chosen elector, and war broke out
+between the rivals. The cautious Lutheran princes of Germany, especially
+Augustus I., elector of Saxony, were not enthusiastic in support of
+Gebhard, whose friendly relations with the Calvinists were not to their
+liking; and although Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. of France,
+tried to form a coalition to aid the deposed elector, the only
+assistance which he obtained came from John Casimir, administrator of
+the Palatinate of the Rhine. The inhabitants of the electorate were
+about equally divided on the question, and Ernest, supported by Spanish
+troops, was too strong for Gebhard. John Casimir, who acted as
+commander-in-chief, returned to the Palatinate in October 1583, and
+early in the following year Gebhard was driven from Bonn and took refuge
+in the Netherlands. The electorate was soon completely in the possession
+of Ernest, and the defeat of Gebhard was a serious blow to
+Protestantism, and marks a stage in the history of the Reformation.
+Living in the Netherlands he became very intimate with Elizabeth's
+envoy, Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, but he failed to get
+assistance for renewing the war either from the English queen or in any
+other quarter. In 1589 Gebhard took up his residence at Strassburg,
+where he had held the office of dean of the cathedral since 1574. Before
+his arrival some trouble had arisen in the chapter owing to the fact
+that three excommunicated canons persisted in retaining their offices.
+He joined this party, which was strongly supported in the city, took
+part in a double election to the bishopric in 1592, and in spite of some
+opposition retained his office until his death at Strassburg on the 31st
+of May 1601. Gebhard was a drunken and licentious man, who owes his
+prominence rather to his surroundings than to his abilities.
+
+  See M. Lossen, _Der kölnische Krieg_ (Gotha, 1882), and the article on
+  Gebhard in band viii. of the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_
+  (Leipzig, 1878); J.H. Hennes, _Der Kampf um das Erzstift Köln_
+  (Cologne, 1878); L. Ennen, _Geschichte der Stadt Köln_ (Cologne,
+  1863-1880); and _Nuntiaturberichte aus Deutschland_. _Der Kampf um
+  Köln_, edited by J. Hansen (Berlin, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+GEBWEILER (Fr. _Guebwiller_), a town of Germany in the imperial province
+of Alsace-Lorraine, at the foot of the Vosges, on the Lauch, 13 m. S. of
+Colmar, on the railway Bollweiler-Lautenbach. Pop. (1905) 13,259. Among
+the principal buildings are the Roman Catholic church of St Leodgar,
+dating from the 12th century, the Evangelical church, the synagogue, the
+town-house, and the old Dominican convent now used as a market and
+concert hall. The chief industries are spinning and dyeing, and the
+manufacture of cloth and of machinery; quarrying is carried on and the
+town is celebrated for its white wines.
+
+Gebweiler is mentioned as early as 774. It belonged to the religious
+foundation of Murbach, and in 1759 the abbots chose it for their
+residence. In 1789, at the outbreak of the Revolution, the monastic
+buildings were laid in ruins, and, though the archives were rescued and
+removed to Colmar, the library perished.
+
+
+
+
+GECKO,[1] the common name applied to all the species of the _Geckones_,
+one of the three sub-orders of the _Lacertilia_. The geckoes are small
+creatures, seldom exceeding 8 in. in length including the tail. With the
+head considerably flattened, the body short and thick, the legs not high
+enough to prevent the body dragging somewhat on the ground, the eyes
+large and almost destitute of eyelids, and the tail short and in some
+cases nearly as thick as the body, the geckoes altogether lack the
+litheness and grace characteristic of most lizards. Their colours also
+are dull, and to the weird and forbidding aspect thus produced the
+general prejudice against those creatures in the countries where they
+occur, which has led to their being classed with toads and snakes, is no
+doubt to be attributed. Their bite was supposed to be venomous, and
+their saliva to produce painful cutaneous eruptions; even their touch
+was thought sufficient to convey a dangerous taint. It is needless to
+say that in this instance the popular mind was misled by appearances.
+The geckoes are not only harmless, but are exceedingly useful creatures,
+feeding on insects, which, owing to the great width of their oesophagus,
+they are enabled to swallow whole, and in pursuit of which they do not
+hesitate to enter human dwellings, where they are often killed on
+suspicion. The structure of the toes in these lizards forms one of
+their most characteristic anatomical features.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf-tailed Gecko (_Gymnodactylus platurus_) of
+Australia.]
+
+[Illustration: Lower Surface of the Toe of (a) _Gecko_, (b)
+_Hemidactylus_--enlarged.]
+
+Most geckoes have adhesive digits and toes, by means of which they are
+enabled not only to climb absolutely smooth and vertical surfaces, for
+instance a window-pane, but to run along a white-washed ceiling, back
+downwards. The adhesion is not produced by sticky matter but by numerous
+transverse lamellae, each of which is further beset with tiny hair-like
+excrescences. The arrangement of the lamellae and pads differs much in
+the various genera and is used for classificatory purposes. Those which
+live on sandy ground have narrow digits without the adhesive apparatus.
+Most species have sharp, curved claws, often retractile between some of
+the lamellae or into a special sheath. The tail is very brittle and can
+be quickly regenerated; it varies much in size and shape; the most
+extraordinary is that of the leaf-tailed gecko. _Ptychozoon
+homalocephalon_ of the Malay countries has membranous expansions on the
+sides of the head, body, limbs and tail, which look like parachutes, but
+more probably they aid in concealing the creature when it is closely
+pressed to the similarly coloured bark of a tree. Most geckoes are dull
+coloured, yellow to brown, and they soon change colour from lighter to
+dark tints. They are insectivorous and chiefly nocturnal, but are fond
+of basking in the sun, motionless on the bark of a tree, or on a rock
+the colour of which is then imitated to a nicety. Some species are more
+or less transparent.
+
+Geckoes, of which about 270 species are known, subdivided into about 50
+genera, are cosmopolitan within the warmer zones, including New Zealand,
+and even the remotest volcanic islands. This wide distribution is due
+partly to the great age of the suborder (although fossils are unknown),
+partly to their being able to exist for several months without food so
+that, concealed in hollow trunks of trees, they may float about for a
+very long time. Ships, also, act as distributors. In south Europe occur
+only _Hemidactylus turcicus_, _Tarentola mauritanica (Platydactylus
+facetanus)_ and _Phyllodactylus europaeus_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The Malay name _ge-koq_ imitates the animal's cry.
+
+
+
+
+GED, WILLIAM (1690-1749), the inventor of stereotyping, was born at
+Edinburgh in 1690. In 1725 he patented his invention, developed from the
+simple process of soldering together loose types of Van der Mey. Ged,
+although he succeeded in obtaining a cast in similar metal, of a type
+page, could not persuade Edinburgh printers to take up his invention,
+and finally entered into partnership with a London stationer named
+Jenner and Thomas James, a typefounder. The partnership, however, turned
+out very ill; and Ged, broken-hearted at his want of success due to
+trade jealousy and the compositors' dislike of the innovation, died in
+poverty on the 19th of October 1749. Two prayer-books for the university
+of Cambridge and an edition of Sallust were printed from his stereotype
+plates. In his time the best type was imported from Holland, and Ged's
+daughter reports that he had repeated offers from the Dutch which, from
+patriotic motives, he refused. His sons tried to carry out his patent,
+and it was eventually perfected by Andrew Wilson.
+
+
+
+
+GEDDES, ALEXANDER (1737-1802), Scottish Roman Catholic theologian, was
+born in Rathven, Banffshire, on the 14th of September 1737. He was
+trained at the Roman Catholic seminary at Scalan and at the Scottish
+College in Paris, where he studied biblical philology, school divinity
+and modern languages. In 1764 he officiated as a priest in Dundee, but
+in May 1765 accepted an invitation to live with the earl of Traquair;
+where, with abundance of leisure and the free use of an adequate
+library, he made further progress in his favourite biblical studies.
+After a second visit to Paris, which was employed by him in reading and
+making extracts from rare books and manuscripts, he was appointed in
+1769 priest of Auchinhalrig and Preshome in his native county. The
+freedom with which he fraternized with his Protestant neighbours called
+forth the rebuke of his bishop (George Hay), and ultimately, for hunting
+and for occasionally attending the parish church of Cullen, where one of
+his friends was minister, he was deprived of his charge and forbidden
+the exercise of ecclesiastical functions within the diocese. This
+happened in 1779; and in 1780 he went with his friend Lord Traquair to
+London, where he spent the rest of his life. Before leaving Scotland he
+had received the honorary degree of LL.D. from the university of
+Aberdeen, and had been made an honorary member of the Society of
+Antiquaries, in the institution of which he had taken a very active
+part. In London Geddes soon received an appointment in connexion with
+the chapel of the imperial ambassador, and was also helped by Lord Petre
+in his scheme for a new Catholic version of the Bible. In 1786,
+supported also by such scholars as Benjamin Kennicott and Robert Lowth,
+Geddes published a _Prospectus of a new Translation of the Holy Bible_,
+a considerable quarto volume, in which the defects of previous
+translations were fully pointed out, and the means indicated by which
+these might be removed. It was well received, and led to the publication
+in 1788 of _Proposals for Printing_, with a specimen, and in 1790 of a
+_General Answer to Queries, Counsels and Criticisms_. The first volume
+of the translation itself, which was entitled _The Holy Bible ...
+faithfully translated from corrected Texts of the Originals, with
+various Readings, explanatory Notes and critical Remarks_, appeared in
+1792, and was the signal for a storm of hostility on the part of both
+Catholics and Protestants. It was obvious enough--no small offence in
+the eyes of some--that as a critic Geddes had identified himself with
+C.F. Houbigant (1686-1783), Kennicott and J.D. Michaelis, but others did
+not hesitate to stigmatize him as the would-be "corrector of the Holy
+Ghost." Three of the vicars-apostolic almost immediately warned all the
+faithful against the "use and reception" of his translation, on the
+ostensible ground that it had not been examined and approved by due
+ecclesiastical authority; and by his own bishop (Douglas) he was in 1793
+suspended from the exercise of his orders in the London district. The
+second volume of the translation, completing the historical books,
+published in 1797, found no more friendly reception; but this
+circumstance did not discourage him from giving forth in 1800 the volume
+of _Critical Remarks on the Hebrew Scriptures_, which presented in a
+somewhat brusque manner the then novel and startling views of Eichhorn
+and his school on the primitive history and early records of mankind.
+
+Geddes was engaged on a critical translation of the Psalms (published in
+1807) when he was seized with an illness of which he died on the 26th of
+February 1802. Although under ecclesiastical censures, he had never
+swerved from a consistent profession of faith as a Catholic; and on his
+death-bed he duly received the last rites of his communion.
+
+  Besides pamphlets on the Catholic and slavery questions, as well as
+  several fugitive _jeux d'esprit_, and a number of unsigned articles in
+  the _Analytical Review_, Geddes also published a free metrical version
+  of _Select Satires of Horace_ (1779), and a verbal rendering of the
+  _First Book of the Iliad of Homer_ (1792). The _Memoirs_ of his life
+  and writings by his friend John Mason Good appeared in 1803.
+
+
+
+
+GEDDES, ANDREW (1783-1844), British painter, was born at Edinburgh.
+After receiving a good education in the high school and in the
+university of that city, he was for five years in the excise office, in
+which his father held the post of deputy auditor. After the death of his
+father, who had opposed his desire to become an artist, he came to
+London and entered the Royal Academy schools. His first contribution to
+the exhibitions of the Royal Academy, a "St John in the Wilderness,"
+appeared at Somerset House in 1806, and from that year onwards Geddes
+was a fairly constant exhibitor of figure-subjects and portraits. His
+well-known portrait of Wilkie, with whom he was on terms of intimacy,
+was at the Royal Academy in 1816. He alternated for some years between
+London and Edinburgh, with some excursions on the Continent, but in 1831
+settled in London, and was elected associate of the Royal Academy in
+1832; and he died in London of consumption in 1844. A very able
+executant, a good colourist, and a close student of character, he made
+his chief success as a portrait-painter, but he produced occasional
+figure subjects and landscapes, and executed some admirable copies of
+the old masters as well. He was also a good etcher. His portrait of his
+mother, and a portrait study, called "Summer," are in the National
+Gallery of Scotland, and his portrait of Sir Walter Scott is in the
+Scottish National Portrait Gallery.
+
+  See _Art in Scotland: its Origin and Progress_, by Robert Brydall
+  (1889); _The Scottish School of Painting_, by William D. McKay, R.S.A.
+  (1906).
+
+
+
+
+GEDDES, JAMES LORRAINE (1827-1887), American soldier and writer, was
+born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on the 19th of March 1827. In his boyhood
+he was taken to Canada, but in 1843 he returned to Scotland; then
+studied at Calcutta in the military academy, entered the army, and after
+distinguishing himself in the Punjab campaign, returned to Canada,
+whence in 1857 he removed to Vinton, Iowa. In the American Civil War he
+served in the Federal army first as lieutenant-colonel and after
+February 1862 as colonel of volunteers, taking part in the fighting at
+Shiloh, Vicksburg and Corinth. He was captured at Shiloh and was
+imprisoned for a time at Madison, Ga., and in Libby prison, Richmond,
+Va., and in 1865 was brevetted brigadier-general of volunteers. He was
+principal of the College for the Blind at Vinton after the war, and
+until his death was connected with the Iowa College of Agriculture at
+Ames, being military instructor and cashier in 1870-1882, acting
+president in 1876-1877, librarian in 1877-1875, vice-president and
+professor of military tactics in 1880-1882, and treasurer in 1884-1887.
+He died at Ames on the 21st of February 1887. He wrote a number of war
+songs, including "The Soldiers' Battle Prayer" and "The Stars and
+Stripes."
+
+
+
+
+GEDDES, SIR WILLIAM DUGUID (1828-1900), Scottish scholar and
+educationist, was born in Aberdeenshire. He was educated at Elgin
+academy and university and King's College, Aberdeen, and after having
+held various scholastic posts he was appointed in 1860 professor of
+Greek and in 1885 principal of the (united) university of Aberdeen. He
+was knighted in 1892. He died in Aberdeen on the 9th of February 1900.
+It is chiefly as a teacher that Geddes will be remembered, and in his
+enthusiastic and successful efforts to raise the standard of Greek at
+the Scottish universities he has been compared with the humanists of the
+Renaissance. Amongst other works he was the author of _A Greek Grammar_
+(1855; 17th edition, 1883; new and revised edition, 1893); a meritorious
+edition of the _Phaedo_ of Plato (2nd ed., 1885); and _The Problem of
+the Homeric Poems_ (1878), in which, while supporting Grote's view that
+the _Iliad_ consisted of an original Achilleïs with insertions or
+additions by later hands, he maintains that these insertions are due to
+the author of the _Odyssey_.
+
+
+
+
+GEDYMIN (d. 1342), grand-duke of Lithuania, was supposed by the earlier
+chroniclers to have been the servant of Witen, prince of Lithuania, but
+more probably he was Witen's younger brother and the son of Lutuwer,
+another Lithuanian prince. Gedymin inherited a vast domain, comprising
+Lithuania proper, Samogitia, Red Russia, Polotsk and Minsk; but these
+possessions were environed by powerful and greedy foes, the most
+dangerous of them being the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian knights of
+the Sword. The systematic raiding of Lithuania by the knights under the
+pretext of converting it had long since united all the Lithuanian tribes
+against the common enemy; but Gedymin aimed at establishing a dynasty
+which should make Lithuania not merely secure but mighty, and for this
+purpose he entered into direct diplomatic negotiations with the Holy
+See. At the end of 1322 he sent letters to Pope John XXII. soliciting
+his protection against the persecution of the knights, informing him of
+the privileges already granted to the Dominicans and the Franciscans in
+Lithuania for the preaching of God's Word, and desiring that legates
+should be sent to receive him also into the bosom of the church. On
+receiving a favourable reply from the Holy See, Gedymin issued circular
+letters, dated 25th of January 1325, to the principal Hanse towns,
+offering a free access into his domains to men of every order and
+profession from nobles and knights to tillers of the soil. The
+immigrants were to choose their own settlements and be governed by their
+own laws. Priests and monks were also invited to come and build churches
+at Vilna and Novogrodek. Similar letters were sent to the Wendish or
+Baltic cities, and to the bishops and landowners of Livonia and
+Esthonia. In short Gedymin, recognizing the superiority of western
+civilization, anticipated Ivan the Terrible and Peter the Great by
+throwing open the semi-savage Russian lands to influences of culture.
+
+In October 1323 representatives of the archbishop of Riga, the bishop of
+Dorpat, the king of Denmark, the Dominican and Franciscan orders, and
+the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order assembled at Vilna, when Gedymin
+confirmed his promises and undertook to be baptized as soon as the papal
+legates arrived. A compact was then signed at Vilna, "in the name of the
+whole Christian World," between Gedymin and the delegates, confirming
+the promised privileges. But the christianizing of Lithuania was by no
+means to the liking of the Teutonic Knights, and they used every effort
+to nullify Gedymin's far-reaching design. This, unfortunately, it was
+easy to do. Gedymin's chief object was to save Lithuania from
+destruction at the hands of the Germans. But he was still a pagan
+reigning over semi-pagan lands; he was equally bound to his pagan
+kinsmen in Samogitia, to his orthodox subjects in Red Russia, and to his
+Catholic allies in Masovia. His policy, therefore, was necessarily
+tentative and ambiguous, and might very readily be misinterpreted. Thus
+his raid upon Dobrzyn, the latest acquisition of the knights on Polish
+soil, speedily gave them a ready weapon against him. The Prussian
+bishops, who were devoted to the knights, at a synod at Elbing
+questioned the authority of Gedymin's letters and denounced him as an
+enemy of the faith; his orthodox subjects reproached him with leaning
+towards the Latin heresy; while the pagan Lithuanians accused him of
+abandoning the ancient gods. Gedymin disentangled himself from his
+difficulties by repudiating his former promises; by refusing to receive
+the papal legates who arrived at Riga in September 1323; and by
+dismissing the Franciscans from his territories. These apparently
+retrogressive measures simply amounted to a statesmanlike recognition of
+the fact that the pagan element was still the strongest force in
+Lithuania, and could not yet be dispensed with in the coming struggle
+for nationality. At the same time Gedymin through his ambassadors
+privately informed the papal legates at Riga that his difficult position
+compelled him for a time to postpone his steadfast resolve of being
+baptized, and the legates showed their confidence in him by forbidding
+the neighbouring states to war against Lithuania for the next four
+years, besides ratifying the treaty made between Gedymin and the
+archbishop of Riga. Nevertheless in 1325 the Order, disregarding the
+censures of the church, resumed the war with Gedymin, who had in the
+meantime improved his position by an alliance with Wladislaus Lokietek,
+king of Poland, whose son Casimir now married Gedymin's daughter Aldona.
+
+While on his guard against his northern foes, Gedymin from 1316 to 1340
+was aggrandizing himself at the expense of the numerous Russian
+principalities in the south and east, whose incessant conflicts with
+each other wrought the ruin of them all. Here Gedymin's triumphal
+progress was irresistible; but the various stages of it are impossible
+to follow, the sources of its history being few and conflicting, and the
+date of every salient event exceedingly doubtful. One of his most
+important territorial accretions, the principality of Halicz-Vladimir,
+was obtained by the marriage of his son Lubart with the daughter of the
+Haliczian prince; the other, Kiev, apparently by conquest. Gedymin also
+secured an alliance with the grand-duchy of Muscovy by marrying his
+daughter, Anastasia, to the grand-duke Simeon. But he was strong enough
+to counterpoise the influence of Muscovy in northern Russia, and
+assisted the republic of Pskov, which acknowledged his overlordship, to
+break away from Great Novgorod. His internal administration bears all
+the marks of a wise ruler. He protected the Catholic as well as the
+orthodox clergy, encouraging them both to civilize his subjects; he
+raised the Lithuanian army to the highest state of efficiency then
+attainable; defended his borders with a chain of strong fortresses; and
+built numerous towns including Vilna, the capital (c. 1321). Gedymin
+died in the winter of 1342 of a wound received at the siege of Wielowa.
+He was married three times, and left seven sons and six daughters.
+
+  See Teodor Narbutt, _History of the Lithuanian nation_ (Pol.) (Vilna,
+  1835); Antoni Prochaska, _On the Genuineness of the Letters of
+  Gedymin_ (Pol.) (Cracow, 1895); Vladimir Bonifatovich Antonovich,
+  _Monograph concerning the History of Western and South-western Russia_
+  (Rus.) (Kiev, 1885).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GEE, THOMAS (1815-1898), Welsh Nonconformist preacher and journalist,
+was born at Denbigh on the 24th of January 1815. At the age of fourteen
+he went into his father's printing office, but continued to attend the
+grammar school in the afternoons. In 1837 he went to London to improve
+his knowledge of printing, and on his return to Wales in the following
+year ardently threw himself into literary, educational and religious
+work. Among his publications were the well-known quarterly magazine _Y
+Traethodydd_ ("The Essayist"), _Gwyddoniadur Cymreig_ ("Encyclopaedia
+Cambrensis"), and Dr Silvan Evans's _English-Welsh Dictionary_ (1868),
+but his greatest achievement in this field was the newspaper _Baner
+Cymru_ ("The Banner of Wales"), founded in 1857 and amalgamated with _Yr
+Amserau_ ("The Times") two years later. This paper soon became an oracle
+in Wales, and played a great part in stirring up the nationalist
+movement in the principality. In educational matters he waged a long and
+successful struggle on behalf of undenominational schools and for the
+establishment of the intermediate school system. He was an enthusiastic
+advocate of church disestablishment, and had a historic newspaper duel
+with Dr John Owen (afterwards bishop of St David's) on this question.
+The Eisteddfod found in him a thorough friend and a wise counsellor. His
+commanding presence, mastery of diction, and resonant voice made him an
+effective platform speaker. He was ordained to the Calvinistic Methodist
+ministry at Bala in 1847, and gave his time and talents ungrudgingly to
+Sunday school and temperance work. Throughout his life he believed in
+the itinerant unpaid ministry rather than in the settled pastorate. He
+died on the 28th of September 1898, and his funeral was the most
+imposing ever seen in North Wales.
+
+
+
+
+GEEL, JACOB (1789-1862), Dutch scholar and critic, was born at Amsterdam
+on the 12th of November 1789. In 1823 he was appointed sub-librarian,
+and in 1833 chief librarian and honorary professor at Leiden, where he
+died on the 11th of November 1862. Geel materially contributed to the
+development of classical studies in Holland. He was the author of
+editions of Theocritus (1820), of the Vatican fragments of Polybius
+(1829), of the [Greek: 'Olumpiakos] of Dio Chrysostom (1840) and of
+numerous essays in the _Rheinisches Museum_ and _Bibliotheca critica
+nova_, of which he was one of the founders. He also compiled a valuable
+catalogue of the MSS. in the Leiden library, wrote a history of the
+Greek sophists, and translated various German works into Dutch.
+
+
+
+
+GEELONG, a seaport of Grant county, Victoria, Australia, situated on an
+extensive land-locked arm of Port Phillip known as Corio Bay, 45 m. by
+rail S.W. of Melbourne. Pop. of the city proper (1901) 12,399; with the
+adjacent boroughs of Geelong West, and Newton-and-Chilwell, 23,311.
+Geelong slopes to the bay on the north and to the Barwon river on the
+south, and its position in this respect, as well as the shelter it
+obtains from the Bellarine hills, renders it one of the healthiest towns
+in Victoria. As a manufacturing centre it is of considerable importance.
+The first woollen mill in the colony was established here, and the
+tweeds, cloths and other woollen fabrics of the town are noted
+throughout Australia. There are extensive tanneries, flour-mills and
+salt works, while at Fyansford, 3 m. distant, there are important cement
+works and paper-mills. The extensive vineyards in the neighbourhood of
+the town were destroyed under the Phylloxera Act, but replanting
+subsequently revived this industry. Corio Bay, a safe and commodious
+harbour, is entered by two channels across its bar, one of which has a
+depth of 23½ ft. There is extensive quayage, and the largest wool ships
+are able to load alongside the wharves, which are connected by rail with
+all parts of the colony. The facilities given for shipping wool direct
+to England from this port have caused a very extensive wool-broking
+trade to grow up in the town. The country surrounding Geelong is
+agricultural, but there are large limestone quarries east of the town,
+and in the Otway Forest, 23 m. distant, coal is worked. Geelong was
+incorporated in 1849.
+
+
+
+
+GEESTEMÜNDE, a seaport town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Hanover, on the right bank of the Weser, at the mouth of the Geeste,
+which separates it from Bremerhaven, 32 m. N. from Bremen by rail. Pop.
+(1905) 23,625. The interest of the place is purely naval and commercial,
+its origin dating no farther back than 1857, when the construction of
+the harbour was begun. The great basin, which can accommodate large
+sea-going vessels, was completed in 1863, the petroleum basin was opened
+in 1874, and additional wharves have been constructed for the reception
+of vessels engaged in the fishing industry. The fish market of
+Geestemünde is the most important in Germany, and the auction hall
+practically determines the price of fish throughout the empire. The
+whole port is protected by powerful fortifications. Among the industrial
+establishments of the town are shipbuilding yards, foundries,
+engineering works and saw-mills.
+
+
+
+
+GEFFCKEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH (1830-1896), German diplomatist and jurist,
+was born on the 9th of December 1830 at Hamburg, of which city his
+father was senator. After studying law at Bonn, Göttingen and Berlin, he
+was attached in 1854 to the Prussian legation at Paris. For ten years
+(1856-1866) he was the diplomatic representative of Hamburg in Berlin,
+first as chargé d'affaires, and afterwards as minister-resident, being
+afterwards transferred in a like capacity to London. Appointed in 1872
+professor of constitutional history and public law in the reorganized
+university of Strassburg, Geffcken became in 1880 a member of the
+council of state of Alsace-Lorraine. Of too nervous a temperament to
+withstand the strain of the responsibilities of his position, he retired
+from public service in 1882, and lived henceforth mostly at Munich,
+where he died, suffocated by an accidental escape of gas into his
+bedchamber, on the 1st of May 1896. Geffcken was a man of great
+erudition and wide knowledge and of remarkable legal acumen, and from
+these qualities proceeded the personal influence he possessed. He was
+moreover a clear writer and made his mark as an essayist. He was one of
+the most trusted advisers of the Prussian crown prince, Frederick
+William (afterwards the emperor Frederick), and it was he (it is said,
+at Bismarck's suggestion) who drew up the draft of the New German
+federal constitution, which was submitted to the crown prince's
+headquarters at Versailles during the war of 1870-71. It was also
+Geffcken who assisted in framing the famous document which the emperor
+Frederick, on his accession to the throne in 1888, addressed to the
+chancellor. This memorandum gave umbrage, and on the publication by
+Geffcken in the _Deutsche Rundschau_ (Oct. 1888) of extracts from the
+emperor Frederick's private diary during the war of 1870-71, he was, at
+Bismarck's instance, prosecuted for high treason. The Reichsgericht
+(supreme court), however, quashed the indictment, and Geffcken was
+liberated after being under arrest for three months. Publications of
+various kinds proceeded from his pen. Among these are _Zur Geschichte
+des orientalischen Krieges 1853-1856_ (Berlin, 1881); _Frankreich,
+Russland und der Dreibund_ (Berlin, 1894); and _Staat und Kirche_
+(1875), English translation by E.F. Fairfax (1877). His writings on
+English history have been translated by S.J. Macmullan and published as
+_The British Empire, with essays on Prince Albert, Palmerston,
+Beaconsfield, Gladstone, and reform of the House of Lords_ (1889).
+
+
+
+
+GEFFROY, MATHIEU AUGUSTE (1820-1895), French historian, was born in
+Paris. After studying at the École Normale Supérieure he held history
+professorships at various lycées. His French thesis for the doctorate of
+letters, _Étude sur les pamphlets politiques et religieux de Milton_
+(1848), showed that he was attracted towards foreign history, a study
+for which he soon qualified himself by mastering the Germanic and
+Scandinavian languages. In 1851 he published a _Histoire des états
+scandinaves_, which is especially valuable for clear arrangement and for
+the trustworthiness of its facts. Later, a long stay in Sweden
+furnished him with valuable documents for a political and social history
+of Sweden and France at the end of the 18th century. In 1864 and 1865 he
+published in the _Revue des deux mondes_ a series of articles on
+Gustavus III. and the French court, which were republished in book form
+in 1867. To the second volume he appended a critical study on _Marie
+Antoinette et Louis XVI apocryphes_, in which he proved, by evidence
+drawn from documents in the private archives of the emperor of Austria,
+that the letters published by Feuillet de Conches (_Louis XVI, Marie
+Antoinette et Madame Elisabeth_, 1864-1873) and Hunolstein (_Corresp.
+inédite de Marie Antoinette_, 1864) are forgeries. With the
+collaboration of Alfred von Arneth, director of the imperial archives at
+Vienna, he edited the _Correspondance secrète entre Marie-Thérèse et le
+comte de Mercy-Argenteau_ (3 vols., 1874), the first account based on
+trustworthy documents of Marie Antoinette's character, private conduct
+and policy. The Franco-German War drew Geffroy's attention to the
+origins of Germany, and his _Rome et les Barbares: étude sur la Germanie
+de Tacite_ (1874) set forth some of the results of German scholarship.
+He was then appointed to superintend the opening of the French school of
+archaeology at Rome, and drew up two useful reports (1877 and 1884) on
+its origin and early work. But his personal tastes always led him back
+to the study of modern history. When the Paris archives of foreign
+affairs were thrown open to students, it was decided to publish a
+collection of the instructions given to French ambassadors since 1648
+(_Recueil des instructions données aux ambassadeurs et ministres de
+France depuis le traité de Westphalie_), and Geffroy was commissioned to
+edit the volumes dealing with Sweden (vol. ii., 1885) and Denmark (vol.
+xiii., 1895). In the interval he wrote _Madame de Maintenon d'après sa
+correspondance authentique_ (2 vols., 1887), in which he displayed his
+penetrating critical faculty in discriminating between authentic
+documents and the additions and corrections of arrangers like La
+Beaumelle and Lavallée. His last works were an _Essai sur la formation
+des collections d'antiques de la Suède_ and _Des institutions et des
+moeurs du paganisme scandinave: l'Islande avant le Christianisme_, both
+published posthumously. He died at Bièvre on the 16th of August 1895.
+
+
+
+
+GEFLE, a seaport of Sweden on an inlet of the Gulf of Bothnia, chief
+town of the district (_län_) of Gefleborg, 112 m. N.N.W. of Stockholm by
+rail. Pop. (1900) 29,522. It is the chief port of the district of
+Kopparberg, with its iron and other mines and forests. The exports
+consist principally of timber and wood-pulp, iron and steel. The
+harbour, which has two entrances about 20 ft. deep, is usually ice-bound
+in mid-winter. Large vessels generally load in the roads at Gråberg, 6
+m. distant. There are slips and shipbuilding yards, and a manufacture of
+sail-cloth. The town is an important industrial centre, having tobacco
+and leather factories, electrical and other mechanical works, and
+breweries. At Skutskär at the mouth of the Dal river are wood-pulp and
+saw mills, dealing with the large quantities of timber floated down the
+river; and there are large wood-yards in the suburb of Bomhus. Gefle was
+almost destroyed by fire in 1869, but was rebuilt in good style, and has
+the advantage of a beautiful situation. The principal buildings are a
+castle, founded by King John III. (1568-1592), but rebuilt later, a
+council-house erected by Gustavus III., who held a diet here in 1792, an
+exchange, and schools of commerce and navigation.
+
+
+
+
+GEGENBAUR, CARL (1826-1903), German anatomist, was born on the 21st of
+August 1826 at Würzburg, the university of which he entered as a student
+in 1845. After taking his degree in 1851 he spent some time in
+travelling in Italy and Sicily, before returning to Würzburg as
+_Privatdocent_ in 1854. In 1855 he was appointed extraordinary professor
+of anatomy at Jena, where after 1865 his fellow-worker, Ernst Haeckel,
+was professor of zoology, and in 1858 he became the ordinary professor.
+In 1873 he was appointed to Heidelberg, where he was professor of
+anatomy and director of the Anatomical Institute until his retirement in
+1901. He died at Heidelberg on the 14th of June 1903. The work by which
+perhaps he is best known is his _Grundriss der vergleichenden Anatomie_
+(Leipzig, 1874; 2nd edition, 1878). This was translated into English by
+W.F. Jeffrey Bell (_Elements of Comparative Anatomy_, 1878), with
+additions by E. Ray Lankester. While recognizing the importance of
+comparative embryology in the study of descent, Gegenbaur laid stress on
+the higher value of comparative anatomy as the basis of the study of
+homologies, i.e. of the relations between corresponding parts in
+different animals, as, for example, the arm of man, the foreleg of the
+horse and the wing of a fowl. A distinctive piece of work was effected
+by him in 1871 in supplementing the evidence adduced by Huxley in
+refutation of the theory of the origin of the skull from expanded
+vertebrae, which, formulated independently by Goethe and Oken, had been
+championed by Owen. Huxley demonstrated that the skull is built up of
+cartilaginous pieces; Gegenbaur showed that "in the lowest (gristly)
+fishes, where hints of the original vertebrae might be most expected,
+the skull is an unsegmented gristly brain-box, and that in higher forms
+the vertebral nature of the skull cannot be maintained, since many of
+the bones, notably those along the top of the skull, arise in the skin."
+Other publications by Gegenbaur include a _Text-book of Human Anatomy_
+(Leipzig, 1883, new ed. 1903), the _Epiglottis_ (1892) and _Comparative
+Anatomy of the Vertebrates in relation to the Invertebrates_ (Leipzig, 2
+vols., 1898-1901). In 1875 he founded the _Morphologisches Jahrbuch_,
+which he edited for many years. In 1901 he published a short
+autobiography under the title _Erlebtes und Erstrebtes_.
+
+  See Fürbringer in _Heidelberger Professoren aus dem 19ten Jahrhundert_
+  (Heidelberg, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+GEGENSCHEIN (Ger. _gegen_, opposite, and _schein_, shine), an extremely
+faint luminescence of the sky, seen opposite the direction of the sun.
+Germany was the country in which it was first discovered and described.
+The English rendering "counterglow" is also given to it. Its faintness
+is such that it can be seen only by a practised eye under favourable
+conditions. It is invisible during the greater part of June, July,
+December and January, owing to its being then blotted out by the
+superior light of the Milky Way. It is also invisible during moonlight
+and near the horizon, and the neighbourhood of a bright star or planet
+may interfere with its recognition. When none of these unfavourable
+conditions supervene it may be seen at nearly any time when the air is
+clear and the depression of the sun below the horizon more than 20°.
+(See ZODIACAL LIGHT.)
+
+
+
+
+GEIBEL, EMANUEL (1815-1884), German poet, was born at Lübeck on the 17th
+of October 1815, the son of a pastor in the city. He was originally
+intended for his father's profession, and studied at Bonn and Berlin, but
+his real interests lay not in theology but in classical and romance
+philology. In 1838 he accepted a tutorship at Athens, where he remained
+until 1840. In the same year he brought out, in conjunction with his
+friend Ernst Curtius, a volume of translations from the Greek. His first
+poems, _Zeitstimmen_, appeared in 1841; a tragedy, _König Roderich_,
+followed in 1843. In the same year he received a pension from the king of
+Prussia, which he retained until his invitation to Munich by the king of
+Bavaria in 1851 as honorary professor at the university. In the interim he
+had produced _König Sigurds Brautfahrt_ (1846), an epic, and
+_Juniuslieder_ (1848, 33rd ed. 1901), lyrics in a more spirited and
+manlier style than his early poems. A volume of _Neue Gedichte_, published
+at Munich in 1857, and principally consisting of poems on classical
+subjects, denoted a further considerable advance in objectivity, and the
+series was worthily closed by the _Spätherbstblätter_, published in 1877.
+He had quitted Munich in 1869 and returned to Lübeck, where he died on the
+6th of April 1884. His works further include two tragedies, _Brunhild_
+(1858, 5th ed. 1890), and _Sophonisbe_ (1869), and translations of French
+and Spanish popular poetry. Beginning as a member of the group of
+political poets who heralded the revolution of 1848, Geibel was also the
+chief poet to welcome the establishment of the Empire in 1871. His
+strength lay not, however, in his political songs but in his purely lyric
+poetry, such as the fine cycle _Ada_ and his still popular love-songs. He
+may be regarded as the leading representative of German lyric poetry
+between 1848 and 1870.
+
+  Geibel's _Gesammelte Werke_ were published in 8 vols. (1883, 4th ed.
+  1906); his _Gedichte_ have gone through about 130 editions. An
+  excellent selection in one volume appeared in 1904. For biography and
+  criticism, see K. Goedeke, _E. Geibel_ (1869); W. Scherer's address on
+  Geibel (1884); K.T. Gaedertz, _Geibel-Denkwurdigkeiten_ (1886); C.C.T.
+  Litzmann, _E. Geibel, aus Erinnerungen, Briefen und Tagebüchern_
+  (1887), and biographies by C. Leimbach (2nd ed., 1894), and K.T.
+  Gaedertz (1897).
+
+
+
+
+GEIGE (O. Fr. _gigue_, _gige_; O. Ital. and Span. _giga_; Prov. _gigua_;
+O. Dutch _gighe_), in modern German the violin; in medieval German the
+name applied to the first stringed instruments played with a bow, in
+contradistinction to those whose strings were plucked by fingers or
+plectrum such as the cithara, rotta and fidula, the first of these terms
+having been very generally used to designate various instruments whose
+strings were plucked. The name _gîge_ in Germany, of which the origin is
+uncertain,[1] and its derivatives in other languages, were in the middle
+ages applied to rebecs having fingerboards. As the first bowed
+instruments in Europe were, as far as we know, those of the rebab type,
+both boat-shaped and pear-shaped, it seems probable that the name clung
+to them long after the bow had been applied to other stringed
+instruments derived from the cithara, such as the fiddle (videl) or
+vielle. In the romances of the 12th and 13th centuries the _gîge_ is
+frequently mentioned, and generally associated with the rotta. Early in
+the 16th century we find definite information concerning the Geige in
+the works of Sebastian Virdung (1511), Hans Judenkünig (1523), Martin
+Agricola (1532), Hans Gerle (1533); and from the instruments depicted,
+of two distinct types and many varieties, it would appear that the
+principal idea attached to the name was still that of the bow used to
+vibrate the strings. Virdung qualifies the word _Geige_ with _Klein_
+(small) and _Gross_ (large), which do not represent two sizes of the
+same instrument but widely different types, also recognized by Agricola,
+who names three or four sizes of each, discant, alto, tenor and bass.
+Virdung's _Klein Geige_ is none other than the rebec with two C-shaped
+soundholes and a raised fingerboard cut in one piece with the vaulted
+back and having a separate flat soundboard glued over it, a change
+rendered necessary by the arched bridge. Agricola's _Klein Geige_ with
+three strings was of a totally different construction, having ribs and
+wide incurvations but no bridge; there was a rose soundhole near the
+tailpiece and two C-shaped holes in the shoulders. Agricola (_Musica
+instrumentalis_) distinctly mentions three kinds of _Geigen_ with three,
+four and five strings. From him we learn that only one position was as
+yet used on these instruments, one or two higher notes being
+occasionally obtained by sliding the little finger along. A century
+later Agricola's _Geige_ was regarded as antiquated by Praetorius, who
+reproduces one of the bridgeless ones with five strings, a rose and two
+C-shaped soundholes, and calls it an old fiddle; under _Geige_ he gives
+the violins.     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The words _gîge_, _gîgen_, _geic_ appear suddenly in the M. H.
+    German of the 12th century, and thence passed apparently into the
+    Romance languages, though some would reverse the process (e.g.
+    Weigand, _Deutsches Wörterbuch_). An elaborate argument in the
+    _Deutsches Wörterbuch_ of J. and W. Grimm (Leipzig, 1897) connects
+    the word with an ancient common Teut. root _gag_--meaning to sway to
+    and fro, as preserved in numerous forms: e.g. M.H.G _gagen_, _gugen_,
+    "to sway to and fro" (_gugen_, _gagen_, the rocking of a cradle), the
+    Swabian _gigen_, _gagen_, in the same sense, the Tirolese _gaiggern_,
+    to sway, doubt, or the old Norse _geiga_, to go astray or crooked.
+    The reference is to the swaying motion of the violin bow. The English
+    "jig" is derived from _gîge_ through the O. Fr. _gigue_ (in the sense
+    of a stringed instrument); the modern French gigue (a dance) is the
+    English "jig" re-imported (Hatzfeld and Darmesteter, _Dictionnaire_).
+    This opens up another possibility, of the origin of the name of the
+    instrument in the dance which it accompanied.     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+
+
+GEIGER, ABRAHAM (1810-1874), Jewish theologian and orientalist, was born
+at Frankfort-on-Main on the 24th of May 1810, and educated at the
+universities of Heidelberg and Bonn. As a student he distinguished
+himself in philosophy and in philology, and at the close of his course
+wrote on the relations of Judaism and Mahommedanism a prize essay which
+was afterwards published in 1833 under the title _Was hat Mohammed aus
+dem Judentum aufgenommen?_ (English trans. _Judaism and Islam_, Madras,
+1898). In November 1832 he went to Wiesbaden as rabbi of the synagogue,
+and became in 1835 one of the most active promoters of the _Zeitschrift
+für jüdische Theologie_ (1835-1839 and 1842-1847). From 1838 to 1863 he
+lived in Breslau, where he organized the reform movement in Judaism and
+wrote some of his most important works, including _Lehr- und Lesebuch
+zur Sprache der Mischna_ (1845), _Studien_ from Maimonides (1850),
+translation into German of the poems of Juda ha-Levi (1851), and
+_Urschrift und Übersetzungen der Bibel in ihrer Abhängigkeit von der
+innern Entwickelung des Judentums_ (1857). The last-named work attracted
+little attention at the time, but now enjoys a great reputation as a new
+departure in the methods of studying the records of Judaism. The
+_Urschrift_ has moreover been recognized as one of the most original
+contributions to biblical science. In 1863 Geiger became head of the
+synagogue of his native town, and in 1870 he removed to Berlin, where,
+in addition to his duties as chief rabbi, he took the principal charge
+of the newly established seminary for Jewish science. The _Urschrift_
+was followed by a more exhaustive handling of one of its topics in _Die
+Sadducäer und Pharisäer_ (1863), and by a more thorough application of
+its leading principles in an elaborate history of Judaism (_Das Judentum
+und seine Geschichte_) in 1865-1871. Geiger also contributed frequently
+on Hebrew, Samaritan and Syriac subjects to the _Zeitschrift der
+deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, and from 1862 until his death
+(on the 23rd of October 1874) he was editor of a periodical entitled
+_Jüdische Zeitschrift für Wissenschaft und Leben_. He also published a
+Jewish prayerbook (_Israëlitisches Gebetbuch_) and a variety of minor
+monographs on historical and literary subjects connected with the
+fortunes of his people.     (I. A.)
+
+An _Allgemeine Einleitung_ and five volumes of _Nachgelassene Schriften_
+were edited in 1875 by his son LUDWIG GEIGER (b. 1848), who in 1880 became
+extraordinary professor in the university of Berlin. Ludwig Geiger
+published a large number of biographical and literary works and made a
+special study of German humanism. He edited the _Goethe-Jahrbuch_ from
+1880, _Vierteljahrsschrift für Kultur und Litteratur der Renaissance_
+(1885-1886), _Zeitschr. für die Gesch. der Juden im Deutschland_
+(1886-1891), _Zeitschr. für vergleichende Litteraturgeschichte und
+Renaissance-Litteratur_ (1887-1891). Among his works are _Johann Reuchlin,
+sein Leben und seine Werke_ (Leipzig, 1871); and _Johann Reuchlin's
+Briefwechsel_ (Tübingen, 1875); _Renaissance und Humanismus in Italien und
+Deutschland_ (1882, 2nd ed. 1901); _Gesch. des geistigen Lebens der
+preussischen Hauptstadt_ (1892-1894); _Berlin's geistiges Leben_
+(1894-1896).
+
+  See also J. Derenbourg in _Jüd. Zeitschrift_, xi. 299-308; E.
+  Schrieber, _Abraham Geiger als Reformator des Judentums_ (1880), art.
+  (with portrait) in _Jewish Encyclopedia_.
+
+Abraham Geiger's nephew LAZARUS GEIGER (1829-1870), philosopher and
+philologist, born at Frankfort-on-Main, was destined to commerce, but
+soon gave himself up to scholarship and studied at Marburg, Bonn and
+Heidelberg. From 1861 till his sudden death in 1870 he was professor in
+the Jewish high school at Frankfort. His chief aim was to prove that the
+evolution of human reason is closely bound up with that of language. He
+further maintained that the origin of the Indo-Germanic language is to
+be sought not in Asia but in central Germany. He was a convinced
+opponent of rationalism in religion. His chief work was his _Ursprung
+und Entwickelung der menschlichen Sprache und Vernunft_ (vol. i.,
+Stuttgart, 1868), the principal results of which appeared in a more
+popular form as _Der Ursprung der Sprache_ (Stuttgart, 1869 and 1878).
+The second volume of the former was published in an incomplete form
+(1872, 2nd ed. 1899) after his death by his brother Alfred Geiger, who
+also published a number of his scattered papers as _Zur Entwickelung der
+Menschheit_ (1871, 2nd ed. 1878; Eng. trans. D. Asher, _Hist. of the
+Development of the Human Race_, Lond., 1880).
+
+  See L.A. Rosenthal, _Laz. Geiger: seine Lehre vom Ursprung d. Sprache
+  und Vernunft und sein Leben_ (Stuttgart, 1883); E. Peschier, _L.
+  Geiger, sein Leben und Denken_ (1871); J. Keller, _L. Geiger und d.
+  Kritik d. Vernunft_ (Wertheim, 1883) and _Der Ursprung d. Vernunft_
+  (Heidelberg, 1884).
+
+
+
+
+GEIJER, ERIK GUSTAF (1783-1847), Swedish historian, was born at Ransäter
+in Värmland, on the 12th of January 1783, of a family that had
+immigrated from Austria in the 17th century. He was educated at the
+university of Upsala, where in 1803 he carried off the Swedish Academy's
+great prize for his _Äreminne öfver Sten Sture den äldre_. He graduated
+in 1806, and in 1810 returned from a year's residence in England to
+become _docent_ in his university. Soon afterwards he accepted a post in
+the public record office at Stockholm, where, with some friends, he
+founded the "Gothic Society," to whose organ _Iduna_ he contributed a
+number of prose essays and the songs _Manhem_, _Vikingen_, _Den siste
+kämpen_, _Den siste skalden_, _Odalbonden_, _Kolargossen_, which he set
+to music. About the same time he issued a volume of hymns, of which
+several are inserted in the Swedish Psalter.
+
+Geijer's lyric muse was soon after silenced by his call to be assistant
+to Erik Michael Fant, professor of history at Upsala, whom he succeeded
+in 1817. In 1824 he was elected a member of the Swedish Academy. A
+single volume of a great projected work, _Svea Rikes Häfder_, itself a
+masterly critical examination of the sources of Sweden's legendary
+history, appeared in 1825. Geijer's researches in its preparation had
+severely strained his health, and he went the same year on a tour
+through Denmark and part of Germany, his impressions from which are
+recorded in his _Minnen_. In 1832-1836 he published three volumes of his
+_Svenska folkets historia_ (Eng. trans. by J.H. Turner, 1845), a clear
+view of the political and social development of Sweden down to 1654. The
+acute critical insight, just thought, and finished historical art of
+these incomplete works of Geijer entitle him to the first place among
+Swedish historians. His chief other historical and political writings
+are his _Teckning af Sveriges tillsånd_ 1718-1772 (Stockholm, 1838), and
+_Feodalism och republikanism, ett bidrag till Samhällsförfattningens
+historia_ (1844), which led to a controversy with the historian Anders
+Fryxell regarding the part played in history by the Swedish aristocracy.
+Geijer also edited, with the aid of J.H. Schröder, a continuation of
+Fant's _Scriptores rerum svecicarum medii aevi_ (1818-1828), and, by
+himself, Thomas Thorild's _Samlade skrifter_ (1819-1825), and _Konung
+Gustaf III_.'s _efterlemnade Papper_ (4 vols., 1843-1846). Geijer's
+academic lectures, of which the last three, published in 1845 under the
+title _Om vår tids inre samhällsforhållanden, i synnerhet med afseende
+på Fäderneslandet_, involved him in another controversy with Fryxell,
+but exercised a great influence over his students, who especially
+testified to their attachment after the failure of a prosecution against
+him for heresy. A number of his extempore lectures, recovered from
+notes, were published in 1856. He also wrote a life of Charles XIV.
+(Stockholm, 1844). Failing health forced Geijer to resign his chair in
+1846, after which he removed to Stockholm for the purpose of completing
+his _Svenska folkets historia_, and died there on the 23rd of April
+1847. His _Samlade skrifter_ (13 vols., 1840-1855; new ed., 1873-1877)
+include a large number of philosophical and political essays contributed
+to reviews, particularly to _Litteraturbladet_ (1838-1839), a periodical
+edited by himself, which attracted great attention in its day by its
+pronounced liberal views on public questions, a striking contrast to
+those he had defended in 1828-1830, when, as again in 1840-1841, he
+represented Upsala University in the Swedish diet. His poems were
+collected and published as _Skaldestycken_ (Upsala, 1835 and 1878).
+
+Geijer's style is strong and manly. His genius bursts out in sudden
+flashes that light up the dark corners of history. A few strokes, and a
+personality stands before us instinct with life. His language is at once
+the scholar's and the poet's; with his profoundest thought there beats
+in unison the warmest, the noblest, the most patriotic heart. Geijer
+came to the writing of history fresh from researches in the whole field
+of Scandinavian antiquity, researches whose first-fruits are garnered in
+numerous articles in _Iduna_, and his masterly treatise _Om den gamla
+nordiska folkvisan_, prefixed to the collection of Svenska folkvisor
+which he edited with A.A. Afzelius (3 vols., 1814-1816). The development
+of freedom is the idea that gives unity to all his historical writings.
+
+  For Geijer's biography, see his own _Minnen_ (1834), which contains
+  copious extracts from his letters and diaries; B.E. Malmström,
+  _Minnestal öfver E.G. Geijer_, addressed to the Upsala students (June
+  6, 1848), and printed among his _Tal och esthetiska afhandlingar_
+  (1868), and _Grunddragen af Svenska vitterhetens häfder_ (1866-1868);
+  and S.A. Hollander, _Minne af E.G. Geijer_ (Örebro, 1869). See also
+  lives of Geijer by J. Hellstenius (Stockholm, 1876) and J. Niekson
+  (Odense, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD (1835-   ), Scottish geologist, was born at
+Edinburgh on the 28th of December 1835. He was educated at the high
+school and university of Edinburgh, and in 1855 was appointed an
+assistant on the Geological Survey. Wielding the pen with no less
+facility than the hammer, he inaugurated his long list of works with
+_The Story of a Boulder; or, Gleanings from the Note-Book of a
+Geologist_ (1858). His ability at once attracted the notice of his
+chief, Sir Roderick Murchison, with whom he formed a lifelong
+friendship, and whose biographer he subsequently became. With Murchison
+some of his earliest work was done on the complicated regions of the
+Highland schists; and the small geological map of Scotland published in
+1862 was their joint work: a larger map was issued by Geikie in 1892. In
+1863 he published an important essay "On the Phenomena of the Glacial
+Drift of Scotland," _Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow_, in which the effects of
+ice action in that country were for the first time clearly and
+connectedly delineated. In 1865 appeared Geikie's _Scenery of Scotland_
+(3rd edition, 1901), which was, he claimed, "the first attempt to
+elucidate in some detail the history of the topography of a country." In
+the same year he was elected F.R.S. At this time the Edinburgh school of
+geologists--prominent among them Sir Andrew Ramsay, with his _Physical
+Geology and Geography of Great Britain_--were maintaining the supreme
+importance of denudation in the configuration of land-surfaces, and
+particularly the erosion of valleys by the action of running water.
+Geikie's book, based on extensive personal knowledge of the country, was
+an able contribution to the doctrines of the Edinburgh school, of which
+he himself soon began to rank as one of the leaders.
+
+In 1867, when a separate branch of the Geological Survey was established
+for Scotland, he was appointed director. On the foundation of the
+Murchison professorship of geology and mineralogy at the university of
+Edinburgh in 1871, he became the first occupant of the chair. These two
+appointments he continued to hold till 1881, when he succeeded Sir
+Andrew Ramsay in the joint offices of director-general of the Geological
+Survey of the United Kingdom and director of the museum of practical
+geology, London, from which he retired in February 1901. A feature of
+his tenure of office was the impetus given to microscopic petrography, a
+branch of geology to which he had devoted special study, by a splendid
+collection of sections of British rocks. Later he wrote two important
+and interesting Survey Memoirs, _The Geology of Central and Western Fife
+and Kinross_ (1900), and _The Geology of Eastern Fife_ (1902).
+
+From the outset of his career, when he started to investigate the
+geology of Skye and other of the Western Isles, he took a keen interest
+in volcanic geology, and in 1871 he brought before the Geological
+Society of London an outline of the Tertiary volcanic history of
+Britain. Many difficult problems, however, remained to be solved. Here
+he was greatly aided by his extensive travels, not only throughout
+Europe, but in western America. While the canyons of the Colorado
+confirmed his long-standing views on erosion, the eruptive regions of
+Wyoming, Montana and Utah supplied him with valuable data in explanation
+of volcanic phenomena. The results of his further researches were given
+in an elaborate and charmingly written essay on "The History of Volcanic
+Action during the Tertiary Period in the British Isles," _Trans. Roy.
+Soc. Edin._, (1888). His mature views on volcanic geology were given to
+the world in his presidential addresses to the Geological Society in
+1891 and 1892, and afterwards embodied in his great work on _The Ancient
+Volcanoes of Great Britain_ (1897). Other results of his travels are
+collected in his _Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad_ (1882).
+
+His experience as a field geologist resulted in an admirable text-book,
+_Outlines of Field Geology_ (5th edition, 1900). After editing and
+practically re-writing Jukes's _Student's Manual of Geology_ in 1872, he
+published in 1882 a _Text-Book_ and in 1886 a _Class-Book_ of geology,
+which have taken rank as standard works of their kind. A fourth edition
+of his _Text-Book_, in two vols., was issued in 1903. His writings are
+marked in a high degree by charm of style and power of vivid
+description. His literary ability has given him peculiar qualifications
+as a writer of scientific biography, and the _Memoir of Edward Forbes_
+(with G. Wilson), and those of his old chiefs, Sir R.I. Murchison (2
+vols., 1875) and Sir Andrew Crombie Ramsay (1895), are models of what
+such works should be. His _Founders of Geology_ consists of the
+inaugural course of Lectures (founded by Mrs G.H. Williams) at Johns
+Hopkins University, Baltimore, delivered in 1897. In 1897 he issued an
+admirable _Geological Map of England and Wales, with Descriptive Notes_.
+In 1898 he delivered the Romanes Lectures, and his address was published
+under the title of _Types of Scenery and their Influence on Literature_.
+The study of geography owes its improved position in Great Britain
+largely to his efforts. Among his works on this subject is _The Teaching
+of Geography_ (1887). His _Scottish Reminiscences_ (1904) and _Landscape
+in History and other Essays_ (1905) are charmingly written and full of
+instruction. He was foreign secretary of the Royal Society from 1890 to
+1894, joint secretary from 1903 to 1908, president in 1909, president of
+the Geological Society in 1891 and 1892, and president of the British
+Association, 1892. He received the honour of knighthood in 1891.
+
+
+
+
+GEIKIE, JAMES (1839-   ), Scottish geologist, younger brother of Sir
+Archibald Geikie, was born at Edinburgh on the 23rd of August 1839. He
+was educated at the high school and university of Edinburgh. He served
+on the Geological Survey from 1861 until 1882, when he succeeded his
+brother as Murchison professor of geology and mineralogy at the
+university of Edinburgh. He took as his special subject of investigation
+the origin of surface-features, and the part played in their formation
+by glacial action. His views are embodied in his chief work, _The Great
+Ice Age and its Relation to the Antiquity of Man_ (1874; 3rd ed., 1894).
+He was elected F.R.S. in 1875. James Geikie became the leader of the
+school that upholds the all-important action of land-ice, as against
+those geologists who assign chief importance to the work of pack-ice and
+icebergs. Continuing this line of investigation in his _Prehistoric
+Europe_ (1881), he maintained the hypothesis of five inter-Glacial
+periods in Great Britain, and argued that the palaeolithic deposits of
+the Pleistocene period were not post- but inter- or pre-Glacial. His
+_Fragments of Earth Lore: Sketches and Addresses, Geological and
+Geographical_ (1893) and _Earth Sculpture_ (1898) are mainly concerned
+with the same subject. His _Outlines of Geology_ (1886), a standard
+text-book of its subject, reached its third edition in 1896; and in 1905
+he published an important manual on _Structural and Field Geology_. In
+1887 he displayed another side of his activity in a volume of _Songs and
+Lyrics by H. Heine and other German Poets, done into English Verse_.
+From 1888 he was honorary editor of the _Scottish Geographical
+Magazine_.
+
+
+
+
+GEIKIE, WALTER (1795-1837), Scottish painter, was born at Edinburgh on
+the 9th of November 1795. In his second year he was attacked by a
+nervous fever by which he permanently lost the faculty of hearing, but
+through the careful attention of his father he was enabled to obtain a
+good education. Before he had the advantage of the instruction of a
+master he had attained considerable proficiency in sketching both
+figures and landscapes from nature, and in 1812 he was admitted into the
+drawing academy of the board of Scottish manufactures. He first
+exhibited in 1815, and was elected an associate of the Royal Scottish
+Academy in 1831, and a fellow in 1834. He died on the 1st of August
+1837, and was interred in the Greyfriars churchyard, Edinburgh. Owing to
+his want of feeling for colour, Geikie was not a successful painter in
+oils, but he sketched in India ink with great truth and humour the
+scenes and characters of Scottish lower-class life in his native city. A
+series of etchings which exhibit very high excellence were published by
+him in 1829-1831, and a collection of eighty-one of these was
+republished posthumously in 1841, with a biographical introduction by
+Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, Bart.
+
+
+
+
+GEILER (or GEYLER) VON KAISERSBERG, JOHANN (1445-1510), "the German
+Savonarola," one of the greatest of the popular preachers of the 15th
+century, was born at Schaffhausen on the 16th of March 1445, but from
+1448 passed his childhood and youth at Kaisersberg in Upper Alsace, from
+which place his current designation is derived. In 1460 he entered the
+university of Freiburg in Baden, where, after graduation, he lectured
+for some time on the _Sententiae_ of Peter Lombard, the commentaries of
+Alexander of Hales, and several of the works of Aristotle. A living
+interest in theological subjects, awakened by the study of John Gerson,
+led him in 1471 to the university of Basel, a centre of attraction to
+some of the most earnest spirits of the time. Made a doctor of theology
+in 1475, he received a professorship at Freiburg in the following year;
+but his tastes, no less than the spirit of the age, began to incline him
+more strongly to the vocation of a preacher, while his fervour and
+eloquence soon led to his receiving numerous invitations to the larger
+towns. Ultimately he accepted in 1478 a call to the cathedral of
+Strassburg, where he continued to work with few interruptions until
+within a short time of his death on the 10th of March 1510. The
+beautiful pulpit erected for him in 1481 in the nave of the cathedral,
+when the chapel of St Lawrence had proved too small, still bears witness
+to the popularity he enjoyed as a preacher in the immediate sphere of
+his labours, and the testimonies of Sebastian Brant, Beatus Rhenanus,
+Johann Reuchlin, Melanchthon and others show how great had been the
+influence of his personal character. His sermons--bold, incisive,
+denunciatory, abounding in quaint illustrations and based on texts by no
+means confined to the Bible,--taken down as he spoke them, and
+circulated (sometimes without his knowledge or consent) by his friends,
+told perceptibly on the German thought as well as on the German speech
+of his time.
+
+  Among the many volumes published under his name only two appear to
+  have had the benefit of his revision, namely, _Der Seelen Paradies von
+  waren und volkomnen Tugenden_, and that entitled _Das irrig Schaf_. Of
+  the rest, probably the best-known is a series of lectures on his
+  friend Seb. Brant's work, _Das Narrenschiff_ or the _Navicula_ or
+  _Speculum fatuorum_, of which an edition was published at Strassburg
+  in 1511 under the following title:--_Navicula sive speculum fatuorum
+  praestantissimi sacrarum literarum doctoris Joannis Geiler
+  Keysersbergii_.
+
+  See F.W. von Ammon, _Geyler's Leben, Lehren und Predigten_ (1826); L.
+  Dacheux, _Un Réformateur catholique à la fin du XV^e siècle_, J.G. de
+  K. (Paris, 1876); R. Cruel, _Gesch. der deutschen Predigt_, pp.
+  538-576 (1879); P. de Lorenzi, _Geiler's ausgewählte Schriften_ (4.
+  vols., 1881); T.M. Lindsay, _History of the Reformation_, i. 118
+  (1906); and G. Kawerau in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, vi. 427.
+
+
+
+
+GEINITZ, HANS BRUNO (1814-1900), German geologist, was born at
+Altenburg, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, on the 16th of
+October 1814. He was educated at the universities of Berlin and Jena,
+and gained the foundations of his geological knowledge under F.A.
+Quenstedt. In 1837 he took the degree of Ph.D. with a thesis on the
+Muschelkalk of Thuringia. In 1850 he became professor of geology and
+mineralogy in the Royal Polytechnic School at Dresden, and in 1857 he
+was made director of the Royal Mineralogical and Geological Museum; he
+held these posts until 1894. He was distinguished for his researches on
+the Carboniferous and Cretaceous rocks and fossils of Saxony, and in
+particular for those relating to the fauna and flora of the Permian or
+Dyas formation. He described also the graptolites of the local Silurian
+strata; and the flora of the Coal-formation of Altai and Nebraska. From
+1863 to 1878 he was one of the editors of the _Neues Jahrbuch_. He was
+awarded the Murchison medal by the Geological Society of London in 1878.
+He died at Dresden on the 28th of January 1900. His son FRANZ EUGENE
+GEINITZ (b. 1854), professor of geology in the university of Rostock,
+became distinguished for researches on the geology of Saxony,
+Mecklenburg, &c.
+
+  H.B. Geinitz's publications were _Das Quadersandsteingebirge oder
+  Kreidegebirge in Deutschland_ (1849-1850); _Die Versteinerungen der
+  Steinkohlenformation in Sachsen_ (1855); _Dyas, oder die
+  Zechsteinformation und das Rothliegende_ (1861-1862); _Das
+  Elbthalgebirge in Sachsen_ (1871-1875).
+
+
+
+
+GEISHA (a Chino-Japanese word meaning "person of pleasing
+accomplishments"), strictly the name of the professional dancing and
+singing girls of Japan. The word is, however, often loosely used for the
+girls and women inhabiting Shin Yoshiwara, the prostitutes' quarter of
+Tokyo. The training of the true Geisha or singing girl, which includes
+lessons in dancing, begins often as early as her seventh year. Her
+apprenticeship over, she contracts with her employer for a number of
+years, and is seldom able to reach independence except by marriage.
+There is a capitation fee of two _yen_ per month on the actual singing
+girls, and of one _yen_ on the apprentices.
+
+  See Jukichi Inouye, _Sketches of Tokyo Life_.
+
+
+
+
+GEISLINGEN, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Württemberg, on the
+Thierbach, 38 m. by rail E.S.E. of Stuttgart. Pop. (1905) 7050. It has
+shops for the carving and turning of bone, ivory, wood and horn, besides
+iron-works, machinery factories, glass-works, brewing and bleaching
+works, &c. The church of St Mary contains wood-carving by Jörg Syrlin
+the Younger. Above the town lie the ruins of the castle of Helfenstein,
+which was destroyed in 1552. Having been for a few years in the
+possession of Bavaria, the town passed to Württemberg in 1810.
+
+  See Weitbrecht, _Wanderungen durch Geislingen und seine Umgebung_
+  (Stuttgart, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+GEISSLER, HEINRICH (1814-1879), German physicist, was born at the
+village of Igelshieb in Saxe-Meiningen on the 26th of May 1814 and was
+educated as a glass-blower. In 1854 he settled at Bonn, where he
+speedily gained a high reputation for his skill and ingenuity of
+conception in the fabrication of chemical and physical apparatus. With
+Julius Plücker, in 1852, he ascertained the maximum density of water to
+be at 3.8° C. He also determined the coefficient of expansion for ice
+between -24° and -7°, and for water freezing at 0°. In 1869, in
+conjunction with H.P.J. Vogelsang, he proved the existence of liquid
+carbon dioxide in cavities in quartz and topaz, and later he obtained
+amorphous from ordinary phosphorus by means of the electric current. He
+is best known as the inventor of the sealed glass tubes which bear his
+name, by means of which are exhibited the phenomena accompanying the
+discharge of electricity through highly rarefied vapours and gases.
+Among other apparatus contrived by him were a vaporimeter, mercury
+air-pump, balances, normal thermometer, and areometer. From the
+university of Bonn, on the occasion of its jubilee in 1868, he received
+the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. He died at Bonn on the 24th
+of January 1879.
+
+  See A.W. Hofmann, _Ber. d. deut. chem. Ges._ p. 148 (1879).
+
+
+
+
+GELA, a city of Sicily, generally and almost certainly identified with
+the modern Terranova (q.v.). It was founded by Cretan and Rhodian
+colonists in 688 B.C., and itself founded Acragas (see AGRIGENTUM) in
+582 B.C. It also had a treasure-house at Olympia. The town took its name
+from the river to the east (Thucydides vi. 2), which in turn was so
+called from its winter frost ([gamma][epsilon][lambda][alpha] in the
+Sicel dialect; cf. Lat. _gelidus_). The Rhodian settlers called it
+Lindioi (see LINDUS). Gela enjoyed its greatest prosperity under
+Hippocrates (498-491 B.C.), whose dominion extended over a considerable
+part of the island. Gelon, who seized the tyranny on his death, became
+master of Syracuse in 485 B.C., and transferred his capital thither with
+half the inhabitants of Gela, leaving his brother Hiero to rule over the
+rest. Its prosperity returned, however, after the expulsion of
+Thrasybulus in 466 B.C.,[1] but in 405 it was besieged by the
+Carthaginians and abandoned by Dionysius' order, after his failure
+(perhaps due to treachery) to drive the besiegers away (E.A. Freeman,
+_Hist. of Sic._ iii. 562 seq.). The inhabitants later returned and
+rebuilt the town, but it never regained its position. In 311 B.C.
+Agathocles put to death 5000 of its inhabitants; and finally, after its
+destruction by the Mamertines about 281 B.C., Phintias of Agrigentum
+transferred the remainder to the new town of Phintias (now Licata,
+q.v.). It seems that in Roman times they still kept the name of Gelenses
+or Geloi in their new abode (Th. Mommsen in _C.I.L._ x., Berlin, 1883,
+p. 737).     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Aeschylus died there in 456 B.C.
+
+
+
+
+GELADA, the Abyssinian name of a large species of baboon, differing from
+the members of the genus _Papio_ (see BABOON) by the nostrils being
+situated some distance above the extremity of the muzzle, and hence made
+the type of a separate genus, under the name of _Theropithecus gelada_.
+In the heavy mantle of long brown hair covering the fore-quarters of the
+old males, with the exception of the bare chest, which is reddish
+flesh-colour, the gelada recalls the Arabian baboon (_Papio hamadryas_),
+and from this common feature it has been proposed to place the two
+species in the same genus. The gelada inhabits the mountains of
+Abyssinia, where, like other baboons, it descends in droves to pillage
+cultivated lands. A second species, or race, _Theropithecus obscurus_,
+distinguished by its darker hairs and the presence of a bare
+flesh-coloured ring round each eye, inhabits the eastern confines of
+Abyssinia.     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+GELASIUS, the name of two popes.
+
+GELASIUS I., pope from 492 to 496, was the successor of Felix III. He
+confirmed the estrangement between the Eastern and Western churches by
+insisting on the removal of the name of Acacius, bishop of
+Constantinople, from the diptychs. He is the author of _De duabus in
+Christo naturis adversus Eutychen et Nestorium_. A great number of his
+letters has also come down to us. His name has been attached to a _Liber
+Sacramentorum_ anterior to that of St Gregory, but he can have composed
+only certain parts of it. As to the so-called _Decretum Gelasii de
+libris recipiendis et non recipiendis_, it also is a compilation of
+documents anterior to Gelasius, and it is difficult to determine
+Gelasius's contributions to it. At all events, as we know it, it is of
+Roman origin, and 6th-century or later. (L. D.*)
+
+GELASIUS II. (Giovanni Coniulo), pope from the 24th of January 1118 to
+the 29th of January 1119, was born at Gaeta of an illustrious family. He
+became a monk of Monte Cassino, was taken to Rome by Urban II., and made
+chancellor and cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria in Cosmedin. Shortly after
+his unanimous election to succeed Paschal II. he was seized by Cencius
+Frangipane, a partisan of the emperor Henry V., but freed by a general
+uprising of the Romans in his behalf. The emperor drove Gelasius from
+Rome in March, pronounced his election null and void, and set up
+Burdinus, archbishop of Braga, as antipope under the name of Gregory
+VIII. Gelasius fled to Gaeta, where he was ordained priest on the 9th of
+March and on the following day received episcopal consecration. He at
+once excommunicated Henry and the antipope and, under Norman protection,
+was able to return to Rome in July; but the disturbances of the
+imperialist party, especially of the Frangipani, who attacked the pope
+while celebrating mass in the church of St Prassede, compelled Gelasius
+to go once more into exile. He set out for France, consecrating the
+cathedral of Pisa on the way, and arrived at Marseilles in October. He
+was received with great enthusiasm at Avignon, Montpellier and other
+cities, held a synod at Vienne in January 1119, and was planning to hold
+a general council to settle the investiture contest when he died at
+Cluny. His successor was Calixtus II.
+
+  His letters are in J.P. Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ vol. 163. The original
+  life by Pandulf is in J.M. Watterich, _Pontif. Roman. vitae_ (Leipzig,
+  1862), and there is an important digest of his bulls and official acts
+  in Jaffé-Wattenbach, _Regesta pontif. Roman._ (1885-1888).
+
+  See J. Langen, _Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis
+  Innocenz III._ (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle
+  Ages_, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G.W. Hamilton (London, 1896); A. Wagner,
+  _Die unteritalischen Normannen und das Papsttum, 1086-1150_ (Breslau,
+  1885); W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Bd.
+  iii. (Brunswick, 1890); G. Richter, _Annalen der deutschen Geschichte
+  im Mittelalter_, iii. (Halle, 1898); H.H. Milman, _Latin
+  Christianity_, vol. 4 (London, 1899).     (C. H. Ha.)
+
+
+
+
+GELATI, a Georgian monastery in Russian Transcaucasia, in the government
+of Kutais, 11 m. E. of the town of Kutais, standing on a rocky spur (705
+ft. above sea-level) in the valley of the Rion. It was founded in 1109
+by the Georgian king David the Renovator. The principal church, a
+sandstone cathedral, dates from the end of the preceding century, and
+contains the royal crown of the former Georgian kingdom of Imeretia,
+besides ancient MSS., ecclesiological furniture, and fresco portraits of
+the kings of Imeretia. Here also, in a separate chapel, is the tomb of
+David the Renovator (1089-1125) and part of the iron gate of the town of
+Ganja (now Elisavetpol), which that monarch brought away as a trophy of
+his capture of the place.
+
+
+
+
+GELATIN, or GELATINE, the substance which passes into solution when
+"collagen," the ground substance of bone, cartilage and white fibrous
+tissue, is treated with boiling water or dilute acids. It is especially
+characterized by its property of forming a jelly at ordinary
+temperature, becoming liquid when heated, and resolidifying to a jelly
+on cooling. The word is derived from the Fr. _gélatine_, and Ital.
+_gelatina_, from the Lat. _gelata_, that which is frozen, congealed or
+stiff. It is, therefore, in origin cognate with "jelly," which came
+through the Fr. _gélee_ from the same Latin original.
+
+The "collagen," obtained from tendons and connective tissues, also
+occurs in the cornea and sclerotic coat of the eye, and in fish scales.
+Cartilage was considered to be composed of a substance chondrigen, which
+gave chondrin or cartilage-glue on boiling with water. Recent researches
+make it probable that cartilage contains (1) chondromucoid, (2)
+chondroitin-sulphuric acid, (3) collagen, (4) an albumoid present in old
+but not in young cartilage; whilst chondrin is a mixture of gelatin and
+mucin. "Bone collagen," or "ossein," constitutes, with calcium salts,
+the ground substance of bones. Gelatin consists of two substances,
+glutin and chondrin; the former is the main constituent of skin-gelatin,
+the latter of bone-gelatin.
+
+True gelatigenous tissue occurs in all mature vertebrates, with the
+single exception, according to E.F.I. Hoppe-Seyler, of the _Amphioxus
+lanceolatus_. Gelatigenous tissue was discovered by Hoppe-Seyler in the
+cephalopods _Octopus_ and _Sepiola_, but in an extension of his
+experiments to other invertebrates, as cockchafers and _Anodon_ and
+_Unio_, no such tissue could be detected. Neither glutin nor chondrin
+occurs ready formed in the animal kingdom, but they separate when the
+tissues are boiled with water. A similar substance, vegetable gelatin,
+is obtained from certain mosses.
+
+Pure gelatin is an amorphous, brittle, nearly transparent substance,
+faintly yellow, tasteless and inodorous, neutral in reaction and
+unaltered by exposure to dry air. Its composition is in round numbers C
+= 50, H = 7, N = 18, O = 25%; sulphur is also present in an amount
+varying from 0.25 to 0.7%.
+
+  Nothing is known with any certainty as to its chemical constitution,
+  or of the mode in which it is formed from albuminoids. It exhibits in
+  a general way a connexion with that large and important class of
+  animal substances called _proteids_, being, like them, amorphous,
+  soluble in acids and alkalis, and giving in solution a left-handed
+  rotation of the plane of polarization. Nevertheless, the ordinary
+  well-recognized reactions for proteids are but faintly observed in the
+  case of gelatin, and the only substances which at once and freely
+  precipitate it from solution are mercuric chloride, strong alcohol and
+  tannic acid.
+
+  Although gelatin in a dry state is unalterable by exposure to air, its
+  solution exhibits, like all the proteids, a remarkable tendency to
+  putrefaction; but a characteristic feature of this process in the case
+  of gelatin is that the solution assumes a transient acid reaction. The
+  ultimate products of this decomposition are the same as are produced
+  by prolonged boiling with acid. It has been found that oxalic acid,
+  over and above the action common to all dilute acids of preventing the
+  solidification of gelatin solutions, has the further property of
+  preventing in a large measure this tendency to putrefy when the
+  gelatin is treated with hot solutions of this acid, and then freed
+  from adhering acid by means of calcium carbonate. Gelatin so treated
+  has been called _metagelatin_.
+
+  In spite of the marked tendency of gelatin solutions to develop
+  ferment-organisms and undergo putrefaction, the stability of the
+  substance in the dry state is such that it has even been used, and
+  with some success, as a means of preserving perishable foods. The
+  process, invented by Dr Campbell Morfit, consists in impregnating the
+  foods with gelatin, and then drying them till about 10% or less of
+  water is present. Milk gelatinized in this way is superior in several
+  respects to the products of the ordinary condensation process, more
+  especially in the retention of a much larger proportion of
+  albuminoids.
+
+  Gelatin has a marked affinity for water, abstracting it from admixture
+  with alcohol, for example. Solid gelatin steeped for some hours in
+  water absorbs a certain amount and swells up, in which condition a
+  gentle heat serves to convert it into a liquid; or this may be readily
+  produced by the addition of a trace of alkali or mineral acid, or by
+  strong acetic acid. In the last case, however, or if we use the
+  mineral acids in a more concentrated form, the solution obtained has
+  lost its power of solidifying, though not that of acting as a glue.
+  This property is utilized in the preparation of liquid glue (see
+  GLUE). By prolonged boiling of strong aqueous solutions at a high, or
+  of weak solutions at a lower temperature, the characteristic
+  properties of gelatin are impaired and ultimately destroyed. After
+  this treatment it acts less powerfully as a glue, loses its tendency
+  to solidify, and becomes increasingly soluble in cold water;
+  nevertheless the solutions yield on precipitation with alcohol a
+  substance identical in composition with gelatin.
+
+  By prolonged boiling in contact with hydrolytic agents, such as
+  sulphuric acid or caustic alkali, it yields quantities of leucin and
+  glycocoll (so-called "sugar of gelatin," this being the method by
+  which glycocoll was first prepared), but no tyrosin. In this last
+  respect it differs from the great body of proteids, the characteristic
+  solid products of the decomposition of which are leucin and tyrosin.
+
+Gelatin occurs in commerce in varying degrees of purity; the purer form
+obtained from skins and bones (to which this article is restricted) is
+named gelatin; a preparation of great purity is "patent isinglass,"
+while isinglass (q.v.) itself is a fish-gelatin; less pure forms
+constitute glue (q.v.), while a dilute aqueous solution appears in
+commerce as size (q.v.). The manufacture follows much the same lines as
+that of glue; but it is essential that the raw materials must be
+carefully selected, and in view of the consumption of most of the
+gelatin in the kitchen--for soups, jellies, &c.--great care must be
+taken to ensure purity and cleanliness.
+
+  In the manufacture of bone-gelatin the sorted bones are degreased as
+  in the case of glue manufacture, and then transferred to vats
+  containing a dilute hydrochloric acid, by which means most of the
+  mineral matter is dissolved out, and the bones become flexible.
+  Instead of hydrochloric acid some French makers use phosphoric acid.
+  After being well washed with water to remove all traces of
+  hydrochloric acid, the bones are bleached by leading in sulphur
+  dioxide. They are now transferred to the extractors, and heated by
+  steam, care being taken that the temperature does not exceed 85° C.
+  The digestion is repeated, and the runnings are clarified,
+  concentrated, re-bleached and jellied as with glue. Skin-gelatin is
+  manufactured in the same way as skin-glue. After steeping in lime pits
+  the selected skins are digested three times; the first and second
+  runnings are worked up for gelatin, while the third are filtered for
+  "size."
+
+  Vegetable gelatin is manufactured from a seaweed, genus _Laminaria_;
+  from the tengusa, an American seaweed, and from Irish moss. The
+  _Laminaria_ is first extracted with water, and the residue with sodium
+  carbonate; the filtrate is acidified with hydrochloric acid and the
+  precipitated alginic acid washed and bleached. It is then dissolved in
+  an alkali, the solution concentrated, and cooled down by running over
+  horizontal glass plates. Flexible colourless sheets resembling animal
+  gelatin are thus obtained. In America the weed is simply boiled with
+  water, the solution filtered, and cooled to a thick jelly. Irish moss
+  is treated in the same way. Both tengusa and Irish moss yield a
+  gelatin suitable for most purposes; tengusa gelatin clarifies liquids
+  in the same way as isinglass, and forms a harder and firmer jelly than
+  ordinary gelatin.
+
+  _Applications of Gelatin._--First and foremost is the use of gelatin
+  as a food-stuff--in jellies, soups, &c. Referring to the articles
+  GLUE, ISINGLASS and SIZE for the special applications of these forms
+  of gelatin, we here enumerate the more important uses of ordinary
+  gelatin. In photography it is employed in carbon-processes, its use
+  depending on the fact that when treated with potassium bichromate and
+  exposed to light, it is oxidized to insoluble compounds; it plays a
+  part in many other processes. A solution of gelatin containing readily
+  crystallized salts--alum, nitre, &c.--solidifies with the formation of
+  pretty designs; this is the basis of the so-called "crystalline glass"
+  used for purposes of ornamentation. It is also used for coating pills
+  to prevent them adhering together and to make them tasteless.
+  Compounded with various mineral salts, the carbonates and phosphates
+  of calcium, magnesium and aluminium, it yields a valuable ivory
+  substitute. It also plays a part in the manufacture of artificial
+  leather, of India inks, and of artificial silk (the Vanduara Company
+  processes).
+
+
+
+
+GELDERLAND, GELDERS, or GUELDERS, formerly a duchy of the Empire, on the
+lower Rhine and the Yssel, bounded by Friesland, Westphalia, Brabant,
+Holland and the Zuider Zee; part of which has become the province of
+Holland, dealt with separately below. The territory of the later duchy
+of Gelderland was inhabited at the beginning of the Christian era by the
+Teutonic tribes of the Sicambri and the Batavi, and later, during the
+period of the decline of the Roman empire, by the Chamavi and other
+Frank peoples. It formed part of the Caroling kingdom of Austrasia, and
+was divided into _pagi_ or _gauen_, ruled by official counts
+(_comites-graven_). In 843, by the treaty of Verdun, it became part of
+Lotharingia (Lorraine), and in 879 was annexed to the kingdom of East
+Francia (Germany) by the treaty of Meerssen. The nucleus of the later
+county and duchy was the _gau_ or district surrounding the town of
+Gelder or Gelre, lying between the Meuse and the Niers, and since 1715
+included in Rhenish Prussia.
+
+The early history is involved in much obscurity. There were in the 11th
+century a number of counts ruling in various parts of what was
+afterwards known as Gelderland. Towards the close of that century Gerard
+of Wassenburg, who besides the county of Gelre ruled over portions of
+Hamalant and Teisterbant, acquired a dominant position amongst his
+neighbours. He is generally reckoned as the first hereditary count of
+Gelderland (d. 1117/8). His son, Gerard II.--the Long--(d. 1131),
+married Irmingardis, daughter and heiress of Otto, count of Zutphen, and
+their son, Henry I. (d. 1182), inherited both countships. His successors
+Otto I. (1182-1207) and Gerard III. (1207-1229) were lovers of peace and
+strong supporters of the Hohenstaufen emperors, through whose favour
+they were able to increase their territories by acquisitions in the
+districts of Veluwe and Betuwe. He acted as guardian to his nephew
+Floris IV. of Holland during his minority. Otto II., the Lame
+(1220-1271), fortified several towns and bestowed privileges upon them
+for the purpose of encouraging trade. He became a person of so much
+importance that he was urged to be a candidate for the dignity of
+emperor. He preferred to support the claims of his cousin, William II.
+of Holland. In return for the loan of a considerable sum of money
+William gave to him the city of Nijmwegen in pledge. His son Reinald I.
+(d. 1326) married Irmingardis, heiress of Limburg, and in right of his
+wife laid claim to the duchy against Adolf of Berg, who had sold his
+rights to John I. of Brabant. War followed, and on the 5th of June 1288
+Reinald, who meantime had also sold his rights to the count of
+Luxemburg, was defeated and taken prisoner at the battle of Woeringen.
+In this battle the count of Luxemburg was slain, and Reinald had to
+surrender his claims as the price of his defeat to John of Brabant. In
+1310, in return for his support, Reinald received from the emperor Henry
+VII. for all his territories _privilegium de non evocando_, i.e. the
+exemption of his subjects from the liability to be sued before any court
+outside his jurisdiction. In 1317 he was made a prince of the Empire. A
+wound received at the battle of Woeringen had affected his brain, and an
+insurrection against him was in 1316 headed by his son Reinald, who
+assumed the government under the title of "Son of the Count." Reinald I.
+was finally in 1320 immured in prison, where he died in 1326.
+
+Reinald II., the Black (1326-1343), was one of the foremost princes in
+the Netherlands of his day. He married (1) Sophia, heiress of Mechlin,
+and (2) in 1331 Eleanor, sister of Edward III. of England. By purchase
+or conquest he added considerably to his territories. He did much to
+improve the condition of the country, to foster trade, to promote the
+prosperity of the towns, and to maintain order and security in his lands
+by wise laws and firm administration. In 1338 the title of duke was
+bestowed upon him by the emperor Louis the Bavarian, who at the same
+time granted to him the fief of East Friesland. He died in 1343, leaving
+three daughters by his first marriage, and two sons, Reinald and Edward,
+both minors, by Eleanor of England. His elder son was ten years of age,
+and succeeded to the duchy under the guardianship of his mother Eleanor.
+Declared of age two years later, the youthful Reinald III. found himself
+involved in many difficulties through the struggles between the rival
+factions named after the two noble families of Bronkhorst and Hekeren.
+What was the quarrel between them, and what the causes they represented,
+cannot now be ascertained with certainty. There is good reason, however,
+to believe that they were the counterparts of the contemporary Cod and
+Hook parties in Holland, and of the Schieringers and Vetkoopers in
+Friesland. In Gelderland the quarrel between them was converted into a
+dynastic struggle, the Hekeren recognizing Duke Reinald, while the
+Bronkhorsten set up his younger brother Edward. At the battle of Tiel
+(1361) Reinald was defeated and taken prisoner, and Edward held the
+duchy till 1371. He was a good and successful ruler, and his death by an
+arrow wound, after a brilliant victory over the duke of Brabant near
+Baesweller (August 1371), was a loss to his country. He was in his
+thirty-fifth year and left no heirs. Reinald was now taken from the
+prison in which he had been confined to reign once more, but his health
+was broken and he died childless three years afterwards. The war of
+factions again broke out, the half-sisters of Reinald III. and Edward
+both claiming the inheritance; the elder, Matilda (Machteld), in her
+own right, the younger Maria on behalf of her seven-year-old boy William
+of Jülich, as the only male representative of the family. The Hekeren
+supported Matilda, the Bronkhorsten William of Jülich. The war of
+succession lasted till 1379, and ended in William's favour, the emperor
+Wenceslas (Wenzel) recognizing him as duke four years later.
+
+Duke William was able, restless and adventurous, an ideal knight of the
+palmy days of chivalry. He took part in no less than five crusades with
+the Teutonic order against the heathen Lithuanians and Prussians. In
+1393 he inherited the duchy of Jülich, and died in 1402. He was
+succeeded by his brother, Reinald IV. (d. 1423), in the united
+sovereignty of Gelderland, Zutphen and Jülich, who, in accordance with a
+promise made before his accession, ceded the town of Emmerich to Duke
+Adolf of Cleves. He took the part of his brother-in-law, John of Arkel,
+against William VI. of Holland, and in a war of several years' duration
+was not successful in preventing the Arkel territory being incorporated
+in Holland. On his death without legitimate issue, Gelderland passed to
+the young Arnold of Egmont, grandson of his sister Johanna, who had
+married John, lord of Arkel, their daughter Maria (d. 1415) being the
+wife of John, count of Egmont (d. 1451). Arnold was recognized as duke
+in 1424 by the emperor Sigismund, but in the following year the emperor
+revoked his decision and bestowed the duchy upon Adolf of Berg. Arnold
+in retaliation laid claim to the duchy of Jülich, which had likewise
+been granted to Adolf by Sigismund, and a war followed in which the
+cities and nobles of Gelderland stood by Arnold; it ended in Arnold
+retaining Gelderland and Zutphen, and Gerard, the son of Adolf (d.
+1437), being acknowledged as duke of Jülich. To gain the support of the
+estates of Gelderland in this war of succession, Arnold had been
+compelled to make many concessions limiting the ducal prerogatives, and
+granting large powers to a council consisting of representatives of the
+nobles and the four chief cities, and his extravagance and exactions led
+to continual conflicts, in which the prince was compelled to yield to
+the demands of his subjects. In his later years a conspiracy was formed
+against him, headed by his wife, the violent and ambitious Catherine of
+Cleves, and his son Adolf. Arnold was at first successful and Adolf had
+to go into exile; but he returned, and in 1465, having taken his father
+prisoner by treachery, interned him in the castle of Buren. Charles the
+Bold of Burgundy now seized the opportunity to intervene. In 1471 he
+forced Adolf to release his father, who sold the reversion of the duchy
+to the duke of Burgundy for 92,000 golden gulden. On the 23rd of
+February 1473 Arnold died, and Charles of Burgundy became duke of
+Gelderland. His succession was not unopposed. Nijmwegen offered an
+heroic resistance and only fell after a long siege. After Charles's
+death in 1477 Adolf was released from the captivity in which he had been
+held, and placed himself at the head of a party in the powerful city of
+Ghent, which sought to settle the disputed succession by forcing a match
+between him and Mary, the heiress of Burgundy. On the 29th of June 1477,
+however, he was killed at the siege of Tournai; and Mary gave her hand
+to Maximilian of Austria, afterwards emperor. Catherine, Adolf's sister,
+made an attempt to assert the rights of his son Charles to the duchy,
+but by 1483 Maximilian had crushed all opposition and established
+himself as duke of Gelderland.
+
+Charles of Egmont, however, did not surrender his claims, but with the
+aid of the French collected an army, and in the course of 1492 and 1493
+succeeded in reconquering his inheritance. The efforts of Maximilian to
+recover the country were vain, and the successive governors of the
+Netherlands, Philip the Fair and his sister Margaret, fared no better.
+In 1507 Charles of Egmont invaded Holland and Brabant, captured
+Harderwijk and Bommel in 1511, threatened Amsterdam in 1512, and took
+Groningen. It was, undoubtedly, a great and heroic achievement for the
+ruler of a petty state like Gelderland thus to assert and maintain his
+independence for a long period against the overwhelming power of the
+house of Austria. It was not till 1528 that the emperor Charles V. could
+force him to accept the compromise of the treaty of Gorichen, by which
+he received Gelderland and Zutphen for life as fiefs of the Empire. In
+1534 the duke, who was childless, attempted to transfer the reversion of
+Gelderland to France, but this project was violently resisted by the
+estates of the duchy, and Charles was compelled by them in 1538 to
+appoint as his successor William V.--the Rich--of Cleves (d. 1592).
+Charles died the same year, and William, with the aid of the French,
+succeeded in maintaining his position in Gelderland for several years.
+The Habsburg power was, however, in the end too great for him, and he
+was forced to cede the duchy to Charles V. by the treaty of Venloo,
+signed on the 7th of September 1543.
+
+Gelderland was now definitely amalgamated with the Habsburg dominions in
+the Netherlands, until the revolt of the Low Countries led to its
+partition. In 1579 the northern and greater part, comprising the three
+"quarters" of Nijmwegen, Arnhem and Zutphen, joined the Union of Utrecht
+and became the province of Gelderland in the Dutch republic. Only the
+quarter of Roermonde remained subject to the crown of Spain, and was
+called Spanish Gelderland. By the treaty of Utrecht (1715) this was
+ceded to Prussia with the exception of Venloo, which fell to the United
+Provinces, and Roermonde, which, with the remaining Spanish Netherlands,
+passed to Austria. Of this, part was ceded to France at the peace of
+Basel in 1795, and the whole by the treaty of Lunéville in 1801, when it
+received the name of the department of the Roer. By the peace of Paris
+of 1814 the bulk of Gelderland was incorporated in the United
+Netherlands, the remainder falling to Prussia, where it forms the circle
+of Düsseldorf.
+
+The rise of the towns in Gelderland began in the 13th century, river
+commerce and markets being the chief cause of their prosperity, but they
+never attained to the importance of the larger cities in Holland and
+Utrecht, much less to that of the great Flemish municipalities. They
+differed also from the Flemish cities in the nature of their privileges
+and immunities, as they did not possess the rights of communes, but only
+those of "free cities" of the Rhenish type. The power of the feudal lord
+over them was much greater. The states of Gelderland first became a
+considerable power in the land during the reign of Arnold of Egmont
+(1423-1473). Their claim to large privileges and a considerable share in
+the government of the county were formulated in a document drawn up at
+Nijmwegen in April 1436. These the duke had to concede, and to agree
+further to the appointment of a council to assist him in his
+administration. From this time the absolute authority of the sovereign
+in Gelderland was broken. The states consisted of two members--the
+nobility and the towns. The towns were divided into four separate
+districts or "quarters" named after the chief town in each--Nijmwegen,
+Arnhem, Zutphen and Roermonde. In the time of the republic, as has been
+stated above, the province of Gelderland comprised the three first-named
+"quarters" only. The three quarters had each of them peculiar rights and
+customs, and their representatives met together in a separate assembly
+before taking part in the diet (_landdag_) of the states. The nobility
+possessed great influence in Gelderland and retained it in the time of
+the republic.     (G. E.)
+
+
+
+
+GELDERLAND (_Guelders_), a province of Holland, bounded S. by Rhenish
+Prussia and North Brabant, W. by Utrecht and South Holland, N. by the
+Zuider Zee, N.E. by Overysel, and S.E. by the Prussian province of
+Westphalia. It has an area of 1906 sq. m. and a pop. (1900) of 566,549.
+Historically it was part of the duchy of Gelderland, which is treated
+separately above.
+
+The main portion of Gelderland north of the Rhine and the Old Ysel forms
+as it were an extension of the province of Overysel, being composed of
+diluvial sand and gravel, covered with sombre heaths and patches of fen.
+South of this line, however, the soil consists of fertile river-clay.
+The northern portion is divided by the New (or Gelders) Ysel into two
+distinct regions, namely, the Veluwe ("bad land") on the west, and the
+former countship of Zutphen on the east. In this last division the
+ground slopes downwards from south-east to north-west (131 to 26 ft.)
+and is intersected by several fertilizing streams which flow in the same
+direction to join the Ysel. The extreme eastern corner is occupied by
+older Tertiary loam, which is used for making bricks, and upon this and
+the river-banks are the most fertile spots, woods, cultivated land,
+pastures, towns and villages. The highlands of the Veluwe lying west of
+the Ysel really extend as far as the Crooked Rhine and the Vecht in the
+province of Utrecht, but are slightly detached from the Utrecht hills by
+the so-called Gelders valley, which forms the boundary between the two
+provinces. This valley extends from the Rhine along the Grift, the
+Luntersche Beek, and the Eem to the Zuider Zee, and would still offer an
+outlet in this direction to the Rhine at high water if it were not for
+the river dikes. The two main ridges of the Veluwe hills (164 and 360
+ft.) extend from the neighbourhood of Arnhem north to Harderwyk and
+north-east to Hattem. In the south they stretch themselves along the
+banks of the Rhine, forming a strip of picturesque river scenery made up
+of the varied elements of sandhills and trees, clay-lands and pastures.
+A large number of country-houses and villas are to be found here, and
+the riverside villages of Dieren, Velp and Renkum. All over the Veluwe
+are heaths, scantily cultivated, with fields of rye and buckwheat,
+cattle of inferior quality, and sheep, and a sparse population. There is
+also a considerable cultivation of wood, especially of fir and copse,
+while tobacco plantations are found at Nykerk and Wageningen.
+
+The southern division of the province presents a very different aspect,
+and contains many old towns and villages. It is watered by the three
+large rivers, the Rhine, the Waal and the Maas, and has a level clay
+soil, varied only by isolated hills and a sandy, wooded stretch between
+Nijmwegen and the southern border. The region enclosed between the Rhine
+and the Waal and watered by the Linge is called the Betuwe ("good
+land"), and gave its name to the Germanic tribe of Batavians, who are
+sometimes wrongly regarded as the parent stock of the Dutch people.
+There is here a denser population, occupied in the cultivation of wheat,
+beetroot and fruit, the breeding of excellent cattle, shipping and
+industrial pursuits. The principal centres of population, such as
+Zutphen, Arnhem (the chief town of the province), Nijmwegen and Tiel,
+lie along the large rivers. Smaller, but of equal antiquity, are the
+riverside towns of Doesburg, which is strongly fortified; Wageningen,
+with the State agricultural schools; Doetinchem, with a bridge over the
+Old Ysel which is mentioned as early as the 14th century; Zalt-Bommel,
+with an old church (1304), and a railway bridge over the Waal; and
+Kuilenburg, with a fine railway bridge (1863-1868) over the Rhine. Five
+m. S. of Zalt-Bommel, on the Maas, is the medieval castle of Ammerzode
+or Ammersooi, also called Amelroy during the French occupation in 1674.
+It is in an excellent state of preservation and has been restored in
+modern times. The first authentic record of the castle is its possession
+by John de Herlar of the noble family of Loo at the end of the 13th
+century. In 1480 it passed by marriage to the powerful lords van Arkel,
+and was partly destroyed by fire at the end of the 16th century. The
+chapel dates from the 15th century, and the keep from 1564. Among the
+family portraits are works by Albert Dürer. Zetten, on the railway
+between Nijmwegen and Tiel, is famous for the charitable institutions
+founded here by the preacher Otto Gerhard Heldring (d. 1876). They
+comprise a penitentiary (1849) for women; an educational home (1858) for
+girls; a theological training college (1864); and a Magdalen hospital.
+Nykerk, Harderwyk and Elburg are fishing towns on the Zuider Zee.
+Apeldoorn is situated on the edge of the sand-grounds. Heerenberg on the
+south-eastern border is remarkable for its ancient castle near the seat
+of the powerful lords van den Bergh. Other ancient and historical towns
+bordering on the Prussian frontier are Zevenaar, which was for long the
+cause of dispute between the houses of Cleves and Gelder and was finally
+attached to the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1816; Breedevoort, once
+the seat of a lordship of the same name belonging to the counts van Loon
+or Lohn, who built a castle here in the beginning of the 13th century
+which was destroyed in 1646--the lordship was presented to Prince
+William III. in 1697; Winterswyk, now an important railway junction, and
+of growing industrial importance; and Borkeloo, or Borkulo, the seat of
+an ancient lordship dating from the first half of the 12th century,
+which finally came into the possession of Prince William V. of Orange
+Nassau in 1777. The castle was formerly of importance.
+
+Gelderland is intersected by the main railway lines, which are largely
+supplemented by steam-tram railways. Steam-tramways connect Arnhem and
+Zutphen, Wageningen, Nijmwegen, Velp, Doetinchem (by way of Dieren and
+Doesburg), whence there are various lines to Emmerich and Gendringen on
+the Prussian borders. Groenlo and Lichtenvorde, Borkulo and Deventer are
+also connected.
+
+
+
+
+GELDERN, a town of Germany, in Rhenish Prussia, on the Niers, 28 m. N.
+W. of Düsseldorf, at the junction of railways to Wesel and Cologne. Pop.
+(1905) 6551. It has an Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches and a
+town hall with a fine council chamber. Its industries include the
+manufacture of buttons, shoes, cigars and soap. The town dates from
+about 1100 and was early an important fortified place; until 1371 it was
+the residence of the counts and dukes of Gelderland. Having passed to
+Spain, its fortifications were strengthened by Philip II., but they were
+razed by Frederick the Great, the town having been in the possession of
+Prussia since 1703.
+
+  See Nettesheim, _Geschichte der Stadt und des Amtes Geldern_ (Crefeld,
+  1863); Henrichs, _Beiträge zur innern Geschichte der Stadt Geldern_
+  (Geldern, 1893); and Real, _Chronik der Stadt und Umgegend von
+  Geldern_ (Geldern, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+GELL, SIR WILLIAM (1777-1836), English classical archaeologist, was born
+at Hopton in Derbyshire. He was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge,
+and subsequently elected a fellow of Emmanuel College (B.A. 1798, M.A.
+1804). About 1800 he was sent on a diplomatic mission to the Ionian
+islands, and on his return in 1803 he was knighted. He went with
+Princess (afterwards Queen) Caroline to Italy in 1814 as one of her
+chamberlains, and gave evidence in her favour at the trial in 1820 (see
+G.P. Clerici, _A Queen of Indiscretions_, Eng. trans., London, 1907). He
+died at Naples on the 4th of February 1836. His numerous drawings of
+classical ruins and localities, executed with great detail and
+exactness, are preserved in the British Museum. Gell was a thorough
+dilettante, fond of society and possessed of little real scholarship.
+None the less his topographical works became recognized text-books at a
+time when Greece and even Italy were but superficially known to English
+travellers. He was a fellow of the Royal Society and the Society of
+Antiquaries, and a member of the Institute of France and the Berlin
+Academy.
+
+  His best-known work is _Pompeiana; the Topography, Edifices and
+  Ornaments of Pompeii_ (1817-1832), in the first part of which he was
+  assisted by J.P. Gandy. It was followed in 1834 by the _Topography of
+  Rome and its Vicinity_ (new ed. by E.H. Bunbury, 1896). He wrote also
+  _Topography of Troy and its Vicinity_ (1804); _Geography and
+  Antiquities of Ithaca_ (1807); _Itinerary of Greece, with a Commentary
+  on Pausanias and Strabo_ (1810, enlarged ed. 1827); _Itinerary of the
+  Morea_ (1816; republished as _Narrative of a Journey in the Morea_,
+  1823). All these works have been superseded by later publications.
+
+
+
+
+GELLERT, CHRISTIAN FÜRCHTEGOTT (1715-1769), German poet, was born at
+Hainichen in the Saxon Erzgebirge on the 4th of July 1715. After
+attending the famous school of St Afra in Meissen, he entered Leipzig
+University in 1734 as a student of theology, and on completing his
+studies in 1739 was for two years a private tutor. Returning to Leipzig
+in 1741 he contributed to the _Bremer Beiträge_, a periodical founded by
+former disciples of Johann Christoph Gottsched, who had revolted from
+the pedantry of his school. Owing to shyness and weak health Gellert
+gave up all idea of entering the ministry, and, establishing himself in
+1745 as _privatdocent_ in philosophy at the university of Leipzig,
+lectured on poetry, rhetoric and literary style with much success. In
+1751 he was appointed extraordinary professor of philosophy, a post
+which he held until his death at Leipzig on the 13th of December 1769.
+
+The esteem and veneration in which Gellert was held by the students, and
+indeed by persons in all classes of society, was unbounded, and yet due
+perhaps less to his unrivalled popularity as a lecturer and writer than
+to his personal character. He was the noblest and most amiable of men,
+generous, tender-hearted and of unaffected piety and humility. He wrote
+in order to raise the religious and moral character of the people, and
+to this end employed language which, though at times prolix, was always
+correct and clear. He thus became one of the most popular German
+authors, and some of his poems enjoyed a celebrity out of proportion to
+their literary value. This is more particularly true of his _Fabeln und
+Erzählungen_ (1746-1748) and of his _Geistliche Oden und Lieder_ (1757).
+The fables, for which he took La Fontaine as his model, are simple and
+didactic. The "spiritual songs," though in force and dignity they cannot
+compare with the older church hymns, were received by Catholics and
+Protestants with equal favour. Some of them were set to music by
+Beethoven. Gellert wrote a few comedies: _Die Betschwester_ (1745), _Die
+kranke Frau_ (1748), _Das Los in der Lotterie_ (1748), and _Die
+zärtlichen Schwestern_ (1748), the last of which was much admired. His
+novel _Die schwedische Gräfin von G._ (1746), a weak imitation of
+Richardson's _Pamela_, is remarkable as being the first German attempt
+at a psychological novel. Gellert's _Briefe_ (letters) were regarded at
+the time as models of good style.
+
+  See Gellert's _Sämtliche Schriften_ (first edition, 10 vols., Leipzig,
+  1769-1774; last edition, Berlin, 1867). _Sämtliche Fabeln und
+  Erzählungen_ have been often published separately, the latest edition
+  in 1896. A selection of Gellert's poetry (with an excellent
+  introduction) will be found in F. Muncker, _Die Bremer Beiträge_
+  (Stuttgart, 1899). A translation by J.A. Murke, _Gellert's Fables and
+  other Poems_ (London, 1851). For a further account of Gellert's life
+  and work see lives by J.A. Cramer (Leipzig, 1774), H. Döring (Greiz,
+  1833), and H.O. Nietschmann (2nd ed., Halle, 1901); also _Gellerts
+  Tagebuch aus dem Jahre 1761_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1863) and _Gellerts
+  Briefwechsel mit Demoiselle Lucius_ (Leipzig, 1823).
+
+
+
+
+GELLERT, or KILLHART, in Welsh traditional history, the dog of
+Llewellyn, prince of Wales. The dog, a greyhound, was left to guard the
+cradle in which the infant heir slept. A wolf enters, and is about to
+attack the child, when Gellert flies at him. In the struggle the cradle
+is upset and the infant falls underneath. Gellert kills the wolf, but
+when Prince Llewellyn arrives and sees the empty cradle and blood all
+around, he does not for the moment notice the wolf, but thinks Gellert
+has killed the baby. He at once stabs him, but almost instantly finds
+his son safe under the cradle and realizes the dog's bravery. Gellert is
+supposed to have been buried near the village of Beddgelert ("grave of
+Gellert"), Snowdon, where his tomb is still pointed out to visitors. The
+date of the incident is traditionally given as 1205. The incident has
+given rise to a Welsh proverb, "I repent as much as the man who slew his
+greyhound." The whole story is, however, only the Welsh version of a
+tale long before current in Europe, which is traced to the Indian
+Panchatantra and perhaps as far back as 200 B.C.
+
+  See W.A. Clouston, _Popular Tales and Fictions_ (1887); D.E. Jenkins,
+  _Beddgelert, its Facts, Fairies and Folklore_ (Portmadoc, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+GELLIUS, AULUS (c. A.D. 130-180), Latin author and grammarian, probably
+born at Rome. He studied grammar and rhetoric at Rome and philosophy at
+Athens, after which he returned to Rome, where he held a judicial
+office. His teachers and friends included many distinguished
+men--Sulpicius Apollinaris, Herodes Atticus and Fronto. His only work,
+the _Noctes Atticae_, takes its name from having been begun during the
+long nights of a winter which he spent in Attica. He afterwards
+continued it at Rome. It is compiled out of an Adversaria, or
+commonplace book, in which he had jotted down everything of unusual
+interest that he heard in conversation or read in books, and it
+comprises notes on grammar, geometry, philosophy, history and almost
+every other branch of knowledge. The work, which is utterly devoid of
+sequence or arrangement, is divided into twenty books. All these have
+come down to us except the eighth, of which nothing remains but the
+index. The _Noctes Atticae_ is valuable for the insight it affords into
+the nature of the society and pursuits of those times, and for the
+numerous excerpts it contains from the works of lost ancient authors.
+
+  Editio princeps (Rome, 1469); the best editions are those of Gronovius
+  (1706) and M. Hertz (1883-1885; editio minor, 1886, revised by C.
+  Hosius, 1903, with bibliography). There is a translation in English by
+  W. Beloe (1795), and in French by various hands (1896). See Sandys,
+  _Hist. Class. Schol._ i. (1906), 210.
+
+
+
+
+GELLIVARA [GELLIVARE], a mining town of Sweden in the district (_län_)
+of Norrbotten, 815 m. N. by E. of Stockholm by rail. It lies in the
+well-nigh uninhabited region of Swedish Lapland, 43 m. N. of the Arctic
+Circle. It owes its importance to the iron mines in the mountain
+Malmberget 4½ m. to the north, rising to 2024 ft. above sea-level (830
+ft. above Gellivara town). During the dark winter months work proceeds
+by the aid of electric light. In 1864 the mines were acquired by an
+English company, but abandoned in 1867. In 1884 another English company
+took them up and completed a provisional railway from Malmberget to
+Luleå at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia (127 m. S.S.E.), besides
+executing a considerable portion of the preliminary works for the
+continuation of the line on the Norwegian side from Ofoten Fjord upwards
+(see NARVIK). But this company, after extracting some 150,000 tons of
+ore in 1888-1889, went into liquidation in the latter year. Two years
+later the mines passed into the hands of a Swedish company, and the
+railway was acquired by the Swedish Government. The output of ore was
+insignificant until 1892, when it stood at 178,000 tons; but in 1902 it
+amounted to 1,074,000 tons. Three miles S.W. rises the hill Gellivara
+Dundret (2700 ft.), from which the sun is visible at midnight from June
+5 to July 11. The population of the parish (about 6500 sq. m.) in 1900
+was 11,745; the greater part of the population being congregated at the
+town of Gellivara and at Malmberget.
+
+
+
+
+GELNHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau,
+on the Kinzig, 27 m. E.N.E. of Frankfort-on-Main, on the railway to
+Bebra. Pop. 4500. It is romantically situated on the slope of a
+vine-clad hill, and is still surrounded by ancient walls and towers. On
+an island in the river are the ivy-covered ruins of the imperial palace
+which Frederick I. (Barbarossa) built before 1170, and which was
+destroyed by the Swedes during the Thirty Years' War. It has an
+interesting and beautiful church (the Marien Kirche), with four spires
+(of which that on the transept is curiously crooked), built in the 13th
+century, and restored in 1876-1879; also several other ancient
+buildings, notably the town-hall, the Fürstenhof (now administrative
+offices), and the Hexenthurm. India-rubber goods are manufactured, and
+wine is made. Gelnhausen became an imperial town in 1169, and diets of
+the Empire were frequently held within its walls. In 1634 and 1635 it
+suffered severely from the Swedes. In 1803 the town became the property
+of Hesse-Cassel, and in 1866 passed to Prussia.
+
+
+
+
+GELO, son of Deinomenes, tyrant of Gela and Syracuse. On the death of
+Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela (491 B.C.), Gelo, who had been his commander
+of cavalry, succeeded him; and in 485, his aid having been invoked by
+the Gamori (the oligarchical landed proprietors) of Syracuse who had
+been driven out by the populace, he seized the opportunity of making
+himself despot. From this time Gelo paid little attention to Gela, and
+devoted himself to the aggrandizement of Syracuse, which attained
+extraordinary wealth and influence. When the Greeks solicited his aid
+against Xerxes, he refused it, since they would not give him command of
+the allied forces (Herodotus vii. 171). In the same year the
+Carthaginians invaded Sicily, but were totally defeated at Himera, the
+result of the victory being that Gelo became lord of all Sicily. After
+he had thus established his power, he made a show of resigning it; but
+his proposal was rejected by the multitude, and he reigned without
+opposition till his death (478). He was honoured as a hero, and his
+memory was held in such respect that when all the brazen statues of
+tyrants were condemned to be sold in the time of Timoleon (150 years
+later) an exemption was made in favour of the statue of Gelo.
+
+  Herodotus vii.; Diod. Sic. xi. 20-38; see also SICILY: _History_, and
+  SYRACUSE; for his coins see NUMISMATICS: _Sicily_.
+
+
+
+
+GELSEMIUM, a drug consisting of the root of _Gelsemium nitidum_, a
+clinging shrub of the natural order Loganiaceae, having a milky juice,
+opposite, lanceolate shining leaves, and axillary clusters of from one
+to five large, funnel-shaped, very fragrant yellow flowers, whose
+perfume has been compared with that of the wallflower. The fruit is
+composed of two separable jointed pods, containing numerous flat-winged
+seeds. The stem often runs underground for a considerable distance, and
+indiscriminately with the root it is used in medicine. The plant is a
+native of the United States, growing on rich clay soil by the side of
+streams near the coast, from Virginia to the south of Florida. In the
+United States it is commonly known as the wild, yellow or Carolina
+jessamine, although in no way related to the true jessamines, which
+belong to the order Oleaceae. It was first described in 1640 by John
+Parkinson, who grew it in his garden from seed sent by Tradescant from
+Virginia; at the present time it is but rarely seen, even in botanical
+gardens, in Great Britain.
+
+The drug contains a volatile oil and two potent alkaloids, gelseminine
+and gelsemine. Gelseminine is a yellowish, bitter substance, readily
+soluble in ether and alcohol. It is not employed therapeutically.
+Gelsemine has the formula C11H19NO2, and is a colourless, odourless,
+intensely bitter solid, which is insoluble in water, but readily forms a
+soluble hydrochloride. The dose of this salt is from 1/60th to 1/20th of
+a grain. The British Pharmacopoeia contains a tincture of gelsemium, the
+dose of which is from five to fifteen minims.
+
+[Illustration: _Gelsemium nitidum_, half natural size; flower, nat.
+size.]
+
+The drug is essentially a nerve poison. It has no action on the skin and
+no marked action on the alimentary or circulatory systems. Its action on
+the cerebrum is slight, consciousness being retained even after toxic
+doses, but there may be headache and giddiness. The drug rapidly causes
+failure of vision, diplopia, ptosis or falling of the upper eyelid,
+dilatation of the pupil, and a lowering of the intra-ocular tension.
+This last action is doubtful. The symptoms appear to be due to a
+paralysis of the motor cells that control the internal and external
+ocular muscles. The most marked action of the drug is upon the anterior
+cornua of grey matter in the spinal cord. It can be shown by a process
+of experimental exclusion that to an arrest of function of these cells
+is due the paralysis of all the voluntary muscles of the body that
+follows the administration of gelsemium or gelsemine. Just before death
+the sensory part of the spinal cord is also paralysed, general
+anaesthesia resulting. The drug kills by its action on the respiratory
+centre in the medulla oblongata. Shortly after the administration of
+even a moderate dose the respiration is slowed and is ultimately
+arrested, this being the cause of death. In cases of poisoning the
+essential treatment is artificial respiration, which may be aided by the
+subcutaneous exhibition of strychnine.
+
+Though the drug is still widely used, the rational indications for its
+employment are singularly rare and uncertain. The conditions in which it
+is most frequently employed are convulsions, bronchitis, severe and
+purposeless coughing, myalgia or muscular pain, neuralgia and various
+vague forms of pain.
+
+
+
+
+GELSENKIRCHEN, a town of Germany in the Prussian province of Westphalia,
+27 m. W. of Dortmund on the railway Duisburg-Hamm. Pop. (1905) 147,037.
+It has coal mines, iron furnaces, steel and boiler works, and soap,
+glass and chemical factories. In 1903 various neighbouring industrial
+townships were incorporated with the town.
+
+
+
+
+GEM (Lat. _gemma_, a bud,--from the root _gen_, meaning "to
+produce,"--or precious stone; in the latter sense the Greek term is
+[Greek: psêphos]), a word applied in a wide sense to certain minerals
+which, by reason of their brilliancy, hardness and rarity, are valued
+for personal decoration; it is extended to include pearl. In a
+restricted sense the term is applied only to precious stones after they
+have been cut and polished as jewels, whilst in their raw state the
+minerals are conveniently called "gem-stones." Sometimes, again, the
+term "gem" is used in a yet narrower sense, being restricted to engraved
+stones, like seals and cameos.
+
+The subject is treated here in two sections: (1) Mineralogy and general
+properties; (2) Gems in Art, i.e. engraved gems, such as seals and
+cameos. The artificial products which simulate natural gem-stones in
+properties and chemical composition are treated in the separate article
+GEM, ARTIFICIAL.
+
+
+1. MINERALOGY AND GENERAL PROPERTIES
+
+The gem-stones form a small conventional group of minerals, including
+principally the diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald and opal. Other stones
+of less value--such as topaz, spinel, chrysoberyl, chrysolite, zircon
+and tourmaline--are sometimes called "fancy stones." Many minerals still
+less prized, yet often used as ornamental stones,--like moonstone,
+rock-crystal and agate,--occasionally pass under the name of
+"semi-precious stones," but this is rather a vague term and may include
+the stones of the preceding group. The classification of gem-stones is,
+indeed, to some extent a matter of fashion.
+
+Descriptions of the several gem-stones will be found under their
+respective headings, and the present article gives only a brief review
+of the general characters of the group.
+
+
+  Hardness.
+
+A high degree of hardness is an essential property of a gem-stone, for
+however beautiful and brilliant a mineral may be it is useless to the
+jeweller if it lack sufficient hardness to withstand the abrasion to
+which articles of personal decoration are necessarily subjected. Even if
+not definitely scratched, the polished stone becomes dull by wear.
+Imitations in paste may be extremely brilliant, but being comparatively
+soft they soon lose lustre when rubbed. In the article MINERALOGY it is
+explained that the varying degrees of hardness are registered on a
+definite scale. The exceptional hardness of the diamond gives it a
+supreme position in this scale, and to it the arbitrary value of 10 has
+been assigned. The corundum gem-stones (ruby and sapphire), though
+greatly inferior in hardness to the diamond, come next, with the value
+of 9; and it is notable that the sapphire is usually rather harder than
+ruby. Then follows the topaz, which, with spinel and chrysoberyl, has a
+hardness of 8; whilst quartz falls a degree lower. Most gem-stones are
+harder than quartz, though precious opal, turquoise, moonstone and
+sphene are inferior to it in hardness. Those stones which are softer
+than quartz have been called by jewellers _demi-dures_. To test the
+hardness of a cut stone, one of its sharp edges may be drawn, with firm
+pressure, across the smooth surface of a piece of quartz; if it leave a
+scratch its hardness must be above 7. The stone is then applied in like
+manner to a fragment of topaz, preferably a cleavage-piece, and if it
+fail to leave a distinct scratch its hardness is between 7 and 8,
+whereas if the topaz be scratched it is above 8. An expert may obtain a
+fair idea of hardness by gently passing the stone over a fine steel
+file, and observing the feel of the stone and the grating sound which it
+emits. If a stone be scratched by a steel knife its hardness is below 6.
+The degree of hardness of a precious stone is soon ascertained by the
+lapidary when cutting it.
+
+
+  Specific gravity.
+
+Gem-stones differ markedly among themselves in density or specific
+weight; and although this is a character which does not directly affect
+their value for ornamental purposes, it furnishes by its constancy an
+important means of distinguishing one stone from another. Moreover, it
+is a character very easily determined and can be applied to cut stones
+without injury. The relative weightiness of a stone is called its
+specific gravity, and is often abbreviated as S.G. The number given in
+the description of a mineral as S.G. shows how many times the stone is
+heavier than an equal bulk of the standard with which it is compared,
+the standard being distilled water at 4° C. If, for example, the S.G. of
+diamond is said to be 3.5 it means that a diamond weighs 3½ times as
+much as a mass of water of the same bulk. The various methods of
+determining specific gravity are described under DENSITY. The readiest
+method of testing precious stones, especially when cut, is to use dense
+liquids. Suppose it be required to determine whether a yellow stone be
+true topaz or false topaz (quartz), it is merely necessary to drop the
+stone into a liquid made up to the specific gravity of about 3; and
+since topaz has S.G. of 3.5 it sinks in this medium, but as quartz has
+S.G. of only 2.65 it floats. The densest gem-stone is zircon, which may
+have S.G. as high as 4.7, whilst the lowest is opal with S.G. 2.2.
+Amber, it is true, is lighter still, being scarcely denser than water,
+but this substance can hardly be called a gem.
+
+
+  Crystalline form and cleavage.
+
+Although the great majority of precious stones occur crystallized, the
+characteristic form is destroyed in cutting. The crystal-forms of the
+several stones are noticed under their respective headings, and the
+subject is discussed fully under CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. A few substances used
+as ornamental stones--like opal, turquoise, obsidian and amber--are
+amorphous or without crystalline form; whilst others, like the various
+stones of the chalcedony-group, display no obvious crystal-characters,
+but are seen under the microscope to possess a crystalline structure.
+Gem-stones are frequently found in gravels or other detrital deposits,
+where they occur as rolled crystals or fragments of crystals, and in
+many cases have been reduced to the form of pebbles. By the
+disintegration of the rock which formed the original matrix, its
+constituent minerals were set free, and whilst many of them were worn
+away by long-continued attrition, the gem-stones survived by virtue of
+their superior hardness.
+
+Many crystallized gem-stones exhibit cleavage, or a tendency to split in
+definite directions. The lapidary recognizes a "grain" in the stone.
+When the cleavage is perfect, as in topaz, it may render the working of
+the stone difficult, and produce incipient cracks in the cut gem. Flaws
+due to the cleavage planes are called "feathers." The octahedral
+cleavage of the diamond is taken advantage of in dressing the stone
+before cutting it. The cutting of gem-stones is explained under
+LAPIDARY.
+
+
+  Colour.
+
+The beauty and consequent value of gems depend mainly on their colour.
+Some stones, it is true, are valued for entire absence of colour, as
+diamonds of pure "water." Certain kinds of sapphire and topaz, too, are
+"water clear," as also is pure rock-crystal; but in most stones colour
+is a prime element of attraction. The colour, however, is not generally
+an essential property of the mineral, but is due to the presence of
+foreign pigmentary matter, often in very small proportion and in some
+cases eluding determination. Thus, corundum when pure is colourless, but
+the presence of traces of certain mineral substances imparts to it not
+only the red of ruby and the blue of sapphire, but almost every other
+colour. The tinctorial matter may be distributed either uniformly
+throughout the stone or in regular zones, or in quite irregular patches.
+A tourmaline, for instance, may be red at one end of a prismatic crystal
+and green at the other extremity, or the colour may be so disposed that
+in transverse section the centre will be red and the outer zone green. A
+beryl may be yellow and green in the same crystal. Sapphire, again, is
+often parti-coloured, one portion of the stone being blue and other
+portions white or yellow; and the skilful lapidary, in cutting the
+stone, will take advantage of the blue portion. The character of the
+pigment is in many cases not definitely known. It by no means follows
+that the material capable of imparting a certain tint to glass is
+identical with that which naturally colours a stone of the same tint;
+thus a glass of sapphire-blue may be obtained by the use of cobalt, yet
+cobalt has not been detected in the sapphire. Probably the most common
+mineral pigments are compounds of iron, manganese, copper and chromium.
+If the colour of the stone be discharged by heat, an organic pigment is
+presumably present. Some ornamental stones change their colour, or even
+lose it, on exposure to sunlight and air: such is the case with
+rose-quartz, chrysoprase and certain kinds of topaz and turquoise.
+Exposure to heat alters the colour of some stones so readily that the
+change is taken advantage of commercially; thus, sherry-yellow topaz may
+be rendered pink, smoky and amethystine quartz may become yellow, and
+coloured zircons may be decolorized, so as to resemble diamonds.
+
+The colours of some gem-stones are greatly affected by radioactivity,
+and Prof. F. Bordas has found this to be particularly the case with
+sapphire. From his experiments he believes that yellow corundum, or
+oriental topaz, may have been formed from blue corundum under the
+influence of radioactive substances present in the soil in which the
+sapphire was embedded. Different shades of colour may be presented by
+different stones of the same species; and it was formerly the custom of
+lapidaries to regard the darker stones as masculine and the paler as
+feminine, a full blue sapphire, for instance, being called a "male
+sapphire" and a delicate blue stone a "female sapphire." It is notable
+that some stones appear to change colour by candle-light and by most
+other artificial means of illumination; some amethysts thus become inky,
+and certain sapphires acquire a murky tint, whilst others become
+amethystine. For an example of a remarkable change of this character,
+see ALEXANDRITE.
+
+
+  Refraction.
+
+As the optical properties of minerals are fully explained under
+CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, little need be said here on this subject. The
+brilliancy of a cut stone depends on the amount of light reflected from
+its faces; and in the form known as the "brilliant" the gem is so cut
+that much of the incident light, after entering the stone and suffering
+refraction, is totally reflected from the facets at the back. The amount
+of light which is thus returned to the eye of the observer will be
+greater as the angle of total reflection, or critical angle, is smaller,
+but this angle will be small if the refractive power of the stone is
+great, so that the brilliancy directly depends on the refractivity. The
+diamond has the highest refractive index of any gem-stone (2.42).
+Jargoon, or zircon, has also a high index (mean 1.95), and sphene, which
+is occasionally cut as a gem, is likewise very notable in this respect.
+The index of refraction generally bears a relation to the specific
+gravity of the stone, the heaviest gems having the highest indices,
+though a few minerals offer exceptions. The refractive index, which is
+thus a very important character in the scientific discrimination of
+gem-stones, may be conveniently determined, within certain limits, by
+means of the refractometer devised by Dr G.F. Herbert Smith. This
+instrument is an improved form of the total reflectometer, in which the
+refractive power of a given substance is determined by the method of
+total reflection. It may be used for indices ranging from 1.300 to
+1.775, and may be applied to faceted stones without removal from their
+settings.
+
+
+  Dispersion.
+
+The play of prismatic colours exhibited by a cut stone, often known as
+its "fire," is due to the decomposition of the white light which enters
+the stone, and is returned, by internal reflection, after resolution in
+to its coloured components. This decomposition depends on the dispersive
+power of the substance. The exceptional beauty of the fiery flashes in
+the diamond is due to its high dispersion, in other words, to the
+difference between the refractive indices for the red rays and the
+violet rays at the extremities of the spectrum. The peculiar lustre
+exhibited by the diamond is called adamantine, and is shared to some
+extent by certain other stones which have a high refractive index and
+high dispersion, such as zircon.
+
+
+  Spectroscopic characters.
+
+The use of the spectroscope may be valuable in discriminating between
+certain precious stones. It was shown by Sir A.H. Church that almandine
+garnet and zircon when simply viewed through this instrument give, under
+proper conditions, characteristic absorption spectra, due to the light
+reflected from the stone having penetrated to some extent into the
+substance of the mineral and suffered absorption. It is sometimes
+useful to examine the behaviour of a stone under the action of the
+Röntgen rays.
+
+
+  Dichroism.
+
+A very useful means of discriminating between certain stones is found in
+their dichroism, or, to use a more general term, pleochroism. Neither
+amorphous minerals, like opal, nor minerals crystallizing in the cubic
+system, like spinel and garnet, possess this property; but coloured
+minerals which are doubly refracting may show different colours, when
+properly examined, in different directions. Occasionally this is so
+marked as to be detected by the naked eye, as in iolite or dichroite,
+but usually the stone needs to be examined with such an instrument as
+Haidinger's dichroscope (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY). It must be remembered
+that in the direction of an optic axis the two images will be of the
+same colour in all positions of the instrument, and it is therefore
+necessary before reaching a definite conclusion to turn the stone about
+and examine it in various directions. The use of the dichroscope is so
+simple that it can be applied by any one to the examination of a cut
+stone, but there are other means of determining the nature of a stone by
+its optical properties available to the mineralogist and more suitably
+discussed under CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
+
+
+  Chemical composition.
+
+In chemical composition the gem-stones present great variety. Diamond is
+composed of only a single element; ruby, sapphire and the quartz-group
+are oxides; spinel and chrysoberyl may be regarded as aluminates;
+turquoise and beryllonite are phosphates; and a great number of
+ornamental stones are silicates of greater or less complexity, such as
+emerald, topaz, chrysolite, garnet, zircon, tourmaline, kunzite, sphene
+and benitoite. In the examination of a cut stone chemical tests are not
+available, since they usually involve the partial destruction of the
+mineral. The artificial production of certain gems by chemical processes
+which yield products identical in composition and physical properties
+with the natural stones, is described in the article GEM, ARTIFICIAL.
+
+Doublets and triplets are composite stone, sometimes prepared for
+fraudulent purposes. In a doublet a slab of real gem-stone covers the
+face of a paste, whilst in a triplet the paste is both faced and backed
+by a slice of genuine stone. By the action of a suitable solvent, such
+as chloroform or in some cases even hot water, the cement uniting the
+pieces gives way and the compound character of the structure is
+detected.
+
+Before the chemical composition of gem-stones was understood, their
+classification remained vague and unscientific. As the ancients depended
+almost entirely on the eye, the colour of the stone naturally became the
+chief factor in classification. A variety of stones agreeing roughly in
+colour would be grouped together under a common name, widely as they
+might differ in other respects. Thus the emerald, the peridot, green
+fluorspar, malachite, and certain kinds of quartz and jade seem to have
+been united under the general name of [Greek: smaragdos] whilst the
+ruby, red spinel and garnet were probably grouped together as
+_carbunculus_. In this way minerals radically different were associated
+on the ground of what is generally a superficial and accidental
+character, and rarely of any classificatory value. On the other hand, a
+grouping based only on colour led to several names being in some cases
+applied to the same mineral species. Thus the ruby and sapphire are
+essentially identical in chemical composition and in all physical
+characters, save colour.
+
+
+  Superstitions.
+
+Descriptions of precious stones by ancient writers generally are too
+vague for exact diagnosis. The principal classical authorities are
+Theophrastus and the elder Pliny. Stones were formerly held in esteem
+not only for their beauty and rarity but for the medicinal and magical
+powers with which they were reputed to be endowed. Up to comparatively
+recent years the toadstone, for example, was worn not for beauty but for
+sake of occult virtue; and even at the present day certain stones, like
+jade, are valued for a similar reason. Prof. W. Ridgeway has suggested
+that jewelry took its origin not, as often supposed, in an innate love
+of personal decoration, but rather in the belief that the objects used
+possessed magical virtue. Small stones peculiar in colour or shape,
+especially those with natural perforations, are usually valued by
+uncivilized peoples as amulets. The Orphic poem [Greek: Lithika],
+reputed to be of very early though unknown date, is rich in allusions to
+the virtues of many of the gem-stones. Many of the medical and other
+virtues of precious stones were evidently attributed to them on the
+well-known doctrine of signatures. Thus, the blood-red colour of a fine
+jasper suggested that the stone would be useful in haemorrhage; a green
+jasper would bring fertility to the soil; and the purple wine-colour of
+amethyst pointed to its value as a preventive of intoxication. Many of
+the superstitions came down to modern times, and even at the present day
+the belief in "lucky stones" is by no means extinct.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most comprehensive work on gem-stones is Professor
+  Max Bauer's _Edelsteinkunde_ (1896), translated, with additions, by
+  L.J. Spencer under the title _Precious Stones_ (1904). Less detailed
+  are Professor P. Groth's _Grundriss der Edelsteinkunde_ (1887) and
+  Professor C. Doelter's _Edelsteinkunde_ (1893). Sir A. H. Church's
+  _Precious Stones_ (1905), intended as a guide to the collections in
+  the Victoria and Albert Museum, is a convenient introduction: and
+  Professor H.A. Miers's Cantor Lectures at the Society of Arts on
+  _Precious Stones_ (1896) may be studied with advantage. For American
+  stones, the valuable work of Dr G.F. Kunz, _The Gems and Precious
+  Stones of N. America_, is a standard authority; and the Annual Reports
+  of this writer and others, published by the Geological Survey of the
+  United States in the _Mineral Resources_, form a repertory of valuable
+  information on precious stones in general. The articles in _The
+  Mineral Industry_ (founded by R.P. Rothwell) should also be consulted.
+  See likewise O.C. Farrington, _Gems and Gem Minerals_ (Chicago, 1903).
+  For optical characters reference should be made to G.F.H. Smith, _The
+  Herbert Smith Refractometer_ (London, 1907); L. Claremont, _The
+  Gem-Cutter's Craft_ (London, 1906); W. Goodchild, _Precious Stones_
+  (London, 1908).     (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+2. GEMS IN ART
+
+In art, the word Gem is the general term for precious stones when
+engraved with designs, whether adapted for sealing ([Greek: sphragis],
+_sigillum_, _intaglio_), or mainly for artistic effect (_imagines
+ectypae_, _cameo_). They exist in a very large number of undoubtedly
+genuine old examples, extending from the mists of Babylonian antiquity
+to the decline of Roman civilization, and again starting with a new, but
+less original impulse on the revival of art. Apart from workmanship they
+possess the charms of colour deep, rich, and varied, of material
+unequalled for its endurance, and of scarcity, which in many instances
+has been enhanced by the remoteness of the lands whence they came or the
+fortuity of their occurrence. These qualities united within the small
+compass of a gem were precisely such as were required in a seal as a
+thing of constant use, so inalienable in its possession as to become
+naturally a personal ornament and an attractive medium of artistic
+skill, no less than the centre of traditions or of religious and
+legendary associations. As regards the nations of classical antiquity,
+all seals are classed as gems, though in many cases the material is not
+such as would strictly come under that heading, and precious stones in
+the modern sense are hardly known to occur. On the other hand it must
+not be supposed that gems engraved in intaglio were necessarily employed
+as seals. At all periods many intaglios are found which could not have
+been so employed without great difficulty. In Greece and Rome, within
+historic times, gems were worn engraved with designs to show that the
+bearer was an adherent of a particular worship, the follower of a
+certain philosopher, or the attached subject of an emperor. However,
+speaking generally, the intaglio engraving is a means to an end, namely,
+a seal-impression, while an engraving in relief is complete in itself.
+
+_Methods of Engraving_ (see also under LAPIDARY).--In gem-engraving the
+principal modern implement is a wheel or minute copper disk, driven in
+the manner of a lathe, and moistened with olive oil mixed with emery or
+diamond dust. There is no clear proof of the use among the ancients of a
+wheel mounted lathewise, but we have abundant indications of drilling
+with a revolving tool, which might be either a tubular drill making a
+ring-like depression, a pointed tool making a cup-like sinking, or a
+small wheel with a cutting edge, making a boat-shaped depression.
+
+We have one sepulchral monument from Philadelphia showing the tool of an
+intaglio engraver ([Greek: daktylokoilogyphos]; see _Athenische
+Mitteilungen des Arch. Inst._ xv. p. 333). Unfortunately the relief is
+incomplete, and the published illustration inadequate. It would seem,
+however, that a revolving tool was supported by a kind of mandrel, and
+actuated in primitive fashion by a bow. An alternative plan of working
+was to use a splinter of diamond set in a handle and applied like a
+graver. Both systems are clearly indicated by Pliny, who in one passage
+(_H.N._ xxxvii. 60) states that diamond splinters are sought out by gem
+engravers and set in iron, and so easily hollow out stones of any degree
+of hardness; while elsewhere (_H.N._ xxxvii. 200) he speaks of the
+special efficacy of the _fervor terebrarum_, the vehement action of
+drills. A third method is also indicated by Pliny (_ibid._) when he
+speaks of the use of a blunted tool, which must have been moistened and
+supplied with emery of Naxos.
+
+A four-sided pendant of the Hellenistic period published by Furtwängler
+(_Antike Gemmen, Gesch._ p. 400) shows clearly the successive stages of
+the operation. On side a the subject is slightly sketched in with the
+diamond point. On side b the deepest parts of the figure have also been
+roughly scooped out with the wheel. On sides c and d the wheel work is
+fairly complete, but the finer internal work has not been begun.
+
+After the design had been completed the stone must have received a final
+polish on its surface, to obliterate any erroneous strokes of the first
+sketch; but this process was not carried as far as in modern work. It is
+a popular error to suppose that a high degree of internal polish is a
+proof of antiquity. If the interior of the design has a high degree of
+polish it may be either ancient or modern, or it may be an ancient stone
+repolished in modern times. If it has a matt surface uniformly produced
+by intention, it is probably modern. If the design is slightly dimmed
+and worn or scratched the stone may be antique, but is not necessarily
+so, since modern engravers have observed this peculiarity, and have
+imitated it with a success which, were there no other grounds of
+suspicion, might escape detection.
+
+_History._--It has been a subject of controversy whether the first
+infancy of the art was passed in Egypt or in Babylonia, but it seems
+highly probable that it was developed in Babylonia, whence at any rate
+the oldest examples of engraved gems at present known are obtained. It
+does not necessarily follow, however, that Egypt was therefore a pupil.
+It may well be that the art was developed independently in the two
+countries, although certain points of possible contact in respect of the
+forms employed will be described below in the section dealing with
+primitive Egypt.
+
+_Babylonia._--At a very remote period the cylindrical form of stone was
+introduced and became the approved shape, while the technical skill of
+the artist was still slight, and the traces of the tools employed (drill
+and pencil point) were still unconcealed.
+
+The cylinder was suspended by a string and used as a seal. Impressions
+of cylinders are frequent on contract tablets. If one of the parties
+cannot use a seal he makes a nail-mark in lieu thereof, as is recorded
+in the document.
+
+But from a time that was still comparatively early the engravers could
+work with considerable skill in the hard stone. In particular a cylinder
+may be quoted in the de Clercq Collection bearing the name of Sargon I.
+of Agade, who is placed about 3500 B.C. The cylinder is engraved with
+the king's name and titles and two symmetrically disposed renderings of
+Izdubar, with a vase of flowing water giving drink to a bull. The whole
+is treated in a conventionalized style that indicates long traditions.
+An important early cylinder in the British Museum is inscribed with the
+name of a viceroy of Ur-Gur, king of Ur (about 2500 B.C.). The engraving
+shows Ur-Gur being led into the presence of Sin, the moon-god.
+
+The cylinder seal was adopted by the Assyrians, and so was carried on
+continuously till the time of the Persian conquest of Babylon (538
+B.C.). Meanwhile, as an alternative form the conoidal seal, rounded at
+the top and having a flat base for the intaglio, came into use beside
+the cylinder.
+
+In style the Assyrians carried on the Babylonian tradition, but with no
+freedom of design. Subjects and treatment became rigidly conventional.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+  1-5.--ORIENTAL.
+
+    1. Babylonian (late Sumerian) Cylinder of a Viceroy of Ur-Gur (or
+      Ur-Engur), 2500 B.C.
+    2. Assyrian Cylinder. Woman adoring Goddess.
+    3. Assyrian Cylinder. Assur worshipped by two Assyrian kings, and
+      divine Attendants.
+    4. Persian Seal of Darius (500 B.C.). Lion Hunt.
+    5. Graeco-Persian Scarabaeoid. Boar Hunt.
+
+  6-15.--CRETAN AND MYCENAEAN INTAGLIOS.
+
+    6. Cretan Symbols.
+    7. Man and Bull. Crete.
+    8. Lions and Column. Ialysus.
+    9. Daemon. Crete.
+    10. Lioness and Deer.
+    11-13. Three-sided Stone. Peloponnesus.
+    14. Man and Bull. Crete.
+    15. Bull and Palm. Ialysus.
+
+  16-18.--GEMS OF THE ISLANDS.
+
+    16. Goddess on Waves. Birds.
+    17. Lion and Goat.
+    18. Heracles and Nereus.
+
+  19.--PHOENICIAN SEAL, inscribed.
+
+  20-26.--GRAECO-PHOENICIAN SCARABS FROM THARROS.
+
+    20. King, enthroned.
+    21. Bes with Antelope and Hound.
+    22. Bes with Lions.
+    23. Warrior.
+    24. Egyptian Device.
+    25. Bes and Goats.
+    26. Hawk of Horus.
+
+  All the above are in the British Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  27-34.--EARLY GREEK SCARABS AND SCARABAEOIDS.
+
+    27. Pluto and Persephone. (New York.)
+    28. Boreas and Oreithyia. (New York.)
+    29. Youth and Dog.
+    30. Archer feeling Arrow Tip. (Lord Southesk.)
+    31. Satyr and Wine Cup.
+    32. Archer and Dog.
+    33. Satyr with Wineskin.
+    34. Athena with Gorgon Spoils.
+
+  35-44.--FINEST GREEK SCARABS AND SCARABAEOIDS.
+
+    35. Head of Young Warrior.
+    36. Lyre Player. (Cockerell Coll.)
+    37. Crane, with Deer's Antler.
+    38. Head of Eos.
+    39. Lyre Player. (Woodhouse Coll. and B.M.)
+    40. Lyre Player, signed by Syries.
+    41. Stork and Grasshopper, signed by Dexamenos. (St. Petersburg.)
+    42. Flying Crane, signed by Dexamenos. (St. Petersburg.)
+    43. Flying Goose.
+    44. Lion and Stag.
+
+  45-54.--ETRUSCAN SCARABS.
+
+    45. Achilles in Retirement.
+    46. Victory.
+    47. Capaneus struck by the Bolt.
+    48. Heracles.
+    49. Capaneus struck by the Bolt.
+    50. Achilles.
+    51. Heracles and Cycnus.
+    52. Heracles.
+    53. Heracles and the Lion.
+    54. Machaon bandaging Philoctetes.
+
+  55-57.--GREEK GEMS.
+
+    55. Girl with Scroll and Lyre.
+    56. Girl with Water-Jar.
+    57. Head of Aristippus--Deities.
+
+  58-61.--SIGNED GEMS.
+
+    58. Asclepius of Aulos.
+    59. Citharist of Allion.
+    60. Medusa of Solon.
+    61. Heracles of Gnaios.
+
+  62-70.--ROMAN GEMS.
+
+    62. Portrait.
+    63. Head of Trajan Decius.
+    64. Ares and Aphrodite.
+    65. Jupiter of Heliopolis.
+    66. Artemis of Ephesus.
+    67. So-called Psyche.
+    68. So-called Psyche.
+    69. Minerva with Mask, Stamp for the Eye Balsam of Herophilus.
+    70. Helios.
+
+  71-72.--CHRISTIAN GEMS.
+
+    71. Crucifixion.
+    72. Good Shepherd. Jonah.
+
+  73-76.--EIGHTEENTH CENTURY GEMS.
+
+    73. Achilles of Pamphilus, copied from the antique.
+    74. Eros and Psyche, by Pichler.
+    75. Head of Athena.
+    76. Athena, from Townley Bust by Marchant.]
+
+After the Persian conquest the victors adopted the cylinder form of the
+conquered, and continued to use it. A Persian cylinder seal of Darius
+(probably about 500 B.C.) in the British Museum shows the king in his
+chariot, transfixing a lion with his arrows, in a palm wood. Above is
+the winged emblem of the Persian deity Ahuramazda. The inscription gives
+the name and titles of Darius in the Persian, Scythic and Babylonian
+languages. The style is accurate and minute. The idea of the lion hunt
+is borrowed from the Assyrian monuments, but the engraver has been
+careful to make the necessary changes of costume and treatment. The
+cylinder was, as might be anticipated, imitated to a certain extent by
+peoples of the Eastern world in touch with Babylonia. It occurs in
+Armenia, Media and Elam. It has been found in Crete (_British School
+Annual_, viii. p. 77) and is frequent in the early Cypriote deposits. In
+some instances it has been found unfinished and therefore must be
+supposed to be of local manufacture. Sometimes a direct imitation of
+cuneiform characters occurs on the Cypriote cylinders. The same form was
+also employed by the Phoenicians (about the 8th century-7th century
+B.C.). By the Greeks and Etruscans it was used, but only rarely, and by
+way of exception.
+
+_Egypt._--We must go back to the remotest periods for the origin of
+intaglio engraving in Egypt. Recent discoveries of tombs of the earliest
+dynasties at Abydos and Nagada have thrown much light on the early
+stages of Egyptian art, and have revealed the remarkable fact that in
+Egypt (as in Babylonia) the cylinder was the earliest form used for the
+purpose of a seal. The cylinders that have been found are comparatively
+few in number; but a large number of jar-stoppings of clay are preserved
+on which cylinder designs have been rolled off while the clay was still
+soft. Such early incised cylinders as are extant are made either of hard
+wood or (as in an instance in the British Museum) of stone. The identity
+of form has been thought to indicate a connexion with Babylonia, but
+none can be traced in the designs of the respective cylinders.
+
+The Egyptians of the earliest dynasties had an admirable command of hard
+stones, as shown by their beads and stone vases, but with the exception
+of the cylinders quoted they are not known to have applied their skill
+to the production of intaglios. At this early period the scarab (or
+beetle) was still unknown as a gem-form. It was only about the time of
+the 4th dynasty that the scarab (q.v.) was first introduced, and
+gradually took the place of the cylinder as the prevailing shape.
+
+The _Scarabaeus sacer_ (Egyptian, _Kheperer_), rolling its eggs in a
+ball of mud, became the accepted emblem of the sun-god, and so the form
+had an amuletic value. Scarabs of obsidian and crystal date back to the
+4th dynasty. Others, coarse and uninscribed, belong to the beginning of
+the first Theban empire. After the 18th dynasty they are counted by
+thousands. While the beetle form was naturalistically treated, the flat
+surface underneath was well adapted to receive a hieroglyphic sign. The
+scarabs, however, are by no means the only product of the art. We have
+also figures of all kinds in the round and in intaglio--statuettes,
+figures of animals and of deities, and sacred emblems such as the ankh
+(or _crux ansata_) and the eye. Among interesting variations from the
+scarab form is the oblong intaglio of green jasper in the Louvre
+(_Gazette arch._, 1878, p. 41) with a design on both sides. It
+represents on the obverse Tethmosis (Thothmes) II. (1800 B.C.) slaying a
+lion, and identified by his cartouche. On the reverse we have the same
+king drawing his bow against his enemies from a war chariot. The scarabs
+of Egypt though uninteresting in themselves, considered as examples of
+engraving, have this accidental importance in the history of art, that
+they furnished the Phoenicians with a model which they were able to
+improve as regards the intaglio by a more free spirit of design,
+gathered partly from Egypt and partly from Assyria. The scarab thus
+improved exercised a lasting influence on the later history, since, as
+will be seen below, it was adopted and modified both by Greeks and
+Etruscans.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Jewish High Priest's Breastplate.]
+
+_Engraved Gems in the Bible._--While the Phoenicians have left actual
+specimens to show with what skill they could adopt the systems of
+gem-engraving prevailing at their time in Egypt and Assyria, the
+Israelites, on the other hand, have left records to prove, if not their
+skill, at least the estimation in which they held engraved gems. "The
+sin of Judah is written with a pen of iron and with the point of a
+diamond" (Jerem. xvii. 1). To pledge his word Judah gave Tamar his
+signet, with its cord for suspension, and staff (Gen. xxxviii. 18);
+whence if this passage be compared with the frequent use of "seal" in a
+metaphorical sense in the Bible, and with the usage of the Babylonians
+of carrying a seal with an emblem engraved on it recorded by Herodotus,
+it may be concluded that among the Israelites also every man of mark at
+least wore a signet. Their acquaintance with the use of seals in Egypt
+and Assyria is seen in the statement that Pharaoh gave Joseph his signet
+ring as a badge of investiture (Gen. xli. 42), and that the stone which
+closed the den of lions was sealed by Darius with his own signet and
+with the signet of his lords (Daniel vi. 17). Then as to the stones
+which were most prized, Ezekiel (xxviii. 13), speaking of the prince of
+Tyre, mentions "the sardius, the topaz and the diamond, the beryl, the
+onyx, and the jasper, the sapphire, the emerald and the carbuncle,"
+stones which again occur in that most memorable of records, the
+description of the breastplate of the high priest (Exodus xxviii. 16-21,
+and xxxix. 8-14). Twelve stones grouped in four rows, each with three
+specimens, may be arranged on a square, so as to have the rows placed
+either vertically or horizontally. If they are to cover the whole
+square, then, unless the gold mounts supplied the necessary
+compensation, they must be cut in an oblong form, and if the names
+engraved on them are to run lengthwise, as is the manner of Assyrian
+cylinders, then the stones, to be legible, must be grouped in four
+horizontal rows of three each. There is in fact no reason to suppose
+that the gems of the breastplate were in any other form than that of
+cylinders such as abounded to the knowledge of the Israelites, with this
+possibility, however, that they may have been cut lengthways into
+half-cylinders like a fragmentary one of sard in the British Museum,
+which has been mounted in bronze, and, as a remarkable exception, has
+been set with three small precious stones now missing. It could not have
+been a seal, because of this setting, and because the inscription is not
+reversed. The names of the twelve tribes, not their standards, as has
+been thought, may have been engraved in this fashion, just as on the two
+onyx stones in the preceding verses (Exodus xxviii. 9-11), where there
+can be no question but that actual names were incised. On these two
+stones the order of the names was according to primogeniture, and this,
+it is likely, would apply to the breastplate also. The accompanying
+diagram will show how the stones, supposing them to have been cylinders
+or half-cylinders, may have been arranged consistently with the
+descriptions of the Septuagint. In the arrangement of Josephus (iii. 7.
+5) the jasper is made to change places with the sapphire, the amethyst
+with the agate, and the onyx with the beryl, while our version differs
+partly in the order and partly in the names of the stones; but probably
+in all these accounts the names had in some cases other meanings than
+those which they now carry. It must be remembered that we have two
+series of equivalents, namely, the Hebrew compared with the Septuagint,
+and the Greek words of the Septuagint compared with the modern names,
+which in many cases, though derived from the Greek, have changed their
+applications. From the fact that to each tribe was assigned a stone of
+different colour, it may be taken that in each case the colour was one
+which belonged prescriptively to the tribe and was symbolic, as in
+Assyria, where the seven planets appropriated each a special colour [see
+Brandis in _Hermes_, 1867, p. 259 seq., and de Saulcy, _Revue
+archéologique_, 1869, ii. p. 91; and compare Revelation xxi. 12, 13,
+where the twelve gates, which have the names of the twelve tribes
+written upon them, are grouped in four threes, and 19, 20, where the
+twelve precious stones of the walls are given]. The precious stones
+which occur among the cylinders of the British Museum are sard, emerald,
+lapis lazuli (sapphire of the ancients), agate, onyx, jasper and rock
+crystal.
+
+_Gem-Engraving in Greek Lands._--We must now turn to the history of
+gem-engraving in Greek lands. The excavations in Crete in the first
+years of the 20th century revealed a previously unknown culture, which
+lasted on the lowest computation for more than two thousand years, and
+was only interrupted by the national upheavals which preceded the
+opening of Greek history proper. (See CRETE; ARCHAEOLOGY; and AEGEAN
+CIVILIZATION.) Throughout the whole period the products of the
+gem-engraver occupy an important place among the surviving remains. It
+must suffice, however, in this place to indicate the chief groups of
+stones.
+
+The earliest engraved stones of Minoan Crete are three-sided prism
+seals, made of a soft steatite, native in S.E. Crete (_Journ. of
+Hellenic Studies_, xvii. p. 328). These are incised with pictorial signs
+evidently belonging to a rudimentary hieroglyphic system, and are dated
+before 3000 B.C. At a period placed by A.J. Evans between 2800 and 2200
+the method was fully systematized and employed on the signets, as well
+as on tablets and other materials. This development of the hieroglyphic
+system was accompanied by an increasing power of working in hard
+material, and cornelian and chalcedony superseded soft steatite (_Journ.
+of Hell. Studies_, xvii. p. 334).
+
+Towards 2000 B.C. a highly developed linear form began to supersede the
+pictorial signs. It is abundant on the tablets, but the gems thus
+inscribed are comparatively rare. The linear form in turn died out some
+six hundred years later.
+
+The signs of the pictorial script incised on the gems are
+representations of objects, expressed with precision, but giving little
+scope for the higher side of the gem-engraver's art. Simultaneously,
+however, with the use of the script, a high degree of skill was acquired
+by the engravers in rendering animal and human forms. Scenes occur of
+ritual observance, hunting, animal life, and strange compounded forms of
+demons. The excavations did not yield a large number of original gems of
+this class, but a great number of clay sealings from such signets were
+discovered. That they were synchronous with the use of the forms of
+script described above is proved by the fact that in the palace at
+Cnossus deposits were found, both in the linear and the hieroglyphic
+script, sealed with these signets, the seal impressions being again
+endorsed in the script (_Brit. School Annual_, xi. pp. 56, 62). For a
+remarkable group of sealings found at Zakro see _Journ. of Hell.
+Studies_, xxii. pll. 6-10. The finest naturalistic engravings are placed
+towards the close of the "Mid-Minoan" and beginning of the "Late-Minoan"
+periods (about 2200-1800 B.C.). During the progress of the "Late-Minoan"
+period the subjects tended to assume a more formal and heraldic
+character. The forms of stones in favour were the disk convex on each
+side (lenticular or lentoid stones), and during the "Mid-Minoan" period,
+elaborate signets in the form of modern fob-seals. Apart from the use of
+intaglios for sealing, the excavations have shown that the Cretan
+lapidaries were largely employed in the working of gems for purposes of
+decoration. Fragments of lapis lazuli and crystal for inlaying (the
+crystals having coloured designs on their lower surfaces) were found in
+the throne room at Cnossus; the royal gaming-board, also from the palace
+at Cnossus, had inlaid crystal disks and plaques. The workshop of a
+lapidary, with unfinished works in marble, steatite, jasper and beryl,
+was also found within the precincts of the palace (_Brit. School
+Annual_, vii. pp. 20, 77). Examples were also found of work in relief,
+substantially anticipating the art of cameo-cutting.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Lenticular Rock-Crystal from Ialysus. (Brit.
+Mus.)]
+
+The area over which the Cretan influence extended was wide. Its
+manifestations in Greek lands proper, first revealed by Schliemann's
+excavation of the royal tombs of Mycenae, ran parallel with and
+outlasted the later periods of the Cretan culture to which it stood in
+close relation (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION). Its gems and intaglio works in
+gold are known to us from the finds at Mycenae, and at analogous sites,
+such as Menidi, Vaphio and Ialysus. They have much in common with the
+finer class of Cretan stones already described. The engraved gems fall
+principally into two groups in respect of form, namely, the lenticular
+(or lentoid) stones already mentioned, and (more rarely) glandular
+stones, so called from their resemblance to a _glans_ or sling bolt. A
+Cretan fresco shows a figure wearing an agate lenticular stone suspended
+from the left wrist. The finer specimens of the Aegean gems are engraved
+with the wheel and the point in hard stones, such as chalcedony,
+amethyst, sard, rock-crystal and haematite. A lapidary's workshop
+similar to that at Cnossus has been found at Mycenae, with a store of
+unused gems, and an unfinished lenticular stone (_Ephemeris
+Archaiologikè_, 1897, p. 121). The characteristic of the Aegean engraver
+is the free expression of living forms. His subjects are figures of
+animals, men and demons in combat, and heraldic compositions recalling
+the Gate of Lions at Mycenae. It was almost inevitable that the scarab
+should be found in the Cretan and Aegean deposits, but in such cases we
+have the Egyptian scarab directly imported, and not, as at a later
+period, non-Egyptian adaptations of the form. The cylinder also (except
+in Cyprus, the borderland between east and west) only occurs as an
+importation, and not as a currently manufactured shape.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Lenticular Sard from Ialysus. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+_The "Island Gems."_--The Aegean culture was swept away probably by that
+dimly seen upheaval which separated Mycenaean from historical Greece,
+and which is commonly known as the Dorian invasion. One of the few facts
+which indicate a certain continuity of tradition in later Greece is
+this, that we again find the same characteristic forms, the glandular
+and lenticular stones, in the cemeteries, of Melos and elsewhere. It is
+only recently that archaeologists have learnt to distinguish between the
+later lenticular and glandular stones "of the Greek Islands," as they
+are commonly called, and those of the Aegean age. Engravings of the
+later class are worked in soft materials only, such as steatite. They
+have not the power of expressing action peculiar to the Aegean artist.
+In general, the continuity of tradition between the gems of the
+Mycenaean and the historical periods is in respect of shape rather than
+of art. The subjects are for the most part decorative forms (the
+Gryphon, the winged Sphinx, the winged horse, &c.) in course of
+development into characters of Greek myth.
+
+_The Phoenicians and the Greeks._--About the end of the 8th and
+beginning of the 7th century B.C. the Phoenicians began to exercise a
+powerful influence as intermediaries between Egypt and Assyria and the
+Mediterranean. Porcelain and other imitations of Egyptian ornaments,
+and especially of Egyptian scarabs, are found in great numbers on such
+sites as Amathus in Cyprus, Camirus in Rhodes, in Etruria, and at
+Tharros in Sardinia. The Egyptian hieroglyphics are imitated with
+mistakes, the figures introduced are stiff and formal, the animals as a
+rule heraldic. The scarab form, which in Egypt had had its sacred
+significance, was now become nothing more than a convenient shape for an
+object of jewelry or for the reverse side of a stone. It was adopted
+from the Phoenicians both by Greeks and Etruscans. By the Greeks, with
+whom we are at present concerned, its use was occasional, and about 500
+B.C. it was superseded by the scarabaeoid. Under this name two forms,
+somewhat similar but independent in origin, are usually grouped without
+sufficient discrimination. The scarabaeoid proper is a simplification of
+the scarab, effected by the omission of all details of the beetle. But
+many of the stones known as scarabaeoids, with a flat and oval base and
+a convex back, are in respect of their form probably of North Syrian
+origin (so Furtwängler). The earliest examples of archaic Greek
+gem-engraving (other than the later "Island gems" already described) are
+works of Ionian art. They show a desire, only limited by imperfect power
+of expression, to represent the human figure, though the particular
+theme may be a god or other mythical personages. By the beginning of the
+5th century the engravers had reached the point of full development, and
+the scarabaeoids of the time embody its results. As an example of fine
+scarabaeoids the Woodhouse intaglio of a seated citharist (fig. 5; _Cat.
+of Gems in Brit. Mus._ No. 555) may be quoted as perhaps the very finest
+example of Greek gem-engraving that has come down to us. It would stand
+early in the 5th century B.C., a date which would also suit the head of
+Eos from Ithome in Messenia (fig. 6). The number, however, of fine
+scarabaeoids known to us has been considerably increased in recent
+years. They are marked by a broad and simple treatment, which attains a
+large effect without excessive minuteness or laboured detail. In these
+respects the style has something in common with the reliefs of the 5th
+century.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Victory. Early Greek Scarab. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Citharist. Early Greek Scarabaeoid. (Brit.
+Mus.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Head of Eos. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+_Literary History._--The literary references to the early gem-engravers
+are no longer of the same importance as before in view of the fuller
+knowledge we possess as to the quality of early gem-engraving, but it is
+necessary that they should be taken into account.
+
+The records of gem-engravers in Greece begin in the island of Samos,
+where Mnesarchus, the father of the philosopher Pythagoras, earned by
+his art more of praise than of wealth. "Not to carry the image of a god
+on your seal," was a saying of Pythagoras; and, whatever his reason for
+it may have been, it is interesting to observe him founding a maxim on
+his father's profession of gem-engraving (Diogenes Laërt. viii. 1, 17).
+From Samos also came Theodorus, who made for Polycrates the seal of
+emerald (Herodotus iii. 41), which, according to the curious story, was
+cast in vain into the deep sea on purpose to be lost. That the design on
+it was a lyre, as is stated in one authority, is unlikely, at least if
+we accept Benndorf's ingenious interpretation of Pliny (_Nat. Hist._
+xxxiv. 83). He has suggested that the portrait statue of Theodorus made
+by himself was in all probability a figure holding in one hand a graving
+tool, and in the other, not, as previously supposed, a quadriga so
+diminutive that a fly could cover it with its wings, but a scarab with
+the engraving of a quadriga on its face (_Zeitschrift für die
+österreich. Gymnasien_, 1873, pp. 401-411), whence it is not
+unreasonable to conclude that this scarab in fact represented the famous
+seal of Polycrates. Shortly after 600 B.C. there was a law of Solon's
+forbidding engravers to retain impressions of the seals they made, and
+this date would fall in roundly with that of Theodorus and Mnesarchus,
+as if there had in fact been at that time a special activity and unusual
+skill. That the use of seals had been general long before, in Cretan and
+Mycenaean times, we have seen above, and it is singular to find, as
+Pliny points out (xxxiii. 4), no direct mention of seals in Homer, not
+even in the passage (_Iliad_, vi. 168) where Bellerophon himself carries
+the tablets on which were written the orders against his life. From the
+time of Theodorus to that of Pyrgoteles in the 4th century B.C. is a
+long blank as to names, but not altogether as to gems, the production of
+which may be judged to have been carried on assiduously from the
+constant necessity of seals for every variety of purpose. The references
+to them in Aristophanes, for example, and the lists of them in the
+ancient inventories of treasures in the Parthenon and the Asclepieion at
+Athens confirm this frequent usage during the period in question. The
+mention of a public seal for authenticating state documents also becomes
+frequent in the inscriptions. In the reign of Alexander the Great we
+meet the name of Pyrgoteles, of whom Pliny records that he was no doubt
+the most famous engraver of his time, and that Alexander decreed that
+Pyrgoteles alone should engrave his portrait. Nothing else is known of
+Pyrgoteles. A portrait of Alexander in the British Museum (No. 2307),
+purporting to be signed by him, is palpably modern.
+
+From literary sources we also learn the names of the engravers
+Apollonides, Chronius and Dioscorides, but the date of the
+last-mentioned only is certain. He is said to have made an excellent
+portrait of Augustus, which was used as a seal by that emperor in the
+latter part of his reign and also by his successors. Inscriptions on
+extant gems make it probable that Dioscorides was a native of Aegeae in
+Cilicia, and that three sons, Hyllos, Herophilus and Eutyches, followed
+their father's occupation. We have also a few scattered notices of
+amateurs and collectors of gems, but it will be seen that for the whole
+period of classical antiquity the literary notices give little aid, and
+we must return to the gems.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7--Scarabaeioid by Syries. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+_Early Inscribed Gems._--Various early gems are inscribed with proper
+names, which may be supposed to indicate either the artist or the owner
+of the gem. In some cases there is no ambiguity, e.g. on a scarab is
+inscribed, "I am the seal of Thersis. Do not open me"; and a scarabaeoid
+(fig. 7) is inscribed, "Syries made me." But when we have the name
+alone, the general principle on which we must distinguish between owner
+and artist is that the name of the owner is naturally meant to be
+conspicuous (as in a gem in the British Museum inscribed in large
+letters with the name of Isagor[as]), while the name of an artist is
+naturally inconspicuous and subordinate to the design.
+
+The early engravers known to us by their signatures are: Syries, who was
+author of the modified scarab in the British Museum, mentioned above,
+with a satyr's head in place of the beetle, and a citharist on the
+base--a work of the middle of the 6th century; Semon, who engraved a
+black jasper scarab now at Berlin, with a nude woman kneeling at a
+fountain filling her pitcher, of the close of the 6th century; Epimenes,
+who was the author of an admirable chalcedony scarabaeoid of a nude
+youth restraining a spirited horse--formerly in the Tyszkiewicz
+Collection, and of about the beginning of the 5th century. But better
+known to us than any of these artists is the 5th-century engraver,
+Dexamenus of Chios, of whose work four examples[1] survive, viz.:--
+
+1. A chalcedony scarabaeoid from Greece, in the Fitzwilliam Museum at
+Cambridge, with a lady at her toilet, attended by her maid. Inscribed
+[Greek: DEXAMENOS], and with the name of the lady, [Greek: MIKÊS].
+
+2. An agate with a stork standing on one leg, inscribed [Greek:
+DEXAMENOS] simply.
+
+3. A chalcedony with the figure of a stork flying, and inscribed in two
+lines, the letters carefully disposed above each other, [Greek:
+DEXAMENOS EPOIE CHIOS].
+
+4. A gem, apparently by the same Dexamenus, is a cornelian formerly
+belonging to Admiral Soteriades in Athens, and subsequently in the
+collection of Dr Arthur Evans. It has a portrait head, bearded and
+inscribed [Greek: DEXAMENOS EPOIE].
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Greek Sard. 5th Cent. B.C. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+The design of a stork flying occurs on an agate scarab in the British
+Museum, from the old Cracherode Collection, and therefore beyond all
+suspicion of having been copied from the more recently discovered Kertch
+gem.
+
+For the period immediately following that early prime to which the gems
+above described belong, our materials are less copious. Some of the
+finest examples are derived from the Greek tombs in the Crimea and South
+Russia. Reckoned among the best of the Crimean gems, and that is
+equivalent to saying among the best of all gems, are the following: (1)
+a burnt scarabaeoid with an eagle carrying off a hare; (2) a gem with
+scarab border and the figure of a youth seated playing on the trigonon,
+very much resembling the Woodhouse intaglio (both engraved, _Compte
+rendu_, 1871, pl. vi. figs. 16, 17). In these, and in almost all Greek
+gems belonging to this period of excellence, the material is of
+indifferent quality, consisting of agate, chalcedony or cornelian, just
+as in the older specimens. Brilliant colour and translucency are as yet
+not a necessary element, and accordingly the design is worked out solely
+with a view to its own artistic merit. The scarab tends to die out. The
+scarabaeoid in its turn is abandoned for the simple ring stone. The
+subjects chosen take by degrees a different character. Aphrodite (nude),
+Eros, children and women tend to replace the older and severer themes.
+The motives of 4th-century sculpture appear by degrees on the gems.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Amethyst Pendant. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+_Etruscan Gems._--At this point it is convenient to discuss the
+gem-engraving of the Etruscans, which came into being towards the close
+of the archaic period of Greek art. In the early Etruscan deposits, such
+as that of the Polledrara tomb in the British Museum (towards 600 B.C.),
+we find nothing except Phoenician imports of porcelain or stone scarabs,
+both strongly Egyptian in character. During the 6th century a few of the
+semi-Egyptian stones of Sardinia make their appearance. But in the
+latter part of the century these oriental products tend to die out, and
+we have in their place the native works of Etruscan artists. These
+engravings stand in the closest relation to Greek works of the close of
+the 6th century and many imported Greek scarabs also occur.
+
+The Etruscan scarab has its beetle form more minutely engraved than that
+of the Greeks. It is further distinguished in the better examples, alike
+from the Greek and the Egyptian form, by a small border of a sort of
+petal ornament round the lower edge of the beetle. Like the earlier
+Greek scarabs it has the cable border round the design, but the border
+continued in use in Etruria when it had been abandoned in Greece. The
+scarabaeoid form does not occur in Etruscan deposits. Etruscan engraving
+begins when Greek art was approaching maturity, with studies, sometimes
+stiff and cramped, of the heroic nude form. Some of the Greek deities
+such as Athena and Hermes occur, together with the winged personages of
+Greek mythology. To the heroic types the names of Greek legend are
+attached, with modifications of form, such as [Greek: TYTE] for Tydeus,
+and [Greek: KAPNE] for Capaneus. Sometimes the names are appropriate and
+sometimes they are assigned at random. The subjects include certain
+favourite incidents in the Trojan and Theban cycles (e.g. the death of
+Capaneus); myths of Heracles; athletes, horsemen, a few scenes of daily
+life. Certain schemes of composition are frequent. In particular, a
+figure too large for the field, standing and bending over, is made to
+serve for many types. The engraving of the finer Etruscan gems is minute
+and precise, marked with elegance and command of the material. Its fault
+is its want of original inspiration. Special mention must be made of a
+very numerous group of cornelian scarabs, roughly engraved for the most
+part with cup-shaped sinkings (whence they are known as gems _a globolo
+tondo_) roughly joined together by furrows. Notwithstanding their
+apparent rudeness, these gems are shown, by the conditions in which they
+are found, to be comparatively late works of the 4th century.
+Furtwängler ingeniously suggests that the rough execution was intended
+to emphasize the shining surfaces of the cup-sinkings, rather than to
+produce any particular intaglio subject. (For an elaborate
+classification of the Etruscan scarabs see Furtwängler, _Geschichte_, p.
+170.)
+
+_The Cameos._--After the beginning of the regal period, in the 4th
+century B.C., the introduction of more splendid materials from the East
+was turned to good account by the development of the cameo, i.e. of
+gem-carving in relief (for the origin of the word see CAMEO). But in its
+simpler forms the principle of the cameo necessarily dates from the
+beginning of the art. Thus a lion in rock-crystal was found in the very
+early royal tomb of Nagada (de Morgan, _Recherches, Tombeau de Negadah_,
+p. 193). The Egyptian scarab, on its rounded side, had been
+naturalistically carved in relief in beetle form. Steatite engravings in
+relief (notably the harvest festival vase from Hagia Triada) were found
+in the Cretan deposits. Subjects are found carved in the round in hard
+stone in Mycenaean graves. When we come to historical Greece and to
+Etruria the cameo of later times is anticipated by various attempts to
+modify the traditional form of the scarab. An example in cornelian was
+found at Orvieto in 1874 in a tomb along with vases dating from the
+beginning of the 5th century B.C., and it will be seen from the
+engraving of this gem (_Arch. Zeit._, 1877, pl. xi. fig. 3) that, while
+the design on the face is in intaglio, the half-length figure of a
+Gorgon on the back is engraved in relief. Compare a cornelian fragment,
+apparently cut from the back of a scarabaeoid, now in the British
+Museum. As further examples of the same rare form of cameo, the
+following gems in the British Museum may be mentioned:--(1) a cornelian
+cut from back of a scarabaeoid, with head of Gorgon surrounded by wings;
+(2) cornelian scarabaeoid: Gorgon running to left; on face of the gem an
+intaglio of Thetis giving armour to Achilles; (3) steatite scarabaeoid,
+already mentioned, signed by Syries, head of a satyr, full face, with
+intaglio of citharist. There is, however, no evidence at present
+available to show that the cameo proper had been introduced in Greece
+before the time of Alexander. The earliest examples found in known
+conditions are derived from Crimean tombs of the middle of the 3rd
+century B.C.
+
+Among the most splendid of ancient cameos are those at St Petersburg and
+Vienna, each representing a monarch of the Diadochi and his consort
+(Furtwängler, pl. 53). There is much controversy as to the persons
+represented, but the cameos are probably works of the 3rd century.
+
+The materials which ancient artists used for cutting into cameos were
+chiefly those siliceous minerals which, under a variety of names,
+present various strata or bands of two or more distinct colours. The
+minerals, under different names, are essentially the chalcedonic
+variety of quartz, and the differences of colour they present are due to
+the presence of variable proportions of iron and other foreign
+ingredients. These banded stones, when cut parallel to the layers of
+different colours, and when only two coloured bands--white and black, or
+sometimes white and black and brown--are present, are known as onyxes;
+but when they have with the onyx bands layers of cornelian or sard, they
+are termed sardonyxes. The sardonyx, which was the favourite stone of
+ancient cameo-engravers, and the material in which their masterpieces
+were cut, was procured from India, and the increased intercourse with
+the East after the death of Alexander the Great had a marked influence
+on the development of the art.
+
+Akin in their nature to the great regal cameos, which from the nature of
+the case are cut on a nearly plane surface, are the cups and vases cut
+out of a homogeneous stone and therefore capable of being worked in the
+round. A few examples of such works survive. The most famous are the
+Farnese Tazza and the cup of the Ptolemies. The Tazza, which is now in
+the National Museum at Naples, was bought by Lorenzo de' Medici from
+Pope Paul II. in 1471. It is a large shallow bowl of sardonyx, 8 in. in
+diameter. On its exterior surface is a Gorgoneion upon an aegis; in the
+interior is an allegorical design, relating to the Nile flood. The cup
+of the Ptolemies, formerly known as the cup of St Denis, is preserved in
+the Cabinet des Médailles of the French Bibliothèque Nationale. It is a
+cup 4¾ in. high and 5-1/8 in. in diameter, carved out of oriental
+sardonyx, and richly decorated with Dionysiac emblems and attributes in
+relief.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Actaeon. Fragment of Sardonyx Cameo. (Brit.
+Mus.)]
+
+_The Cameo in the Roman Empire._--During the 1st century of the empire
+the engraver's art alike in cameo and in intaglio was at a high degree
+of excellence. The artist in cameo took full advantage of his rich
+opportunities in the way of sumptuous materials, and of the requirements
+of an imperial court. The two most famous examples of this art which
+have come down to the present day are the Great Agate of the Sainte
+Chapelle in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, and the Augustus Cameo in
+the Vienna Collection. The former was pledged among other valuables in
+1244 by Baldwin II. of Constantinople to Saint Louis. It is mentioned in
+1344 as "Le Camahieu," having been sent in that year to Rome for the
+inspection of Pope Clement VI. It is a sardonyx of five layers of
+irregular shape, like all classical gems, measuring 12 in. by 10½ in. It
+represents on its upper part the deified members of the Julian house.
+The centre is occupied with the reception of Germanicus on his return
+from his great German campaign by the emperor Tiberius and his mother
+Livia. The lower division is filled with a group of captives in
+attitudes expressive of woe and deep dejection. The Vienna gem (_Gemma
+augustea_), an onyx of two layers measuring 8-5/8 in. by 7½, is a work
+of still greater artistic interest. The upper portion is occupied with
+an allegorical representation of the coronation of Augustus, the emperor
+being represented as Jupiter with Livia as the goddess Roma at his side.
+In the composition deities of Earth and Sea, and several members of the
+family of Augustus, are introduced; on the exergue or lower portion are
+Roman soldiers preparing a trophy, barbarian captives and female
+figures. This gem was in the 15th century at the abbey of St Sernin at
+Toulouse. According to tradition it had been placed there by
+Charlemagne. It came into the possession of the emperor Rudolph II. in
+the 16th century for the enormous sum of 12,000 gold ducats. The
+principal cameo in the collection of the British Museum was acquired at
+the final dispersion of the Marlborough Collection in 1899. It is a
+sardonyx measuring 8¾ in. by 6 in., and appears to represent a Roman
+emperor and empress in the forms of Serapis and Isis. Here also, in
+imperial times as in the Hellenistic period, side by side with the great
+cameos, we meet with works carved out in the round. Noted examples of
+such work are the Brunswick vase (at Brunswick), with the subject of
+Triptolemus; the Berlin vase with the lustration of a new-born imperial
+prince; and the Waddesdon vase in the British Museum, with a vine in
+relief set in a rich enamelled Renaissance mount. Hardly less precious
+than the cameos in sardonyx were the imitations carved out of coloured
+glass. The material was not costly, but its extreme fragility made the
+work of extreme difficulty. Examples of such work are the Barberini or
+Portland vase, deposited in the British Museum, with scenes supposed to
+be connected with the story of Peleus and Thetis; and the "vase of blue
+glass" from Pompeii, in the museum at Naples (see Mau and Kelsey, p.
+408). The world's great cameos, which are hardly more than a dozen in
+number, have not been found by excavation. They remained as precious
+objects in imperial and ecclesiastical treasuries and passed thence to
+the royal and national collections of modern Europe.
+
+_The Intaglio in the Roman Empire._--The art of engraving in intaglio
+was also at a high level of excellence in the beginning of the Roman
+empire. This is to be inferred alike from the admirable portraits of the
+1st century A.D., and from the number of signed gems bearing Roman
+artists' names, such as Aulus, Gnaius and the like, which could hardly
+belong to any other period. It is impossible, however, to found any
+argument upon the artists' signatures without taking into account the
+intricate questions of authenticity which are discussed in the following
+section.
+
+_Signed Gems._--The number of gems which have, or purport to have, the
+name of the artist inscribed upon them is very large. A great many of
+the supposed signatures are modern forgeries, dating from the period
+between 1724 (when the book of Stosch, _Gemmae antiquae caelatae,
+scalptorum nominibus insignitae_, first drew general attention to the
+subject) and 1833, when the multitude of forged signatures (about 1800
+in number) in the collection of Prince Poniatowski made the whole
+pursuit ridiculous. It is known, however, that forged signatures were
+current before 1724 (see Stosch, p. xxi.), and in the period immediately
+following they were very numerous. Thus Laurence Natter (_Méthode de
+graver en pierres fines_ (1754), p. xxx.) confesses that, whenever
+desired, he made copies. For example, he copied a Venus (Brit. Mus. No.
+2296), converting the figure into a Danaë and affixing the name of Aulos
+which he found on the Venus. Cf. Mariette, _Traité_ (1750), i. p. 101.
+
+The question which of the multitude of supposed signatures can be
+accepted as genuine has been a subject of prolonged and intricate
+controversy. In the period immediately following the Poniatowski
+forgeries the extreme height of scepticism is represented by Koehler,
+who only acknowledged five gems (Koehler, iii. p. 206) as having genuine
+signatures. In recent years the subject has been principally dealt with
+by Furtwängler, whose conclusion is to admit a considerable number of
+gems rejected by his predecessors.
+
+It must suffice here to point out a few general principles. In the first
+place a certain number of gems recently discovered have inscriptions
+which are undoubtedly genuine and which record the names of the
+engravers. The form of the signature may be a nominative with a verb, a
+nominative without a verb or a genitive. The artists in this class are
+Syries, Dexamenus, Epimenes and Semon, mentioned above, and a few
+others. Another group of gems which must be accepted consists of stones
+whose known history goes back to a period at which a forged inscription
+was impossible. Thus a bust of Athena in the Berlin Collection, signed
+by Eutyches, was seen by Cyriac of Ancona in 1445. A glass cameo signed
+by Herophilus, son of Dioscorides, now at Vienna, was, in the 17th
+century, in the monastery of Echternach, where it had probably been from
+old times. The portrait of Julia, daughter of Titus, by Euodos (now in
+the Bibliothèque Nationale) was formerly a part of a reliquary presented
+to the abbey of St Denis by Charles the Bold. Another group of
+undoubtedly genuine signatures occurs on cameos (in stone and paste)
+which have the inscriptions in relief, and therefore as part of the
+original design. Such are the works of Athenion, and of Quintus, son of
+Alexas.
+
+For the great majority of signed gems which do not fall into these
+categories the reader must refer to the discussions of Furtwängler and
+others (see _Bibliography_ below). It must suffice to say that
+Furtwängler arrives at the result that we have in all genuine signatures
+of at least fifty ancient gem-engravers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Christian Gem. The Good Shepherd. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Gnostic Gem. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Sassanian Gem. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+_Gem-Engraving in the Later Empire._--In the following centuries the art
+of intaglio engraving, which was still at a high degree of perfection in
+the first century of the Roman empire, became more mechanical. The
+designs have a very characteristic appearance, due to the method of
+production with rough and hasty strokes of the wheel only. A collection
+of gems found in England, such as that in the possession of the
+corporation of Bath, shows the feeble character in particular of the
+gems current in the provinces. Except in portraiture, and in grylli or
+conceits, in which various things are combined into one, often with much
+skill, the subjects were as a rule only variations or adaptations of old
+types handed down from the Greeks. When new and distinctly Roman
+subjects occur, such as the finding of the head on the Capitol, or
+Faustulus, or the she-wolf with the twins, both the stones and the
+workmanship are poor. In such cases, where the design stirs a genuine
+national interest, it may happen that very little of artistic rendering
+will be acceptable rather than otherwise, and much more is this true
+when the design is a symbol of some article of faith, as in the early
+Christian gems. There both the art and the material are at what may be
+called the lowest level. The usual subjects on the early Christian gems
+are the fish, anchor, ship, dove, the good shepherd, and, according to
+Clemens, the lyre. Under the Gnostics, however, with whom there was more
+of speculation than of faith, symbolism was developed to an extent which
+no art could realize without the aid of writing. A gem was to them a
+talisman more or less elaborate with long, but for the most part quite
+unintelligible, engraved formulae. The difficulty is to make out how the
+stones were carried; many specimens exist, but none show signs of
+mounting. The materials are usually haematite or jasper. As regards the
+designs, it is clear that Egyptian sources have been most drawn upon.
+But the symbolism is also largely associated with Mithraic worship. The
+name Abraxas, or more correctly Abrasax, which, from its frequency on
+these gems, has led to their being called also "Abraxas gems," is, when
+the Greek letters of which it is composed are treated as Greek numerals,
+equal to 365, the number of days in a year, and the same is the case
+with [Greek: MEITHRAS].
+
+More interesting, from the occasionally forcible portraiture and the
+splendour of some of the jacinths employed, are the Sassanian gems,
+which as a class may be said to represent the last stage of true
+gem-engraving in ancient times.
+
+The art of cameo-engraving, which, as we have seen, attained its
+greatest splendour at the beginning of the empire, followed on the whole
+a similar course. It waned in the early part of the 3rd century after
+the death of the emperor Severus, but under the first Christian emperor
+Constantine it enjoyed a brief period of revival. Fine cameo portraits
+of Constantine are extant; and it was during or shortly after his reign
+that Christian Scripture subjects began to appear on cameos. That class
+of subjects constituted the staple of such work--generally rude and
+artistically debased--as continued to be cultivated under the Byzantine
+empire down to nearly the epoch of the Renaissance. From the Byzantine
+period downward one peculiarity of gem-engraving becomes noticeable.
+Cameo-work as compared with intaglios in classical times was rare and
+infrequent, but now and onwards the opposite is the case,
+intaglio-sinking having almost died out, and cameos being chiefly
+produced. Commercial intercourse with the East still secured for the
+engravers a supply of magnificent sardonyxes, although blood-stone and
+other non-banded stones were very commonly used for works in relief.
+Cameos during the long dark ages were used chiefly for the decoration of
+reliquaries and other altar furniture, and as such their designs were
+purely ecclesiastical or scriptural. To this period also belongs the
+class of complimentary or motto cameos, which, containing only
+inscriptions and an ornamental border, executed in nicolo stones, were
+used as personal gifts and adornments.
+
+In medieval times antique cameos were held in peculiar veneration on
+account of the belief, then universal, in their potency as medicinal
+charms. This power was supposed to be derived from their origin, of
+which two theories, equally satisfactory, were current. By the one they
+were held to be the work of the children of Israel during their sojourn
+in the wilderness (hence the name _Pierres d'Israël_), while the other
+theory held them to be direct products of nature, the engraved figures
+pointing to the peculiar virtue lodged in them. Interpreters less
+mystically inclined found Biblical interpretations for the subjects.
+Thus the cameo of the Sainte Chapelle was supposed to represent the
+triumph of Joseph in Egypt. A cameo with Poseidon, Athena and her
+serpent was Adam and Eve.
+
+The revival of the glyptic arts in western Europe dates from the
+pontificate of the Venetian Paul II. (1464-1471), himself an ardent
+lover and collector of gems, to which passion, indeed, it is gravely
+affirmed he was a martyr, having died of a cold caught by the
+multiplicity of gems exposed on his fingers. The cameos of the early
+part of the 16th century rival in beauty of execution the finest
+classical works, and, indeed, many of them pass in the cabinets of
+collectors for genuine antiques, which they closely imitated. The
+Oriental sardonyx was not available for the purposes of the Renaissance
+artists, who were consequently obliged to content themselves with the
+colder German agate onyx. The scarcity of worthy materials led them to
+use the backs of ancient cameos, or to improve on classical works of
+inferior value executed on good material, and probably to this cause
+must also be assigned the development of shell cameos, which are rarely
+found, of an older period.
+
+Among the means of distinguishing antique cameos from cinquecento work,
+the kind of stone is one of the best tests, the classical artists having
+used only rich and warm-tinted Oriental stones, which further are
+frequently drilled through their diameter with a minute hole, from
+having been used by their original Oriental possessors in the form of
+beads. The cinquecento artists also, as a rule, worked their subjects in
+high relief, and resorted to undercutting, no case of which is found in
+the flat low work of classical times. The projecting portions of antique
+work exhibit a dull chalky appearance, which, however, fabricators
+learned to imitate in various ways, one of which was by cramming the
+gizzards of turkey fowls with the gems. Another index of antiquity is
+found in the different methods of working adopted in classical and
+Renaissance times. The tools employed by the Renaissance engraver were
+the drill and the wheel, while the ancient artist also employed the
+diamond point.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14--Muse, by Pichler. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+The gem-engraver's art again during the 18th century revived under an
+even greater amount of encouragement from men of wealth and rank. In
+this last period the names of engravers who succeeded best in imitating
+classical designs were Natter, Pichler (fig. 14), and the Englishmen
+Marchant (fig. 15) and Burch. Compared with Greek gems, it will be seen
+that what at first sight is attractive as refined and delicate is after
+all an exaggerated minuteness of execution, entirely devoid of the
+ancient spirit. The success with which modern engravers imposed on
+collectors is recorded in many instances, of which one may be taken as
+an instructive type. In the Bibliothèque Nationale is a gem
+(Chabouillet's catalogue, No. 2337), familiarly known as the signet of
+Michelangelo, the subject being a Bacchanalian scene. So much did he
+admire it, the story says, that he copied from it one of the groups in
+his paintings in the Sistine chapel. The gem, however, is evidently in
+this part of it a mere copy from Michelangelo's group, and therefore a
+subsequent production, probably by da Pescia.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Nereid and Sea-bull by Marchant. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+In our own day the engraving of cameos has practically ceased to be
+pursued as an art. Roman manufacturers cut stones in large quantities to
+be used as shirt-studs and for setting in finger-rings; and in Rome and
+Paris an extensive trade is carried on in the cutting of shell cameos,
+which are largely imported into England and mounted as brooches by
+Birmingham jewelry manufacturers. The principal shell used is the large
+bull's-mouth shell (_Cassis rufa_), found in East Indian seas, which has
+a sard-like underlayer. The black helmet (_Cassis tuberosa_) of the West
+Indian seas, the horned helmet (_C. cornuta_) of Madagascar, and the
+pinky queen's conch (_Strombus gigas_) of the West Indies are also
+employed. The famous potter Josiah Wedgwood introduced a method of
+making imitations of cameos in pottery by producing white figures on a
+coloured ground, this constituting the peculiarity of what is now known
+as Wedgwood ware.
+
+_Gem Collectors._--The habit of gem-collecting is recorded first in the
+instance of Ismenias, a musician of Cyprus, who appears to have lived in
+the 4th century B.C. But though individual collectors are not again
+mentioned till the time of Mithradates, whose cabinet was carried off to
+Rome by Pompey, still it is to be inferred that they existed, if not
+pretty generally, yet in such places as Cyrene, where the passion for
+gems was so great that the thriftiest person owned one worth 10 minas,
+and where, according to Aelian (_Var. hist._ xii. 30), the skill in
+engraving was astonishing. The first cabinet (_dactyliotheca_) in Rome
+was that of Scaurus, a stepson of Sulla. Caesar is said to have formed
+six cabinets for public exhibition, and from the time of Augustus all
+men of refinement were supposed to be judges both of the art and of the
+quality of the stones.
+
+In the middle ages the chief collections were incorporated in works of
+art in the church treasuries. The first collector of modern times was,
+as already mentioned, Pope Paul II., who was followed by a long
+succession of princely and noble collectors such as Lorenzo de' Medici
+and the great earl of Arundel. The collection of the latter passed into
+the hands of the dukes of Marlborough and thence into the possession of
+Mr David Bromilow. The collection was finally dispersed by auction in
+June 1899.
+
+In modern times the principal collections are contained in state
+museums. The cabinets of Vienna and of the Bibliothèque Nationale are
+incomparably rich in the historic cameos. Those of the British Museum
+and of Berlin are the strongest in their range over the whole field of
+the gem-engraver's art.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the fullest general account of the subject (with
+  especial attention to the gems of classical antiquity) see A.
+  Furtwängler, _Die antiken Gemmen, Geschichte der Steinschneiderkunst
+  im klassischen Altertum_, in 3 vols (1900). See also E. Babelon, _La
+  Gravure en pierres fines, camées et intailles_ (1894); A.H. Smith,
+  "Gemma" and "Sculptura," in the 3rd edition of Smith's _Dict. of
+  Antiquities_; J.H. Middleton, _The Engraved Gems of Classical Times_
+  (1891). Much curious information is in the works of C.W. King:
+  _Handbook of Engraved Gems_ (1866); _Antique Gems_ (1866); _The
+  Natural History, Ancient and Modern, of Precious Stones and Gems, and
+  of the Precious Metals_ (1865); _Antique Gems and Rings_ (2 vols.,
+  1872).
+
+  Special Periods:--_Babylonia, &c._--Menant, "Les Pierres gravées de la
+  haute Asie," _Recherches sur la glyptique orientale_ (1883-1886).
+
+  _Egypt._--For the early cylinder sealings, &c. see Petrie, "Royal
+  Tombs of the First Dynasty" (_Egypt Explor. Fund, XVIIIth Memoir_), p.
+  24; pls. 12, figs. 3 to 7, and pls. 18-29; Amélineau, "Nouvelles
+  Fouilles d'Abydos, 1897-1898," _Compte rendu_, pp. 78, 423; pl. 25,
+  figs. 1-3.
+
+  _The Bible._--Petrie, "Stones (Precious)," in Hastings' _Dict. of the
+  Bible_.
+
+  _Phoenician._--See M.A. Levy, _Siegel und Gemmen_, with three plates
+  of gems having Phoenician, Aramaic, old Hebrew and other inscriptions
+  (Breslau, 1869); and, on the same subject, De Voguë, in the _Revue
+  archéologique_, 2nd series (1868), xvii. p. 432, pls. 14-16.
+
+  _Crete._--Articles by A.J. Evans in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_,
+  xiv., xvii., xxi., and in _Annual of British School at Athens_, vi.
+  and onwards.
+
+  _Classical Gems._--See Furtwängler, op. cit.
+
+  _Gnostic Gems._--Cabrol, _Dict. d'archéologie chrétienne_, s.v.
+  "Abrasax."
+
+  For the controversy as to gems with artists' signatures, see Koehler,
+  _Abhandlung über die geschnittenen Steine, mit den Namen der
+  Künstler_; Koehler's collected works, ed. Stephani, vol. iii. (1851);
+  Stephani, Notes to Koehler as above; also _Über einige angebliche
+  Steinschneider des Alterthums_ (St Petersburg, 1851); Brunn,
+  _Geschichte der griechischen Künstler_, ii. (1859), pp. 442-637;
+  Furtwängler, _Jahrbuch d. k. deutsch. arch. Inst._ iii. (1888), pp.
+  105, 193, 297; iv. (1889), p. 46, and _Geschichte_, passim.
+
+  For the history of the Poniatowski gems, see Reinach, _Pierres
+  gravées_, p. 151.
+
+  _Catalogues._--The chief catalogues dealing with modern public
+  collections are: Berlin, A. Furtwängler, _Beschreibung der
+  geschnittenen Steine im Antiquarium_ (1896); British Museum, A.H.
+  Smith, _A Catalogue of Engraved Gems in the British Museum_ (_Dept. of
+  Greek and Roman Antiquities_) (1888); Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale,
+  Chabouillet, _Catalogue ... des camées et pierres gravées de la
+  Bibliothèque Impériale_ (1858); E. Babelon, _Catalogue des camées ...
+  de la Bibliothèque Nationale_ (1897).
+
+  _Modern Engraving._--Vasari vii. p. 113 (ed. Siena, 1792); continued
+  by Mariette, _Traité des pierres gravées_ (1750), i. p. 105. The older
+  books on gems are very numerous, but those of present-day importance
+  are not many. Faber, _Illustrium imagines ... apud Fulvium Ursinum_
+  (Antwerp, 1606); Stosch, _Gemmae antiquae caelatae, scalptorum
+  nominibus insignitae_ (Amsterdam, 1724); Winckelmann, _Description des
+  pierres gravées du feu Baron de Stosch_ (1760); Krause, _Pyrgoteles,
+  oder die edlen Steine der Alten_ (1856); a convenient reissue of
+  Stosch, and seven others of the older works, by S. Reinach, _Pierres
+  gravées, &c. ... réunies et rééditées, avec un texte nouveau_ (1895).
+
+  _Pastes._--The principal collection of glass and sulphur pastes from
+  gems was that issued by James Tassie of Glasgow, with _A Descriptive
+  Catalogue of a General Collection of ... Engraved Gems ... arranged
+  and described by R.E. Raspe_ (the author of _Baron Munchausen_)
+  (1791).     (A. S. M.; A. H. Sm.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For Nos. 1-4 see Furtwängler, pl. 14; for Nos. 2-4 see Evans,
+    _Rev. archéologique_, xxxii. (1898) pl. 8.
+
+
+
+
+GEM, ARTIFICIAL. The term "Artificial Gems" does not mean _imitations_
+of real gems, but the actual formation by artificial means of the real
+precious stone, so that the product is identical, chemically, physically
+and optically, with the one found in nature. For instance, in chemical
+composition the lustrous diamond is nothing but crystallized carbon.
+Could we take black amorphous carbon in the form of charcoal or
+lampblack and dissolve it in a liquid, and by the slow evaporation of
+that liquid allow the dissolved carbon to separate out, it would
+probably crystallize in the transparent form of diamond. This would be a
+true synthesis of diamond, and the product would be just as much
+entitled to the name as the choicest products of Kimberley or Golconda.
+But this is a very different thing from the imitation diamond so common
+in shop windows. Here the chemist has only succeeded in making a paste
+or glass having limpidity and a somewhat high refractivity, but wanting
+the hardness and "fire" of the real stone.
+
+_The Diamond._--Within recent years chemists have actually succeeded in
+making the real diamond by artificial means, and although the largest
+yet made is not more than one-fiftieth of an inch across, the process
+itself and the train of reasoning leading up to such an achievement are
+sufficiently interesting to warrant a somewhat full description.
+Attempts to make diamonds artificially have been numerous, but, with the
+sole exception of those of Henri Moissan, all have resulted in failure.
+The nearest approach to success was attained by J.B. Hannay in 1880 and
+R.S. Marsden in 1881; but their results have not been verified by others
+who have tried to repeat them, and the probability is that what was then
+thought to be diamond was in reality carborundum or carbide of silicon.
+
+Attempts have been made by two methods to make carbon crystallize in the
+transparent form. One is to crystallize it slowly from a solution in
+which it has been dissolved. The difficulty is to find a solvent. Many
+organic and some inorganic bodies hold carbon so loosely combined that
+it can be separated out under the influence of chemical action, heat or
+electricity, but invariably the carbon assumes the black amorphous form.
+The other method is to try to fuse the carbon by fierce heat, when from
+analogy it is argued that on cooling it will solidify to a clear limpid
+crystal. The progress of science in other directions has now made it
+pretty certain that the true mode of making diamond artificially is by a
+combination of these two methods. Until recently it was assumed that
+carbon was non-volatile at any attainable temperature, but it is now
+known that at a temperature of about 3600° C. it volatilizes readily,
+passing without liquefying directly from the solid to the gaseous state.
+Very few bodies act in this manner, the great majority when heated at
+atmospheric pressure to a sufficient temperature passing through the
+intermediate condition of liquidity. Some few, however, which when
+heated at atmospheric pressure do not liquefy, when heated at higher
+pressures in closed vessels obey the common rule and first become liquid
+and then volatilize. Sir James Dewar found the critical pressure of
+carbon to be about 15 tons on the sq. in.; that is to say, if heated to
+its critical temperature (3600° C.), and at the same time subjected to a
+pressure of 15 tons to the sq. in., it will assume the liquid form.
+Enormous as such pressures and temperatures may appear to be, they have
+been exceeded in some of Sir Andrew Noble's and Sir F. Abel's
+researches; in their investigations on the gases from gunpowder and
+cordite fired in closed steel chambers, these chemists obtained
+pressures as great as 95 tons to the sq. in., and temperatures as high
+as 4000° C. Here then, if the observations are correct, we have
+sufficient temperature and enough pressure to liquefy carbon; and, were
+there only sufficient time for these to act on the carbon, there is
+little doubt that the artificial formation of diamonds would soon pass
+from the microscopic stage to a scale more likely to satisfy the
+requirements of science, if not those of personal adornment.
+
+It has long been known that the metal iron in a molten state dissolves
+carbon and deposits it on cooling as black opaque graphite. Moissan
+carried out a laborious and systematic series of experiments on the
+solubility of carbon in iron and other metals, and came to the
+conclusion that whereas at ordinary pressures the carbon separates from
+the solidifying iron in the form of graphite, if the pressure be greatly
+increased the carbon on separation will form liquid drops, which on
+solidifying will assume the crystalline shape and become true diamond.
+Many other metals dissolve carbon, but molten iron has been found to be
+the best solvent. The quantity entering into solution increases with the
+temperature of the metal. But temperature alone is not enough; pressure
+must be superadded. Here Moissan ingeniously made use of a property
+which molten iron possesses in common with some few other
+liquids--water, for instance--of increasing in volume in the act of
+passing from the liquid to the solid state. Pure iron is mixed with
+carbon obtained from the calcination of sugar, and the whole is rapidly
+heated in a carbon crucible in an electric furnace, using a current of
+700 amperes and 40 volts. The iron melts like wax and saturates itself
+with carbon. After a few minutes' heating to a temperature above 4000°
+C.--a temperature at which the lime furnace begins to melt and the iron
+volatilizes in clouds--the dazzling, fiery crucible is lifted out and
+plunged beneath the surface of cold water, where it is held till it
+sinks below a red heat. The sudden cooling solidifies the outer skin of
+molten metal and holds the inner liquid mass in an iron grip. The
+expansion of the inner liquid on solidifying produces enormous pressure,
+and under this stress the dissolved carbon separates out in a hard,
+transparent, dense form--in fact, as diamond. The succeeding operations
+are long and tedious. The metallic ingot is attacked with hot _aqua
+regia_ till no iron is left undissolved. The bulky residue consists
+chiefly of graphite, together with translucent flakes of
+chestnut-coloured carbon, hard black opaque carbon of a density of from
+3.0 to 3.5, black diamonds--carbonado, in fact--and a small quantity of
+transparent colourless diamonds showing crystalline structure. Besides
+these there may be corundum and carbide of silicon, arising from
+impurities in the materials employed. Heating with strong sulphuric
+acid, with hydrofluoric acid, with nitric acid and potassium chlorate,
+and fusing with potassium fluoride--operations repeated over and over
+again--at last eliminate the graphite and impurities and leave the true
+diamond untouched. The precious residue on microscopic examination shows
+many pieces of black diamond, and other colourless transparent pieces,
+some amorphous, others crystalline. Although many fragments of crystals
+are seen, the writer has scarcely ever met with a complete crystal. All
+appear broken up, as if, on being liberated from the intense pressure
+under which they were formed, they burst asunder. Direct evidence of
+this phenomenon has been seen. A very fine piece of diamond, prepared in
+the way just described and carefully mounted on a microscopic slide,
+exploded during the night and covered the slide with fragments. This
+bursting paroxysm is not unknown at the Kimberley mines.
+
+Sir William Crookes in 1906 communicated to the Royal Society a paper on
+a new formation of diamond. Sir Andrew Noble has shown that in the
+explosion of cordite in closed steel cylinders pressures of over 50 tons
+to the sq. in. and a temperature probably reaching 5400° were obtained.
+Here then we have conditions favourable for the liquefaction of carbon,
+and if the time of explosion were sufficient to allow the reactions to
+take place we should expect to get liquid carbon solidified in the
+crystalline state. Experiment proved the truth of these anticipations.
+Working with specially prepared explosive containing a little excess of
+carbon Sir Andrew Noble collected the residue left in the steel
+cylinder. This residue was submitted by Sir William Crookes to the
+lengthy operations already described in the account of H. Moissan's
+fused iron experiment. Finally, minute crystals were obtained which
+showed octahedral planes with dark boundaries due to high refracting
+index. The position and angles of their faces, and cleavages, the
+absence of bi-refringence, and their high refractive index all showed
+that the crystals were true diamond.
+
+The artificial diamonds, so far, have not been larger than microscopic
+specimens, and none has measured more than about half a millimetre
+across. That, however, is quite enough to show the correctness of the
+train of reasoning leading up to the achievement, and there is no reason
+to doubt that, working on a larger scale, larger diamonds will result.
+Diamonds so made burn in the air when heated to a high temperature, with
+formation of carbonic acid; and in lustre, crystalline form, optical
+properties, density and hardness, they are identical with the natural
+stone.
+
+It having been shown that diamond is formed by the separation of carbon
+from molten iron under pressure, it became of interest to see if in some
+large metallurgical operations similar conditions might not prevail. A
+special form of steel is made at some large establishments by cooling
+the molten metal under intense hydraulic pressure. In some samples of
+the steel so made Professor Rosel, of the university of Bern, has found
+microscopic diamonds. The higher the temperature at which the steel has
+been melted the more diamonds it contains, and it has even been
+suggested that the hardness of steel in some measure may be due to the
+carbon distributed throughout its mass being in this adamantine form.
+The largest artificial diamond yet formed was found in a block of steel
+and slag from a furnace in Luxembourg; it is clear and crystalline, and
+measures about one-fiftieth of an inch across.
+
+A striking confirmation of the theory that natural diamonds have been
+produced from their solution in masses of molten iron, the metal from
+which has gradually oxidized and been washed away under cycles of
+atmospheric influences, is afforded by the occurrence of diamonds in a
+meteorite. On a broad open plain in Arizona, over an area of about 5 m.
+in diameter, lie scattered thousands of masses of metallic iron, the
+fragments varying in weight from half a ton to a fraction of an ounce.
+There is little doubt that these fragments formed part of a meteoric
+shower, although no record exists as to when the fall took place. Near
+the centre, where most of the fragments have been found, is a crater
+with raised edges, three-quarters of a mile in diameter and 600 ft.
+deep, bearing just the appearance which would be produced had a mighty
+mass of iron--a falling star--struck the ground, scattered it in all
+directions, and buried itself deeply under the surface, fragments eroded
+from the surface forming the pieces now met with. Altogether ten tons of
+this iron have been collected, and specimens of the Canyon Diablo
+meteorite are in most collectors' cabinets. Dr A.E. Foote, a
+mineralogist, when cutting a section of this meteorite, found the tools
+injured by something vastly harder than metallic iron, and an emery
+wheel used for grinding it was ruined. He attacked the specimen
+chemically, and soon afterwards announced to the scientific world that
+the Canyon Diablo meteorite contained diamonds, both black and
+transparent. This startling discovery was subsequently verified by
+Professors C. Friedel and H. Moissan, and also by Sir W. Crookes.
+
+_The Ruby._--It is evident that of the other precious stones only the
+most prized are worth producing artificially. Apart from their inferior
+hardness and colour, the demand for what are known as "semi-precious
+stones" would not pay for the necessarily great expenses of the factory.
+Moreover, were it to be known that they were being produced artificially
+the demand--never very great--would almost cease. The only other gems,
+therefore, which need be mentioned in connexion with their artificial
+formation are those of the corundum or sapphire class, which include all
+the most highly prized gems, rivalling, and sometimes exceeding, the
+diamond in value. Here a remarkable and little-known fact deserves
+notice. Excepting the diamond and sapphire, each of the precious
+stones--the emerald, the topaz and amethyst--possesses a more noble, a
+harder, and more highly-prized counterpart of itself, alike in colour,
+but superior in brilliancy and hardness; still more strange, the
+precious stone to which its special name is usually attached is the
+variety the least prized. The ruby itself might almost be included in
+the same category. The true ruby consists of the earth alumina, in a
+clear, crystalline form, having a minute quantity of the element
+chromium as the colouring matter. It is often called the "Oriental
+Ruby," or red sapphire, and when of a paler colour, the "Pink Sapphire."
+But the ruby as met with in jewellers' shops of inferior standing is
+usually no true ruby, but a "spinel ruby" or "balas ruby," sometimes
+very beautiful in colour, but softer than the Oriental ruby, and
+different in chemical composition, consisting essentially of alumina and
+magnesia and a little silica, with the colouring matter chromium. The
+colourless basis of the true Oriental precious stones being taken as
+crystallized alumina or white sapphire, when the colouring matter is red
+the stone is called ruby, when blue sapphire, when green Oriental
+emerald, when orange-yellow Oriental topaz, and when violet Oriental
+amethyst. Clear, colourless crystals are known as white sapphire, and
+are very valuable. It is evident, therefore, that whosoever succeeds in
+making artificially clear crystals of white sapphire has the power, by
+introducing appropriate colouring matter, to make the Oriental ruby,
+sapphire, emerald, topaz and amethyst. All of these stones, even when of
+small size, are costly and readily saleable, while when they are of fine
+quality and large size they are highly prized, a ruby of fine colour,
+and free from flaws, a few carats in weight, being of more value than a
+diamond of the same weight.
+
+This being the case, it is not surprising that repeated attempts have
+been made to effect the crystallization of alumina. This is not a matter
+of difficulty, but unfortunately the crystals generally form thin
+plates, of good colour, but too thin to be useful as gems. In 1837
+M.A.A. Gaudin made true rubies, of microscopic size, by fusing alum in a
+carbon crucible at a very high temperature, and adding a little chromium
+as colouring matter. In 1847 J.J. Ebelmen produced the white sapphire
+and rose-coloured spinel by fusing the constituents at a high
+temperature in boracic acid. Shortly afterwards he produced the ruby by
+employing borax as the solvent. The boracic acid was found to be too
+volatile to allow the alumina to crystallize, but the use of borax made
+the necessary difference. But it was not till about the year 1877 that
+E. Frémy and C. Feil first published a method whereby it was possible to
+produce a crystallized alumina from which small stones could be cut.
+They first formed lead aluminate by the fusion together of lead oxide
+and alumina. This was kept in a state of fusion in a fireclay crucible
+(in the composition of which silica enters largely). Under the influence
+of the high temperature the silica of the crucible gradually decomposes
+the lead aluminate, forming lead silicate, which remains in the liquid
+state, and alumina, which crystallizes as white sapphire. By the
+admixture of 2 or 3% of a chromium compound with original materials the
+resulting white sapphire became ruby. More recently Edmond Frémy and A.
+Verneuil obtained artificial rubies by reacting at a red heat with
+barium fluoride on amorphous alumina containing a small quantity of
+chromium. The rubies obtained in this manner are thus described by Frémy
+and Verneuil: "Their crystalline form is regular; their lustre is
+adamantine; they present the beautiful colour of the ruby; they are
+perfectly transparent, have the hardness of the ruby, and easily scratch
+topaz. They resemble the natural ruby in becoming dark when heated,
+resuming their rose-colour on cooling." Des Cloizeaux says of them that
+"under the microscope some of the crystals show bubbles. In converging
+polarized light the coloured rings and the negative black cross are of a
+remarkable regularity."
+
+Other experimentalists have attacked the problem in other directions.
+Besides those already mentioned, L. Eisner, H.H. De Senarmont,
+Sainte-Claire Deville, and H. Caron and H. Debray have succeeded with
+more or less success in producing rubies. The general plan adopted has
+been to form a mixture of salts fusible at a red heat, forming a liquid
+in which alumina will dissolve. Alumina is now added till the fused mass
+will take up no more, and the crucible is left in the furnace for a long
+time, sometimes extending over weeks. The solvent slowly volatilizes,
+and the alumina is deposited in crystals, coloured by whatever colouring
+oxide has been added.
+
+Mention has been made above of a stone frequently substituted for the
+true ruby, called the "spinel" or "balas" ruby. The spinel and ruby
+occur together in nature, stones from Burma being as often spinel as
+true Oriental ruby. In the artificial production of the ruby it
+sometimes happens that spinel crystallizes out when true Oriental ruby
+is expected. The fusion bath is so arranged that only red-coloured
+alumina shall crystallize out, but it is difficult to have all the
+materials of such purity as to ensure the complete absence of silica and
+magnesia. In this case, when these impurities have accumulated to a
+certain point they unite with the alumina, and spinel then separates, as
+it crystallizes more easily than ruby. When all the magnesia and silica
+have been eliminated in this way the bath resumes its deposition of
+crystalline ruby. Rubies of fine colour and of considerable size have
+been shown in London, made on the Continent by a secret process. The
+writer has seen several cut stones so made weighing over a carat each,
+the uncut crystals measuring half an inch along a crystal edge, and
+weighing over 70 grains, and a clear plate of ruby cut from a single
+crystal weighing over 10 grains. Ruby has been made by Sir W.
+Roberts-Austen as a by-product in the production of metallic chromium.
+Oxide of chromium and aluminium powder are intimately mixed together in
+a refractory crucible, and the mixture is ignited at the upper part. The
+aluminium and chromium oxide react with evolution of so much heat that
+the reduced chromium is melted. Such is the intensity of the reaction
+that the resulting alumina is also completely fused, floating as a
+liquid on the molten chromium. Sometimes the alumina takes tip the right
+amount of chromium to enable it to assume the ruby colour. On cooling
+the melted alumina crystallizes in large flakes, which on examination by
+transmitted light are seen to be true ruby. The development of the red
+colour is said by C. Greville-Williams only to take place at a white
+heat. It is not due to the presence of chromic acid, but to a reaction
+between alumina and chromic oxide, which requires an elevated
+temperature.
+
+Artificially made but real rubies have been put on the market, prepared
+by a process of fusion by A. Verneuil. He finds that certain conditions
+have to be fulfilled in order to get the alumina in a transparent form.
+The temperature must not be higher than is absolutely necessary for
+fusion. The melted product must always be in the same part of the
+oxyhydrogen flame, and the point of contact between the melted product
+and the support should be reduced to as small an area as possible. M.
+Verneuil uses a vertical blowpipe flame directed on a support capable of
+movement up and down by means of a screw, so that the fused product may
+be removed from the zone of fusion as it gets higher by addition of
+fresh material. The material employed is either composed of small,
+valueless rubies, or alumina coloured with the right amount of chromium.
+It is very finely powdered and fed in through the blowpipe orifice,
+whence it is blown in a highly heated condition into the zone of fusion.
+The support is a small cylinder of alumina placed in the axis of the
+blowpipe. As the operation proceeds the fine grains of powder driven on
+to the support in the zone of fusion form a cone which gradually rises
+and broadens out until it becomes of sufficient size to be used for
+cutting. Rubies prepared in this way have the same specific gravity and
+hardness as the natural ruby, and they are also dichroic, and in the
+vacuum tube under the influence of the cathode stream they phosphoresce
+with a discontinuous spectrum showing the strong alumina line in the
+red. When properly cut and mounted it is almost impossible to
+distinguish them from natural stones.
+
+_The Sapphire._--Auguste Daubrée has shown that when a full quantity of
+chromium is added to the bath from which white sapphire crystallizes the
+colour is that of ruby, but when much less chromium is added the colour
+is blue, forming the true Oriental sapphire. The real colouring matter
+of the Oriental sapphire is not definitely known, some chemists
+considering it to be chromium and others cobalt. Artificial sapphires
+have been made of a fair size and perfectly transparent by the addition
+of cobalt to the igneous bath of alumina, but the writer does not
+consider them equal in colour to true Oriental sapphire.
+
+_The Oriental Emerald._--The stone known as emerald consists chemically
+of silica, alumina and glucina. Like the ruby, it owes its colour to
+chromium, but in a different state of oxidation. As already mentioned,
+there is another stone which consists of crystallized alumina coloured
+with chromium, but holding the chromium in a different state of
+oxidation. This is called the Oriental emerald, and, owing to its beauty
+of colour, its hardness and rarity, it is more highly prized than the
+emerald itself and commands higher prices. The Oriental emerald has been
+produced artificially in the same way as the ruby, by adding a larger
+amount of chromium to the alumina bath and regulating the temperature.
+
+_The Oriental Amethyst._--The amethyst is rock crystal (quartz) of a
+bluish-violet colour. It is one of the least valuable of the precious
+stones. The sapphire, however, is found occasionally of a beautiful
+violet colour; it is then called the Oriental amethyst, and, on account
+of its beauty and rarity, is of great value. It is evident that if to
+the igneous bath of alumina some colouring matter, such as manganese, is
+added capable of communicating a violet colour to the crystals of
+alumina, the Oriental amethyst will be the result. Oriental amethyst has
+been so formed artificially, but the stone being known only as a
+curiosity to mineralogists and experts in precious stones, and the
+public not being able to discriminate between the violet sapphire and
+amethystine quartz, there is no demand for the artificial stone.
+
+_The Oriental Topaz._--The topaz is what is called a semi-precious
+stone. It occurs of many colours, from clear white to pink, orange,
+yellow and pale green. The usual colour is from straw-yellow to sherry
+colour. The exact composition of the colouring matter is not known; it
+is not entirely of mineral origin, as it changes colour and sometimes
+fades altogether on exposure to light. Chemically the topaz consists of
+alumina, silica and fluorine. It is not so hard as the sapphire. There
+is also a yellow variety of quartz, which is sometimes called "false
+topaz." The Oriental topaz, on the other hand, is a precious stone of
+great value. It consists of clear crystalline sapphire coloured with a
+small quantity of ferric oxide. It has been produced artificially by
+adding iron instead of chromium to the matrix from which the white
+sapphire crystallizes.
+
+_The Zircon._--The zircon is a very beautiful stone, varying in colour,
+like the topaz, from red and yellow to green and blue. It is sometimes
+met with colourless, and such are its refractive powers and brilliancy
+that it has been mistaken for diamond. It is a compound of silica and
+zirconia. H. Sainte-Claire Deville formed the zircon artificially by
+passing silicon fluoride at a red heat over the oxide zirconia in a
+porcelain tube. Octahedral crystals of zircon are then produced, which
+have the same crystalline form, appearance and optical qualities as the
+natural zircon.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Sir William Crookes, "A New Formation of Diamond,"
+  _Proc. Roy. Soc._ vol. lxxvi. p. 458; "Diamonds," a lecture delivered
+  before the British Association at Kimberley, South Africa, 5th
+  September, 1905, _Chemical News_, vol. xcii. pp. 135, 147, 159; J.J.
+  Ebelmen, "Sur la production artificielle des pierres dures," _Comptes
+  rendus_, vol. xxv. p. 279; "Sur une nouvelle méthode pour obtenir, par
+  la voie sèche, des combinations crystallisées, et sur ses applications
+  à la réproduction de plusieurs espèces minérales," _Comptes rendus_,
+  vol. xxv. p. 661; Edmond Frémy and C. Feil, "Sur la production
+  artificielle du corindon, du rubis, et de différents silicates
+  crystallisées," _Comptes rendus_, vol. lxxxv. p. 1029; C. Friedel,
+  "Sur l'existence du diamant dans le fer météorique de Cañon Diablo,"
+  _Comptes rendus_, vol. cxv. p. 1037, vol. cxvi. p. 290; H. Moissan,
+  "Étude de la météorite de Cañon Diablo," _Comptes rendus_, vol. cxvi.
+  p. 288; "Expériences sur la réproduction du diamant," _Comptes
+  rendus_, vol. cxviii. p. 320; "Sur quelques expériences relatives à la
+  préparation du diamant," _Comptes rendus_, vol. cxxiii. p. 206; _Le
+  Four électrique_ (Paris, 1897); H. Sainte-Claire Deville and H. Caron,
+  "Sur un nouveau mode de production à l'état cristallisé d'un certain
+  nombre d'espèces chimiques et minéralogiques," _Comptes rendus_, vol.
+  xlvi. p. 764; A. Verneuil, "Production artificielle des rubis par
+  fusion," ibid. vol. cxxxv. p. 791; J. Boyer, _La Synthèse des pierres
+  précieuses_ (Paris, 1909).     (W. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GEMBLOUX, a town in the province of Namur and on the borders of Brabant,
+Belgium, 25 m. S.E. of Brussels on the main line to Namur and Luxemburg.
+Pop. (1904) 4643. It is a busy place with large railway and engine
+works, and the junction for several branch lines. On the 31st of January
+1578 Don John of Austria gained here a signal victory over the army of
+the provinces led by Antony de Goignies.
+
+
+
+
+GEMINI ("The Twins," i.e. Castor and Pollux), in astronomy, the third
+sign in the zodiac, denoted by the symbol II. It is also a
+constellation, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd
+century B.C.), and catalogued by Ptolemy, 25 stars, Tycho Brahe 25, and
+Hevelius 38. By the Egyptians this constellation was symbolized as a
+couple of young kids; the Greeks altered this symbol to two children,
+variously said to be Castor and Pollux, Hercules and Apollo, or
+Triptolemus and Iasion; the Arabians used the symbol of a pair of
+peacocks. Interesting objects in this constellation are: [alpha]
+Geminorum or Castor, a very fine double star of magnitudes 2.0 and 2.8,
+the fainter component is a spectroscopic binary; [eta] Geminorum, a long
+period (231 days) variable, the extreme range in magnitude being 3.2 to
+4; [zeta] Geminorum, a short period variable, 10.15 days, the extreme
+range in magnitude being 3.7 to 4.5; _Nova_ Geminorum, a "new" star
+discovered in 1903 by H.H. Turner of Oxford; and the star cluster M.35
+Geminorum, a fine and bright, but loose, cluster, with very little
+central condensation.
+
+
+
+
+GEMINIANI, FRANCESCO (c. 1680-1762), Italian violinist, was born at
+Lucca about 1680. He received lessons in music from Alessandro
+Scarlatti, and studied the violin under Lunati (Gobbo) and afterwards
+under Corelli. In 1714 he arrived in London, where he was taken under
+the special protection of the earl of Essex, and made a living by
+teaching and writing music. In 1715 he played his violin concertos with
+Handel at the English court. After visiting Paris and residing there for
+some time, he returned to England in 1755. In 1761 he went to Dublin,
+where a servant robbed him of a musical manuscript on which he had
+bestowed much time and labour. His vexation at this loss is said to have
+hastened his death on the 17th of September 1762. He appears to have
+been a first-rate violinist, but most of his compositions are dry and
+deficient in melody. His _Art of Playing the Violin_ is a good work of
+its kind, but his _Guida armonica_ is an inferior production. He
+published a number of solos for the violin, three sets of violin
+concertos, twelve violin trios, _The Art of Accompaniment on the
+Harpsichord, Organ_, &c., _Lessons for the Harpsichord_ and some other
+works.
+
+
+
+
+GEMISTUS PLETHO [or PLETHON], GEORGIUS (c. 1355-1450), Greek Platonic
+philosopher and scholar, one of the chief pioneers of the revival of
+learning in Western Europe, was a Byzantine by birth who settled at
+Mistra in the Peloponnese, the site of ancient Sparta. He changed his
+name from Gemistus to the equivalent Pletho ("the full"), perhaps owing
+to the similarity of sound between that name and that of his master
+Plato. He invented a religious system founded on the speculative
+mysticism of the Neoplatonists, and founded a sect, the members of which
+believed that the new creed would supersede all existing forms of
+belief. But he is chiefly memorable for having introduced Plato to the
+Western world. This took place upon his visit to Florence in 1439, as
+one of the deputies from Constantinople on occasion of the general
+council. Cardinal Bessarion became his disciple; he produced a great
+impression upon Cosimo de' Medici; and though not himself making any
+very important contribution to the study of Plato, he effectually shook
+the exclusive domination which Aristotle had exercised over European
+thought for eight centuries. He promoted the union of the Greek and
+Latin Churches as far as possible, but his efforts in this direction
+bore no permanent fruit. He probably died before the capture of
+Constantinople. The most important of his published works are treatises
+on the distinction between Plato and Aristotle as philosophers
+(published at Venice in 1540); on the religion of Zoroaster (Paris,
+1538); on the condition of the Peloponnese (ed. A. Ellissen in
+_Analekten der mittel- und neugriechischen Literatur_, iv.); and the
+[Greek: Nomoi] (ed. C. Alexandre, Paris, 1858). In addition to these he
+compiled several volumes of excerpts from ancient authors, and wrote a
+number of works on geography, music and other subjects, many of which
+still exist in MS. in various European libraries.
+
+  See especially F. Schultze, _Geschichte der Philosophie der
+  Renaissance_, i. (1874); also J.A. Symonds, _The Renaissance in Italy_
+  (1877), ii. p. 198; H.F. Tozer, "A Byzantine Reformer," in _Journal of
+  Hellenic Studies_, vii. (1886), chiefly on Pletho's scheme of
+  political and social reform for the Peloponnese, as set forth in the
+  pamphlets addressed to Manuel II. Palaeologus and his son Theodore,
+  despot of the Morea; W. Gass, _Gennadius und Pletho_ (1844). Most of
+  Pletho's works will be found in J.P. Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, clx.;
+  for a complete list see Fabricius, _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (ed. Harles),
+  xii.
+
+
+
+
+GEMMI PASS, a pass (7641 ft.) leading from Frutigen in the Swiss canton
+of Bern to Leukerbad in the Swiss canton of the Valais. It is much
+frequented by travellers in summer. From Kandersteg (7½ m. by road above
+Frutigen, which is 12 m. by rail from Spiez on the Berne-Interlaken
+line) a mule path leads to the summit of the pass, passing over the
+Spitalmatte plain, where in 1782 and again in 1895 a great avalanche
+fell from the Altels (11,930 ft.) to the S.E., causing on both occasions
+great loss of life and property. The mule path descends on the south
+side of the pass by an extraordinary series of zigzags, made accessible
+for mules (though no rider is now allowed to descend on mule-back) by a
+band of Tirolese workmen in 1740-1741. They are cut in a very steep wall
+of rock, about 1800 ft. in height, and lead down to the village of
+Leukerbad, which is 9½ m. by carriage road past Leuk above the Susten
+station in the Rhône valley and on the Simplon line.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GENDARMERIE, originally a body of troops in France composed of
+_gendarmes_ or men-at-arms. In the days of chivalry they were mounted
+and armed cap-à-pie, exactly as were the lords and knights, with whom
+they constituted the most important part of an army. They were attended
+each by five soldiers of inferior rank and more lightly armed. In the
+later middle ages the men-at-arms were furnished by owners of fiefs. But
+after the Hundred Years' War this feudal gendarmerie was replaced by the
+_compagnies d'ordonnance_ which Charles VII. formed when the English
+were driven out of France, and which were distributed throughout the
+whole extent of the kingdom for preserving order and maintaining the
+king's authority. These companies, fifteen in number, were composed of
+100 lances or gendarmes fully equipped, each of whom was attended by at
+least three archers, one _coutillier_ (soldier armed with a cutlass) and
+one _varlet_ (soldier's servant). The states-general of Orleans (1439)
+had voted a yearly subsidy of 1,200,000 livres in perpetuity to keep up
+this national soldiery, which replaced, and in fact was recruited
+chiefly amongst, the bands of mercenaries who for about a century had
+made France their prey. The number and composition of the _compagnies
+d'ordonnance_ were changed more than once before the reign of Louis XIV.
+This sovereign on his accession to the throne found only eight companies
+of gendarmes surviving out of an original total of more than one
+hundred, but after the victory of Fleurus (1690), which had been decided
+by their courage, he increased their number to sixteen. The four first
+companies (which were practically guard troops) were designated by the
+names of _Gendarmes écossais_, _Gendarmes anglais_, _Gendarmes
+bourguignons_ and _Gendarmes flamands_, from the nationality of the
+soldiers who had originally composed them; but at that time they
+consisted entirely of French soldiers and officers. These four companies
+had a captain-general, who was the king. The fifth company was that of
+the queen; and the others bore the name of the princes who respectively
+commanded them. This organization was dissolved in 1788. The Revolution
+swept away all these institutions of the monarchy, and, with the
+exception of a short revival of the _Gendarmes de la garde_ at the
+Restoration, henceforward the word "gendarmerie" possesses an altogether
+different significance--viz. military police.
+
+
+
+
+GENEALOGY (from the Gr. [Greek: genos], family, and [Greek: logos],
+theory), a pedigree or list of ancestors, or the study of family
+history.
+
+1. _Biblical Genealogies._--The aims and methods of ancient genealogists
+require to be carefully considered before the value of the numerous
+ancestral lists in the Bible can be properly estimated. Many of the old
+"genealogies," like those of Greece, have arisen from the desire to
+explain the origin of the various groups which they include. Information
+relating to the subdivision of tribes, their relation to each other, the
+intermingling of populations and the like are thus frequently
+represented in the form of genealogies. The "sons" of a "father" often
+stand merely for the branches of a family as they existed at some one
+period, and since in course of time tribal relations would vary, lists
+which have originated at different periods will present discrepancies.
+It is obvious that many of the Biblical names are nothing more than
+personifications of nations, tribes, towns, &c., which are grouped
+together to convey some idea of the bond by which they were believed to
+be connected.
+
+  For the personification of a people or tribe, cp. Gen. xxxiv. 30
+  ("Jacob said ... I am a few men"), Josh. xvii. 14 ("the children of
+  Joseph said ... I am a numerous people"), Ex. xiv. 25 ("Egypt said,
+  let me flee"), Jos. ix. 7, 1 Sam. v. 10, &c.; see G.B. Gray on
+  Numbers, xx. 14 (_Internat. Crit. Comm._). Thus we find among the
+  "sons" of Japhet: (the nations) Gomer, Javan, Tubal; Canaan "begat"
+  Sidon and Heth; the "sons" of Ishmael include the well-known tribes
+  Kedar and Jetur; Jacob, or the synonym Israel, personifies the
+  "children of Israel" (cf. use of "I," "thou" of the Israelites in
+  Deut., and in poetical passages). The recognition of this
+  characteristic usage often furnishes an ethnological interpretation to
+  those genealogical stories which obviously do not relate to persons,
+  but to tribes or peoples personified. The Edomites and Israelites are
+  regarded as "brothers" (cf. Num. xx. 14, Deut. ii. 4, Am. i. 11), and
+  since Esau (Edom) was born before Jacob (Israel) it would appear that
+  the Edomites were held to be the older nation. The union of two clans
+  is expressed as a marriage, or the wife is the territory which is
+  dominated by the husband (tribe); see CALEB. If the woman is not of
+  noble blood, but is a handmaiden or concubine, her children are
+  naturally not upon the same footing as those of the wife; consequently
+  the descendants of Ishmael, the son of Hagar (Sarah's maid), are
+  inferior to Isaac and his descendants, whilst the children of Keturah
+  ("incense"), Abraham's concubine, are still lower--from the Israelite
+  point of view. This application of the terms of relationship is
+  characteristic of the Semites. The "father" of the Rechabites is their
+  head or founder (cf. 1 Sam. x. 12: "who is their father?"), and a
+  common bond, which is not necessarily physical, unites all "sons,"
+  whether they are "sons of the prophets" (members of prophetic guilds)
+  or "sons of Belial" (worthless men).
+
+The interpretation of ethnological or statistical genealogies may easily
+be pushed too far. Every case has to be judged upon its own merits, and
+due allowance must be made both for the ambition of the weaker to claim
+or to strengthen an alliance with the stronger, and for the not
+unnatural desire of clans or individuals to magnify the greatness of
+their ancestry. The first step must always be the careful comparison of
+related lists in order to test the consistency of the tradition. Next,
+these must be critically studied in the light of all available
+historical material, though indeed such evidence is not necessarily
+conclusive. Finally, (a) literary criticism must be employed to
+determine if possible the dates of such lists, since obviously a
+contemporary register is more trustworthy than one which is centuries
+later; (b) a critical estimate of the character of the names and of
+their use in various periods of Old Testament history is of importance
+in estimating the antiquity of the list[1]--for example, many of the
+names in Chronicles attributed to the time of David are indubitably
+exilic or post-exilic; and (c) principles of ordinary historical
+probability are as necessary here as in dealing with the genealogies of
+other ancient peoples, and attention must be paid to such features as
+fluctuation in the number of links, representation of theories
+inconsistent with the growth of national life, schemes of relationship
+not in accordance with sociological conditions, &c.
+
+The Biblical genealogies commence with "the generations of the heaven
+and earth," and by a process of elimination pass from Adam and Eve by
+successive steps to Jacob and to his sons (the tribes), and finally to
+the subdivisions of each tribe (cp. 1 Chron. i.-ix. 1). According to
+this theory every Israelite could trace back his descent to Jacob, the
+common father of the whole nation (Josh. vii. 17 seq., 1 Sam. x. 21).
+Such a scheme, however, is full of manifest improbabilities. It demands
+that every tribe and every clan should have been a homogeneous group
+which had preserved its unity from the earliest times, that family
+records extending back for several centuries were in existence, and that
+such a tribe as Simeon was able to maintain its independence in spite of
+the tradition that it lost its autonomy in very early times (Gen. xlix.
+7). The whole conception of the unity of the tribes cannot be referred
+to a date previous to the time of David, and in the older writings a
+David or a Jeroboam was sufficiently described as the son of Jesse or of
+Nebat. The genealogical zeal as represented in the Old Testament is
+chiefly of later growth, and the exceptions are due to interpolation
+(Josh. vii. 1 18, contrast v. 24), or to the desire to modify or qualify
+an older notice. This, in the case of Saul (1 Sam. ix. 1), has led to
+textual corruption; a list of such a length as his should have reached
+back to one of the "sons" of Benjamin (cf. e.g. Gen. xlvi. 21), else it
+were purposeless. The genealogies, too, are often inconsistent amongst
+themselves and in contradiction to their object. They show, for example,
+that the population of southern Judah, so far from being "Israelite" was
+half-Edomite (see Judah), and several of the clans in this district bear
+names which indicate their original affinity with Midian or Edom.
+Moreover, there was a free intermixture of races, and many cities had a
+Canaanite (i.e. pre-Israelite) population which must have been gradually
+absorbed by the Israelites (cf. Judg. 1.). That spirit of religious
+exclusiveness which marked later Judaism did not become prominent before
+the Deuteronomic reformation (see DEUTERONOMY), and it is under its
+influence that the writings begin to emphasize the importance of
+maintaining the purity of Israelite blood, although by this time the
+fusion was complete (see Judg. iii. 6) and for practical purposes a
+distinction between Canaanites and Israelites within the borders of
+Palestine could scarcely be discerned.
+
+  Many of the genealogical data are intricate. Thus, the interpretation
+  of Gen. xxxiv. is particularly obscure (see LEVITES _ad fin._;
+  SIMEON). As regards the sons of Jacob, it is difficult to explain
+  their division among the four wives of Jacob; viz. (a) the sons of
+  Leah are Reuben, Simeon, Levi and Judah (S. Palestine), Issachar and
+  Zebulun (in the north), and Dinah (associated with Shechem); (b) of
+  Leah's maid Zilpah, Gad and Asher (E. and N. Palestine); (c) of
+  Rachel, Joseph (Manasseh and Ephraim, i.e. central Palestine) and
+  Benjamin; (d) of Rachel's maid Bilhah, Dan and Naphtali (N.
+  Palestine). It has been urged that (b) and (d) stood upon a lower
+  footing than the rest, or were of later origin; or that Bilhan points
+  to an old clan associated with Reuben (Gen. xxxv. 22) or Edom (Bilhan,
+  Gen. xxxvi. 27), whilst Zilpah represents an Aramaean strain.
+  Tradition may have combined distinct schemes, and the belief that the
+  wives were Aramaean at least coincides with the circumstance that
+  Aramaean elements predominated in certain of the twelve tribes. The
+  number "twelve" is artificial and can be obtained only by counting
+  Manasseh and Ephraim as one or by omitting Levi, and a careful study
+  of Old Testament history makes it extremely difficult to recover the
+  tribes as historical units. See, on these points, the articles on the
+  several tribes, B. Luther, _Zeit. d. alttest. Wissens_. (1901), pp. 1
+  sqq.; G.B. Gray, _Expositor_ (March 1902), pp. 225-240, and in _Ency.
+  Bib._, art. "Tribes"; and H.W. Hogg's thorough treatment of the tribes
+  in the last-mentioned work.
+
+The ideal of purity of descent shows itself conspicuously in portions of
+Deuteronomic law (Deut. vii. 1-3, xxiii. 2-8), and in the reforms of
+Nehemiah and Ezra (Ezr. ix. 1-4, 11 sqq.; Neh. xiii. 1-3). The desire to
+prove the continuity of the race, enforced by the experience of the
+exile, gave the impetus to genealogical zeal, and many of the extant
+lists proceed from this age when the true historical succession of names
+was a memory of the past. This applies with special force to the lists
+in Chronicles which present finished schemes of the Levitical divisions
+by the side of earlier attempts, with consequent confusion and
+contradiction. Thus the immediate ancestors of Ethan appear in the time
+of Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix. 12), but he with Asaiah and Heman are
+contemporaries of David, and their genealogies from Levi downwards
+contain a very unequal number of links (1 Chron. vi.). By another
+application of genealogical method the account of the institution of
+priests and Levites by David (1 Chron. xxiv.) presents many names which
+belong solely to post-exilic days, thus suggesting that the scribes
+desired to show that the honourable families of their time were not
+unknown centuries previously. Everywhere we find the results of much
+skill and labour, often in accordance with definite theories, but a
+thorough investigation reveals their weakness and often quite
+incidentally furnishes valuable evidence of another nature.
+
+  The intricate Levitical genealogies betray the result of successive
+  genealogists who sought to give effect to the development of the
+  hierarchal system (see LEVITES). The climax is reached when all
+  Levites are traced back to Gershon, Kehath and Merari, to which are
+  ascribed respectively Asaph, Heman and Ethan (or Jeduthun). The last
+  two were not originally Levites in the later accepted sense of the
+  term (see 1 Kings iv. 31). To Kehath is reckoned an important
+  subdivision descended from Korah, but in 2 Chron. xx. 19 the two are
+  distinct groups, and Korah's name is that of an Edomite clan (Gen.
+  xxxvi. 5, 14, 18) related to Caleb, and thus included among the
+  descendants of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 43). Cases of adjustment,
+  redistribution and "Levitizing" of individuals are frequent. There are
+  traces of varying divisions both of the singers (Neh. xi. 17) and of
+  the Levites (Num. xxvi. 58; Ezr. ii. 40, iii. 9; 1 Chron. xv. 5-10,
+  xxiii.), and it is noteworthy that in the case of the latter we have
+  mention of such families as Hebroni (Hebronite), Libni (from
+  Libnah)--ethnics of South Judaean towns. In fact, a significant number
+  of Levitical names find their analogy in the lists of names belonging
+  to Judah, Simeon and even Edom, or are closely connected with the
+  family of Moses; e.g. Mushi (i.e. Mosaïte), Gershon and Eleazar (cp.
+  Gershom and Eliezer, sons of Moses). The Levites bear a class-name,
+  and the genealogies show that many of them were connected with the
+  minor clans and families of South Palestine which included among them
+  Moses and his kin. Hence, it is not unnatural that Obed-edom, for
+  example, obviously a southerner, should have been reckoned later as a
+  Levite, and the work ascribed by the chronicler's history to the
+  closing years of David's life may be influenced by the tradition that
+  it was through him these mixed populations first attained importance.
+  See further DAVID; JEWS; LEVITES.
+
+In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove
+his descent, and perhaps from the time of Ezra downwards lists were
+carefully kept. But when Anna is called an Asherite (Luke ii. 36), or
+Paul a Benjamite (Rom. xi. 1), family tradition was probably the sole
+support to the claim, although the tribal feeling had not become
+entirely extinct. The genealogies of Jesus prefixed to two of the
+gospels are intended to prove that He was a son of David. But not that
+alone, for in Matt. i. he is traced back to Abraham the father of the
+Jews, whilst in Luke iii. He, as the second Adam, is traced back to the
+first man. The two lists are hopelessly inconsistent; not because one of
+them follows the line of Mary, but because they represent independent
+attempts. That in Matthew is characteristically arranged in three
+series of fourteen generations each through the kings of Judah, whilst
+Luke's passes through an almost unknown son of David; in spite of this,
+however, both converge in the person of Zerubbabel.
+
+  See further, A.C. Hervey, _Genealogies of Our Lord_; H. von Soden,
+  _Ency. Bib._ ii. col. 1666 sqq.; B.W. Bacon, Hastings' _Dict. Bib._
+  ii. pp. 138 seq. On the subject generally see J.F. M'Lennan's
+  _Studies_ (2nd ser., ch. ix., "fabricated genealogies"); S.A. Cook,
+  _Ency. Bib._ ii. col. 1657 sqq. (with references); W.R. Smith,
+  _Kinship and Marriage_ (2nd ed., especially ch. i.).     (S. A. C.)
+
+2. _Greek and Roman Genealogies._--A passing reference only is needed to
+the intricate genealogies of gods and sons of gods which form so
+conspicuous a feature in classical literature.[2] In every one of the
+numerous states into which ancient Greece was divided there were
+aristocratic families, whose genealogies as a rule went back to
+prehistoric times, their first ancestor being some hero of divine
+descent, from whom, or from some distinguished younger ancestor, they
+derived their names. Many of these families were, as families,
+undoubtedly of great antiquity even at the beginning of the historical
+period; and in several instances they continued to maintain a
+conspicuous and separate existence for centuries. The element of family
+pride is prominent in the poetry of the Megarian Theognis; and in an
+inscription belonging to the 2nd century B.C. the recipient of certain
+honours from the community of Gythium is represented as the thirty-ninth
+in direct descent from the Dioscuri and the forty-first from Heracles.
+Even in Athens, long after the constitution had become thoroughly
+democratic, some of the clans continued to be known as Eupatridae (of
+noble family); and Alcibiades, for example, as a member of the phratria
+of the Eurysacidae, traced his origin through many generations to
+Eurysaces, who was represented as having been the first of the Aeacidae
+to settle in Attica. The Corinthian Bacchiadae traced their descent back
+to Heracles, but took their name from Bacchis, a younger ancestor. It is
+very doubtful, however, whether such pedigrees as this were very
+seriously put forward by those who claimed them; and it is certain that,
+almost along the whole line, they were unsupported by evidence.[3] We
+have the authority of Pollux (viii. 111) for stating that the Athenian
+[Greek: genê], of which there were thirty in each [Greek: phratria],
+were organized without any exclusive regard being had to
+blood-relationship; they were constantly receiving accessions from
+without; and the public written registers of births, adoptions and the
+like do not appear to have been preserved with such care as would have
+made it possible to verify a pedigree for any considerable portion even
+of the strictly historical period.[4]
+
+The great antiquity of the early Roman (patrician) _gentes_, who
+universally traced themselves back to illustrious ancestors, is
+indisputable; and the rigid exclusiveness with which each preserved its
+_hereditates gentiliciae_ or _sacra gentilicia_ is sufficiently
+illustrated by the fact that towards the close of the republic there
+were not more than fifty patrician families (Dion. Halic. i. 85). Yet
+even in these it is obvious that, owing to the frequency of resort to
+the well-recognized practice of adoption, while there was every
+guarantee for the historical identity of the family, there was none
+(documents apart) for the personal genealogy of the individual. There is
+no evidence that sufficient records of pedigree were kept during the
+earlier centuries of the Roman commonwealth, although the leading houses
+drew up genealogical tables, and their family pedigree was painted on
+the walls of the entrance hall. In later times, it is true, even
+plebeian families began to establish a prescriptive right (known as the
+_jus imaginum_) to preserve in small wooden shrines in their halls the
+busts (or rather, wax portrait masks fastened on to busts) of those of
+their members who had attained to curule office, and to exhibit these in
+public on appropriate occasions. Under these _imagines majorum_[5] it
+became usual to inscribe on the wall their respective _tituli_, the
+relationship of each to each being indicated by means of connecting
+lines; and thus arose the _stemmata gentilicia_, which at a later time
+began to be copied into family records. In the case of plebeian families
+(whose stemmata in no case went farther back than 366 B.C.) these
+written genealogies were probably trustworthy enough; but in the case of
+patricians who went back to Aeneas,[6] so much cannot, it is obvious, be
+said; and from a comparatively early period it was clearly recognized
+that such records lent themselves too readily to the devices of the
+falsifier and the forger to deserve confidence or reverence (Pliny,
+_H.N._ xxxv. 2; Juv. viii. 1).
+
+Thus, parvenus were known to place the busts of fictitious ancestors in
+the shrines and to engage needy literary men to trace back their descent
+even to Aeneas himself.
+
+The many and great social changes which marked the closing centuries of
+the Western empire almost invariably militated with great strength
+against the maintenance of an aristocracy of birth; and from the time of
+Constantine the dignity of patrician ceased to be hereditary.[7]
+
+3. _Modern._--Two forces have combined to give genealogy its importance
+during the period of modern history: the laws of inheritance,
+particularly those which govern the descent of real estate, and the
+desire to assert the privileges of a hereditary aristocracy. But it is
+long before genealogies are found in the possession of private families.
+The succession of kings and princes are in the chronicle book; the line
+of the founders and patrons of abbeys are recorded by the monks with
+curious embellishment of legend. But the famous suit of Scrope against
+Grosvenor will illustrate the late appearance of private genealogies in
+England. In 1385 Sir Richard Scrope, lord of Bolton, displaying his
+banner in the host that invaded Scotland, found that his arms of a
+golden bend in a blue field were borne by a knight of the Chester
+palatinate, one Sir Robert Grosvenor. He carried the dispute to a court
+of chivalry, whose decision in his favour was confirmed on appeal to the
+king. Grosvenor asserted that he derived his right from an ancestor, Sir
+Gilbert Grosvenor, who had come over with the Conqueror, while an
+intervening claimant, a Cornish squire named Thomas Carminowe, boasted
+that his own ancestors had borne the like arms since the days of King
+Arthur's Round Table. It is remarkable that in support of the false
+statements made by the claimants no written genealogy is produced. The
+evidence of tombs and monuments and the reports of ancient men are
+advanced, but no pedigree is exhibited in a case which hangs upon
+genealogy. It is possible that the art of pedigree-making had its first
+impulse in England from the many genealogies constructed to make men
+familiar with the claims of Edward III. to the crown of France, a second
+crop of such royal pedigrees being raised in later generations during
+the contests of York and Lancaster. But it is not until after the close
+of the middle ages that genealogies multiply in men's houses and are
+collected into volumes. The medieval baron, knight or squire, although
+proud of the nobility of his race, was content to let it rest upon
+legend handed down the generations. The exact line of his descent was
+sought only when it was demanded for a plea in the king's courts to
+support his title to his lands.
+
+From the first the work of the genealogist in England had that taint of
+inaccuracy tempered with forgery from which it has not yet been
+cleansed. The medieval kings, like the Welsh gentry of later ages,
+traced their lines to the household of Eden garden, while lesser men,
+even as early as the 14th century, eagerly asserted their descent from a
+companion of the Conqueror. Yet beside these false imaginations we find
+the law courts, whose business was often a clash of pedigrees, dealing
+with genealogies centuries long which, constructed as it would seem from
+worthy evidences, will often bear the test of modern criticism.
+
+Genealogies in great plenty are found in manuscripts and printed volumes
+from the 16th century onward. Remarkable among these are the descents
+recorded in the Visitation Books of the heralds, who, armed with
+commissions from the crown, the first of which was issued in 20 Hen.
+VIII., perambulated the English counties, viewing arms and registering
+pedigrees. The notes in their register books range from the simple
+registration of a man's name and arms to entries of pedigrees many
+generations long. To the heralds these visitations were rare
+opportunities of obtaining fees from the visited, and the value of the
+pedigrees registered is notably unequal. Although it has always been the
+boast of the College of Arms that Visitation records may be produced as
+evidence in the law courts, few of these officially recorded genealogies
+are wholly trustworthy. Many of the officers of arms who recorded them
+were, even by the testimony of their comrades, of indifferent character,
+and even when the visiting herald was an honourable man and an
+industrious he had little time to spare for the investigation of any
+single genealogy. Deeds and evidences in private hands may have been
+hastily examined in some instances--indeed, a herald's summons invites
+their production--and monuments were often viewed in the churches, but
+for the most part men's memories and the hearsay of the country-side
+made the backbone of the pedigree. The further the pedigree is carried
+beyond the memory of living men the less trustworthy does it become. The
+principal visitations took place in the reigns of Elizabeth, James I.
+and Charles II. No commission has been issued since the accession of
+William and Mary, but from that time onwards large numbers of
+genealogies have been recorded in the registers of the College of Arms,
+the modern ones being compiled with a care which contrasts remarkably
+with the unsupported statements of the Tudor heralds.
+
+Outside the doors of the College of Arms genealogy has now been for some
+centuries a favourite study of antiquaries, whose researches have been
+of the utmost value to the historian, the topographer and the
+biographer. County histories, following the example of Dugdale's
+Warwickshire folios, have given much space to the elucidation of
+genealogies and to the amassing of material from which they may be
+constructed. Dugdale's great work on the English baronage heads another
+host of works occupied with the genealogy of English noble families, and
+the second edition of "G.E.C.'s" _Complete Peerage_ shows the mighty
+advance of the modern critical spirit. Nevertheless, the 20th century
+has not yet seen the abandoning of all the genealogical fables nourished
+by the Elizabethan pedigree-mongers, and the ancestry of many noble
+houses as recorded in popular works of reference is still derived from
+mythical forefathers. Thus the dukes of Norfolk, who, by their office of
+earl marshal are patrons of the heralds, are provided with a
+10th-century Hereward for an ancestor; the dukes of Bedford, descendants
+of a 15th-century burgess of Weymouth, are traced to the knightly house
+of Russell of Kingston Russell, and the dukes of Westminster to the
+mythical Gilbert le Grosvenor who "came over in the train of the
+Conqueror."
+
+Genealogical research has, however, made great advance during the last
+generation. The critical spirit shown in such works as Round's _Studies
+in Peerage and Family History_ (1901) has assailed with effective
+ridicule the methods of dishonest pedigree-makers. Much raw material of
+genealogy has been made available for all by the publication of parish
+registers, marriage-licence allegations, monumental inscriptions and the
+like, and above all by the mass of evidences contained in the volumes
+issued by the Public Record Office.
+
+Within a small space it is impossible to set forth in detail the methods
+by which an English genealogy may be traced. But those who are setting
+out upon the task may be warned at the outset to avoid guesswork based
+upon the possession of a surname which may be shared by a dozen families
+between whom is no tie of kinship. A man whose family name is Howard may
+be presumed to descend from an ancestor for whom Howard was a personal
+name: it may not be presumed that this ancestor was he in whom the dukes
+of Norfolk have their origin. A genealogy should not be allowed to stray
+from facts which can be supported by evidence. A man may know that his
+grandfather was John Stiles who died in 1850 at the age of fifty-five.
+It does not follow that this John is identical with the John Stiles who
+is found as baptized in 1795 at Blackacre, the son of William Stiles.
+But if John the grandfather names in his letters a sister named Isabel
+Nokes, while the will of William Stiles gives legacies to his son and
+daughter John Stiles and Isabel Nokes, we may agree that reasonable
+proof has been given of the added generation. A new pedigree should
+begin with the carefully tested statements of living members of a
+family. The next step should be to collate such family records as bible
+entries, letters and diaries, and inscriptions on mourning rings, with
+monumental inscriptions of acknowledged members of the family. From such
+beginnings the genealogist will continue his search through the
+registers of parishes with which the family has been connected; wills
+and administrations registered in the various probate courts form, with
+parish registers, the backbone of most middle-class family histories.
+Court rolls of manors in which members of the family were tenants give,
+when existing and accessible, proofs which may carry back a line,
+however obscure, through many descents. When these have been exhausted
+the records of legal proceedings, and notably those of the court of
+chancery, may be searched. Few English households have been able in the
+past to avoid an appeal to the chancery court, and the bill and answer
+of a chancery plaintiff and defendant will often tell the story of a
+family quarrel in which a score of kinsfolk are involved, and the
+pleadings may contain the material for a family tree of many branching
+generations. Coram Rege and De Banco rolls may even, in the course of a
+dispute over a knight's fee or a manor carry a pedigree to the Conquest
+of England, although such good fortune can hardly be expected by the
+searcher out of an undistinguished line. In proving a genealogy it must
+be remembered that in the descent of an estate in land must be sought
+the best evidence for a pedigree.
+
+At the present time the study of genealogy grows rapidly in English
+estimation. It is no less popular in America, where societies and
+private persons have of late years published a vast number of
+genealogies, many of which combine the results of laborious research in
+American records with extravagant and unfounded claims concerning the
+European origin of the families dealt with. A family with the surname of
+Cuthbert has been known to hail St Cuthbert of Lindisfarne as its
+progenitor, and one surnamed Eberhardt has incorporated in its pedigree
+such German princes of old times as were found to have Eberhardt for a
+Christian name.
+
+Genealogy in modern France has, with a few honourable exceptions, fallen
+into the hands of the popular pedigree-makers, whose concern is to
+gratify the vanity of their employers. Italy likewise has not yet shaken
+off the influence of those venal genealogists who, three hundred years
+ago, sold pedigrees cheaply to all comers. But much laborious
+genealogical inquiry had been made in Germany since the days of Hübner,
+and even in Russia there has been some attempt to apply modern standards
+of criticism to the chronicles of the swarming descendants of the blood
+of Rurik.
+
+In no way is the gap made by the Dark Ages between ancient and modern
+history more marked than by the fact that no European family makes a
+serious claim to bridge it with its genealogy. The unsupported claim of
+the Roman house of Massimo to a descent from Fabius Maximus is
+respectable beside such legends as that which made Lévis-Mirepoix head
+of the priestly tribe of Levi, but even the boast of such remote
+ancestry has now become rare. The ancient sovereign houses of Europe
+are, for the most part, content to attach themselves to some ancestor
+who, when the mist that followed the fall of the Western empire begins
+to lift, is seen rallying with his sword some group of spearmen.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Genealogical works have been published in such abundance
+  that the bibliographies of the subject are already substantial
+  volumes. Amongst the earlier books from the press may be noted
+  Benvenuto de San Georgio's _Montisferrati marchionum et principum
+  regiae propagium successionumque series_ (1515); Pingonius's _Arbor
+  gentilitiae Sabaudiae Saxoniaeque domus_ (1521); Gebweiler's _Epitome
+  regii ac vetustissimi ortus Caroli V. et Ferdinandi I., omniumque
+  archiducum Austriae et comitum Habsburgiensium_ (1527): Meyer's work
+  on the counts of Flanders (1531), and Du Boulay's genealogies of the
+  dukes of Lorraine (1547). Later in the same century Reineck of
+  Helmstadt put forth many works having a wider genealogical scope, and
+  we may cite Henninges's _Genealogiae Saxonicae_ (1587) and _Theatrum
+  genealogicum_ (1598), and Reusner's _Opus genealogicum catholicum_
+  (1589-1592). For the politically inconvenient falseness of François de
+  Rosières' _Stemmata Lotharingiae ac Barri ducum_ (1580), wherein the
+  dukes of Lorraine were deduced from the line of Charlemagne, the
+  author was sent to the Bastille by the parlement of Paris and his book
+  suppressed.
+
+  The 17th century saw the production in England of Dugdale's great
+  _Baronage_ (1675-1676), a work which still holds a respectable place
+  by reason of its citation of authorities, and of Sandford's history of
+  the royal house. In the same century André Duchesne, the historian of
+  the Montmorencys, Pierre d'Hozier, the chronicler of the house of La
+  Rochefoucauld, Rittershusius, Imhoff, Spener, Lohmeier and many others
+  contribute to the body of continental genealogies. Pierre de Guibours,
+  known as Père Anselme de Ste Marie, published in 1674 the first
+  edition of his magnificent _Histoire généalogique de la maison royale
+  de France, des pairs, grands officiers de la couronne et de la maison
+  du roy et des anciens barons du royaume_. Of this encyclopaedic work a
+  third and complete edition appeared in 1726-1733. A modern edition
+  under the editorship of M. Potier de Courcy began to be issued in
+  1873, but remains incomplete. Among 18th-century work Johann Hübner's
+  _Bibliotheca genealogica_ (1729) and _Genealogische Tabellen_
+  (1725-1733), with Lenzen's commentary on the latter work (c. 1756),
+  may be signalized, with Gatterer's _Handbuch der Genealogie_ (1761)
+  and his Abriss der Genealogie (1788), the latter an early manual on
+  the science of genealogy. Hergott's _Genealogia diplomatica augustae
+  gentis Habsburgicae_ (1737) is the imperial genealogy compiled by the
+  emperor's own historiographer.
+
+  Modern peerages in England may be said to date from that of Arthur
+  Collins, whose one-volume first edition was published in 1709. The
+  fifth edition appeared in 1778, in eight volumes, to be republished in
+  1812 by Sir Egerton Brydges, the "Baptist Hatton" of Disraeli's novel,
+  who corrected many legendary pedigrees, besides inserting his own
+  forged descent from a common ancestor with the dukes of Chandos. From
+  this work and from the Irish peerage of Lodge (as re-edited by
+  Archdall) most of the later peerages have quarried their material.
+  With these may be named the baronetages of Wotton and Betham. Of
+  modern popular peerages and baronetages that of Burke has been
+  published since 1822 in many editions and now appears yearly. Most
+  important for the historian are the _Complete Peerage_ of G.E.
+  C[ockayne] (2nd ed., 1910), and the _Complete Baronetage_ of the same
+  author. The _Peerage of Scotland_ (1769) of Sir Robert Douglas of
+  Glenbervie came to a second edition in 1813, edited by J.P. Wood, and
+  the whole work has been revised and re-edited by Sir James Balfour
+  Paul (1904, &c.). Of the popular manuals of English untitled families,
+  Burke's _Genealogical and Heraldic Dictionary of the Commoners_
+  (1833-1838) is now brought up to date from time to time and reissued
+  as the _Landed Gentry_.
+
+  Lists of pedigrees in English printed works are supplied by Marshall's
+  _Genealogist's Guide_ (1903), while pedigrees in the manuscript
+  collections of the British Museum are indexed in the list of R. Sims
+  (1849). Valuable genealogical material will be found in such
+  periodicals as the _Genealogist_, the _Herald and Genealogist_, the
+  _Topographer and Genealogist_, _Collectanea topographica et
+  genealogica_, _Miscellanea genealogica et heraldica_ and the
+  _Ancestor_. In Germany the _Deutscher Herold_ is the organ of the
+  Berlin Heraldic and Genealogical Society. The _Nederlandsche Leeuw_ is
+  a similar publication in the Low Countries.
+
+  Modern criticism of the older genealogical methods will be found in
+  J.H. Round's _Peerage and Pedigree_, 2 vols. (London, 1910), and in
+  other volumes by the same author. The Harleian Society has published
+  many volumes of the Herald's Visitations; and the British Record
+  Society's publications, supplying a key to a vast mass of wills,
+  Chancery suits and marriage licences, are of still greater importance.
+  The _Victoria History of the Counties of England_ includes
+  genealogies of the ancient English county families still among the
+  land-owning classes. English pedigrees of the age before the Conquest
+  are collected in W.G. Searle's _Anglo-Saxon Bishops, Kings and Nobles_
+  (1899).
+
+  Genealogical dictionaries of noble French families include Victor de
+  Saint Allais's _Nobiliaire universel_ (21 vols., 1872-1877) and Aubert
+  de la Chenaye-Desbois' _Dictionnaire de la noblesse_ (15 vols.,
+  1863-1876). A sumptuous work on the genealogy and heraldry of the
+  ancient duchy of Savoy by Count Amédée de Foras began to appear in
+  1863. Spain has Lopez de Haro's _Nobiliario genealogico de los reyes y
+  títulos de España_. Italy has the _Teatro araldico_ of Tettoni and
+  Saladini (1841-1848), Litti's _Famiglie celebri_ and an _Annuario
+  della nobilità_. Such annuals are now published more or less
+  intermittently in many European countries. Finland has a _Ridderscap
+  och Adels Kalender_, Belgium the _Annuaire de la noblesse_, the Dutch
+  Netherlands an _Adelsboek_, Denmark the _Adels-Garbog_ and Russia the
+  _Annuaire_ of Ermerin. But chief of all such publications is the
+  ancient _Almanach de Gotha_, containing the modern kinship of royal
+  and princely houses, and now accompanied by volumes dealing with the
+  houses of German and Austrian counts and barons, and with houses
+  ennobled in modern times by patent. A useful modern reference book for
+  students of history is Stokvis's _Manuel d'histoire et de généalogie
+  de tous les états du globe_ (1888-1893). The best manual for the
+  English genealogist is Walter Rye's _Records and Record Searching_
+  (1897), while an ill-arranged but valuable bibliography of English and
+  foreign works on the subject is that of George Gatfield (1892).
+       (O. Ba.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] G.B. Gray's _Hebrew Proper Names_ (1896), with his article in the
+    _Expositor_ (Sept. 1897), pp. 173-190, should be consulted for the
+    application and range of Hebrew names in O. T. genealogies and lists.
+
+  [2] On the subject generally see articles "Genos" and "Gens," by A.H.
+    Greenidge, in Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_
+    (3rd ed., 1890), where the chief authorities are given.
+
+  [3] The fondness of Euripides for genealogies is ridiculed by
+    Aristophanes (_Acharnians_, 47).
+
+  [4] All the earlier Greek historians appear to have constructed their
+    narratives on assumed genealogical bases. The four books of Hecataeus
+    of Miletus dealt respectively with the traditions about Deucalion,
+    about Heracles and the Heraclidae, about the early settlements in
+    Peloponnesus, and about those in Asia Minor; he further made a
+    pedigree for himself, in which his sixteenth ancestor was a god. The
+    works of Hellanicus of Lesbos bore titles ([Greek: Deukaliôneia] and
+    the like) which sufficiently explain their nature; his disciple,
+    Damastes of Sigeum, was the author of genealogical histories of
+    Trojan heroes; Apollodorus of Athens made use of three books of
+    [Greek: Genealogika] by Acusilaus of Argos; Pherecydes of Leros also
+    wrote [Greek: genealogiai]. See J.A.F. Töpffer, _Attische Genealogie_
+    (1889); also J.H. Schubart, _Quaestt. geneal. historicae_ (1832); G.
+    Marckscheffel, _De genealogica Graecorum poësi_ (1840).
+
+  [5] The chief authority on this subject is Polybius (vi. 53); see
+    also T. Mommsen, _Römisches Staatsrecht_, i. (1887), p. 442.
+
+  [6] At the funeral of Drusus the images of Aeneas, of the Alban
+    kings, of Romulus, of the Sabine nobles, of Attus Clausus, and of
+    "the rest of the Claudians" were exhibited (Tac. _Ann._ iv. 9).
+
+  [7] The Roman stemmata had, as will be seen afterwards, great
+    interest for the older modern genealogists. Reference may be made to
+    J. Glandorp's _Descriptio gentis Antoniae_ (1557); to the _Descriptio
+    gentis Juliae_ (1576) of the same author; and to J. Hübner's
+    _Genealogische Tabellen_. See also G.A. Ruperti's _Tabulae
+    genealogicae sive stemmata nobiliss_. gent. Rom. (1794).     (X.)
+
+
+
+
+GENELLI, GIOVANNI BUONAVENTURA (1798-1868), German painter, was born at
+Berlin on the 28th of September 1798. He was the son of Janus Genelli, a
+painter whose landscapes are still preserved in the Schloss at Berlin,
+and grandson to Joseph Genelli, a Roman embroiderer employed to found a
+school of gobelins by Frederick the Great. Buonaventura Genelli first
+took lessons from his father and then became a student of the Berlin
+academy. After serving his time in the guards he went with a stipend to
+Rome, where he lived ten years, a friend and assistant to Koch the
+landscape painter, a colleague of the sculptor Ernst Hähnel (1811-1891),
+Reinhart, Overbeck and Führich, all of whom made a name in art. In 1830
+he was commissioned by Dr Härtel to adorn a villa at Leipzig with
+frescoes, but quarrelling with this patron he withdrew to Munich, where
+he earned a scanty livelihood at first, though he succeeded at last in
+acquiring repute as an illustrative and figure draughtsman. In 1859 he
+was appointed a professor at Weimar, where he died on the 13th of
+November 1868. Genelli painted few pictures, and it is very rare to find
+his canvases in public galleries, but there are six of his compositions
+in oil in the Schack collection at Munich. These and numerous
+water-colours, as well as designs for engravings and lithographs, reveal
+an artist of considerable power whose ideal was the antique, but who was
+also fascinated by the works of Michelangelo. Though a German by birth,
+his spirit was unlike that of Overbeck or Führich, whose art was
+reminiscent of the old masters of their own country. He seemed to hark
+back to the land of his fathers and endeavour to revive the traditions
+of the Italian Renaissance. Subtle in thought and powerfully conceived,
+his compositions are usually mythological, but full of matter, energetic
+and fiery in execution, and marked almost invariably by daring effects
+of foreshortening. Impeded by straitened means, the artist seems
+frequently to have drawn from imagination rather than from life, and
+much of his anatomy of muscle is in consequence conventional and false.
+But none the less Genelli merits his reputation as a bold and
+imaginative artist, and his name deserves to be remembered beyond the
+narrow limits of the early schools of Munich and Weimar.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL (Lat. _generalis_, of or relating to a _genus_, kind or class),
+a term which, from its pointing to all or most of the members of a
+class, the whole of an area, &c. as opposed to "particular" or to
+"local," is hence used in various shades of meaning, for that which is
+prevalent, usual, widespread or miscellaneous, indefinite, vague. It has
+been added to the titles of various officials, military officers and
+others; thus the head of a religious order is the "superior-general,"
+more usually the "general," and we find the same combination in such
+offices as that of "accountant-general," "postmaster-general,"
+"attorney-" or "solicitor-general," and many others, the additional word
+implying that the official in question is of superior rank, as having a
+wider authority or sphere of activity. This is the use that accounts
+for the application of the term, as a substantive, to a military officer
+of superior rank, a "general officer," or "general," who commands or
+administers bodies of troops larger than a regiment, or consisting of
+more than one arm of the service (see also OFFICERS). It was towards the
+end of the 16th century that the word began to be used in its present
+sense as a noun, and in the armies of the time the "general" was
+commander-in-chief, the "lieutenant-general" commander of the horse and
+second in command of the army, and the "major-general" (strictly
+"sergeant-major-general") commander of the foot and chief of the staff.
+Field marshals, who have now the highest rank, were formerly subordinate
+to the general officers. These titles--general, lieutenant-general and
+major-general--are still applied in most armies to the first, second and
+third grades of general officer, and in the French service until 1870
+the chief of the staff of the army bore the title of major-general. In
+the German and Russian services the three grades are qualified by the
+addition of the words "of cavalry," "of infantry" and "of artillery."
+The French service possesses only two grades, "general of brigade" and
+"general of division." The Austrian service has two ranks of general
+officers peculiar to itself, "lieutenant field marshal," equivalent to
+lieutenant-general, and _Feldzeugmeister_ (master of the ordnance),
+equivalent to the German general of infantry or artillery. There is also
+the rank of "general of cavalry." The Spanish army still retains the old
+term "captain-general." In the German service _General Oberst_
+(colonel-general) and _General Feldzeugmeister_ (master-general of
+ordnance) are ranks intermediate between that of full general and that
+of general field marshal. It may be noted that during the 17th century
+"general" was not confined to a commanding officer of an army, and was
+also equivalent to "admiral"; thus when under the Protectorate the
+office of lord high admiral was put into commission, the three first
+commissioners, Blake, Edward Popham and Richard Deane, were styled
+"generals at sea."
+
+
+
+
+GENERATION (from Lat. _generare_, to beget, procreate; _genus_, stock,
+race), the act of procreation or begetting, hence any one of the various
+methods by which plants, animals or substances are produced. As applied
+to the result of procreation, "generation" is used of the offspring of
+the same parents, taken as one degree in descent from a common ancestor,
+or, widely, of the body of living persons born at or near the same time;
+thus the word is also used of the age or period of a generation, usually
+taken as about thirty years, or three generations to a century. As a
+term in biology or physiology, generation is synonymous with the Gr.
+[Greek: biogenesis] and the Ger. _Zeugung_, and may comprehend the whole
+history of the first origin and continued reproduction of living bodies,
+whether plants or animals; but it is frequently restricted to the sexual
+reproduction of animals. The subject may be divided into the following
+branches, viz.: (1) the first origin of life and living beings, (2)
+non-sexual or agamic reproduction, and (3) gamic or sexual reproduction.
+For the first two of these topics see ABIOGENESIS, BIOGENESIS and
+BIOLOGY; for the third and more extensive division, including (1) the
+formation and fecundation of the ovum, and (2) the development of the
+embryo in different animals, see REPRODUCTION and EMBRYOLOGY.
+
+
+
+
+GENESIS (Gr. [Greek: genesis], becoming; the term being used in English
+as a synonym for origin or process of coming into being), the name of
+the first book in the Bible, which derives its title from the Septuagint
+rendering of ch. ii. 4. It is the first of the five books (the
+Pentateuch), or, with the inclusion of Joshua, of the six (the
+Hexateuch), which cover the history of the Hebrews to their occupation
+of Canaan. The "genesis" of Hebrew history begins with records of
+antediluvian times: the creation of the world, of the first pair of
+human beings, and the origin of sin (i.-iii.), the civilization and
+moral degeneration of mankind, the history of man to the time of Noah
+(iv.-vi. 8), the flood (vi. 9-ix.), the confusion of languages and the
+divisions of the human race (x.-xi.). Turning next to the descendants of
+Shem, the book deals with Abraham (xii.-xxv. 18), Isaac and Jacob (xxv.
+19-xxxv.), the "fathers" of the tribes of Israel, and concludes with
+the personal history of Joseph, and the descent of his father Jacob (or
+Israel) and his brethren into the land of Egypt (xxxvii.-l.). The book
+of Genesis, as a whole, is closely connected with the subsequent
+oppression of the sons of Israel, the revelation of Yahweh the God of
+their fathers (Ex. iii. 6, 15 seq., vi. 2-8), the "exodus" of the
+Israelites to the land promised to their fathers (Ex. xiii. 5, Deut. i.
+8, xxvi. 3 sqq., xxxiv. 4) and its conquest (Josh. i. 6, xxiv.); cf.
+also the summaries Neh. ix. 7 sqq., Ps. cv. 6 sqq.
+
+
+    Analysis.
+
+  The words, "these are the generations of the heavens and of the earth
+  when they were created" (ii. 4), introduce an account of the creation
+  of the world, which, however, is preceded by a relatively later and
+  less primitive record (i. 1-ii. 3). The differences between the two
+  accounts lie partly in the style and partly in the form and contents
+  of the narratives. i. 1-ii. 3 is marked by stereotyped formulae ("and
+  God [_Elohim_] said ... and it was so ... and God saw that it was
+  good, and there was evening and there was morning," &c.); it is
+  precise and detailed, whereas ii. 4b-iii. is less systematic, fresher
+  and more anthropomorphic. The former is cosmic, the latter is local.
+  It is the latter which mentions the mysterious garden and the
+  wonderful trees which Yahweh planted, and depicts Yahweh conversing
+  with man and walking in the garden in the cool of the evening. The
+  former, on the other hand, has an enlightened conception of _Elohim_;
+  the Deity, though grand, is a lifeless figure; several antique ideas
+  are nevertheless preserved. The account of the creation, too, is
+  different; for example, in chap. i. man and woman are created
+  together, whereas in ii. man is at first alone. The naiveness of the
+  story of the creation of woman is in line with the interest which this
+  more popular source takes in the origin or existence of phenomena,
+  customs and contemporary beliefs (the garden, the naming of animals,
+  &c.). The primitive record is continued in the story of Cain and Abel
+  (iv.), where the old-time problem of Cain's wife and the reference to
+  other human beings (iv. 14 seq.) gave rise in pre-critical days to the
+  theory of pre-Adamites, as though Adam and Eve were not the only
+  inhabitants of the earth. But all the indications go to show that
+  there were at least two distinct popular narratives, one of which
+  ignores the flood. Cain the murderer, doomed to be a wanderer, now
+  becomes the builder of a city, and his descendants introduce various
+  arts (iv. 16b-24).[1] (See the articles ABEL; ADAM; CAIN; COSMOGENY;
+  ENOCH; EVE; LAMECH.) From the "generations" of the heavens and the
+  earth (which one would have expected at the head of ch. i.) we pass to
+  the "generations of Adam" (v. 1). The list of the "Sethites," with its
+  characteristically stereotyped framework, has an older parallel in iv.
+  25 seq. (with the origin of the worship of Yahweh contrast Ex. vi. 2.
+  seq.), and a fragment from the same source is found in v. 29.
+
+  After the birth of Noah the son of Lamech (v. 29, contrast iv. 19
+  sqq.) comes the brief story of the demigods (vi. 1-4). It is no part
+  of the account of the fall or of the flood (note verse 4 and Num.
+  xiii. 33), least of all does it furnish grounds for the old view of
+  the division of the human race into evil Cainites and God-fearing
+  Sethites. The excerpt with its description of the fall of the angels
+  is used to form a prelude to the wickedness of man and the avenging
+  flood (vi. 5). Noah, the father of Ham, Shem and Japheth, appears as
+  the hero in the Hebrew version of the flood (see DELUGE; NOAH).
+  Duplicates (vi. 5-8, 9-13) and discrepancies (vi. 19 sq. contrasted
+  with vii. 2; or vii. 11, viii. 14 contrasted with viii. 8, 10, 12)
+  point to the use of two sources (harmonizing passages in vii. 3, 7-9).
+  The later narrative, which begins with "the generations" of Noah (vi.
+  9-22; vii. 6, 11, 13-17a, 18-21, 24; viii. 1-2a, 3b-5, 13a, 14-19; ix.
+  1-17), is almost complete; note the superscription and the length of
+  the flood (365 days; according to other notices the flood apparently
+  lasted only 61 or 68 days). In the earlier source Noah collects seven
+  pairs of clean animals, one of each kind; he sacrifices after leaving
+  the ark, and Yahweh promises not to curse the ground or to smite
+  living things again. But in the later, he takes only one pair, and
+  subsequently Elohim blesses Noah and makes a covenant never again to
+  destroy all flesh by a flood.[2] The covenant (characteristic of the
+  latest narratives in Genesis) also prohibits the shedding of blood
+  (cf. the story of Cain and Abel in the earlier source). Mankind is now
+  made to descend from the three sons of Noah. The older story, however,
+  continues with another step in the history of civilization, and to
+  Noah is ascribed the cult of the vine, the abuse of which leads to the
+  utterance of a curse upon Canaan and a blessing upon Shem and Japheth
+  (ix. 20-27). The table of nations in x. ("the generations of the sons
+  of Noah") preserves several signs of composite origin (contrast e.g.
+  x. 7 with vv. 28 sq., Ludim v. 13 with v. 22, and the Canaanite
+  families v. 16 with the dispersion "afterwards," v. 18, &c.); see
+  CANAAN; GENEALOGY; NIMROD. The history of the primitive age concludes
+  with the story of the tower of Babel (xi. 1-9), which, starting from
+  a popular etymology of Babel ("gate of God"), as though from Balbel
+  ("confusion"), tells how Yahweh feared lest mankind should become too
+  powerful (cf. iii. 22-24), and seeks to explain the origin of the
+  numerous languages in use. It is independent of x., which already
+  assumes a confusion of tongues (vv. 5, 20, 31), the existence of Babel
+  (v. 10), and gives a different account of the rise of the various
+  races. This incident in the journey eastwards (xi. 2) is equally
+  independent of the story of the Deluge and of Noah's family (see
+  Wellhausen, _Prolegomena_, p. 316). The continuation of the chapter,
+  "the generations of Shem" (xi. 10-27, see the Shemite genealogy in x.
+  21 sqq., and contrast the ages with vi. 3), is in the same stereotyped
+  style as ch. v., and prepares the way for the history of the
+  patriarchs.
+
+  The "generations of Terah" (xi. 27) lead to the introduction of the
+  first great patriarch Abraham (q.v.).[3] There is a twofold account of
+  his migration to Bethel with his nephew Lot; the more statistical form
+  in xi. 31 sq., xii. 4b, 5 belongs to the latest source. The statement
+  that the Canaanite was then in the land (xii. 6, cf. xiii. 7) points
+  to a time long after the Israelite conquest, when readers needed such
+  a reminder (so Hobbes in his _Leviathan_, 1651). A famine forces him
+  to descend into Egypt, where a story of Sarai (here at least 65 years
+  of age; see xii. 4, xvii. 17) is one of three variants of a similar
+  peculiar incident (cf. xx. 1-17, xxvi. 6-14). The passage is an
+  insertion (xii. 10-xiii. 2; xii. 9, xiii. 3 seq. being harmonistic).
+  The thread is resumed in the account of the separation of the
+  patriarch and his nephew Lot, who divide the land between them.
+  Abraham occupies Canaan, but moves south to Hebron, which, according
+  to Josh. xiv. 15, was formerly known as Kirjath-Arba. Lot dwells in
+  the basin of the Jordan, and his history is continued in the story of
+  the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (xviii.-xix.; Hos. xi. 8, Deut.
+  xxix. 23 speak of Admah and Zeboim). Lot is saved and becomes the
+  ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites, who are thus closely related
+  to the descendants of Abraham (note xix. 37, "unto this day"). The
+  great war with Amraphel and Chedorlaomer--the defeat of a
+  world-conquering army by 318 men--with the episode of Melchizedek,
+  noteworthy for the reference to Jerusalem (xiv. 18, cf. Ps. lxxvi. 2),
+  has nothing in common with the context (see ABRAHAM; MELCHIZEDEK). It
+  treats as individuals the place-names Mamre and Eshcol (xiv. 13, cf.
+  Num. xiii. 23 seq.), and by mentioning Dan (v. 14) anticipates the
+  events in Josh. xix. 47, Judg. xviii. 29.[4] A cycle of narratives
+  deals with the promise that the barren Sarai (Sarah) should bear a
+  child whose descendants would inhabit the land of Canaan. The
+  importance of the tradition for the history of Israel explains both
+  the prominence given to it (cf. already xii. 7, xiii. 14-17) and their
+  present complicated character (due to repeated revision). The older
+  narratives comprise (a) the promise that Abraham shall have a son of
+  his own flesh (xv.)--the account is composite;[5] (b) the birth of
+  Ishmael, Abraham's son by Hagar, their exile, and Yahweh's promise
+  (xvi., with a separate framework in vv. 1a. 3, 15 seq.)--before the
+  birth of Isaac; and (c) the promise of a son to Sarai (xviii. 1-15),
+  now combined with the story of Lot and the overthrow of Sodom. The
+  latest source (xvii.) is marked by the solemn covenant between Yahweh
+  and Abraham, the revelation of God Almighty (El-Shaddai, cf. Ex. vi.
+  3), and the institution of circumcision (otherwise treated in Ex. iv.
+  26, Josh. v. 2 seq.). The more elevated character of this source as
+  contrasted with xv. and xviii. is as striking as the difference of
+  religious tone in the two accounts of the creation (above). Abraham
+  now travels thence (xx. 1, Hebron, see xviii. 1), and his adventure in
+  the land of Abimelech, king of Gerar (xx.), is a duplicate of xii.
+  (above). It is continued in xxi. 22-34, which has a close parallel in
+  the life of Isaac (xxvi., below). Isaac is born in accordance with the
+  divine promise (xviii. 10 at Hebron); the scene is the south of
+  Palestine. The story of the dismissal of Hagar and Ishmael, and the
+  revelation (xxi. 8-21) cannot be separated from xvi. 4-14, where vv. 9
+  seq. are intended to harmonize the passages. Although about sixteen
+  years intervene (see xvi. 16; xxi. 5, 8), Ishmael is a young child who
+  has to be carried (xxi. 15), but the Hebrew text of xxi. 14 (not,
+  however, the Septuagint) endeavours to remove the discrepancy.[6]
+  "After these things" comes the offering of Isaac which implicitly
+  annuls the sacrifice of the first-born, a not unfamiliar rite in
+  Palestine as the denunciations prove (cf. Ezek. xvi. 20 seq., xx. 26;
+  Mic. vi. 7; Is. lvii. 5), and thus marks an advance, e.g. upon the
+  story of Jephthah's daughter (Judg. xi.). The story may be contrasted
+  with the Phoenician account of the sacrifice by Cronos (to be
+  identified with El) of his only son, which practically justified the
+  horrid custom. The detailed account of the purchase of the cave of
+  Machpelah (contrast the brevity of xxxiii. 19) is of great importance
+  for the traditions of the patriarchs, and, like the references to the
+  death of Sarah and Abraham, belongs to the latest source (xxiii., xxv.
+  7-11a).[7] The idyllic picture of life in xxiv. presupposes that Isaac
+  is sole heir (v. 36); since this is first stated in xxv. 5, it is
+  probable that xxv. 5, 11b (and perhaps vv. 6, 18) are out of place. It
+  is noteworthy that the district is Abraham's native place (xxiv. 4, 7,
+  10; contrast the Babylonian home specified in xi. 28, 31; xv. 7). In
+  xxv. 1 sqq. Abraham takes as wife (but _concubine_, 1 Chron. i. 32
+  seq.) Keturah ("incense") and becomes the father of various Arab
+  tribes, e.g. Sheba and Dedan (grandsons of Cush in x. 7).
+
+  After "the generations of Ishmael" (xxv. 12 sqq.) the narrative turns
+  to "the generations of Isaac" (xxv. 19 sqq.). The story of the events
+  at the court of Abimelech (xxvi.) finds a parallel in the now
+  disjointed xx., xxi. 22-34; note the new explanation of Beersheba, the
+  reference in xxvi. 1 to the parallel story in xii., the absence of
+  allusion to xx., and the apparent editorial references to xxi. in vv.
+  15, 18. On the whole, the story of Isaac's wife at Gerar is briefer
+  and not so elevated as that of Sarah, but the parallel to xxi. 22-34
+  is more detailed. The birth of Esau and Jacob (xxv. 21-34) introduces
+  the story of Jacob's craft when Isaac is on the point of death
+  (xxvii.). Jacob flees to Laban at Haran to escape Esau's hatred
+  (xxvii. 41-45); but, according to the latest source (P), he is charged
+  by Isaac to go to Paddan-Aram, and take a wife there, and his father
+  transfers to him the blessing of Abraham (xxvii. 46-xxviii. 9). On his
+  way to Haran he stops at Bethel (formerly Luz, according to Judg. i.
+  22-26), where a vision prompts him to accept the God of the place
+  should he return in peace to his father's home (xxviii. 10-22). He
+  passes to the land of "the children of the east" (xxix. 1), and the
+  scenes which follow are scarcely situated at Haran, the famous and
+  ancient seat of the worship of the moon-god, but in the desert. Here
+  he resides fifteen years or more, and by the daughters of Laban and
+  their handmaidens becomes the "father" of the tribes of Israel. There
+  are numerous traces of composition from different sources, but a
+  satisfactory analysis is impossible.[8] The flight of Jacob and his
+  household (from Paddan-Aram, xxxi. 18 P) leads over "the River" (v.
+  21, i.e. the Euphrates); though the seven days' journey of this
+  concourse of men and cattle suggests that he came to Gilead, not from
+  Haran (300 m. distant), but from some nearer locality. This is to be
+  taken with the evidence against Haran already noticed, with the use of
+  the term "children of the east" (xxix. 1; cf. Jer. xlix. 28; Ezek.
+  xxv. 4, 10), and with the details of Laban's kindred (xxii. 20-24).[9]
+  The arrival at Mahanaim ("[two?] camps") gives rise to specific
+  allusions to the meaning of the name (xxxii. 1 seq., 7-12, 13-21); cf.
+  also the plays upon Jabbok, Israel and Peniel in xxxii. 22-32. He
+  meets Esau (xxxii. 3-21, xxxiii. 1-16, another reference to Peniel,
+  "face of God," in v. 10), but they part. Jacob now comes to Shechem
+  "in peace" (cf. the phrase in xxviii. 21), where he buys land and
+  erects an altar (xxxiii. 18-20, cf. Abraham in xii. 6 seq.). There is
+  a remarkable story of the violation of his daughter Dinah by Shechem,
+  the son of Hamor the Hivite (xxxiv.). It has been heavily revised;
+  note the alternating prominence of Hamor and Shechem, the condemnation
+  of Simeon and Levi for their vengeance (cf. the curse in xlix. 5-7),
+  the destruction of the city Shechem by all the sons of Jacob, and the
+  survival of the Hamorites as a family centuries later (xxxiii. 19,
+  Judg. ix. 28). The narrative continues with Jacob's journey to Bethel,
+  the death of Deborah (who accompanied Rebekah to Palestine 140 years
+  previously, see xxiv. 59, and the latest source in xxv. 20, xxxv. 28),
+  the death of Rachel (xxxv. 16-20, contrast xxxvii. 10), and ceases
+  abruptly in the middle of a sentence (xxxv. 22, but see xlix. 3-4).
+  The latest source (xxxv. 9-13, 15, 22b-29) gives another account of
+  the origin of the names Israel (cf. xxxii. 28) and Bethel (cf. xxviii.
+  19), and the genealogy wrongly includes Benjamin among the sons born
+  outside Palestine (vv. 24-26). In narrating Jacob's leisurely return
+  to Isaac at Hebron, the writers quite ignore the many years which have
+  elapsed since he left his father at the point of death in Beersheba
+  (xxvii. 1, 2, 7, 10, 41).
+
+  "The generations of Esau, the same is Edom," provide much valuable
+  material for the study of Israel's rival (xxxvi.). The chapter gives
+  yet another account of the separation of Jacob and Esau (with vv. 6-8,
+  cf. Abraham and Lot, xiii. 5 seq.), and describes the latter's
+  withdrawal to Seir (cf. already xxxii. 3; xxxiii. 14, 16). It includes
+  lists of diverse origin (e.g. vv. 2-5, contrast xxvi. 34, xxviii. 9);
+  various "dukes" (R.V. marg. "chiefs"), or rather "thousands" or
+  "clans"; and also the "sons" of Seir the Horite, i.e. Horite clans
+  (vv. 20 seq. and vv. 29 seq.). A summary of Edomite kings is ascribed
+  to the period before the Israelite monarchy (vv. 31-39), and the
+  record concludes with the "dukes" of Esau, the father of the Edomites
+  (vv. 40-43, cf. names in vv. 10-14, 15-19).[10]
+
+  Finally, Genesis turns from the patriarchs to the "generations of
+  Jacob" (xxxvii. 2), and we have stories of the "sons," the ancestors
+  of the tribes. (In xxxiv. the incidents which primarily concerned
+  Simeon and Levi alone have, however, been adjusted to the general
+  history of Jacob and his family.) The first place is given to Joseph
+  (xxxvii.), although xxxviii. crowds the early history of the family of
+  Judah into the twenty-two years between xxxvii. 2 and Jacob's descent
+  into Egypt (see xli. 46, 47; xlv. 6).[11] In xxxvii., xxxix. sqq. we
+  have an admirable specimen of writing quite distinct in stamp from the
+  patriarchal stories. The romance which has here been utilized shows an
+  acquaintance with Egypt; the narratives are discursive, not laconic,
+  everything is more detailed, and more under the influence of literary
+  art. The Reuben and Simeon which appear in it are not the characters
+  which we meet in xxxiv., xxxv. 22, or in the poem xlix. 3-7; and the
+  tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh do not scruple to claim ancestry from
+  Joseph and the daughter of an Egyptian priest at the seat of the
+  worship of the sun-god (xli. 45). The narratives are composite. Joseph
+  incurs the ill-will of his brethren because of Israel's partiality or
+  because of his significant dreams. He is at Shechem or at Dothan; and
+  when the brothers seek to slay him, Judah proposes that he should be
+  sold to Ishmaelites, or Reuben suggests that he should be cast into a
+  pit, where Midianites find and kidnap him (xxxvii., cf. xl. 15). The
+  latter sell him to the eunuch Potiphar, but he appears in the service
+  of a married householder (xxxix., the second clause of v. 1
+  harmonizes). Among other signs of dual origin are the alternation of
+  "Jacob" and "Israel," and the prominence of Judah (xliii. 3, 8; xliv.
+  14, 18) or of Reuben (xlii. 22, 37). The money is found in a "bag" as
+  the brothers encamp (xlii. 27, 28a; xliii.), or in a "sack" when they
+  reach home (xlii. 8-26, 29-35, 28b, 36 sq.). When Israel and his
+  family descend into Egypt, the latest source gives a detailed list
+  which agrees in the main with the Israelite subdivisions (xlvi. 6-27,
+  cf. Num. xxvi. and 1 Chron. ii.-viii.). The families dwell in the land
+  of Goshen, east of the Delta, "for every shepherd is an abomination
+  unto the Egyptians" (xlv. 10; xlvi. 28-34; xlvii. 1-6); or they are in
+  the "land of Rameses" (xlvii. 11, and Septuagint in xlvi. 28);[12]
+  Joseph's policy during the famine is next described (xlvii. 13-26),
+  although it would have been more in place after xli. (see _ib._ 34).
+  There are several difficulties in Jacob's blessing of the sons of
+  Joseph (xlviii.).[13] The blessing in xlix. is a collection of
+  poetical passages praising or blaming the various tribes, and must
+  certainly date after the Israelite settlement in Palestine; see
+  further the articles on the tribes. Jacob's dying instructions to
+  Joseph (xlvii. 29-31) are continued in l. 1 sqq., his charge to his
+  sons (xlix. 28 sqq., P) in l. 12 seq. It is significant that Jacob's
+  body is taken to Palestine, but the brethren return to Egypt; in spite
+  of a possible allusion to the famine in v. 21, the late chronological
+  scheme would imply that it had long ceased (see xlv. 6, xlvii. 28).
+  The book closes with the death of Joseph about fifty years later,
+  after the birth of the children of Machir, who himself was a
+  contemporary of Moses forty years after the Exodus (Num. xxxii.
+  39-41). Joseph's body is embalmed, but it is not until the concluding
+  chapter of the book of Joshua (xxiv. 32) that his bones find their
+  last resting-place.
+
+
+  A composite work.
+
+Only on the assumption that the book of Genesis is a composite work is
+it possible to explain the duplication of events, the varying use of the
+divine names _Yahweh_ and _Elohim_, the linguistic and stylistic
+differences, the internal intricacies of the subject matter, and the
+differing standpoints as regards tradition, chronology, morals and
+religion.[14] The cumulative effect of the whole evidence is too strong
+to be withstood, and already in the 17th century it was recognized that
+the book was of composite origin. Immense labour has been spent in the
+critical analysis of the contents, but it is only since the work of Graf
+(1866) and Wellhausen (1878) that a satisfactory literary hypothesis has
+been found which explained the most obvious intricacies. The
+Graf-Wellhausen literary theory has gained the assent of almost all
+trained and unbiased biblical scholars, it has not been shaken by the
+more recent light from external evidence, and no alternative theory has
+as yet been produced. The internal features of Genesis demand some
+formulated theory, more precise than the indefinite concessions of the
+17th century, beyond which the opponents of modern literary criticism
+scarcely advance, and the Graf-Wellhausen theory, in spite of the
+numerous difficulties which it leaves untouched, is the only adequate
+starting-point for the study of the book. According to this, Genesis is
+a post-exilic work composed of a post-exilic priestly source (P) and
+non-priestly earlier sources which differ markedly from P in language,
+style and religious standpoint, but much less markedly from one and
+another.[15] These sources can be traced elsewhere in the Pentateuch and
+Joshua, and P itself is related to the post-exilic works Chronicles,
+Ezra and Nehemiah. In its _present_ form Genesis is an indispensable
+portion of the biblical history, and consequently its literary growth
+cannot be viewed apart from that of the books which follow. On internal
+grounds it appears that the Pentateuch and Joshua, as they now read,
+virtually come in between an older history by "Deuteronomic" compilers
+(easily recognizable in Judges and Kings), and the later treatment of
+the monarchy in Chronicles, where the influence of the circle which
+produced P and the present Mosaic legislation is quite discernible.
+There have been stages where earlier extant sources have been cut down,
+adjusted or revised by compilers who have incorporated fresh material,
+and it is the later compilers of Genesis who have made the book a fairly
+knit whole. The technical investigation of the _literary_ problems
+(especially the extent of the earlier sources) is a work of great
+complexity, and, for ordinary purposes, it is more important to obtain a
+preliminary appreciation of the general features of the contents of
+Genesis.
+
+
+  Value of traditions.
+
+That the records of the pre-historic ages in Gen. i.-xi. are at complete
+variance with modern science and archaeological research is
+unquestionable.[16] But although it is impossible to regard them any
+longer either as genuine history or as subjects for an allegorical
+interpretation (which would prove the accuracy of _any_ record) they are
+of distinct value as human documents. They reflect the ideas and
+thoughts of the Hebrews, they illustrate their conceptions of God and
+the universe, and they furnish material for a comparison of the moral
+development of the Hebrews with that of other early races. Some of the
+traditions are closely akin to those current in ancient Babylonia, but a
+careful and impartial comparison at once illustrates in a striking
+manner the relative moral and spiritual superiority of our writers. On
+these subjects see further COSMOGONY; DELUGE.[17]
+
+The records of the patriarchal age, xii.-l. are very variously
+estimated, although the great majority of scholars agree that they are
+not contemporary and that they cannot be used, as they stand, for
+pre-Mosaic times. Apart from the ordinary arguments of historical
+criticism, it is to be noticed that external evidence does not support
+the assumption that the records preserve genuine pre-Mosaic history.
+There are no grounds for any arbitrary distinction between the
+"pre-historic" pre-Abrahamic age and the later age. External evidence,
+which recognizes no universal deluge and no dispersal of mankind in the
+third millennium B.C., throws its own light upon the opening centuries
+of the second. It has revealed conditions which are not reflected in
+Genesis, and important facts upon which the book is silent--unless,
+indeed, there is a passing allusion to the great Babylonian monarch
+Khammurabi in the Amraphel of Gen. xiv. Any careful perusal of modern
+attempts to recover historical facts or an historical outline from the
+book will show how very inadequate the material proves to be, and the
+reconstructions will be found to depend upon an interpretation of the
+narratives which is often liberal and not rarely precarious, and to
+imply such reshaping and rewriting of the presumed facts that the
+cautious reader can place little reliance on them. Whatever future
+research may bring, it cannot remove the _internal_ peculiarities which
+combine to show that Genesis preserves, not literal history, but popular
+traditions of the past. External evidence has proved the antiquity of
+various elements, but not that of the form or context in which they now
+appear; and the difference is an important one. We have now a background
+upon which to view the book, and, on the one hand, it has become obvious
+that the records preserve--as is only to be expected--Oriental customs,
+beliefs and modes of thought. But it has not been demonstrated that
+these are exclusively pre-Mosaic. On the other hand, a better
+acquaintance with the ancient political, sociological and religious
+conditions has made it increasingly difficult to interpret the records
+as a whole literally, or even to find a place in pre-Mosaic Palestine
+for the lives of the patriarchs as they are depicted.[18] Nevertheless,
+though one cannot look to Genesis for the history of the early part of
+the second millennium B.C., the study of what was thought of the past,
+proves in this, as in many other cases, to be more instructive than the
+facts of the past, and it is distinctly more important for the biblical
+student and the theologian to understand the thought of the ages
+immediately preceding the foundation of Judaism in the 5th century B.C.
+than the actual history of many centuries earlier.
+
+
+  Fusion of diverse features.
+
+A noteworthy feature is the frequent _personification_ of peoples,
+tribes or clans (see GENEALOGY: _Biblical_). Midian (i.e. the
+Midianites) is a son of Abraham; Canaan is a son of Ham (ix. 22), and
+Cush the son of Ham is the father of Ramah and grandfather of the famous
+S. Arabian state Sheba and the traders of Dedan (x. 6 sq., cf. Ezek.
+xxvii. 20-22). Bethuel the father of Rebekah is the brother of the
+tribal names Uz and Buz (xxii. 21 sqq., cf. Jer. xxv. 20, 23). Jacob is
+otherwise known as Israel and becomes the father of the tribes of
+Israel; Joseph is the father of Ephraim and Manasseh, and incidents in
+the life of Judah lead to the birth of Perez and Zerah, Judaean clans.
+This personification is entirely natural to the Oriental, and though
+"primitive" is not necessarily an ancient trait.[19] It gives rise to
+what may be termed the "prophetical interpretation of history" (S.R.
+Driver, _Genesis_, p. 111), where the character, fortunes or history of
+the apparent individual are practically descriptive of the people or
+tribe which, according to tradition, is named after or descended from
+him. The utterance of Noah over Canaan, Shem and Japheth (ix. 25 sqq.),
+of Isaac over Esau and Jacob (xxvii.), of Jacob over his sons (xlix.) or
+grandsons (xlviii.), would have no meaning to Israelites unless they had
+some connexion with and interest for contemporary life and thought.
+Herein lies the force of the description of the wild and independent
+Ishmael (xvi. 12), the "father" of certain well-known tribes (xxv.
+13-15); or the contrast between the skilful hunter Esau and the quiet
+and respectable Jacob (xxv. 27), and between the tiller Cain who
+becomes the typical nomad and the pastoral Abel (iv. 1-15). The interest
+of the struggles between Jacob and Esau lay, not in the history of
+individuals of the distant past, but in the fact that the names actually
+represented Israel and its near rival Edom. These features are in entire
+accordance with Oriental usage and give expression to current belief,
+existing relationships, or to a poetical foreshadowing of historical
+vicissitudes. But in the effort to understand them as they were
+originally understood it is very obvious that this method of
+interpretation can be pressed too far. It would be precarious to insist
+that the entrances into Palestine of Abraham and Jacob (or Israel)
+typified two distinct immigrations. The separation of Abraham from Lot
+(cf. Lotan, an Edomite name), of Isaac from Hagar-Ishmael, or of Jacob
+from Esau-Edom scarcely points to the relative antiquity of the origin
+of these non-Israelite peoples who, to judge from the evidence, were
+closely related. Or, if the "sons" of Jacob had Aramaean mothers, to
+prove that those which are derived from the wives were upon a higher
+level than the "sons" of the concubines is more difficult than to allow
+that certain of the tribes must have contained some element of Aramaean
+blood (cf. 1 Chron. vii. 14, and see ASHER; GAD; MANASSEH). Some of the
+names are clearly not those of known clans or tribes (e.g. Abraham,
+Isaac), and many of the details of the narratives obviously have no
+natural ethnological meaning. Stories of heroic ancestors and of tribal
+eponyms intermingle; personal, tribal and national traits are
+interwoven. The entrance of Jacob or Israel with his sons suggests that
+of the children of Israel. The story of Simeon and Levi at Shechem is
+clearly not that of two individuals, sons of the patriarch Israel; in
+fact the story actually uses the term "wrought folly in Israel" (cf.
+Jud. xx. 6, 10), and the individual Shechem, the son of Hamor, cannot be
+separated from the city, the scene of the incidents. Yet Jacob's life
+with Laban has many purely individual traits. And, further, there
+intervenes a remarkable passage with an account of his conflict with the
+divine being who fears the dawn and is unwilling to reveal his name. In
+a few verses the "wrestling" ('-b -k) of Jacob (_ya'aqob_) is associated
+with the Jabbok (_yabboq_); his "striving" explains his name Israel; at
+Peniel he sees "the face of God," and when touched on his vulnerable
+spot--the hollow of the thigh--he is lamed, hence "the children of
+Israel eat not the sinew of the hip which is upon the hollow of the
+thigh unto this day" (xxxii. 24-32). Other examples of the fusion of
+different features can be readily found. Three divine beings appear to
+Abraham at the sacred tree of Hebron, and when the birth of Isaac (from
+_sahaq_, "laugh") is foretold, the account of Sarah's behaviour is
+merely a popular and trivial story suggested by the child's name (xviii.
+12-15; see also xvii. 17, xxi. 6, 9). An extremely fine passage then
+describes the patriarch's intercession for Sodom and Gomorrah, and the
+narrative passes on to the catastrophe which explains the Dead Sea and
+its desert region and has parallels elsewhere (e.g. the Greek legend of
+Zeus and Hermes in Phrygia). Lot escapes to Zoar, the name gives rise to
+the pun on the "little" city (xix. 20), and his wife, on looking back,
+becomes one of those pillars of salt which still invite speculation.
+Finally the names of his children Moab and Ammon are explained by an
+incident when he is a cave-dweller on a mountain.
+
+  To primitive minds which speculated upon the "why and wherefore" of
+  what they saw around them, the narratives of Genesis afforded an
+  answer. They preserve, in fact, some of the popular philosophy and
+  belief of the Hebrews. They furnish what must have been a satisfactory
+  origin of the names Edom, Moab and Ammon, Mahanaim and Succoth,
+  Bethel, Beersheba, &c. They explain why Shechem, Bethel and Beersheba
+  were ancient sanctuaries (see further below); why the serpent writhes
+  along the ground (iii. 14); and why the hip sinew might not be eaten
+  (xxxii. 32). To these and a hundred other questions the national and
+  tribal stories--of which no doubt only a few have survived, and of
+  which other forms, earlier or later, more crude or more refined, were
+  doubtless current--furnish an evidently adequate answer. Myth and
+  legend, fact and fiction, the common stock of oral tradition, have
+  been handed down, and thus constitute one of the most valuable sources
+  for popular Hebrew thought.
+
+  The book is not to be judged from any one-sided estimate of its
+  contents. By the side of much that seems trivial, and even
+  non-moral--for the patriarchs themselves are not saints--it is
+  noteworthy how frequently the narratives are didactic. The
+  characteristic sense of collective responsibility, which appears more
+  incidentally in xx. 7, is treated with striking intensity in a passage
+  (xviii. 23-33) which uses the legend of Sodom and Gomorrah as a
+  vehicle for the statement of a familiar problem (cf. Ezek. xviii., Ps.
+  lxxiii., Job). It will be observed that interviews with divine beings
+  presented as little difficulty to the primitive minds of old as to the
+  modern native; even the idea of intercourse of supernatural beings
+  with mortals (vi. 1-4) is to-day equally intelligible. The modern
+  untutored native has a not dissimilar undeveloped and childlike
+  attitude towards the divine, a naive theology and a simple cultus. The
+  most circumstantial tales are told of imaginary figures, and the most
+  incredible details clothe the lives of the historical heroes of the
+  past. So abundant is the testimony of modern travellers to the extent
+  to which Eastern custom and thought elucidate the interpretation of
+  the Bible, that it is very important to notice those features which
+  illustrate Genesis. "The Oriental," writes S.I. Curtiss (_Bibl.
+  sacra_, Jan. 1901, pp. 103 sqq.), "is least of all a scientific
+  historian. He is the prince of story-tellers, narratives, real and
+  imaginative, spring from his lips, which are the truest portraiture of
+  composite rather than individual Oriental life, though narrated under
+  forms of individual experience." There are, therefore, many
+  preliminary points which combine to show that the critical student
+  cannot isolate the book from Oriental life and thought; its uniqueness
+  lies in the manner in which the material has been shaped and the use
+  to which it has been put.
+
+
+  Questions of date.
+
+The Book of Jubilees (not earlier than the 2nd century B.C.) presents
+the history in another form. It retains some of the canonical matter,
+often with considerable reshaping, omits many details (especially those
+to which exception could be taken), and adds much that is novel. The
+chronological system of the latest source in Genesis becomes an
+elaborate reckoning of heavenly origin. Written under the obvious
+influence of later religious aims, it is especially valuable because one
+can readily compare the two methods of presenting the old
+traditions.[20] There is the same kind of personification, fresh
+examples of the "prophetical interpretation of history," and by the side
+of the older "primitive" thought are ideas which can only belong to this
+later period. In each case we have merely a selection of current
+traditional lore. For example, Gen. vi. 1-4 mentions the marriage of
+divine beings with the daughters of men and the birth of Nephilim or
+giants (cf. Num. xiii. 33). Later allusions to this myth (e.g. Baruch
+iii. 26-28, Book of Enoch vi. sqq., 2 Peter ii. 4, &c.) are not based
+upon this passage; the fragment itself is all that remains of some more
+organic written myth which, as is well-known, has parallels among other
+peoples.[21] Old myths underlie the account of the creation and the
+garden of Eden, and traces of other versions or forms appear elsewhere
+in the Old Testament. Again, the Old Testament throws no light upon the
+redemption of Abraham (Is. xxix. 22), although the Targums and other
+sources profess to be well-informed. The isolated reference to Jacob's
+conquest of Shechem in Gen. xlviii. 22 must have belonged to another
+context, and later writings give in a later and thoroughly incredible
+form allied traditions. In Hosea xii. 4, Jacob's wrestling is mentioned
+before the scene at Bethel (Gen. xxxii. 24 sqq., xxviii. 11 sqq.). The
+overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah is described in Genesis (xviii. seq.),
+but Hosea refers only to that of Admah and Zeboim (xi. 8, cf. Deut.
+xxix. 23, Gen. x. 19)--different versions of the great catastrophe were
+doubtless current. Consequently investigation must start with the
+particular details which happen to be preserved, and these not
+necessarily in their original or in their only form. Since the antiquity
+of elements of tradition is independent of the shape in which they
+appear before us, a careful distinction must be drawn between those
+details which do not admit of being dated or located and those which do.
+There is evidence for the existence of the _names_ Abram, Jacob and
+Joseph previous to 900 B.C., but this does not prove the antiquity of
+the present narratives encircling them. Babylonian tablets of the
+creation date from the 7th century B.C., but their contents are many
+centuries earlier (viz. the age of Khammurabi), whereas the Phoenician
+myths of the origin of things are preserved in a late form by the late
+writers Damascius and Philo of Byblus. Gen. xiv., which may preserve
+some knowledge of the reign of Khammurabi, is on internal literary
+grounds of the post-exilic age, and it is at least a coincidence that
+the Babylonian texts, often quoted in support of the genuineness of the
+narrative, belong to about the same period and use early Babylonian
+history for purely didactic purposes.[22] In general, just as the Book
+of Jubilees, while presenting many elements of old tradition, betrays on
+decisive internal grounds an age later than Genesis itself, so, in turn,
+there is sufficient conclusive evidence that Genesis in its present form
+includes older features, but belongs to the age to which (on quite
+independent grounds) the rest of the Pentateuch must be ascribed.
+
+
+  Historical backgrounds.
+
+Popular tradition often ignores events of historical importance, or, as
+repeated experience shows, will represent them in such a form that the
+true historical kernel could never have been recovered without some
+external clue. The absence of definite references to the events of the
+Israelite monarchy does not necessarily point to the priority of the
+traditions in Genesis or their later date. Nevertheless, some allusion
+to national fortunes is reflected in the exaltation of Jacob (Israel)
+over Esau (Edom), and in the promise that the latter should break the
+yoke from his neck.[23] Israelite kings are foreshadowed (xvii. 6, xxxv.
+11, P), and Israel's kingdom has the ideal limits as ascribed to Solomon
+(xv. 18, see 1 Kings iv. 21; but cf. art. SOLOMON). Judah is promised a
+world-wide king (xlix. 8-10), though elsewhere the supremacy of Joseph
+rouses the jealousy of his "brothers" (xxxvii. 8). Different dates and
+circles of interest are thus manifest. The cursing and dispersion of
+Simeon and Levi (xlix. 5-7) recall the fact that Simeon's cities were in
+the territory of Judah (Josh. xix. 1, 9), and that the Levitical priests
+are later scattered and commended to the benevolence of the Israelites.
+But the curse obviously represents an attitude quite opposed to the
+blessing pronounced upon Levi by Moses (Deut. xxxiii. 8-11). The Edomite
+genealogies (xxxvi.) represent a more extensive people than the
+references in the popular stories suggest, and the latter by no means
+indicate that Edom had so important a career as we actually gather from
+a few allusions to its kings (xxxvi. 31-39).[24] The references to
+Philistines are anachronistic for the pre-Mosaic age, and it is clear
+that the tradition of a solemn covenant with a Philistine king and his
+general (xxi. 22 seq., xxvi. 26 sqq.) does not belong to the age or the
+circle which remembered the grievous oppressions of the Philistines or
+felt contempt for these "uncircumcised" enemies of Israel[25]. Finally,
+the thread of the tradition unmistakably represents a national unity of
+the twelve sons (tribes) of Israel; but this unity was not felt at
+certain periods of disorganization, and the idea of including Judah
+among the sons of Israel could not have arisen at a time when Israel and
+Judah were rival kingdoms.[26] In so far as the traditions can be read
+in the light of biblical history it is evident that they belong to
+different ages and represent different national, tribal, or local
+standpoints.
+
+
+  Interest in holy places.
+
+Another noteworthy feature is the interest taken in _sacred sites_.
+Certain places are distinguished by theophanies or by the erection of an
+altar (_lit._ place of sacrificial slaughter), and incidents are
+narrated with a very intelligible purpose. _Mizpah_ in Gilead is the
+scene of a covenant or treaty between Jacob and his Aramaean relative
+commemorated by a pillar (_Massebah_). It was otherwise known for an
+annual religious ceremony, the traditional origin of which is related in
+the story of Jephthah's vow and sacrifice (Judg. xi.), and its priests
+are denounced by Hosea (v. i). _Shechem_, the famous city of the
+Samaritans ("the foolish nation," Ecclus. I. 26), where Joseph was
+buried (Josh. xxiv. 32), had a sanctuary and a sacred pillar and tree.
+It was the scene of the coronation (a religious ceremony) of Abimelech
+(Judg. ix.), and Rehoboam (1 Kings xii. 1). The pillar was ascribed to
+Joshua (Josh. xxiv. 26 seq.), and although Jacob set up at Shechem an
+"altar," the verb suggests that the original object was a pillar (Gen.
+xxxiii. 20). The first ancestor of Israel, on the other hand, is merely
+associated with a theophany at an oracular tree (xii. 6). The Benjamite
+_Bethel_ was especially famous in Israelite religious history. The story
+tells how Jacob discovered its sanctity,--it was the gate of
+heaven,--made a covenant with its God, established the sacred pillar,
+and instituted its tithes (xxviii.). The prophetess Deborah dwelt under
+a palm-tree near Bethel (Judg. iv. 5), and her name is also that of the
+foster-mother of Rebekah who was buried near Bethel beneath the "oak of
+weeping" (xxxv. 8). _Bochim_ ("weeping") elsewhere receives its name
+when an angel appeared to the Israelites (Judg. ii. 1, Septuagint adds
+Bethel). To the prophets Hosea and Amos the cultus of Bethel was
+superstitious and immoral, even though it was Yahweh himself who was
+worshipped there (see BETHEL). South of Hebron lay _Beersheba_, an
+important centre and place of pilgrimage, with a special numen by whom
+oaths were taken (Amos viii. 14, see Sept. and the commentaries). Isaac
+built its altar, and Isaac's God guarded Jacob in his journeying (xxxi.
+29, xlvi. 1). This patriarch and his "brother" Ishmael are closely
+associated with the district south of Judah, both are connected with
+_Beer-lahai-roi_ (xxiv. 62, Sept. xxv. 11), whose fountain was the scene
+of a theophany (xvi.), and their traditions are thus localized in the
+district of Kadesh famous in the events of the Exodus (cf. xvi. 14, xxi.
+21, xxv. 18, Ex. xv. 22). (See EXODUS, THE.) Abraham planted a sacred
+tree at Beersheba and invoked "the everlasting God" (xxi. 33). But the
+patriarch is more closely identified with _Hebron_, which had a
+sanctuary (cf. 2 Sam. xv. 7 seq.), and an altar which he built "unto
+Yahweh" (xiii. 18). The sacred oak of Mamre was famous in the time of
+Josephus (_B. J._ iv. 9, 7), it was later a haunt of "angels" (Sozomen),
+and Constantine was obliged to put down the heathenish cultus. The place
+still has its holy tree. Beneath the oak there appeared the three divine
+beings, and in the cave of Machpelah the illustrious ancestor and his
+wife were buried. The story of his descent into Egypt and the plaguing
+of Pharaoh is a secondary insertion (xii. 10-xiii. 2), and where the
+patriarch appears at Beersheba it is in incidents which tend to connect
+him with his "son" Isaac. There is a very distinct tendency to emphasize
+the importance of Hebron. Taken from primitive giants by the
+non-Israelite clan Caleb (q.v.) it has now become predominant in the
+patriarchal traditions. Jacob leaves his dying father at Beersheba
+(xxviii. 10), but according to the _latest_ source he returns to him at
+Hebron (xxxv. 27), and here, north of Beersheba, he continues to live
+(xxxvii. 14, xlvi. 1-5). The cave of Machpelah became the grave of
+Isaac, Rebekah and Leah (but not Rachel); and though Jacob appears to
+be buried beyond the Jordan, it is the latest source which places his
+grave at Hebron (1. i-11 and 12 seq.). So in still later tradition, all
+the sons of Jacob with the exception of Joseph find their last
+resting-place at Hebron, and in Jewish prayers for the dead it is
+besought that their souls may be bound up with those of the patriarchs,
+or that they may go to the cave of Machpelah and thence to the
+Cherubim.[27] The increasing prominence of the old Calebite locality is
+not the least interesting phase in the comparative study of the
+patriarchal traditions.
+
+The association of the ancestors of Israel with certain sites is a
+feature which finds analogies even in modern Palestine. There are old
+centres of cult which have never lost the veneration of the people; the
+shrines are known as the tombs of saints or _walis_ (patrons) with such
+orthodox names as St George, Elijah, &c. Traditions justify the
+reputation for sanctity, and not only are similar stories told of
+distinct figures, but there are varying traditions of a single
+figure.[28] The places have retained their sacred character despite
+political and religious vicissitudes; they are far older than their
+present names, and such is the conservatism of the east that it is not
+surprising when, for example, a sacred tomb at Gezer stands quite close
+to the site of an ancient holy place, about 3000 years old, the
+existence of which was first made known in the course of excavation.
+Genesis preserves a selection of traditions relating to a few of the old
+Palestinian centres of cult. We cannot suppose that these first gained
+their sacred character in the pre-Mosaic "patriarchal" age; there is in
+any case the obvious difficulty of bridging the gap between the descent
+into Egypt and the Exodus, and it is clear that when the Israelites
+entered Palestine they came among a people whose religion, tradition and
+thought were fully established. It is only in accordance with analogy if
+stories were current in Israel of the institution of the sacred places,
+and closer study shows that we do not preserve the original version of
+these traditions.[29]
+
+A venerated tree in modern Palestine will owe its sanctity to some
+tradition, associating it, it may be, with some saint; the Israelites in
+their turn held the belief that the sacred tree at Hebron was one
+beneath which their first ancestor sat when three divine beings revealed
+themselves to him. But it is noteworthy that Yahweh alone is now
+prominent; the tradition has been revised, apparently in writing, and,
+later, the author of Jubilees (xvi.) ignores the triad. At
+Beer-lahai-roi an El ("god") appeared to Hagar, whence the name of her
+child Ishmael; but the writer prefers the unambiguous proper name
+Yahweh, and, what is more, the divine being is now Yahweh's angel--the
+Almighty's subordinate (xvi.). The older traits show themselves partly
+in the manifestation of various _Els_, and partly in the cruder
+anthropomorphism of the earlier sources. Later hands have by no means
+eliminated or modified them altogether, and in xxxi. 53 one can still
+perceive that the present text has endeavoured to obscure the older
+belief that the God of Abraham was not the God of his "brother" Nahor
+(see the commentaries). The sacred pillar erected by Jacob at Bethel was
+solemnly anointed with oil, and it (and not the place) was regarded as
+the abode of the Deity (xxviii. 18, 22). This agrees with all that is
+known of stone-cults, but it is quite obvious that this interesting
+example of popular belief is far below the religious ideas of the writer
+of the chapter in its present form.[30] There were many places where it
+could be said that Yahweh had recorded his name and would bless his
+worshippers (Ex. xx. 24). They were abhorrent to the advanced ethical
+teaching of prophets and of those imbued with the spirit of Deuteronomy
+(cf. 2 Kings xviii. 4 with v. 22), and it is patent from Jeremiah,
+Ezekiel and Is. lvi.-lxvi. that even at a late date opinion varied as
+to how Yahweh was to be served.[31] It is significant, therefore, that
+the narratives in Genesis (apart from P) reflect a certain tolerant
+attitude; there is much that is contrary to prophetical thought, but
+even the latest compilers have not obliterated all features that, from a
+strict standpoint, could appear distasteful. Although the priestly
+source shows how the lore could be reshaped, and Jubilees represents
+later efforts along similar lines, it is evident that for ordinary
+readers the patriarchal traditions could not be presented in an entirely
+new form, and that to achieve their aims the writers could not be at
+direct variance with current thought.
+
+  It will now be understood why several scholars have sought to recover
+  earlier forms of the traditions, the stages through which the material
+  has passed, and the place of the earlier forms and stages in the
+  history and religion of Israel. These labours are indispensable for
+  scientific biblical study, and are most fruitful when they depend upon
+  comprehensive methods of research. When, for example, one observes the
+  usual forms of hero-cult and the tendency to regard the occupant of
+  the modern sacred shrine as the ancestor of his clients, deeper
+  significance is attached to the references to the protective care of
+  Abraham and Israel (Is. lxiii. 16), or to the motherly sympathy of
+  Rachel (Jer. xxxi. 15). And, again, when one perceives the tendency to
+  look upon the alleged ancestor or _weli_ as an almost divine being,
+  there is much to be said for the view that the patriarchal figures
+  were endowed by popular opinion with divine attributes. But here the
+  same external evidence warns us that these considerations throw no
+  light upon the original significance of the patriarchs. It is
+  impossible to recover the earliest traditions from the present
+  narratives, and these alone offer sufficiently perplexing
+  problems.[32]
+
+
+  Southern interests.
+
+From a careful survey of all the accessible material it is beyond doubt
+that Genesis preserves only a selection of traditions of various ages
+and interests, and often not in their original form. We have relatively
+little tradition from North Israel; Beersheba, Beer-lahai-roi and Hebron
+are more prominent than even Bethel or Shechem, while there are no
+stories of Gilgal, Shiloh or Dan. Yet in the nature of the case, there
+must have been a great store of local tradition accessible to some
+writers and at some periods.[33] Interest is taken not in Phoenicia,
+Damascus or the northern tribes, but in the east and south, in Gilead,
+Ammon, Moab and Ishmael. Particular attention is paid to Edom and Jacob,
+and there is good evidence for a close relationship between Edomite and
+allied names and those of South Palestine (including Simeon and Judah).
+Especially significant, too, is the interest in traditions which
+affected the South of Palestine, that district which is of importance
+for the history of Israel in the wilderness and of the Levites.[34] It
+is noteworthy, therefore, that while different peoples had their own
+theories of their earliest history, the first-born of the first human
+pair is Cain, the eponym of the Kenites, and the ancestor of the
+beginnings of civilization (iv. 17, 20-22). This "Kenite" version had
+its own view of the institution of the worship of Yahweh (iv. 26); it
+appears to have ignored the Deluge, and it implies the existence of a
+fuller corpus of written tradition. Elsewhere, in the records of the
+Exodus, there are traces of specific traditions associated with Kadesh,
+Kenites, Caleb and Jerahmeel, and with a movement into Judah, all
+originally independent of their present context. Like the prominence of
+the traditions of Hebron and its hero Abraham, these features cannot be
+merely casual.[35]
+
+  The fact that one is not dealing with literal history complicates the
+  question of the nomadic or semi-nomadic life of the Israelite
+  ancestors.[36] They are tent-dwellers, shepherds, sojourners (xvii. 8,
+  xxiii. 4, xxviii. 4, xxxvi. 7, xxxvii. 1), and we breathe the air of
+  the open country. But the impression gained from the narratives is of
+  course due to the narrators. The movements of the patriarchs serve
+  mainly to connect them with traditions which were originally
+  independent. When Abraham separates from Lot he settles in "the land
+  of Canaan," while Lot dwells in "the cities of the plain" (xiii. 12).
+  Isaac at Beersheba enters into an alliance with the Philistines (xxvi.
+  12 sqq.), while Jacob seems to settle at Shechem (xxxiv.), and there
+  or at Dothan, a few miles north, his sons pasture their father's flock
+  (xxxvii. 12 sqq.).[37] Indeed, according to an isolated fragment Jacob
+  conquered Shechem and gave it to Joseph (xlviii. 22), and this
+  tradition underlies (and has not given birth to) the late and
+  fantastic stories of his warfare (Jub. xxxiv. 1-9, Test. of Judah
+  iii.). Judah, also, is represented as settling among the Canaanites
+  (xxxviii.), and Simeon marries a Canaanite--according to late
+  tradition, a woman of Zephath (xlvi. 10; Jub. xxxiv. 20, xliv. 13; see
+  Judg. i. 17). These representations have been subordinated to others,
+  in particular to the descent into Egypt of Jacob (Israel) and his
+  sons, and the Exodus of the Israelites. But the critical study of
+  these events raises very serious historical problems. Abraham's
+  grandson, with his family--a mere handful of people--went down into
+  Egypt during a famine (cf. Abraham xii. 10, and Isaac xxvi. 1 seq.);
+  400 years pass, all memory of which is practically obliterated, and
+  the Israelite nation composed of similar subdivisions returns.
+  Although the later genealogies from Jacob to Moses allow only four
+  generations (cf. Gen. xv. 16), the difficulties are not removed.
+  Joseph lived to see the children of Machir (l. 23, note Ex. i. 8),
+  though Machir received Gilead from the hands of Moses (Num. xxxii.
+  40); Levi descended with Kehath, who became the grandfather of Aaron
+  and Moses, while Aaron married a descendant in the fifth generation
+  from Judah (Ex. vi. 23). On the other hand the genealogies in 1 Chron.
+  ii. sqq. are independent of the Exodus; Ephraim's children raid Gath,
+  his daughter founds certain cities, and Manasseh has an Aramaean
+  concubine who becomes the mother of Machir (1 Chron. vii. 14,
+  20-24).[38] Moreover the whole course of the invasion and settlement
+  of Israel (under Joshua) has no real connexion with pre-Mosaic
+  patriarchal history. If we reinterpret the history of the _family_ and
+  its descent into Egypt, and belittle its increase into a _nation_, and
+  if we figure to ourselves a more gradual occupation of Palestine, we
+  destroy the entire continuity of history as it was understood by those
+  who compiled the biblical history, and we have no evidence for any
+  confident reconstruction. With such thoroughness have the compilers
+  given effect to their views that only on closer examination is it
+  found that even at a relatively late period fundamentally differing
+  traditions still existed, and that those which belonged to circles
+  which did not recognize the Exodus have been subordinated and adjusted
+  by writers to whom this was the profoundest event in their past.[39]
+
+
+  The Southern nucleus.
+
+That the journey of Jacob-Israel from his Aramaean relatives into
+Palestine hints at some pre-Mosaic immigration is possible, but has not
+been either proved or disproved. The details point rather to a
+reflection of the entrance of the children of Israel, elsewhere ascribed
+to the leadership of Joshua (q.v.). Though the latter proceeded to
+Gilgal, a variant tradition, now almost lost, seems to have recorded an
+immediate journey to Shechem (Deut. xxvii. 1-10, Josh. viii. 30-35)
+previous to Joshua's great campaigns (Josh. x. seq., cf. Jacob's wars).
+His religious gathering at Shechem before the dismissal of the tribes
+finds its parallel in Jacob's reforms before leaving for Bethel (xxiv.;
+cf. v. 26, Gen. xxxv. 4). Owing, perhaps, to the locale of the writers,
+we hear relatively little of the northern tribes. Judah and Simeon are
+the first to conquer their lot, and the "house of Joseph" proceeds south
+to Bethel, where the story of the "weeping" at Bochim finds a parallel
+in the "oak of weeping" (Gen. xxxv. 8). In Gen. xxxviii. "at that time
+Judah went down from his brethren"--in xxxvii. they are at Shechem or
+Dothan--and settled among Canaanites, and there is a fragmentary
+allusion to a similar alliance of Simeon (xlvi. 10). The trend of the
+two series of traditions is too close to be accidental, yet the present
+sequence of the narratives in Joshua and Judges associates them with the
+Exodus. Further, Jacob's move to Shechem, Bethel and the south is
+parallel to that of Abraham, but his history actually represents a
+twofold course. On the one hand, he is the Aramaean (Deut. xxvi. 5), the
+favourite son of his Aramaean mother. On the other, Rebekah is brought
+to Beer-lahai-roi (xxiv.), Jacob belongs to the south and he leaves
+Beersheba for his lengthy sojourn beyond the Jordan. His separation from
+Esau, the revelation at Bethel, and the new name Israel are recorded
+twice, and if the entrance into Palestine reflects one ethnological
+tradition, the possibility that his departure from Beersheba reflects
+another, finds support (a) in the genealogies which associate the nomad
+"father" of the southern clans Caleb and Jerahmeel with Gilead (1 Chron.
+ii. 21), and (b) in the hints of an "exodus" from the district of Kadesh
+northwards.
+
+The history of an immigration into Palestine from beyond the Jordan
+would take various shapes in local tradition. In Genesis it is preserved
+from the southern point of view. The northern standpoint appears when
+Rachel, mother of Joseph and Benjamin, is the favoured wife in contrast
+to the despised Leah, mother of Judah and Simeon; when Joseph is supreme
+among his brethren; and when Judah is included among the "sons" of
+Israel. It is possible that the application of the traditional
+immigration to the history of the tribes is secondary. This at all
+events suggests itself when xxxiv. extends to the history of all the
+sons, incidents which originally concerned Simeon and Levi alone, and
+which may have represented the Shechemite version of a "Levitical"
+tradition (see LEVITES). However this may be, it is necessary to account
+for the nomadic colouring of the narratives (cf. Meyer, pp. 305, 472)
+and the prominence of southern interests, and it would be in accordance
+with biblical evidence elsewhere if northern tradition had been taken
+over and adapted to the standpoint of the southern members of Israel,
+with the incorporation of local tradition which could only have
+originated in the south.[40] These and other indications point to a late
+date in biblical history. There is a manifest difference between the
+religious importance of Shechem in the traditions of Joshua (xxiv.) and
+Jacob's reforms when he leaves behind him the heathen symbols before
+journeying to the holy site of Bethel (Gen. xxxv. 4). There is even some
+polemic against marriage with Shechemites (xxxiv.; more emphatic in Jub.
+xxx.), while in the story of the Hebronite Abraham, Bethel itself is
+avoided and Shechem is of little significance. Again, the present object
+of xxxviii. is to trace the origin of certain Judaean subdivisions after
+the death of the wicked Er and Onan. It is purely local and is
+interested in Shelah, and more especially in Perez and Zerah, names of
+families or clans of the post-exilic age.[41] Elsewhere, in 1 Chron.
+ii. and iv., the genealogies represent a Judah composed of clans from
+the south (Caleb and Jerahmeel) and of small families or guilds, Shelah
+included. It is not the Judah of the monarchy or of the post-exilic
+Babylonian-Israelite community. But the mixed elements were ultimately
+reckoned among the descendants of Judah, through Hezron the "father" of
+Caleb and Jerahmeel, and just as the southern groups finally became
+incorporated in Israel, so it is to be observed that although Hebron and
+Abraham have gained the first place in the patriarchal history, the
+traditions are no longer specifically Calebite, but are part of the
+common Israelite heritage.
+
+We are taken to a period in biblical history when, though the historical
+sources are almost inexplicably scanty, the narratives of the past were
+approaching their present shape. Some time after the fall of Jerusalem
+(587 B.C.) there was a movement from the south of Judah northwards to
+the vicinity of Jerusalem (Bethlehem, Kirjath-jearim, &c.), where, as
+can be gathered from 1 Chron. ii., were congregated Kenite and Rechabite
+communities and families of scribes. Names related to those of Edomite
+and kindred groups are found in the late genealogies of both Judah and
+Benjamin, and recur even among families of the time of Nehemiah.[42] The
+same obscure period witnessed the advent of southern families,[43] the
+revival of the Davidic dynasty and its mysterious disappearance, the
+outbreak of fierce hatred of Edom, the return of exiles from Babylonia,
+the separation of Judah from Samaria and the rise of bitter
+anti-Samaritan feeling. It closes with the reorganization associated
+with Ezra and Nehemiah and the compilation of the historical books in
+practically their present form. It contains diverse interests and
+changing standpoints by which it is possible to explain the presence of
+purely southern tradition, the southern treatment of national history,
+and the antipathy to northern claims. As has already been mentioned, the
+specifically southern writings have everywhere been modified or adjusted
+to other standpoints, or have been almost entirely subordinated, and it
+is noteworthy, therefore, that in narratives elsewhere which reflect
+rivalries and conflicts among the priestly families, there is sometimes
+an animus against those whose names and traditions point to a southern
+origin (see LEVITES).
+
+
+  Summary.
+
+Thus the book of Genesis represents the result of efforts to systematize
+the earliest history, and to make it a worthy prelude to the Mosaic
+legislation which formed the charter of Judaism as it was established in
+or about the 5th century B.C. It goes back to traditions of the most
+varied character, whose tone was originally more in accord with earlier
+religion and thought. Though these have been made more edifying, they
+have not lost their charm and interest. The latest source, it is true,
+is without their freshness and life, but it is a matter for thankfulness
+that the simple compilers were conservative, and have neither presented
+a work entirely on the lines of P, nor rewritten their material as was
+done by the author of Jubilees and by Josephus. It is obvious that from
+Jubilees alone it would have been impossible to conceive the form which
+the traditions had taken a few centuries previously--viz. in Genesis.
+Also, from P alone it would have been equally impossible to recover the
+non-priestly forms. But while there is no immeasurable gulf between the
+canonical book of Genesis and Jubilees, the internal study of the former
+reveals traces of earlier traditions most profoundly different as
+regards thought and contents. It is not otherwise when one looks below
+the traditional history elsewhere (e.g. Samuel, Kings). An explanation
+may be found in the vicissitudes of the age. The movement from the
+south, which seems to account for a considerable cycle of the
+patriarchal traditions, belongs to the age after the downfall of the
+Israelite and (later) the Judaean monarchies when there were vital
+political and social changes. The removal of prominent inhabitants, by
+Assyria and later by Babylonia, the introduction of colonists from
+distant lands, and the movements of restless tribes around Palestine
+were more fatal to the continuity of trustworthy tradition than to the
+persistence of popular thought. New conditions arose as the population
+was reorganized, a new Israel claimed to be the heirs of the past (cf.
+e.g. the Samaritans, Ezr. iv. 2, Joseph. _Antiq_. ix. 14, 3; xi. 8,
+6), and not until after these vicissitudes did the book of Genesis begin
+to assume its present shape.[44] (See JEWS; PALESTINE: _History_.)
+
+  The above pages handle only the more important details for the study
+  of a book which, as regards contents and literary history, cannot be
+  separated from the series to which it forms the introduction. As
+  regards the literary-critical problems it is clear that with the
+  elimination of P we have the sources (minor adjustment and revision
+  excepted) which were accessible to the last compiler in the
+  post-exilic age. Most critics have inclined to date these sources (J
+  and E) as early as possible, whereas the admitted presence of
+  secondary and of relatively late passages (e.g. xviii. 22 sqq., J;
+  xxii., E) shows that one must work back from the sources as known in
+  P's age, and that one can rely only upon those criteria which can be
+  approximately dated. It is usual to regard the more primitive
+  character of J and E as a mark of antiquity; but this ignores the
+  regular survival of primitive modes of thought and of popular
+  tradition outside more cultured circles. It is also recognized that J
+  and E are non-prophetical and non-Deuteronomic, but it has not been
+  proved that the present J and E are earlier than the prophets or the
+  Deuteronomic reforms of Josiah (2 Kings xxii. seq.). J and E are
+  linguistically almost identical (in contrast to P), and differ from P
+  in features which are often not of chronological but of sociological
+  significance (e.g. the mentality of the writers). Their language is
+  without some of the phenomena found in narratives which emanate from
+  the north (e.g. Judges v., stories of Elijah and Elisha), and their
+  stylistic variations may be, as Gunkel suggests, the mark of a
+  district or region; for this district one would look in the
+  neighbourhood of Jerusalem. The conclusion that P's narratives and
+  laws in the Pentateuch are post-exilic was found by biblical scholars
+  to be a necessary correction to the original hypothesis of Graf (1866)
+  that P's _narratives_ were to be retained (with J and E) at an early
+  date. This view was influenced by the close connexion between the
+  subject-matter, J, E and P representing the same trend of tradition.
+  But by still ascribing J and E as written sources to about the 9th or
+  8th century (individual opinion varies), many difficulties and
+  inconsistencies are involved. The present J and E reflect a reshaping
+  and readjustment of earlier tradition which is found elsewhere, and
+  the suggestion that they are not far removed from the age of the
+  priestly writers and redactors does not conflict with what is known of
+  language, forms of religious thought, or tendencies of tradition. We
+  reach thus approximately the age when post-Deuteronomic editors were
+  able to utilize such records as Judg. i., xvii. sqq., 2 Sam. ix.-xx.
+  (see JUDGES; SAMUEL, BOOKS OF), which are equally valuable as
+  specimens of current thought and of written tradition. In conclusion,
+  the tendency of criticism has been to recognize "schools" of J and E
+  extending into the exile, thus making the three sources J, E and P
+  more nearly contemporaneous. The most recent conservative authority
+  also inclines to a similar contemporaneity ("collaboration" or
+  "co-operation"), but at an impossibly early date (J. Orr, _Problem of
+  the O. T_., 1905, pp. 216, 345, 354, 375 seq., 527). By admitting
+  possible revision in the post-exilic age (pp. 226, 369, 375 seq.), the
+  conservative theory recalls the old legend that Ezra rewrote the Old
+  Testament (2 Esd. xiv.) and thus restored the Law which had been lost;
+  a view which, through the early Christian Fathers, gained currency and
+  has enjoyed a certain popularity to the present day. But when once
+  revision or rewriting is conceded, there is absolutely no guarantee
+  that the present Pentateuch is in any way identical with the five
+  books which tradition ascribed to Moses (q.v.), and the necessity for
+  a comprehensive critical investigation of the _present_ contents makes
+  itself felt.[45]
+
+  LITERATURE.--Only a few of the numerous works can be mentioned. Of
+  those written from a conservative or traditional standpoint the most
+  notable are: W.H. Green's _Unity of Genesis_ (1895); and J. Orr,
+  _Problem of the O. T_. (which is nevertheless a great advance upon
+  earlier non-critical literature). S.R. Driver's commentary
+  (_Westminster Series_) deals thoroughly with all preliminary problems
+  of criticism, and is the best for the ordinary reader; that of A.
+  Dillmann (6th ed.; Eng. trans.) is more technical, that of W.H.
+  Bennett (_Century Bible_) is more concise and popular. G.J. Spurrell,
+  Notes on the Text of Genesis, and C.J. Ball (in Haupt's _Sacred Books
+  of the O. T_.) appeal to Hebrew students. W.E. Addis, _Documents of
+  the Hexateuch_, Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, _The Hexateuch_, and
+  C.F. Kent, _Beginnings of Hebrew History_, are more important for the
+  literary analysis. J. Wellhausen's sketch in his _Proleg. to Hist. of
+  Israel_ (Eng. trans., pp. 259-342) is admirable, as also is the
+  general Introduction (trans. by W.H. Carruth, 1907) to H. Gunkel's
+  valuable commentary. Of recent works bearing upon the subject-matter
+  reference may be made to J.P. Peters, _Early Hebrew Story_ (1904),
+  A.R. Gordon, _Early Traditions of Genesis_ (1907), and T.K. Cheyne,
+  _Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient Israel_ (1907). Special mention
+  must be made of Eduard Meyer and B. Luther, to whose _Die Israëliten
+  und ihre Nachbarstämme_ (1906) the present writer is indebted for many
+  valuable suggestions and hints. Fuller bibliographical information
+  will be found in the works already mentioned, in the articles in the
+  _Ency. Bib_. (G.F. Moore), and Hastings's _Dict_. (G.A. Smith), and in
+  the volume by J. Skinner in the elaborate and encyclopaedic
+  _International Critical Series_.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The abrupt introduction of a small poem (iv. 23 seq.) was long
+    ago regarded as due to the use of separate sources (so the Calvinist
+    Isaac de la Peyrère, 1654).
+
+  [2] The divergences of detail, with corresponding stylistic
+    variations, were recognized long ago (e.g. by Father Simon in 1682).
+
+  [3] As early as 1685 Jean le Clerc observed that Ur of the Chaldees
+    (_Chasdim_) in xi. 28 anticipates _Chesed_ in xxii. 22, and implied
+    some knowledge of the land of the Chaldaeans (cf. Ezek. i. 3, xi.
+    24).
+
+  [4] The Catholic priest Andrew du Maes (1570) already pointed to the
+    names Hebron and Dan as signs of post-Mosaic date.
+
+  [5] Note the repetitions in vv. 2 and 3; Abraham's faith, vv. 4-6,
+    and his request, v. 8; contrast the time of day, v. 5 and v. 12, and
+    the dates, v. 13 and v. 16. In vv. 12-15 there is a reference to the
+    bondage in Egypt.
+
+  [6] These and other chronological embarrassments, now recognized as
+    due to the framework of the post-exilic writer (P), have long been
+    observed--by Spinoza, 1671.
+
+  [7] Points of resemblance in xxiii. with Babylonian usage have often
+    been exaggerated; comparison "shows noteworthy differences" (T.G.
+    Pinches, _The Old Testament_, p. 238); see Carpenter and
+    Harford-Battersby, _Hexateuch_, i. 64, Driver, Gen. p. 230, and
+    _Addenda_.
+
+  [8] Note, e.g., the sudden introduction of xxix. 15, the curious
+    position of v. 24 (due to P), the double play upon the names Zebulun
+    and Joseph, xxx. 20, 23 seq., the internal intricacies in the
+    agreement, _ib._ vv. 31-43; the difficulties in the reference to the
+    latter in xxxi. 6 sqq. (especially v. 10).
+
+  [9] See Ed. Meyer (and B. Luther), _Die Israëliten und ihre
+    Nachbarstämme_ (1906), pp. 238 sqq.; also the shrewd remarks of C.T.
+    Beke, _Origines biblicae_ (1834), pp. 123 sqq.
+
+  [10] It is interesting to find that the Spanish Rabbi Isaac (of
+    Toledo, A.D. 982-1057), noticing that the royal list must be later
+    than the time of Saul (also recognized by Martin Luther and others),
+    proposed to assign the chapter to the age of Jehoshaphat.
+
+  [11] But the chronology is hopeless, and only ten years are allowed
+    according to another and later scheme (xxv. 26, xxxv. 28, xlvii. 9).
+
+  [12] Cf. the account of the Israelites in Egypt, where they are in
+    Goshen, unaffected by the plagues (Ex. viii. 22, ix. 26), or,
+    according to another view, are living in the midst of the Egyptians
+    (e.g. xii. 23).
+
+  [13] V. 7 breaks the context; there is repetition in vv. 10b and 13b;
+    interchange of the names Jacob and Israel; v. 12 suggests a blessing
+    upon Joseph himself; and with vv. 15 seq. (the blessing of the sons,
+    not of Joseph), contrast vv. 20 sqq. (the singular "in thee," v. 20).
+
+  [14] Only the more noticeable peculiarities have been mentioned in
+    the preceding columns.
+
+  [15] On the course of modern criticism and on the various sources: P,
+    J (Judaean or Yahwist), E (Ephraimite or Elohist), see BIBLE (_Old
+    Test. Criticism_). The passages usually assigned to P in Genesis are:
+    i. 1-ii. 4a; v. 1-28, 30-32; vi. 9-22; vii. 6 (and parts of 7-9), 11,
+    13-16a, 18-21, 24; viii. 1-2a, 3b-5, 13a, 14-19; ix. 1-17, 28-29; x.
+    1-7, 20, 22-23, 31-32; xi. 10-27, 31-32; xii. 4b-5; xiii. 6, 11b-12a;
+    xvi. 1a, 3, 15-16; xvii.; xix. 29; xxi. 1b, 2b-5; xxiii.; xxv. 7-11a,
+    12-17, 19-20, 26b; xxvi. 34-35; xxvii. 46-xxviii. 9; xxix. 24, 28b,
+    29; xxxi. 18b; xxxiii. 18a; xxxiv. 1-2a, 4, 6, 8-10, 13-18, 20-24,
+    part of 25, 27-29; xxxv. 9-13, 15, 22b-29; xxxvi. (in the main);
+    xxxvii. 1-2a; xli. 46; xlvi. 6-27; xlvii. 5-6a, 7-11, 27b-28; xlviii.
+    3-7; xlix. 1a, 28b-33, l. 12-13.
+
+  [16] See on this, especially, S.R. Driver's _Genesis_ in the
+    "Westminster Commentaries" (seventh ed., 1909).
+
+  [17] The above is typical of modern biblical criticism which is
+    compelled to recognize the human element (and can thus have no a
+    priori preconceptions in approaching the Old Testament), but at the
+    same time reveals ever more decisively the presence of purifying
+    influences, without which the records of Israel would have had no
+    permanent interest or value. They thus gain a new value which cannot
+    be impaired when it is realized that their significance is quite
+    independent of their origins.
+
+  [18] See the remarks of W.R. Smith, _Eng. Hist. Rev._ (1888), pp. 128
+    seq. (from the sociological side), and for general considerations,
+    A.A. Bevan, _Crit. Rev._ (1893), pp. 138 sqq.; S.R. Driver,
+    _Genesis_, pp. xliii. sqq.
+
+  [19] Cf. Amos i. 11; 1 Chron. ii. iv. (note iv. 10), the Book of
+    Jubilees (see above), and also Arabian usage (W.R. Smith, _Kinship
+    and Marriage_, ch. i.). For modern examples, see E. Littmann,
+    _Orient. Stud. Theodor Nöldeke_ (ed. Bezold, 1906), pp. 942-958.
+
+  [20] The Book of Jubilees also enables the student to test the
+    arguments based upon any study restricted to Genesis alone. Thus it
+    shows that the "primitive" features of Genesis afford a criterion
+    which is sociological rather than chronological. This is often
+    ignored. For example, the conveyance of the field of Machpelah
+    (xxiii.) is conspicuous for the absence of any reference to a written
+    contract in contrast to the "business" methods in Jer. xxxii. This
+    does not prove that Gen. xxiii. is early, because writing was used in
+    Palestine about 1400 B.C., and, on the other hand, the more simple
+    forms of agreement are still familiar after the time of Jeremiah
+    (e.g. Ruth, Proverbs). Similarly, no safe argument can be based upon
+    the institution of blood-revenge in Gen. iv., when one observes the
+    undeveloped conditions among the Trachonites of the time of Herod the
+    Great (Josephus, Ant. xvi. 9, 1), or the varying usages among modern
+    tribes.
+
+  [21] On the Jewish forms, see R.H. Charles, _Book of Jubilees_
+    (1902), pp. 33 seq.
+
+  [22] A.H. Sayce, _Proc. of the Soc. of Bibl. Arch._ (1907), pp.
+    13-17.
+
+  [23] xxvii. 27-29, 39 seq. This is significantly altered in the later
+    writings (Jub. xxvi. 34 and the Targums). It is worth noticing that
+    in Jub. xxvi. 35 a new turn is given to Gen. xxvii. 41 by changing
+    Isaac's approaching death (which raises serious difficulties in the
+    history of Jacob) into Esau's wish that it may soon come.
+
+  [24] See E. Meyer (and B. Luther), _Die Israëliten und ihre
+    Nachbarstämme_ (1906), pp. 386-389, 442-446.
+
+  [25] See PHILISTINES. The covenant with Abimelech may be compared
+    with the friendship between David and Achish (1 Sam. xxvii.), who is
+    actually called Abimelech in the heading of Ps. xxxiv. (see 1 Sam.
+    xxi. 10). If this is a mistake (and not a variant tradition) it is a
+    very remarkable one. The treatment of the covenant by the author of
+    Jubilees (xxiv. 28 sqq.), on the other hand, is only intelligible
+    when one recalls the attitude of Judah to the Philistine cities in
+    the 2nd century B.C.; see R.H. Charles, ad loc.
+
+  [26] In 2 Sam. xix. 43 (original text) the men of Israel claim to be
+    the first-born rather than Judah; cf. 1 Chron. v. 1 seq., where the
+    birthright (after Reuben was degraded) is explicitly conferred upon
+    Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh).
+
+  [27] Cf. Josephus, _Antiq._ ii. 8, 2; _Test. of xii. Patriarchs_;
+    Acts vii. 16 (where Shechem is an error); Oesterley and Box,
+    _Religion and Worship of the Synagogue_, pp. 340 seq.; M.G. Dampier,
+    in _Church and Synagogue_ (1909), p. 78.
+
+  [28] See J.P. Peters, _Early Heb. Story_ (1904), pp. 81 sqq.; S.A.
+    Cook, _Relig. of Anc. Palestine_ (1908), pp. 19 sqq.
+
+  [29] In like manner the Babylonian story of the flood has been
+    revised and adapted to the Hebrew Noah (cf. _Nippur, ad fin._).
+
+  [30] The writer in Jub. xxvii. 27 treats the pillar as a "sign."
+    Another useful example of revision is to be found in Josh. xxii.,
+    where what was regarded (by a reviser) as an object unworthy of the
+    religion of Yahweh is now merely commemorative.
+
+  [31] For popular religious thought and practice (often described as
+    pre-prophetical, though non-prophetical would be a safer term), see
+    HEBREW RELIGION.
+
+  [32] Among recent efforts to find and explain mythical elements, see
+    especially Stucken, _Astralmythen_: H. Winckler, _Geschichte
+    Israëls_, vol. ii.; and P. Jensen, _Das Gilgamesch-Epos in der
+    Weltlitteratur_.
+
+  [33] Again the analogy of the modern East is instructive. Especially
+    interesting are the traditions associating the same figure or
+    incident with widely separated localities.
+
+  [34] See EXODUS, THE; LEVITES. On this feature see Luther and Meyer,
+    _op. cit._ pp. 158 seq., 227 sqq., 259, 279, 305, 386, 443. Their
+    researches on this subject are indispensable for a critical study of
+    Genesis.
+
+  [35] The notion of an Eve (_hawwah_, "serpent") as the first woman
+    may be conjecturally associated with (a) the frequent traditions of
+    the serpent-origin of clans, and (b) with evidence which seems to
+    connect the Levites and allied families with some kind of
+    serpent-cult (see Meyer, op. cit. pp. 116, 426 seq., 443, and art.
+    SERPENT-WORSHIP). The account of mankind as it now reads (ii. seq.)
+    is in several respects less primitive (contrast vi. 1 seq.), and the
+    present story of Cain and his murder of Abel really places the former
+    in an unfavourable light.
+
+  [36] See the discussion between B.D. Eerdmans and G.A. Smith in the
+    _Expositor_ (Aug.-Oct. 1908), and the former's _Alttest. Studien_,
+    ii. (1908), _passim._
+
+  [37] xxxiv. (note v. 9) indicates a possible alliance with
+    Shechemites, and xxxv. 4 (taken literally) implies a residence long
+    enough for a religious reform to be necessary. Yet the present aim of
+    the narratives is to link together the traditions and emphasize
+    Jacob's return from Laban to his dying father (xxviii. 21; xxxi. 3,
+    13, 18; xxxii. 9; xxxv. 1, 27).
+
+  [38] Cf. Benjamin's descendants in 1 Chron. viii. 6 seq. and see on
+    the naive and primitive character of these traditions, Kittel,
+    comment. ad loc.
+
+  [39] That there are traditions in Genesis which do not form the
+    prelude to Exodus is very generally recognized by those who agree
+    that the Israelites after entering Palestine took over some of the
+    indigenous lore (whether from the Canaanites or from a presumed
+    earlier layer of Israelites). This adoption of native tradition by
+    new settlers, however, cannot be confined to any single period. See
+    further, Luther and Meyer, op. cit. pp. 108, 110, 156, 227 seq., 254
+    seq., 414 seq., 433; on traditions related to the descent into Egypt,
+    _ib._ 122 sqq., 151 seq., 260; and on the story of Joseph (ch. xxxv.,
+    xxxvii. sqq.), as an independent cycle used to form a connecting
+    link, Luther, _ib._ pp. 142-154.
+
+  [40] Cf. the late "Deuteronomic" form of Judges where a hero of
+    Kenizzite origin (and therefore closely connected with Caleb) stands
+    at the head of the Israelite "judges"; also, from another aspect, the
+    specifically Judaean and anti-Israelite treatment of the history of
+    the monarchy. But in each case the feature belongs to a relatively
+    late stage in the literary history of the books; see JUDGES; SAMUEL,
+    BOOKS OF; KINGS.
+
+  [41] Mahalalel (son of Kenan, another form of Cain, v. 12) is also a
+    prominent ancestor in Perez (Neh. xi. 4), and Zerah claimed the
+    renowned sages of Solomon's day (1 Chron. ii. 6, 1 Kings iv. 31). The
+    story implies that Perez surpassed his "brother" clan Zerah (xxxviii.
+    27-30), and in fact Perez is ultimately reckoned the head of the
+    Judaean subdivisions (1 Chron. ii. 4 sqq.), and thus is the reputed
+    ancestor of the Davidic dynasty (Ruth iv. 12, 18 sqq.).
+
+    The sympathies of these traditions are as suggestive as their
+    presence in the canonical history, which, it must be remembered,
+    ultimately passed through the hands of Judaean compilers.
+
+  [42] Neh. iii. 9, 14; see Meyer, pp. 300, 430; S.A. Cook, _Critical
+    Notes on O. T. History_, p. 58 n. 2. While the evidence points to an
+    early close relationship among S. Palestinian groups (Edom, Ishmael,
+    &c.; cf. Meyer, p. 446), there are many allusions to subsequent
+    treacherous attacks which made Edom execrable. Here again biblical
+    criticism cannot at present determine precisely when or precisely why
+    the changed attitude began; see EDOM; JEWS, §§ 20, 22.
+
+  [43] Although the movement reflected in 1 Chron. ii. is scarcely
+    pre-exilic, yet naturally there had always been a close relation
+    between Judah and the south, as the Assyrian inscriptions of the
+    latter part of the 8th century B.C. indicate.
+
+  [44] The south of Palestine, if less disturbed by these changes, may
+    well have had access to older authoritative material.
+
+  [45] For Orr's other concessions bearing upon Genesis, see _op.
+    cit_., pp. 9 seq., 87, 93, and (on J, E, P) 196, 335, 340. These,
+    like the concessions of other apologetic writers, far outweigh the
+    often hypercritical, irrelevant, and superficial objections brought
+    against the literary and historical criticism of Genesis.
+
+
+
+
+GENET, typically a south European carnivorous mammal referable to the
+_Viverridae_ or family of civets, but also taken to include several
+allied species from Africa. The true genet (_Genetta vulgaris_ or
+_Genetta genetta_) occurs throughout the south of Europe and in
+Palestine, as well as North Africa. The fur is of a dark-grey colour,
+thickly spotted with black, and having a dark streak along the back,
+while the tail, which is nearly as long as the body, is ringed with
+black and white. The genet is rare in the south of France, but commoner
+in Spain, where it frequents the banks of streams, and feeds on small
+mammals and birds. It differs from the true civets in that the anal
+pouch is a mere depression, and contains only a faint trace of the
+highly characteristic odour of the former. In south-western Europe and
+North Africa it is sought for its soft and beautifully spotted fur. In
+some parts of Europe, the genet, which is easily tamed, is kept like a
+cat for destroying mice and other vermin.
+
+[Illustration: The Genet (_Genetta vulgaris_).]
+
+
+
+
+GENEVA, a city of Ontario county, New York, U.S.A., at the N. end of
+Seneca Lake, about 52 m. S.E. of Rochester. Pop. (1890) 7557; (1900)
+10,433 (of whom 1916 were foreign-born); (1910 census) 12,446. It is
+served by the New York Central & Hudson River, and the Lehigh Valley
+railways, and by the Cayuga & Seneca Canal. It is an attractively built
+city, and has good mineral springs. Malt, tinware, flour and grist-mill
+products, boilers, stoves and ranges, optical supplies, wall-paper,
+cereals, canned goods, cutlery, tin cans and wagons are manufactured,
+and there are also extensive nurseries. The total value of the factory
+product in 1905 was $4,951,964, an increase of 82.3% since 1900. Geneva
+has a public library, a city hospital and hygienic institute. It is the
+seat of the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station and of Hobart
+College (non-sectarian), which was first planned in 1812, was founded in
+1822 (the majority of its incorporators being members of the Protestant
+Episcopal church) as successor to Geneva Academy, received a full
+charter as Geneva College in 1825, and was renamed Hobart Free College
+in 1852 and Hobart College in 1860, in honour of Bishop John Henry
+Hobart. The college had in 1908-1909 107 students, 21 instructors, and a
+library of 50,000 volumes and 15,000 pamphlets. A co-ordinate woman's
+college, the William Smith school for women, opened in 1908, was endowed
+in 1906 by William Smith of Geneva, who at the same time provided for a
+Hall of Science and for further instruction in science, especially in
+biology and psychology. In 1888 the Smith Observatory was built at
+Geneva, being maintained by William Smith, and placed in charge of Dr
+William Robert Brooks, professor of astronomy in Hobart College. The
+municipality owns its water-supply system. Geneva was first settled
+about 1787 almost on the site of the Indian village of Kanadasega, which
+was destroyed in 1779 during Gen. John Sullivan's expedition against the
+Indians in western New York. It was chartered as a city in 1898.
+
+
+
+
+GENEVA (Fr. _Genève_, Ger. _Genf_, Ital. _Ginevra_, Late Lat. _Gebenna_,
+though _Genava_ in good Latin), a city and canton of Switzerland,
+situated at the extreme south-west corner both of the country and of the
+Lake of Geneva or Lake Leman. The canton is, save Zug, the smallest in
+the Swiss Confederation, while the city, long the most populous in the
+land, is now surpassed by Zürich and by Basel.
+
+
+  The canton.
+
+The canton has an area of 108.9 sq. m., of which 88.5 sq. m. are classed
+as "productive" (forests covering 9.9 sq. m. and vineyards 6.8 sq. m.,
+the rest being cultivated land). Of the "unproductive" 20.3 sq. m., 11½
+are accounted for by that portion of the Lake of Geneva which belongs to
+the canton. It is entirely surrounded by French territory (the
+department of Haute Savoie lying to the south, and that of the Ain to
+the west and the north), save for about 3½ m. on the extreme north,
+where it borders on the Swiss canton of Vaud. The Rhone flows through it
+from east to west, and then along its south-west edge, the total length
+of the river in or within the canton being about 13 m., as it is very
+sinuous. The turbid Arve is by far its largest tributary (left), and
+flows from the snows of the chain of Mont Blanc, the only other affluent
+of any size being the London (right). Market gardens, orchards, and
+vineyards occupy a large proportion of the soil (outside the city), the
+apparent fertility of which is largely due to the unremitting industry
+of the inhabitants. In 1901 there were 6586 cows, 3881 horses, 2468
+swine and 2048 bee-hives in the canton. Besides building materials, such
+as sandstone, slate, &c., the only mineral to be found within the canton
+is bituminous shale, the products of which can be used for petroleum and
+asphalt. The broad-gauge railways in the canton have a length of 18¾ m.,
+and include bits of the main lines towards Paris and Lausanne (for Bern
+or the Simplon), while there are also 72¾ m. of electric tramways. The
+canton was admitted into the Swiss Confederation in 1815 only, and ranks
+as the junior of the 22 cantons. In 1815-1816 it was created by adding
+to the old territory belonging to the city (just around it, with the
+outlying districts of Jussy, Genthod, Satigny and Cartigny) 16 communes
+(to the south and east, including Carouge and Chêne) ceded by Savoy, and
+6 communes (to the north, including Versoix), cut off from the French
+district of Gex.
+
+
+  Statistics of canton and city.
+
+In 1900 there were, not counting the city, 27,813 inhabitants in the
+canton, or, including the city, 132,609, the city alone having thus a
+population of 104,796. (In the following statistics those for the city
+are enclosed within brackets.) In 1900 this population was thus divided
+in point of religion: Romanists, 67,162 (49,965), Protestants, 62,400
+(52,121), and Jews 1119 (1081). In point of language 109,741 (84,259)
+were French-speaking, 13,343 (12,004) German-speaking, and 7345 (6574)
+Italian-speaking, while there were also 89 (76) Romonsch-speaking
+persons. More remarkable are the results as to nationality: 43,550
+(31,607) were Genevese citizens, and 36,415 (30,582) Swiss citizens of
+other cantons. Of the 52,644 (42,607) foreigners, there were 34,277
+(26,018) French, 10,211 (9126) Italians, 4653 (4283) subjects of the
+German empire, 583 (468) British subjects, 832 (777) Russians, and 285
+(251) citizens of the United States of America. In the canton there were
+10,821 (5683) inhabited houses, while the number of separate households
+was 35,450 (28,621). Two points as to these statistics deserve to be
+noted. The number of foreign residents is steadily rising, for in 1900
+there were only 79,965 (62,189) Swiss in all as against 52,644 (42,607)
+foreigners. One result of this foreign immigration, particularly from
+France and Italy, has been the rapid increase of Romanists, who now form
+the majority in the canton, while in the city they were still slightly
+less numerous than the Protestants in 1900; later (local) statistics
+give in the Canton 75,400 Romanists to 64,200 Protestants, and in the
+city 52,638 Romanists to 51,221 Protestants. Geneva has always been a
+favourite residence of foreigners, though few can ever have expected to
+hear that the "protestant Rome" has now a Romanist majority as regards
+its inhabitants. Galiffe (_Genève hist. et archéolog_.) estimates the
+population in 1356 at 5800, and in 1404 at 6490, in both cases within
+the fortifications. In 1536 the old city acquired the outlying districts
+mentioned above, as well as the suburb of St Gervais on the right bank
+of the Rhone, so that in 1545 the number is given as 12,500, reduced by
+1572 to 11,000. After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) it
+rose, by 1698, to 16,934. Thenceforward the progress was fairly steady:
+18,500 (1711); 24,712 (1782); 26,140 (1789). After the creation of the
+canton (1815) the numbers were (those for the city are enclosed within
+brackets) 48,489 (25,289), the city rising in 1837 to 33,714, and in
+1843 to 36,452. The result of the Federal censuses (begun in 1850) are
+as follows: in 1850, 64,146 (42,127); in 1860, 82,876 (59,826); in 1870,
+88,791 (65,606); in 1880, 99,712 (76,197), and in 1888, 105,509
+(81,407).
+
+
+  Government.
+
+The canton comprises 3 administrative districts: the 13 communes on the
+right bank and the 34 on the left bank each form one, while the city
+proper, on both sides of the river, forms one district and one commune.
+From 1815 to 1842 the city and the cantonal government was the same. But
+at that date the city obtained its independence, and is now ruled by a
+town council of 41 members, and an executive of 5 members, the election
+in each case being made direct by the citizens, and the term of office
+being 4 years. The existing cantonal constitution dates, in most of its
+main features, from 1847. The legislature or _Grand Conseil_ (now
+composed of 100 members) is elected (in the proportion of 1 member for
+every 1000 inhabitants or fraction over 500) for 3 years by a direct
+popular vote, subject (since 1892) to the principles of proportional
+representation, while the executive or _conseil d'état_ (7 members) is
+elected (no proportional representation) by a popular vote for 3 years.
+By the latest enactments (one dating from 1905) 2500 citizens can claim
+a vote ("facultative referendum") as to any legislative project, or can
+exercise the "right of initiative" as to any such project or as to the
+revision of the cantonal constitution. The canton sends 2 members
+(elected by a popular vote) to the Federal _Ständerath_, and 7 to the
+Federal _Nationalrath_.
+
+
+  Religion.
+
+The Consistory rules the Established Protestant Church, and is now
+composed of 31 members, 25 being laymen and 6 (formerly 15) clerics,
+while the "venerable company of pastors" (pastors actually holding
+cures) has greatly lost its former importance and can now only submit
+proposals to the Consistory. The Christian Catholic Church is also
+"established" at Geneva (since 1873) and is governed by the _conseil
+supérieur_, composed of 25 lay members and 5 clerics. No other religious
+denominations are "established" at Geneva. But the Romanists (who form
+13% of the electors) are steadily growing in numbers and in influence,
+while the Christian Catholics are losing ground rapidly, the highest
+number of votes received by a candidate for the _conseil supérieur_
+having fallen from 2003 in 1874 to 806 in 1890 and 507 in 1906, while
+they are abandoning the country churches (some were lost as early as
+1892) which they had taken from the Romanists in the course of the
+_Kulturkampf_.
+
+
+  Industry.
+
+The fairs of Geneva (held 4 times a year) are mentioned as early as
+1262, and attained the height of their prosperity about 1450, but
+declined after Louis XI.'s grants of 1462-1463 in favour of the fairs of
+Lyons. Among the chief articles brought to these fairs (which were
+largely frequented by Italian, French and Swiss merchants) were cloth,
+silk, armour, groceries, wine, timber and salt, this last coming mainly
+from Provence. The manufacturers of Geneva formed in 1487 no fewer than
+38 gilds, including tailors, hatters, mercers, weavers, tanners,
+saddle-makers, furriers, shoe-makers, painters on glass, &c. Goldsmiths
+are mentioned as early as 1290. Printing was introduced in 1478 by
+Steinschaber of Schweinfurth, and flourished much in the 16th century,
+though the rigorous supervision exercised by the Consistory greatly
+hampered the Estiennes (Stephanus) in their enterprises. Nowadays the
+best known industry at Geneva is that of watchmaking, which was
+introduced in 1587 by Charles Cusin of Autun, and two years later
+regulations as to the trade were issued. In 1685 there were in Geneva
+100 master watchmakers, employing 300 work-people, who turned out 5000
+pieces a year, while in 1760 this trade employed 4000 work-people. Of
+recent years its prosperity has diminished greatly, so that the
+watchmaking and jewelry trades in 1902 numbered respectively but 38 and
+32 of the 394 establishments in Geneva which were subject to the factory
+laws. Lately, huge establishments have been constructed for the
+utilization of the power contained in the Rhone. The local commerce of
+Geneva is much aided by the fact that the city is nearly entirely
+surrounded by "free zones," in which no customs duties are levied,
+though the districts are politically French: this privilege was given to
+Gex in 1814, and to the Savoyard districts in 1860, when they were also
+neutralized.
+
+
+  Celebrities.
+
+Considering the small size of Geneva, till recently, it is surprising
+how many celebrated persons have been connected with it as natives or as
+residents. Here are a few of the principal, special articles being
+devoted to many of them in this work. In the 16th century, besides
+Calvin and Bonivard, we have Isaac Casaubon, the scholar; Robert and
+Henri Estienne, the printers, and, from 1572 to 1574, Joseph Scaliger
+himself, though but for a short time. J.J. Rousseau is, of course, the
+great Genevese of the 18th century. At that period, and in the 19th
+century, Geneva was a centre of light, especially in the case of various
+of the physical sciences. Among the scientific celebrities were de
+Saussure, the most many-sided of all; de Candolle and Boissier, the
+botanists; Alphonse Favre and Necker, the geologists; Marignac, the
+chemist; Deluc, the physicist, and Plantamour, the astronomer. Charles
+Bonnet was both a scientific man and a philosopher, while Amiel belonged
+to the latter class only. Pradier and Chaponnière, the sculptors;
+Arlaud, Diday and Calame, the artists; Mallet, who revealed Scandinavia
+to the literary world; Necker, the minister; Sismondi, the historian of
+the Italian republics; General Dufour, author of the great survey which
+bears the name of the "Dufour Map," have each a niche in the Temple of
+Fame. Of a less severe type were Cherbuliez, the novelist; Töpffer, who
+spread a taste for pedestrianism among Swiss youth; Duchosal, the poet;
+Marc Monnier, the littérateur; not to mention the names of any persons
+still living, or of politicians of any date.
+
+
+  The city and its buildings.
+
+The city of Geneva is situated at the south-western extremity of the
+beautiful lake of the same name, whence the "arrowy Rhone" flows
+westwards under the seven bridges by which the two halves of the town
+communicate with each other. To the south is the valley of the Arve
+(descending from the snows of the Mont Blanc chain), which unites with
+that of the Rhone a little below the town; while behind the Arve the
+grey and barren rocks of the Petit Salève rise like a wall, which in
+turn is overtopped by the distant and ethereal snows of Mont Blanc. Yet
+the actual site of the town is not as picturesque as that of several
+other spots in Switzerland. Though the cathedral crowns the hillock
+round which clusters the old part of the town, a large portion of the
+newer town is built on the alluvial flats on either bank of the Rhone.
+Since the demolition of the fortifications in 1849 the town has extended
+in every direction, and particularly on the right bank of the Rhone. It
+possesses many edifices, public and private, which are handsome or
+elegant, but it has almost nothing to which the memory reverts as a
+masterpiece of architectural art. It is possible that this is, in part,
+due to the artistic blight of the Calvinism which so long dominated the
+town. But, while lacking the medieval appearance of Fribourg or Bern, or
+Sion or Coire, the great number of modern fine buildings in Geneva,
+hotels, villas, &c., gives it an air of prosperity and comfort that
+attracts many visitors, though on others modern French architecture
+produces a blinding glare. On the other hand, there are broad quays
+along the river, while public gardens afford grateful shade.
+
+The cathedral (Protestant) of St Pierre is the finest of the older
+buildings in the city, but is a second-rate building, though as E.A.
+Freeman remarks, "it is an excellent example of a small cathedral of its
+own style and plan, with unusually little later alteration." The hillock
+on which it rises was no doubt the site of earlier churches, but the
+present Transitional building dates only from the 12th and 13th
+centuries, while its portico was built in the 18th century, after the
+model of the Pantheon at Rome. It contains a few sepulchral monuments,
+removed from the cloisters (pulled down in 1721), and a fine modern
+organ, but the historical old bell _La Clémence_ has been replaced by a
+newer and larger one which bears the same name. More interesting than
+the church itself is the adjoining chapel of the Maccabees, built in the
+15th century, and recently restored. Near the cathedral are the arsenal
+(now housing the historical museum, in which are preserved many relics
+of the "Escalade" of 1602, including the famous ladders), and the maison
+de ville or town hall. The latter building is first mentioned in 1448,
+but most of the present building dates from far later times, though the
+quaint paved spiral pathway (taking the place of a staircase in the
+interior) was made in the middle of the 16th century. In the _Salle du
+Conseil d'État_ some curious 15th-century frescoes have lately been
+discovered, while the old Salle des Festins is now known as the Salle de
+l'Alabama, in memory of the arbitration tribunal of 1872. In the
+15th-century Tour Baudet, adjoining the Town Hall, are preserved the
+rich archives of the city. Not far away is the palais de justice, built
+in 1709 as a hospital, but used as a court house since 1858. On the Île
+in the Rhone stands the tower (built c. 1219) of the old castle
+belonging to the bishop. Among the modern buildings we may mention the
+following: the University (founded in 1559, but raised to the rank of a
+University in 1873 only), the Athénée, the Conservatoire de Musique, the
+Victoria Hall (a concert hall, presented in 1904 to the city by Mr
+Barton, formerly H.B.M.'s Consul), the theatre, the Salle de la
+Réformation (for religious lectures and popular concerts), the Bâtiment
+Electoral, the Russian church and the new post office. At present the
+museums of various kinds at Geneva are widely dispersed, but a huge new
+building in course of construction (1906) will ultimately house most of
+them. The Musée Rath contains pictures and sculptures; the Musée Fol,
+antiquities of various dates; the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, _inter
+alia_, a fine collection of prints; the Musée Industriel, industrial
+objects and models; the Musée Archéologique, prehistoric and
+archaeological remains; the Musée d'Histoire Naturelle, scientific
+collections; and the Musée Epigraphique, a considerable number of
+inscriptions. Some way out of the town is the Musée Ariana (extensive
+art collections), left, with a fine park, in 1890 to the city by a rich
+citizen, Gustave Revilliod. The public library is in the university
+buildings and contains many valuable MSS. and printed books. Geneva
+boasts also of a fine observatory and of a number of technical schools
+(watchmaking, chemistry, medicine, commerce, fine arts, &c.), some of
+which are really annexes of the university, which in June 1906 was
+attended by 1158 matriculated students, of whom 903 were non-Swiss, the
+Russians (475 in number) forming the majority of the foreign students.
+Geneva is well supplied with charitable institutions, hospitals, &c.
+Among other remarkable sights of the city may be mentioned the great
+hydraulic establishment (built 1882-1899) of the _Forces Motrices du
+Rhône_ (turbines), the singular monument set up to the memory of the
+late duke of Brunswick who left his fortune to the city in 1873, and the
+Île Jean-Jacques Rousseau now connected with the Pont des Bergues. The
+house occupied by Rousseau is No. 40 in the Grand' Rue, while No. 13 in
+the same street is on the site of Calvin's house, though not the actual
+dwelling inhabited by him.
+
+
+  History.
+
+The real name of the city is _Genava_, that being the form under which
+it appears in almost all the known documents up to the 7th century,
+A.D., the variation _Genua_ (which has led to great confusion with
+Genoa) being also found in the 6th century. But _Geneva_ and _Gebenna_
+are of later date. The first mention of the city is made by Caesar
+(_Bell. Galli_. i. 6-7) who tells us that it was the last _oppidum_ of
+the Allobroges, and the nearest to the territory of the Helvetii, with
+which it was connected by a bridge that, for military reasons, he was
+forced to destroy. Inscriptions of later date state that it was only a
+_vicus_ of the Viennese province, while mentioning the fact that a gild
+of boatmen flourished there. But the many Roman remains found on the
+original site (in the region of the cathedral) of the city show that it
+must have been of some importance, and that it possessed a considerable
+commerce. About 400 the _Notitia Galliarum_ calls it a _civitas_ (so
+that it then had a municipal administration of its own), and reckons it
+as first among those of the Viennese. Probably this rise in dignity was
+connected with the establishment of a bishop's see there, the first
+bishop certainly known, Isaac, being heard of about 400 in a letter
+addressed by St Eucherius to Salvius, while, in 450, a letter of St Leo
+states that the see was then a suffragan of the archbishopric of Vienne.
+It is possible that there may be some ground for the local tradition
+that Christianity was introduced into this region by Dionysius and
+Paracodus, who successively occupied the see of Vienne, but another
+tradition that the first bishop was named St Nazarius rests on a
+confusion, as that saint belongs to Genoa and not to Geneva.
+
+About the middle of the 5th century A.D. it came into the possession of
+the Burgundians, who held it as late as 527 (thus leaving no room for
+any occupation by the Ostrogoths), and in 534 passed into the hands of
+the Franks. The Burgundian kings seem to have made Geneva one of their
+principal residences, and the _Notitia_ (above named) tells us that the
+city was _restaurata_ by King Gundibald (d. 516) which is generally
+supposed to mean that he first surrounded it with a wall, the city then
+comprising little more than the hill on which the present cathedral
+stands. That building is of course of much later date, but it seems
+certain that when (c. 513-516) Sigismund, son of King Gundibald, built a
+stone church on the site, it took the place of an earlier wooden church,
+constructed on Roman foundations, all three layers being clearly visible
+at the present day. We know that St Avitus, archbishop of Vienne (d.
+518), preached a sermon (preserved to us) at the dedication of a church
+at Geneva which had been built on the site of one burnt by the enemy,
+and the bits of half-burnt wood found in the second of the two layers
+mentioned above, seem to make it probable that the reference is to
+Sigismund's church. But Geneva was in no sense one of the great cities
+of the region, though it is mentioned in the _Antonine Itinerary_ and in
+the _Peutinger Table_ (both 4th century A.D.), no doubt owing to its
+important position on the bank of the Rhone, which then rose to the foot
+of the hill on which the original city stood. This is no doubt the
+reason why, apart from some passing allusions (for instance, Charles the
+Great held a council of war there in 773, on his first journey to
+Italy), we hear very little about it.
+
+In 1032, with the rest of the kingdom of Burgundy or Arles, it reverted
+to the emperor Conrad II., who was crowned king at Payerne in 1033, and
+in 1034 was recognized as such at Geneva by a great assembly of nobles
+from Germany, Burgundy and Italy, this rather unwilling surrender
+signifying the union of those 3 kingdoms. It is said that Conrad
+granted the temporal sovereignty of the city to the bishop, who, in
+1162, was raised to the rank of a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, being
+elected, from 1215, by the chapter, but, after 1418, named directly by
+the pope himself.
+
+Like many other prince-bishops, the ruler of Geneva had to defend his
+rights: without against powerful neighbours, and within against the
+rising power of the citizens. These struggles constitute the entire
+political history of Geneva up to about 1535, when a new epoch of unrest
+opens with the adoption of Protestantism. The first foe without was the
+family of the counts of the Genevois (the region south of the city and
+in the neighbourhood of Annecy), who were also "protectors" (_advocati_)
+of the church of Geneva, and are first heard of in the 11th and 12th
+centuries. Their influence was probably never stronger than during the
+rule as bishop (1118-1119) of Guy, the brother of the reigning count.
+But his successor, Humbert de Grammont, resumed the grants made to the
+count, and in 1125 by the Accord of Seyssel, the count fully
+acknowledged the suzerainty of the bishop. A fresh struggle under Bishop
+Ardutius (1135-1185) ended in the confirmation by Frederick Barbarossa,
+as emperor, of the position of the bishop as subject to no one but
+himself (1153), this declaration being strengthened by the elevation of
+the bishop and his successors to the rank of princes of the empire
+(1162).
+
+In 1250 the counts of Savoy first appear in connexion with Geneva, being
+mortgagees of the Genevois family, and, in 1263, practically their heirs
+as "protectors" of the city. It was thus natural that the citizens
+should invoke the aid of Savoy against their bishop, Robert of the
+Genevois (1276-1287). But Count Amadeus of Savoy not merely seized
+(1287) the castle built by the bishops (about 1219) on the Île, but also
+(1288) the office of _vicedominus_ [_vidomne_], the official through
+whom the bishop exercised his minor judicial rights. The new bishop,
+William of Conflans (1287-1295) could recover neither, and in 1290 had
+to formally recognize the position of Savoy (which was thus legalized)
+in his own cathedral city. It was during this struggle that about 1287
+(these privileges were finally sanctioned by the bishop in 1300) the
+citizens organized themselves into a commune or corporation, elected 4
+syndics, and showed their independent position by causing a seal for the
+city to be prepared. The bishop was thus threatened on two sides by foes
+of whom the influence was rising, and against whom his struggles were of
+no avail. In 1365 the count obtained from the emperor the office of
+imperial vicar over Geneva, but the next bishop William of Marcossay
+(1366-1377: he began the construction of a new wall round the greatly
+extended city, a process not completed till 1428) secured the withdrawal
+of this usurpation (1366-1367), which the count finally renounced
+(1371). One of that bishop's successors, Adhémar Fabri (1385-1388)
+codified and confirmed all the franchises, rights and privileges of the
+citizens (1387), this grant being the _Magna Carta_ of the city of
+Geneva. In 1401 Amadeus VIII. of Savoy bought the county of the
+Genevois, as the dynasty of its rulers had become extinct. Geneva was
+now surrounded on all sides by the dominions of the house of Savoy.
+
+Amadeus did homage, in 1405, to the bishop for those of the newly
+acquired lands which he held from the bishop. But, after his power had
+been strengthened by his elevation (1417) by the emperor to the rank of
+a duke, and by his succession to the principality of Piedmont (1418,
+long held by a cadet branch of his house), Amadeus tried to purchase
+Geneva from its bishop, John of Pierre-Scisé or Rochetaillée
+(1418-1422). This offer was refused both by the bishop and by the
+citizens, while in 1420 the emperor Sigismund declared that he alone was
+the suzerain of the city, and forbade any one to attack it or harm it in
+any fashion. Oddly enough Amadeus did in the end get hold of the city,
+for, having been elected pope under the name of Felix V., he named
+himself to the vacant see of Geneva (1444), and kept it, after his
+resignation of the Papacy in 1449, till his death in 1451. For the most
+part of this period he resided in Geneva. From 1451 to 1522 the see was
+almost continuously held by a cadet of the house of Savoy, which thus
+treated it as a kind of appange.
+
+Most probably Geneva would soon have become an integral part of the
+realms of the house of Savoy had it not been for the appearance of a new
+protector on the scene--the Swiss confederation. In the early 15th
+century the town of Fribourg made an alliance with Geneva for commercial
+purposes (the cloth warehouses of Fribourg at Geneva being enlarged in
+1432 and 1465), as the cloth manufactured at Fribourg found a market in
+the fairs of Geneva (which are mentioned as early as 1262, and were at
+the height of their prosperity about 1450). The duke, however, was no
+better inclined towards the Swiss than towards Geneva. He struck a blow
+at both, when, in 1462-1463, he induced his son-in-law, Louis XI. of
+France, to forbid French merchants to attend the fairs of Geneva,
+altering also the days of the fairs at Lyons (established in 1420 and
+increased in number in 1463) so as to make them clash with those fixed
+for the fairs of Geneva. This nearly ruined Geneva, which, too, in 1477
+had to pay a large indemnity to the Swiss army that, after the defeat of
+Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, advanced to take vengeance on the
+dominions of his ally, Yolande, dowager duchess of Savoy and sister of
+Louis XI., as well as on the bishop of Geneva, her brother-in-law. But,
+after this payment, the bishop made an alliance with the Swiss. A
+prolonged attempt was made (1517-1530) by the reigning duke of Savoy,
+Charles III. (1504-1553), to secure Geneva for his family, at first with
+the help of his bastard cousin John (1513-1522), the last of his house
+to hold the see. In this struggle the syndic, Philibert Berthelier,
+succeeded in concluding (1519) an alliance with Fribourg, which,
+however, had to be given up almost immediately. It split the citizens
+into two parties; the _Eidgenots_ relying on the Swiss, while the
+_Mamelus_ (mamelukes) supported the duke. Berthelier was executed in
+1519, and Amé Lévrier in 1524, but Bezanson Hugues (d. 1532) took their
+place, and in 1526 succeeded in renewing the alliance with Fribourg and
+adding to it one with Bern. This much enraged the duke, who took active
+steps against the citizens, and tried (1527) to carry off the bishop,
+Pierre de la Baume (1522-1544), who soon found it best to make his
+submission.
+
+The Genevese, thus abandoned by their natural protector, looked to the
+Swiss for help. They sent (October 1530) a considerable army to save the
+city. This armed intervention compelled the duke to sign the treaty of
+St Julien (19th October) by which he engaged not to trouble the Genevese
+any more, agreeing that if he did so the two towns of Fribourg and Bern
+should have the right to occupy his barony of Vaud. The two towns also,
+by the decision given as arbitrators at Payerne (30th December 1530),
+upheld their alliance with Geneva, condemned the duke to pay all the
+expenses of the war, and confirmed the clause as to their right to
+occupy Vaud; they also surrounding the exercise of the powers of
+_vidomne_ by the duke with so many restrictions that in 1532 the duke,
+after much resistance, formally agreed to recognize the alliance of
+Geneva with the two towns and not to annoy the Genevese any more. Thus a
+legal tie between Geneva and two of the Swiss cantons was established,
+while the duke did not any longer venture to annoy the Genevese, as he
+clung to his fine barony of Vaud. In the course of this struggle (and
+especially after the last episcopal _vidomne_ had left the town in 1526)
+the municipal authorities of the city greatly developed, a _grand
+conseil_ of 200 members being set up in imitation of those at Bern and
+at Fribourg, while within the larger assembly there was a _petit
+conseil_ of 60 members for more confidential business. Thus 1530 marks
+the date at which Geneva became its own mistress within, while allied
+externally with the Swiss confederation. But hardly had this settlement
+been reached when a fresh element of discord threatened to wholly upset
+matters--the adoption of Protestant principles by the city. Just before
+this event, however, the fortifications were once more (1534) rebuilt
+(bits still remain) and extended so as to take in several new suburbs,
+including that of St Gervais on the right bank of the Rhone which, till
+then, seems to have been unenclosed (1511-1527).
+
+In 1532 William Farel, a Protestant preacher from Dauphiné, who had
+converted Vaud, &c. to the new belief, first came to Geneva and settled
+there in 1533. But although Bern supported the Reform, Fribourg did
+not, and in 1534 withdrew from its alliance with Geneva, while directly
+afterwards the duke of Savoy made a fresh attempt to seize the city. On
+the 10th of August 1535 the Protestant faith was formally adopted by
+Geneva, but an offer of help from France having been refused, as the
+city was unwilling to give up any of its sovereign rights, the duke's
+party continued its intrigues. Finally Bern, fearing that Geneva might
+fall to France instead of to itself, sent an army to protect the city
+(January 1536), but, not being able to persuade the citizens to give up
+their freedom, had to content itself with the conquest of the barony of
+Vaud and of the bishopric of Lausanne, thus acquiring rich territories,
+while becoming close neighbours of Geneva (January and March 1536).
+Meanwhile Farel had been advancing the cause of religious reform, which
+was definitively adopted on the 21st of May 1536. In July 1536 a French
+refugee, John Calvin (q.v.), came to Geneva for a night, but was
+detained by Farel who found in him a powerful helper. The opposition
+party of the _Libertins_ succeeded in getting them both exiled in 1538,
+but, in September 1541, Calvin was recalled (Farel spending the rest of
+his life at Neuchâtel, where he died 1565) to Geneva. Born in 1509, he
+was then about 32 years of age. He set up this theocracy in Geneva, and
+ruled the reorganized republic with a strong hand till his death in
+1564, when he was succeeded by the milder Théodore de Beza (1519-1605).
+
+The great blot on Calvin's rule was his intolerance of other thinkers,
+as exemplified by his burning of Gruet (1547) and of Servetus (1553).
+But, on the other hand, he founded (1559) the Academy, which, originally
+meant as a seminary for his preachers, later greatly extended its scope,
+and in 1873 assumed the rank of a University. The strict rule of Calvin
+drove out many old Genevese families, while he caused to be received as
+citizens many French, Italian and English refugees, so that Geneva
+became not merely the "Protestant Rome" but also quite a cosmopolitan
+little city. The Bernese often interfered with the internal affairs of
+Geneva (while Calvin, a Frenchman, naturally looked towards France), and
+refused to allow the city to conclude any alliances save with itself.
+That alliance was finally renewed in 1558, while in 1560 the Romanist
+cantons made one with the duke of Savoy, a zealous supporter of the old
+faith. In 1564, after long negotiations, Bern restored to the duke part
+of its conquests of 1536, viz. Gex, the Genevois and the Chablais,
+Geneva being thus once more placed amid the dominions of the duke;
+though by the same treaty (that of Lausanne, October 1564, Calvin having
+died the preceding May) the alliance of Bern with Geneva was maintained.
+In 1579 Geneva was included in the alliance concluded by France with
+Bern and Soleure, while in 1584 Zürich joined Bern in another alliance
+with Geneva. The struggle widened as Geneva became a pawn in the great
+attempt of the duke of Savoy to bring back his subjects to the old
+faith, his efforts being seconded by François de Sales, the "apostle of
+the Chablais." But the king of France, for political reasons, opposed
+Savoy, with whom, however, he made peace in 1601. In December 1602
+François de Sales was consecrated bishop of Geneva (since 1535 the
+bishops had lived at Annecy), and a few days later the duke of Savoy
+made a final attempt to get hold of the city by a surprise attack in the
+night of 11-12th December 1602 (Old Style), known in history as the
+"Escalade," as ladders were used to scale the city walls. It was
+successfully repelled, over 200 of the foe being slain, while 17
+Genevese only perished. Filled with joy at their rescue from this
+attack, the citizens crowded to their cathedral, where Beza (then 83
+years of age) bid them to sing the 124th Psalm which has ever since been
+sung on the anniversary of this great delivery. The peace of St Julien
+(21st of July 1603) marked the final defeat of the duke of Savoy in the
+long struggle waged (since 1290) by his house against the city of
+Geneva.
+
+In the charter of 1387 we hear only of the _conseil général_ (composed
+of all male heads of families) which acted as the legislature, and
+elected annually the executive of 4 syndics; no doubt this form of rule
+existed earlier than 1387. Even before 1387 there was also the _petit
+conseil_ or _conseil ordinaire_ or _conseil étroit_, a body not
+recognized by the law, though it became very powerful; it was composed
+of the 4 syndics, with several other counsellors, and acted originally
+as the adviser of the syndics who were legally responsible for the rule
+of the city. In 1457 we first hear of the Council of the Fifty
+(re-established in 1502 and later known as the Sixty), and in 1526 of
+the Council of the Two Hundred (established in imitation of those of
+Bern and Fribourg), both being summoned in special cases of urgency. The
+members of both were named by the _petit conseil_, of which, in turn,
+the members were confirmed or not by the Two Hundred. By the
+Constitution of 1543 the _conseil général_ had only the right of
+choosing the 4 syndics out of a list of 8 presented by the _petit
+conseil_ and the Two Hundred, which therefore really elected them,
+subject to a formal approbation on the part of the larger body. This
+system was slightly modified in 1568, the constitution of that date
+lasting till 1794. The _conseil général_ fell more and more into the
+background, the members of the other councils gradually obtained the
+privilege of being irremovable, and the system of co-optation resulted
+in the creation of a close monopoly of political offices in the hands of
+a few leading families.
+
+During the 17th and 18th centuries, while the Romanist majority of the
+Swiss cantons steadily refused to accept Geneva as even a subordinate
+member of the Confederation, the city itself was distracted on several
+occasions by attempts of the citizens, as a whole, to gain some share in
+the aristocratic government of the town, though these attempts were only
+partially successful. But the last half of the 18th century marks the
+most brilliant period in the literary history of Geneva, whether as
+regards natives or resident foreigners, while in the succeeding half
+century the number of Genevese scientific celebrities is remarkable. In
+1794 the effects of the French Revolution were shown in the more liberal
+constitution granted by the city government. But in 1798 the city was
+annexed to France and became the capital of the French department of
+Léman (to be carefully distinguished from the Swiss _canton_ of Léman,
+that is Vaud, of the Helvetic Republic, also set up in 1798), while in
+1802, by the Concordat, the ancient bishopric of Geneva was suppressed.
+On the fall of Napoleon (1813) the city recovered its independence, and
+finally, in 1815, was received as the junior member of the Swiss
+confederation, several bits of French and Savoyard territory (as pointed
+out above) being added to the narrow bounds of the old Genevese Republic
+in order to give the town some protection against its non-Swiss
+neighbours.
+
+The constitution of 1814 set up a common form of government for the city
+and the canton, the city not obtaining its municipal independence till
+the constitution of 1842. From 1535 to 1798 public worship according to
+the Romanist form had been strictly forbidden. In 1799 already the first
+attempts were made to reestablish it, and in 1803 the church of St
+Germain was handed over to the Romanists. The constitution of 1814,
+looking forward to the annexation of Romanist districts to the city
+territory to form the new canton, guaranteed to that body the freedom of
+worship, at any rate in these newly gained districts. In 1819 the canton
+(the new portions of which were inhabited mainly by Romanists) was
+annexed to the bishopric of Lausanne, the bishop in 1821 being
+authorized to add "and of Geneva" to his episcopal style. After the
+adventure of the "Escalade" the fortifications were once more
+strengthened and extended, these works being completed about 1726. But,
+in 1822, some of the bastions were converted into promenades, while in
+1849 the rest of the fortifications were pulled down so as to allow the
+city to expand and gradually assume its present aspect.
+
+When Geneva recovered its political independence in 1814 a new
+constitution was drawn up, but it was very reactionary, for there is no
+mention in it of the sovereignty of the people. It set up a _conseil
+représentatif_ or legislature of 250 members, which named the _conseil
+d'état_ or executive, while it was itself elected by a limited class,
+for the electoral qualification was the annual payment of direct taxes
+to the amount of 20 Swiss livres or about 23 shillings. It was not till
+1842 that this system, though much criticized, was modified. In the
+early part of 1841 the "Third of March Association" was formed to watch
+over the interests of the citizens, and in November of that year the
+government was forced by a popular demonstration to summon an _assemblée
+constituante_, which in 1842 elaborated a new constitution that was
+accepted by the citizens. Besides bestowing on the city a government
+distinct from that of the canton, it set up for the latter a _grand
+conseil_ or legislature, and a conseil _d'état_ or executive of 13
+members, both elected for the term of 4 years. But this constitution did
+not seem liberal enough to many citizens, so that in 1846 the government
+gave way to the Radicals, led by James Fazy (1794-1878), who drew up a
+constitution that was accepted by a popular vote on the 21st of May
+1847. It was much more advanced than that of 1842, and in its main
+features still prevails. From that date till 1864 the Radicals ruled the
+state, their head, Fazy, being an able man, though extravagant and
+inclined to absolutism. Under his sway the town was modernized and
+developed, but the finances were badly administered, and Fazy became
+more and more a radical dictator. "On voudrait faire de Genève," sighed
+the conservative, de la Rive, "la plus petite des grandes villes, et
+pour moi je préfère qu'elle reste la plus grande des petites villes." In
+1861 and in 1864 Fazy failed to secure his re-election to the _conseil
+d'état_, riots followed his defeat, and the Federal troops were forced
+to intervene so as to restore order.
+
+The Democratic party (liberal-conservative) ruled from 1865 to 1870, and
+did much to improve the finances of the state. In 1870 the Radicals
+regained the supremacy under their new chief, Antoine Carteret
+(1813-1889) and kept it till 1878. This was a period of religious
+strife, due to the irritation caused by the Vatican council, and the
+pope's attempt to revive the bishopric of Geneva. Gaspard Mermillod
+(1824-1891) was named in 1864 _curé_ of Geneva, and made bishop of
+Hebron _in partibus_, acting as the helper of the bishop of Lausanne.
+Early in 1873 the pope named him "vicar apostolic of Geneva," but he was
+expelled a few weeks later from Switzerland, not returning till 1883,
+when he became bishop of Lausanne, being made cardinal in 1890. The
+Radical government enacted severe laws as to the Romanists in Geneva,
+and gave privileges to the Christian Catholic Church, which, organized
+in 1874 in Switzerland, had absorbed the community founded at Geneva by
+Père Hyacinthe, an ex-Carmelite friar. The Romanists therefore were no
+longer recognized by the state, and were persecuted in divers ways,
+though the tide afterwards turned in their favour. The Democrats ruled
+from 1878 to 1880, and introduced the "Referendum" (1879) into the
+cantonal constitution, but, their policy of the separation of church and
+state having been rejected by the people at a vote, they gave way to the
+Radicals. The Radicals went out in 1889, and the Democrats held the
+reins of power till 1897, their leader being Gustave Ador. In 1891 they
+introduced the "Initiative" into the cantonal constitution, and in 1892
+the principle of proportional representation so far as regards the
+_grand conseil_, while Th. Turrettini did much to increase the
+economical prosperity of the city. In 1897 the Radicals came in again,
+their leaders being first Georges Favon (1843-1902) till his death, and
+then Henri Fazy, a distant relative of James and an excellent historian.
+They attempted to rule by aid of the Socialists, but their power
+fluctuated as the demands of the Socialists became greater. On the 30th
+of June 1907 the Genevese, by a popular vote, decided on the separation
+of Church and State.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--D. Baud-Bovy, _Peintres genevois, 1702-1807_ (2 vols.,
+  Geneva, 1903-1904); J.T. de Belloc, _Le Cardinal Mermillod_ (Fribourg,
+  1892): M. Besson, Recherches _sur les origines des évêchés de Genève,
+  Lausanne et Sion_ (Fribourg, 1906); J.D. Blavignac, Armorial genevois
+  (Geneva, 1849), and _Études sur Genève depuis l'antiquité jusqu'à nos
+  jours_ (2 vols., Geneva, 1872-1874); Fr. Bonivard, _Chroniques de
+  Genève_ (Reprint) (2 vols., Geneva, 1867); F. Borel, _Les Foires de
+  Genève au XV^e siècle_ (Geneva, 1892); Ch. Borgeaud, _Histoire de
+  l'université de Genève, 1559-1798_ (Geneva, 1900); E. Choisy, _La
+  Théocratie à Genève au temps de Calvin_ (Geneva, 1898), and _L'État
+  chrétien Calviniste à Genève au temps de Théodore de Bèze_ (Geneva,
+  1902); F. de Crue, _La Guerre féodale de Genève et l'établissement de
+  la Commune, 1205-1320_ (Geneva, 1907); H. Denkinger, _Histoire
+  populaire du canton de Genève_ (Geneva, 1905); E. Doumergue, _La
+  Genève Calviniste_ (containing a minute topographical description of
+  16th-century Geneva, and forming vol. iii. of the author's _Jean
+  Calvin_) (Lausanne, 1905); E. Dunant, _Les Relations politiques de
+  Genève avec Berne et les Suisses, de 1536 à 1564_ (Geneva, 1894);
+  _Documents de l'Escalade de Genève_ (Geneva, 1903); G. Fatio and F.
+  Boissonnas, _La Campagne genevoise d'après nature_ (Geneva, 1899), and
+  _Genève à travers les siècles_ (Geneva, 1900); H. Fazy, _Histoire de
+  Genève à l'époque de l'Escalade, 1598-1603_ (Geneva, 1902), and _Les
+  Constitutions de la République de Genève_ (to 1847) (Geneva, 1890);
+  J.B.G. Galiffe, _Genève historique et archéologique_ (2 vols., Geneva,
+  1869-1872); J.A. Gautier, _Histoire de Genève_ (to 1691) (6 vols.,
+  1896-1903); F. Gribble and J.H. and M.H. Lewis, _Geneva_ (London,
+  1908); J. Jullien, Histoire de Genève (new ed.; Geneva, 1889); C.
+  Martin, _La Maison de Ville de Genève_ (Geneva, 1906); _Mémoires et
+  documents_ (publ. by the local Historical Society since 1821); F.
+  Mugnier, _Les Évêques de Genève-Annecy, 1535-1870_ (Paris, 1888);
+  _Pierre de Genève, St_ (monograph on the cathedral), 4 parts (Geneva,
+  1891-1899); A. de Montet, _Dictionnaire biographique des Genevois,
+  &c._ (2 vols., Lausanne, 1878); C.L. Perrin, _Les Vieux Quartiers de
+  Genève_ (Geneva, 1904); A. Pfleghart, _Die schweizerische
+  Uhrenindustrie_ (Leipzig, 1908); _Régeste genevois avant 1312_
+  (Geneva, 1866); _Registres du conseil de Genève_, vols. i. and ii.,
+  1409-1477 (Geneva, 1900-1906); A. Roget, _Histoire du peuple de Genève
+  depuis la Réforme jusqu'à l'Escalade_ (7 vols., from 1536-1568;
+  Geneva, 1870-1883); A. Rilliet, _Le Rétablissement du Catholicisme à
+  Genève il y a deux siècles_ (Geneva, 1880); P. Vaucher, _Luttes de
+  Genève contre la Savoie_, 1517-1530 (Geneva, 1889); _Recueil
+  généalogique suisse (Genève)_ (2 vols., Geneva, 1902-1907).
+       (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GENEVA CONVENTION, an international agreement for the purpose of
+improving the condition of wounded soldiers of armies in the field,
+originally adopted at an international conference held at Geneva,
+Switzerland, in 1864, and afterwards replaced by the convention of July
+6, 1906, also adopted at Geneva. This later agreement is the one now
+known as the Geneva Convention. The conference of 1864 was the result of
+a movement which sprang from the publication in 1862 of a book entitled
+_Un Souvenir de Solférino_ by Henri Dunant, a Genevese philanthropist,
+in which he described the sufferings of the wounded at the battle of
+Solférino with such vivid effect that the subject became forthwith one
+of public interest. It was energetically taken up by M. Gustave Moynier,
+whose agitation led to an unofficial congress being held at Geneva in
+October 1863. This was followed by an official one at Geneva, called by
+the Swiss government in 1864. The convention which was there signed
+(22nd August 1864) on behalf of the states represented, afterwards
+received the adherence of every civilized power.
+
+At a second conference on the same subject, held at Geneva in 1868, a
+supplementary convention was drawn up, consisting of fourteen additional
+articles, five of which related to war on land and nine to naval
+warfare. The additional articles were not, however, ratified by the
+chief states, and never became operative. The Brussels International
+Conference (1874) for the codification of the law and customs of war
+occupied itself with the Geneva Convention and again drew up a number of
+articles which were submitted to the interested governments. But, as in
+the case of the additional articles of 1868, no effect was ever given to
+them.
+
+At the Peace Conference of 1899 Great Britain withdrew her objections to
+the application of the convention to maritime warfare, and agreed to the
+adoption of a special convention "adapting to Maritime warfare the
+principles of the Geneva Convention." A _voeu_ was also adopted by the
+conference expressing the wish that a special conference should be held
+as soon as possible for the purpose of revising the convention of 1864.
+
+In deference to the above _voeu_ the Swiss government in 1901 sounded
+the other parties to the convention of 1864 as to whether the time had
+not come to call the proposed special conference, but the replies
+received did not give much encouragement and the matter was dropped for
+the time being. By a circular note of the 17th of February 1903, the
+Swiss government invited all the states which had signed or adhered to
+the Geneva Convention to send representatives to a conference to be held
+at Geneva in the following September. Some governments did not accept
+the invitation in time and the conference had to be postponed. At the
+beginning of 1904, there being no apparent obstacle, the Swiss
+government again invited the powers to send delegates to a conference in
+the following May. Meanwhile war broke out between Russia and Japan and
+there was again an adjournment. At length in March 1906 an invitation
+was accepted by thirty-five states, only Turkey, Salvador, Bolivia,
+Venezuela, Nicaragua and Colombia abstaining and the conference was
+held at Geneva in July 1906, when a full revised convention was adopted,
+which now takes the place of that of 1864.[1] The adoption of the new
+Geneva Convention entailed a revision of the above-mentioned Hague
+Convention and a new edition of the latter is one of the documents
+adopted at the Peace Conference of 1907.
+
+The new Geneva Convention consists of thirty-three articles divided into
+the following chapters, (i.) the wounded and sick; (ii.) medical units
+and establishments; (iii.) personnel; (iv.) material; (v.) convoys of
+evacuation; (vi.) the distinctive emblem; (vii.) application and
+carrying out of the Convention; (viii.) prevention of abuses and
+infractions; (ix.) general provisions.
+
+The essential parts of the new Hague Convention of 1907 (18th of
+October) adapting the above conventions to maritime warfare as follows:
+(N.B. The alterations are in italics. The parts of the older convention
+of 1899 which have been suppressed are in brackets).
+
+  i. Military hospital-ships, that is to say, ships constructed or
+  assigned by states specially and solely for the purpose of assisting
+  the wounded, sick or shipwrecked, and the names of which shall have
+  been communicated to the belligerent powers at the commencement or
+  during the course of hostilities, and in any case before they are
+  employed, shall be respected and cannot be captured while hostilities
+  last.
+
+  These ships, moreover, are not on the same footing as men-of-war as
+  regards their stay in a neutral port.
+
+  ii. Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of private
+  individuals or officially-recognized Relief Societies, shall likewise
+  be respected and exempt from capture, provided the belligerent power
+  to whom they belong has given them an official commission and has
+  notified their names to the hostile power at the commencement of or
+  during hostilities, and in any case before they are employed.
+
+  These ships should be furnished with a certificate from the competent
+  authorities, declaring that they had been under their control while
+  fitting out and on final departure.
+
+  iii. Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of private
+  individuals or officially-recognized Societies of neutral countries
+  shall be respected and exempt from capture [if the neutral power to
+  whom they belong has given them an official commission and notified
+  their names to the belligerent powers at the commencement of or during
+  hostilities, and in any case before they are employed] _on condition
+  that they are placed under the orders of one of the belligerents, with
+  the previous consent of their own Government and with the
+  authorization of the belligerent, and on condition that the latter
+  shall have notified their names to the enemy at the commencement or
+  during the course of hostilities, in any event, before they are
+  employed._
+
+  iv. The ships mentioned in Articles i., ii. and iii. shall afford
+  relief and assistance to the wounded, sick and shipwrecked of the
+  belligerents independently of their nationality.
+
+  The governments engage not to use these ships for any military
+  purpose.
+
+  These ships must not in any way hamper the movements of the
+  combatants.
+
+  During and after an engagement they will act at their own risk and
+  peril.
+
+  The belligerents will have the right to control and visit them; they
+  can refuse to help them, order them off, make them take a certain
+  course, and put a commissioner on board; they can even detain them, if
+  important circumstances require it.
+
+  As far as possible the belligerents shall inscribe in the sailing
+  papers of the hospital-ships the orders they give them.
+
+  v. The military hospital-ships shall be distinguished by being painted
+  white outside with a horizontal band of green about a metre and a half
+  in breadth.
+
+  The ships mentioned in Articles ii. and iii. shall be distinguished by
+  being painted white outside with a horizontal band of red about a
+  metre and a half in breadth.
+
+  The boats of the ships above mentioned, as also small craft which may
+  be used for hospital work, shall be distinguished by similar painting.
+
+  All hospital-ships shall make themselves known by hoisting, together
+  with their national flag, the white flag with a red cross provided by
+  the Geneva Convention, _and, in addition, if they belong to a neutral
+  State, by hoisting on the mainmast the national flag of the
+  belligerent under whose direction they are placed._
+
+  _Hospital-ships which, under the terms of Article iv., are detained
+  by the enemy, must lower the national flag of the belligerent under
+  whom they were acting._
+
+  _The above-mentioned vessels and boats, desiring at night-time to
+  ensure the respect due to them, shall, with the consent of the
+  belligerent whom they are accompanying, take the necessary steps that
+  the special painting denoting them shall be sufficiently conspicuous._
+
+  vi. [Neutral merchantmen, yachts or vessels, having, or taking on
+  board, sick, wounded or shipwrecked of the belligerents, cannot be
+  captured for so doing, but they are liable to capture for any
+  violation of neutrality they may have committed.]
+
+  _The distinctive signs provided by Article v. can only be used,
+  whether in time of peace or in time of war, to protect ships therein
+  mentioned._
+
+  vii. _In the case of a fight on board a war-ship, the hospitals shall
+  be respected and shall receive as much consideration as possible._
+
+  _These hospitals and their belongings are subject to the laws of war,
+  but shall not be employed for any other purpose so long as they shall
+  be necessary for the sick and wounded._
+
+  _Nevertheless, the commander who has them under his orders, may make
+  use of them in case of important military necessity, but he shall
+  first ensure the safety of the sick and wounded on board._
+
+  viii. _The protection due to hospital-ships and to hospitals on board
+  war-ships shall cease if they are used against the enemy._
+
+  _The fact that the crew of hospital-ships, and attached to hospitals
+  on war-ships, are armed for the maintenance of order and for the
+  defence of the sick or wounded, and the existence of a
+  radio-telegraphic installation on board, is not considered as a
+  justification for withdrawing the above-mentioned protection._
+
+  ix. _Belligerents may appeal to the charitable zeal of commanders of
+  neutral merchant vessels, yachts or other craft, to take on board and
+  look after the sick and wounded._
+
+  _Ships having responded to this appeal, as well as those who have
+  spontaneously taken on board sick, wounded or shipwrecked men, shall
+  have the advantage of a special protection and of certain immunities.
+  In no case shall they be liable to capture on account of such
+  transport; but subject to any promise made to them they are liable to
+  capture for any violation of neutrality they may have committed._
+
+  [vii.] x. The religious, medical or hospital staff of any captured
+  ship is inviolable, and its members cannot be made prisoners of war.
+  On leaving the ship they take with them the objects and surgical
+  instruments which are their own private property.
+
+  This staff shall continue to discharge its duties while necessary, and
+  can afterwards leave when the commander-in-chief considers it
+  possible.
+
+  The belligerents must guarantee to the staff that has fallen into
+  their hands [the enjoyment of their salaries intact] _the same
+  allowances and pay as those of persons of the same rank in their own
+  navy_.
+
+  [viii.] xi. Sailors and soldiers, _and other persons officially
+  attached to navies or armies_, who are taken on board when sick or
+  wounded, to whatever nation they belong, shall be [protected]
+  respected and looked after by the captors.
+
+  xii. _Every vessel of war of a belligerent party may claim the return
+  of the wounded, sick or shipwrecked who are on board military
+  hospital-ships, hospital-ships of aid societies or of private
+  individuals, merchant ships, yachts or other craft, whatever be the
+  nationality of these vessels._
+
+  xiii. _If the wounded, sick or shipwrecked are received on board a
+  neutral ship of war, it shall be provided, as far as possible, that
+  they may take no further part in war operations._
+
+  xiv. The shipwrecked, wounded or sick of one of the belligerents who
+  fall into the hands of the other, are prisoners of war. The captor
+  must decide, according to circumstances, if it is best to keep them or
+  send them to a port of his own country, to a neutral port, or even to
+  a hostile port. In the last case, prisoners thus repatriated cannot
+  serve as long as the war lasts.
+
+  xv. The shipwrecked, wounded or sick who are landed at a neutral port
+  with the consent of the local authorities, must, failing a contrary
+  arrangement between the neutral State and the belligerents, be guarded
+  by the neutral State, so that they may not be again able to take part
+  in the military operations.
+
+  _The expenses of hospital treatment and internment shall be borne by
+  the State to which the shipwrecked, wounded or sick belong._
+       (T. Ba.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Another International Conference held in December 1904 at the
+    Hague dealt with the status of hospital-ships in time of war. Great
+    Britain did not take part in this Conference. Her abstention,
+    however, was not owing to any objection of principle, but purely to
+    considerations of domestic legislation.
+
+
+
+
+GENEVA, LAKE OF, the largest lake of which any portion belongs to
+Switzerland, and indeed in central Europe. It is called _Lacus Lemannus_
+by the old Latin and Greek writers, in 4th century A.D. _Lacus
+Lausonius_ or _Losanetes_, in the middle ages generally _Lac de
+Lausanne_, but from the 16th century onwards _Lac de Genève_, though
+from the end of the 18th century the name _Lac Léman_ was
+revived--according to Prof. Forel _Le Léman_ is the proper form. Its
+area is estimated at 223 sq. m. (Swiss Topographical Bureau) or 225½ sq.
+m. (Forel), of which about 140 sq. m. (134½ sq. m. Forel) are
+politically Swiss (123½ sq. m. belonging to the canton of Vaud, 11½ sq.
+m. to that of Geneva, and 5 sq. m. to that of the Valais), the remainder
+(83 sq. m.) being French since the annexation of Savoy in 1860--the
+entire lake is included in the territory (Swiss or Savoyard) neutralized
+by the congress of Vienna in 1815. The French part takes in nearly the
+whole of the south shore, save its western and eastern extremities,
+which belong respectively to Geneva and to the Valais.
+
+  The lake is formed by the Rhone, which enters it at its east end,
+  between Villeneuve (E.) and St Gingolph (W.), and quits it at its west
+  end, flowing through the city of Geneva. The only important
+  tributaries are the Drance (S.), the Venoge (N.) and the Veveyse (N.).
+  The form of the lake is that of a crescent, of which the east end is
+  broad and rounded, while the west end tapers towards the city of
+  Geneva. The bird's eye length of the whole lake, from Chillon to
+  Geneva, is 39½ m., but along its axis 45 m. The coast-line of the
+  north shore is 59 m. in length and that of the south shore 44¾ m. The
+  maximum depth is 1015½ ft., but the mean depth only 500 ft. The
+  surface is 1231¼ ft. (Swiss Topog. Bureau) or 1220 ft. (Forel) above
+  sea-level. The greatest width (between Morges and Amphion) is 8½ m.,
+  but the normal width is 5 m. The lake forms two well-marked divisions,
+  separated by the strait of Promenthoux, which is 216½ ft. in depth, as
+  a bar divides the Grand Lac from the Petit Lac. The _Grand Lac_
+  includes the greater portion of the lake, the _Petit Lac_ (to the west
+  of the strait or bar) being the special Genevese portion of the lake,
+  and having an area of but 30½ sq. m. The unusual blueness of the
+  waters has long been remarked, and the transparency increases the
+  farther we get from the point where the Rhone enters it, the deposits
+  which the river brings down from the Alps gradually sinking to the
+  bottom of the lake. At Geneva we recall Byron's phrase, "the blue
+  rushing of the arrowy Rhone" (_Childe Harold_, canto iii. stanza 71).
+  The limit of visibility of a white disk is 33 ft. in winter (in
+  February 1891 Prof. Forel observed an extreme of 70½ ft.) and 21¼ ft.
+  in summer. Apart from the seasonal changes in the level of the lake
+  (which is highest in summer, no doubt because of the melting of the
+  Alpine snows that feed the Rhone), there are also the remarkable
+  temporary disturbances of level known as the _seiches_, in which the
+  whole mass of water in the lake rhythmically swings from shore to
+  shore. According to Prof. Forel there are both longitudinal and
+  transverse _seiches_. The effect of the longitudinal _seiches_ at
+  Geneva is four times as great as at Chillon, at the other end of the
+  lake, while the extreme duration of this phenomenon is 73 minutes for
+  the uninodal longitudinal _seiches_ (35½ minutes for the binodal) and
+  10 minutes for the transverse _seiches_ (5 minutes for the binodal).
+  The maximum height of a recorded _seiche_ at Geneva is rather over 6
+  ft. (October 1841). The currents in the water itself are irregular.
+  The principal winds that blow over the lake are the _bise_ (from the
+  N.E.), the _vaudaire_ or _Föhn_ (from the S.E.), the _sudois_ or _vent
+  de pluie_ (from the S.W.) and the _joran_ (from the N.W.). The storm
+  winds are the _molan_ (from the Arve valley towards Geneva) and the
+  _bornan_ (from the Drance valley towards the central portion of the
+  lake). The lake is not as rich in fish as the other Swiss lakes, one
+  reason being the obstacle opposed by the Perte du Rhône to fish
+  seeking to ascend that river. Prof. Forel knows of but twenty
+  indigenous species (of which the _Féra_, or _Coregonus fera_, is the
+  principal) and six that have been introduced by man in the 19th
+  century. A number of lake dwellings, of varying dates, have been found
+  on the shores of the lake. The first steamer placed on the lake was
+  the "Guillaume Tell," built in 1823 at Geneva by an Englishman named
+  Church, while in 1873 the present Compagnie générale de navigation sur
+  le lac Léman was formed, and in 1875 constructed the first saloon
+  steamer, the "Mont Blanc." But despite this service and the railways
+  along each shore, the red lateen sails of minor craft still brighten
+  the landscape. The railway along the northern shore runs from Geneva
+  past Nyon, Rolle, Morges, Ouchy (the port of Lausanne), Vevey and
+  Montreux to Villeneuve (56½ m.). That on the south shore gains the
+  edge of the lake at Thonon only (22¼ m. from Geneva), and then runs
+  past Evian and St Gingolph to Le Bouveret (20 m. from Thonon). In the
+  harbour of Geneva two erratic boulders of granite project above the
+  surface of the water, and are named _Pierres du Niton_ (supposed to be
+  altars to Neptune). The lower of the two, which is also the farthest
+  from the shore, has been taken as the basis of the triangulation of
+  Switzerland: the official height is 376.86 mètres, which in 1891 was
+  reduced to 373.54 mètres, though 376.6 mètres is now said to be the
+  real figure. Of course the heights given on the Swiss Government map
+  vary with these different estimates of the point taken as basis.
+
+  For all matters relating to the lake, see Prof. F.A. Forel's
+  monumental work, _Le Léman_ (3 vols. Lausanne, 1892-1904); also (with
+  fine illustrations) G. Fatio and F. Boissonnas, _Autour du lac Léman_
+  (Geneva, 1902).     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GENEVIÈVE, or GENOVEFA, ST (c. 422-512), patroness of Paris, lived
+during the latter half of the 5th century. According to tradition, she
+was born about 422 at Nanterre near Paris; her parents were called
+Severus and Gerontia, but accounts differ widely as to their social
+position. According to the legend, she was only in her seventh year when
+she was induced by St Germain, bishop of Auxerre, to dedicate herself to
+the religious life. On the death of her parents she removed to Paris,
+where she distinguished herself by her benevolence, as well as by her
+austere life. She is said to have predicted the invasion of the Huns;
+and when Attila with his army was threatening the city, she persuaded
+the inhabitants to remain on the island and encouraged them by an
+assurance, justified by subsequent events, that the attack would come to
+nothing (451). She is also said to have had great influence over
+Childeric, father of Clovis, and in 460 to have caused a church to be
+built over the tomb of St Denis. Her death occurred about 512 and she
+was buried in the church of the Holy Apostles, popularly known as the
+church of St Geneviève. In 1793 the body was taken from the new church,
+built in her honour by Louis XV., when it became the Panthéon, and burnt
+on the Place de Grève; but the relics were enshrined in a chapel of the
+neighbouring church of St Étienne du Mont, where they still attract
+pilgrims; her festival is celebrated with great pomp on the 3rd of
+January. The frescoes of the Panthéon by Puvis de Chavannes are based
+upon the legend of the saint.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The main source is the anonymous _Vita s. Genovefae
+  virginis Parisiorum_, published in 1687 by D.P. Charpentier. The
+  genuineness of this life was attacked by B. Krusch (_Neues Archiv_,
+  1893 and 1894) and defended by L. Duchesne, _Bibliothèque de l'École
+  des Chartes_ (1893), _Bulletin critique_ (1897), p. 473. Krusch
+  continued to hold that the life was an 8th-century forgery
+  (_Scriptores rer. Merov_. iii. 204-238). See A. Potthast, _Bibliotheca
+  medii aevi_ (1331, 1332), and G. Kurth, _Clovis_, ii. 249-254. The
+  legends and miracles are given in the Bollandists' _Acta Sanctorum_,
+  January 1st; there is a short sketch by Henri Lesetre, _Ste
+  Geneviève_, in "Les Saints" series (Paris, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+GENEVIÈVE, GENOVEVA or GENOVEFA, OF BRABANT, heroine of medieval legend.
+Her story is a typical example of the widespread tale of the chaste wife
+falsely accused and repudiated, generally on the word of a rejected
+suitor. Genovefa of Brabant was said to be the wife of the palatine
+Siegfried of Treves, and was falsely accused by the majordomo Golo.
+Sentenced to death she was spared by the executioner, and lived for six
+years with her son in a cave in the Ardennes nourished by a roe.
+Siegfried, who had meanwhile found out Golo's treachery, was chasing the
+roe when he discovered her hiding-place, and reinstated her in her
+former honour. Her story is said to rest on the history of Marie of
+Brabant, wife of Louis II., duke of Bavaria, and count-palatine of the
+Rhine, who was tried by her husband and beheaded on the 18th of January
+1256, for supposed infidelity, a crime for which Louis afterwards had to
+do penance. The change in name may have been due to the cult of St
+Geneviève, patroness of Paris. The tale first obtained wide popularity
+in _L'Innocence reconnue, ou vie de Sainte Geneviève de Brabant_ (pr.
+1638) by the Jesuit René de Cérisier (1603-1662), and was a frequent
+subject for dramatic representation in Germany. With Genovefa's history
+may be compared the Scandinavian ballads of _Ravengaard og Memering_,
+which exist in many recensions. These deal with the history of Gunild,
+who married Henry, duke of Brunswick and Schleswig. When Duke Henry went
+to the wars he left his wife in charge of Ravengaard, who accused her of
+infidelity. Gunild is cleared by the victory of her champion Memering,
+the "smallest of Christian men." The Scottish ballad of Sir Aldingar is
+a version of the same story. The heroine Gunhilda is said to have been
+the daughter of Canute the Great and Emma. She married in 1036 King
+Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry III., and there was nothing in her
+domestic history to warrant the legend, which is given as authentic
+history by William of Malmesbury (_De gestis regum Anglorum_, lib. ii. §
+188). She was called Cunigund after her marriage, and perhaps was
+confused with St Cunigund, the wife of the emperor Henry II. In the
+_Karlamagnus-saga_ the innocent wife is Oliva, sister of Charlemagne and
+wife of King Hugo, and in the French Carolingian cycle the emperor's
+wife Sibille (_La Reine Sibille_) or Blanchefleur (_Macaire_). Other
+forms of the legend are to be found in the story of Doolin's mother in
+_Doon de Mayence_, the English romance of _Sir Triamour_, in the story
+of the mother of Octavian in _Octavian the Emperor_, in the German folk
+book _Historie von der geduldigen Königin Crescentia_, based on a
+12th-century poem to be found in the _Kaiserchronik_; and the English
+_Erl of Toulouse_ (c. 1400). In the last-named romance it has been
+suggested that the story gives the relations between Bernard I. count of
+Toulouse, son of the Guillaume d'Orange of the Carolingian romances, and
+the empress Judith, second wife of Louis the Pious.
+
+  See F.J. Child, _English and Scottish Popular Ballads_, vol. ii.
+  (1886), art. "Sir Aldingar"; S. Grundtvig, _Danske Kaempeviser_
+  (Copenhagen, 1867); "Sir Triamore," in _Bishop Percy's Folio MS._, ed.
+  Hales and Furnivall, vol. ii. (London, 1868); _The Romance of
+  Octavian_, ed. E.M. Goldsmid (Aungervyle Soc., Edinburgh, 1882); _The
+  Erl of Toulous and the Emperes of Almayn_, ed. G. Lüdtke (Berlin,
+  1881); B. Seuffert, _Die Legende von der Pfalzgräfin Genovefa_
+  (Würzburg, 1877); B. Golz, _Pfalzgräfin Genovefa in der deutschen
+  Dichtung_ (Leipzig, 1897); R. Köhler, "Die deutschen Volksbücher von
+  der Pfalzgräfin Genovefa," in _Zeitschr. für deutsche Philologie_
+  (1874).
+
+
+
+
+GENGA, GIROLAMO (c. 1476-1551), Italian painter and architect, was born
+in Urbino about 1476. At the age of ten he was apprenticed to the
+woollen trade, but showed so much inclination for drawing that he was
+sent to study under an obscure painter, and at thirteen under Luca
+Signorelli, with whom he remained a considerable while, frequently
+painting the accessories of his pictures. He was afterwards for three
+years with Pietro Perugino, in company with Raphael. He next worked in
+Florence and Siena, along with Timoteo della Vite; and in the latter
+city he painted various compositions for Pandolfo Petrucci, the leading
+local statesman. Returning to Urbino, he was employed by Duke Guidobaldo
+in the decorations of his palace, and showed extraordinary aptitude for
+theatrical adornments. Thence he went to Rome; and in the church of S.
+Caterina da Siena, in that capital, is one of his most distinguished
+works, "The Resurrection," remarkable both for design and for colouring.
+He studied the Roman antiquities with zeal, and measured a number of
+edifices; this practice, combining with his previous mastery of
+perspective, qualified him to shine as an architect. Francesco Maria
+della Rovere, the reigning duke of Urbino, recalled Genga, and
+commissioned him to execute works in connexion with his
+marriage-festivities. This prince being soon afterwards expelled by Pope
+Leo X., Genga followed him to Mantua, whence he went for a time to
+Pesaro. The duke of Urbino was eventually restored to his dominions; he
+took Genga with him, and appointed him the ducal architect. As he neared
+the close of his career, Genga retired to a house in the vicinity of
+Urbino, continuing still to produce designs in pencil; one, of the
+"Conversion of St Paul," was particularly admired. Here he died on the
+11th of July 1551. Genga was a sculptor and musician as well as painter
+and architect. He was jovial, an excellent talker, and kindly to his
+friends. His principal pupil was Francesco Menzocchi. His own son
+Bartolommeo (1518-1558) became an architect of celebrity. In Genga's
+paintings there is a great deal of freedom, and a certain peculiarity of
+character consonant with his versatile, lively and social temperament.
+One of his leading works is in the church of S. Agostino in Cesena--a
+triptych in oil-colours, representing the "Annunciation," "God the
+Father in Glory," and the "Madonna and Child." Among his architectural
+labours are the church of San Giovanni Battista in Pesaro; the bishop's
+palace at Sinigaglia; the façade of the cathedral of Mantua, ranking
+high among the productions of the 16th century; and a new palace for the
+duke of Urbino, built on the Monte Imperiale. He was also concerned in
+the fortifications of Pesaro.
+
+
+
+
+GENISTA, in botany, a genus of about eighty species of shrubs belonging
+to the natural order Leguminosae, and natives of Europe, western Asia
+and North Africa. Three are native in Britain. _G. anglica_ is the
+needle-furze or petty whin, found on heaths and moist moors, a spinous
+plant with slender spreading branches 1 to 2 ft. long, very small leaves
+and short racemes of small yellow papilionaceous flowers. The pollen is
+emitted in a shower when an insect alights on it. _G. tinctoria_, dyer's
+green-weed, the flowers of which yield a yellow dye, has no spines.
+Other species are grown on rock-work or as greenhouse plants.
+
+
+
+
+GENIUS (from Lat. _genere_, _gignere_), a term which originally meant,
+in Roman mythology, a generative and protecting spirit, who has no exact
+parallel in Greek religion, and at least in his earlier aspect is of
+purely Italian origin as one of the deities of family or household.
+Every man has his genius, who is not his creator, but only comes into
+being with him and is allotted to him at his birth. As a creative
+principle the genius is restricted to man, his place being taken by a
+Juno (cp. Juno Lucina, the goddess of childbirth) in the case of women.
+The male and female spirit may thus be distinguished respectively as the
+protector of generation and of parturition (_tutela generandi,
+pariendi_), although the female appears less prominent. It is the genius
+of the _paterfamilias_ that keeps the marriage bed, named after him
+_lectus genialis_ and dedicated to him, under his special protection.
+The genius of a man, as his higher intellectual self, accompanies him
+from the cradle to the grave. In many ways he exercises a decisive
+influence on the man's character and mode of life (Horace, _Epistles_,
+ii. 2. 187). The responsibility for happiness or unhappiness, good or
+bad fortune, lay with the genius; but this does not suppose the
+existence of two genii for man, the one good and the other bad ([Greek:
+agathodaimôn], [Greek: kakodaimôn]), an idea borrowed from the Greek
+philosophers. The Roman genius, representing man's natural optimism,
+always endeavoured to guide him to happiness; that man was intended to
+enjoy life is shown by the fact that the Roman spoke of indulging or
+cheating his genius of his due according as he enjoyed himself or failed
+to do so, when he had the opportunity. A man's birthday was naturally a
+suitable occasion for honouring his genius, and on that occasion
+offerings of incense, wine, garlands, and cakes were made (Tibullus ii.
+2; Ovid, _Tristia_, iii. 13. 18). As the representative of a man's
+higher self and participating in a divine nature, the genius could be
+sworn by, and a person could take an oath by his own or some one else's
+genius. When under Greek influence the Roman idea of the gods became
+more and more anthropomorphized, a genius was assigned to them, not
+however as a distinct personality. Thus we hear of the genius of Jupiter
+(Jovis Genio, _C.I.L._ i. 603), Mars, Juno, Pluto, Priapus. In a more
+extended sense the genius is also the generator and preserver of human
+society, as manifested in the family, corporate unions, the city, and
+the state generally. Thus, the genius publicus Populi Romani--probably
+distinct from the genius Urbis Romae, to whom an old shield on the
+Capitol was dedicated, with an inscription expressing doubt as to the
+sex (_Genio ... sive mas sive femina_)--stood in the forum near the
+temple of Concord, in the form of a bearded man, crowned with a diadem,
+and carrying a cornu copiae and sceptre. It frequently appears on the
+coins of Trajan and Hadrian. Sacrifice, not confined to bloodless
+offerings like those of the genius of the house, was offered to him
+annually on the 8th of October. There were genii of cities, colonies,
+and even of provinces; of artists, business people and craftsmen; of
+cooks, gladiators, standard-bearers, a legion, a century, and of the
+army generally (_genius sanctus castrorum peregrinorum totiusque
+exercitus_). In imperial times the genius of Augustus and of the
+reigning emperor, as part of the sacra of the imperial family, were
+publicly worshipped. It was a common practice (often compulsory) to
+swear by the genius of the emperor, and any one who swore falsely was
+flogged. Localities also, such as theatres, baths, stables, streets, and
+markets, had their own genius. The word thus gradually lost its original
+meaning; the nameless local genii became an expression for the
+universality of the _divinum numen_ and were sometimes identified with
+the higher gods. The local genius was usually represented by a snake,
+the symbol of the fruitfulness of the earth and of perpetual youth.
+Hence snakes were usually kept in houses (Virgil, _Aen._ v. 95; Persius
+i. 113), their death in which was considered a bad omen. The personal
+genius usually appeared as a handsome youth in a toga, with head
+sometimes veiled and sometimes bare, carrying a drinking cup and cornu
+copiae, frequently in the position of one offering sacrifice.
+
+  See W.H. Roscher, _Lexikon der Mythologie_, and article by J.A. Hild
+  in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités_, where full
+  references to ancient and modern authorities are given; L. Preller,
+  _Römische Mythologie_, 3rd ed., by H. Jordan; G. Wissowa, _Religion
+  und Kultur der Römer_.
+
+Apart from the Latin use of the term, the plural "genii" (with a
+singular "genie") is used in English, as equivalent to the Arabic
+_jinn_, for a class of spirits, good or bad, such as are described, for
+instance, in _The Arabian Nights_. But "genius" itself has become the
+regular English word for the highest conceivable form of original
+ability, something altogether extraordinary and beyond even supreme
+educational prowess, and differing, in kind apparently, from "talent,"
+which is usually distinguished as marked intellectual capacity short
+only of the inexplicable and unique endowment to which the term "genius"
+is confined. The attempt, however, to define either quality, or to
+discriminate accurately between them, has given rise to continual
+controversy, and there is no agreement as to the nature of either; and
+the commonly quoted definitions of genius--such as Carlyle's
+"transcendant capacity of taking trouble, first of all,"[1] in which the
+last three words are usually forgotten--are either admittedly incomplete
+or are of the nature of epigrams. Nor can it be said that any
+substantial light has been thrown on the matter by the modern
+physiological school, Lombroso and others, who regard the eccentricity
+of genius as its prime factor, and study it as a form of mental
+derangement. The error here is partly in ignoring the history of the
+word, and partly in misrepresenting the nature of the fact. There are
+many cases, no doubt, in which persons really insane, of one type or
+another, or with a history of physical degeneration or epilepsy, have
+shown remarkable originality, which may be described as genius, but
+there are at least just as many in whom no such physical abnormality can
+be observed. The word "genius" itself however has only gradually been
+used in English to express the degree of original greatness which is
+beyond ordinary powers of explanation, i.e. far beyond the capacity of
+the normal human being in creative work; and it is a convenient term
+(like Nietzsche's "superman") for application to those rare individuals
+who in the course of evolution reveal from time to time the heights to
+which humanity may develop, in literature, art, science, or
+administrative life. The English usage was originally derived, naturally
+enough, from the Roman ideas contained in the term (with the analogy of
+the Greek [Greek: daimôn]), and in the 16th and 17th centuries we find
+it equivalent simply to "distinctive character or spirit," a meaning
+still commonly given to the word. The more modern sense is not even
+mentioned in Johnson's _Dictionary_, and represents an 18th-century
+development, primarily due to the influence of German writers; the
+meaning of "distinctive natural capacity or endowment" had gradually
+been applied specially to creative minds such as those of poets and
+artists, by contrast with those whose mental ability was due to the
+results of education and study, and the antithesis has extended since,
+through constant discussions over the attempt to differentiate between
+the real nature of genius and that of "talent," until we now speak of
+the exceptional person not merely as having genius but as "a genius."
+This phraseology appears to indicate some reversion to the original
+Roman usage, and the identification of the great man with a generative
+spirit.
+
+  Modern theories on the nature of "genius" should be studied with
+  considerable detachment, but there is much that is interesting and
+  thought-provoking in such works as J.F. Nisbet's _Insanity of Genius_
+  (1891), Sir Francis Galton's _Hereditary Genius_ (new ed., 1892), and
+  C. Lombroso's _Man of Genius_ (Eng. trans., 1891).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Frederick the Great_, iv. iii. 1407.
+
+
+
+
+GENUS, STÉPHANIE-FÉLICITÉ DU CREST DE SAINT-AUBIN, COMTESSE DE
+(1746-1830), French writer and educator, was born of a noble but
+impoverished Burgundian family, at Champcéry, near Autun, on the 25th of
+January 1746. When six years of age she was received as a canoness into
+the noble chapter of Alix, near Lyons, with the title of Madame la
+Comtesse de Lancy, taken from the town of Bourbon-Lancy. Her entire
+education, however, was conducted at home. In 1758, in Paris, her skill
+as a harpist and her vivacious wit speedily attracted admiration. In her
+sixteenth year she was married to Charles Brûlart de Genlis, a colonel
+of grenadiers, who afterwards became marquis de Sillery, but this was
+not allowed to interfere with her determination to remedy her incomplete
+education, and to satisfy a taste for acquiring and imparting knowledge.
+Some years later, through the influence of her aunt, Madame de
+Montesson, who had been clandestinely married to the duke of Orleans,
+she entered the Palais Royal as lady-in-waiting to the duchess of
+Chartres (1770). She acted with great energy and zeal as governess to
+the daughters of the family, and was in 1781 appointed by the duke of
+Chartres to the responsible office of _gouverneur_ of his sons, a bold
+step which led to the resignation of all the tutors as well as to much
+social scandal, though there is no reason to suppose that the
+intellectual interests of her pupils suffered on that account. The
+better to carry out her ingenious theories of education, she wrote
+several works for their use, the best known of which are the _Théâtre
+d'éducation_ (4 vols., 1779-1780), a collection of short comedies for
+young people, _Les Annales de la vertu_ (2 vols., 1781) and _Adèle et
+Théodore_ (3 vols., 1782). Sainte-Beuve tells how she anticipated many
+modern methods of teaching. History was taught with the help of magic
+lantern slides and her pupils learnt botany from a practical botanist
+during their walks. In 1789 Madame de Genlis showed herself favourable
+to the Revolution, but the fall of the Girondins in 1793 compelled her
+to take refuge in Switzerland along with her pupil Mademoiselle
+d'Orléans. In this year her husband, the marquis de Sillery, from whom
+she had been separated since 1782, was guillotined. An "adopted"
+daughter, Pamela,[1] had been married to Lord Edward Fitzgerald (q.v.)
+in the preceding December.
+
+In 1794 Madame de Genlis fixed her residence at Berlin, but, having been
+expelled by the orders of King Frederick William, she afterwards settled
+in Hamburg, where she supported herself for some years by writing and
+painting. After the revolution of 18th Brumaire (1799) she was permitted
+to return to France, and was received with favour by Napoleon, who gave
+her apartments at the arsenal, and afterwards assigned her a pension of
+6000 francs. During this period she wrote largely, and produced, in
+addition to some historical novels, her best romance, _Mademoiselle de
+Clermont_ (1802). Madame de Genlis had lost her influence over her old
+pupil Louis Philippe, who visited her but seldom, although he allowed
+her a small pension. Her government pension was discontinued by Louis
+XVIII., and she supported herself largely by her pen. Her later years
+were occupied largely with literary quarrels, notably with that which
+arose out of the publication of the _Dîners du Baron d'Holbach_ (1822),
+a volume in which she set forth with a good deal of sarcastic cleverness
+the intolerance, the fanaticism, and the eccentricities of the
+"philosophes" of the 18th century. She survived until the 31st of
+December 1830, and saw her former pupil, Louis Philippe, seated on the
+throne of France.
+
+  The numerous works of Madame de Genlis (which considerably exceed
+  eighty), comprising prose and poetical compositions on a vast variety
+  of subjects and of various degrees of merit, owed much of their
+  success to adventitious causes which have long ceased to operate. They
+  are useful, however (especially the voluminous _Mémoires inédits sur
+  le XVIII^e siècle_, 10 vols., 1825), as furnishing material for
+  history. Most of her writings were translated into English almost as
+  soon as they were published. A list of her writings with useful notes
+  is given by Quérard in _La France littéraire_. Startling light was
+  thrown on her relations with the duc de Chartres by the publication
+  (1904) of her correspondence with him in _L'Idylle d'un "gouverneur"_
+  by G. Maugras. See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. iii.;
+  H. Austin Dobson, _Four Frenchwomen_ (1890); L. Chabaud, _Les
+  Précurseurs du féminisme_ (1901); W. de Chabreul, _Gouverneur de
+  princes, 1737-1830_ (1900); and _Lettres inédites à ... Casimir
+  Baecker, 1802-1830_ (1902), edited by Henry Lapauze.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See Gerald Campbell, _Edward and Pamela Fitzgerald_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+GENNA, a word of obscure origin borrowed from the Assamese, and used
+technically by anthropologists to describe a class of social and
+religious ordinances based on sanctions which derive their validity from
+a vague sense of mysterious danger which results from disobedience to
+them. These prohibitions--or system of things forbidden--affect the
+relations, permanent and temporary, of individuals (either as members of
+a tribe, village, clan or household, or as occupying an official
+position in the village or clan) towards other persons or groups of
+persons and towards material objects which possess intrinsic sanctity.
+The term is extended to the communal rites performed by the village,
+clan or household, either as magical ceremonies or as prophylactics on
+special occasions when the social, commensal, conjugal and alimentary
+relations of the group affected are subjected to temporary
+modifications. These practices and beliefs are observed among the hill
+tribes of Assam from the Abors and Mishmis on the north to the Lusheis
+on the south, all linguistically members of the Tibeto-Burman group,
+and among the Khasis, members of the Mon-Khmer group. Genna and taboo
+(q.v.) are products of an identical level of culture and similar
+psychological processes, and provide the mechanism of the social and
+religious systems.
+
+_Permanent Gennas._--The only universal _genna_ is that which forbids
+the intermarriage of members of the same clan. In some cases in Manipur
+animals are _genna_ to the tribe--i.e. they must not be killed or
+eaten--but tribal differentiation is, in practice, based on dialectical
+distinctions rather than on tribal _gennas_. The village as such
+possesses no permanent _gennas_, but the clans, as the units of marriage
+under the law of exogamy, have distinct elementary _gennas_, especially
+the clan to which the priest-chief belongs. The most important
+individual _gennas_ are those which protect the priest-chief from
+impurity or contact with "sacred" substances such as the flesh of
+animals used in sacrifices. He may neither eat in a strange house, nor
+utter words of abuse, nor take an oath in a dispute, except in his
+representative capacity on behalf of his village. The first-fruits are
+_genna_ to the village until he eats, thus establishing an opposition
+between him and his co-villagers. Married and unmarried women are
+subject to alimentary _gennas_; thus unmarried girls are forbidden the
+flesh of any male animal or of any female animal dying gravid.
+
+_Ritual Gennas._--Ritual _gennas_ are held annually to foster the rice
+crops, all other industries and activities being _genna_ (forbidden)
+during the cultivating season, to secure good hunting, to avert
+sickness, especially epidemics, to take omens, and to lay finally to
+rest the ghosts of all that have died within the year. The village gates
+are closed, men and women eat apart, and conjugal relations are
+suspended. Special village _gennas_ are held when rain is needed, when a
+villager dies in any manner out of the ordinary, as women in childbirth,
+when an animal gives birth to still-born offspring, and when any
+permanent genna has been violated. Clan _gennas_ are held for all
+ordinary cases of death. Household _gennas_ are held on the occasions of
+birth (when the aliment and conduct of the father are specially
+regulated), naming, ear-piercing, the first hair-cutting, sickness, and,
+in certain areas, tattooing. Individuals are subjected to temporary
+_gennas_ as warriors both before and after a head-hunting raid, pregnant
+women, married persons at the beginning of their married life, the wives
+of the priest-chief, and those who from ambition or pride of wealth seek
+to perpetuate their names by erecting a stone monument, an act which
+confers the right to wear the distinctive clothes of the priest-chief
+which otherwise are _genna_ to the whole village. Ritual _gennas_ are of
+varying duration. Some last for a month while others are complete in two
+days. As religious or magical rites, they prevent danger or establish
+and restore normal relations with powers which are potentially harmful
+or require placation.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Official records of the government of India, Nos. 23
+  (1855), 27 (1859), 68 (1870); Colonel T.H. Lewin, _Hill Tracts of
+  Chittagong; Report on the Census of Assam_ (1891), vol. i. Report,
+  note by A.W. Davis, p. 237 seq.; Major P.R.T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_
+  (1907); T.C. Hodson, _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_,
+  vol. xxxvi. (1906).     (T. C. H.)
+
+
+
+
+GENNADIUS II. [as layman GEORGIOS SCHOLARIOS] (d. c. 1468), patriarch of
+Constantinople from 1454 to 1456, philosopher and theologian, was one of
+the last representatives of Byzantine learning. Extremely little is
+known of his life, but he appears to have been born at Constantinople
+about 1400 and to have entered the service of the emperor John VII.
+Paleologus as imperial judge or counsellor. Georgios first appears
+conspicuously in history as present at the great council held in 1438 at
+Ferrara and Florence with the object of bringing about a union between
+the Greek and Latin Churches. At the same council was present the
+celebrated Platonist, Gemistus Pletho, the most powerful opponent of the
+then dominant Aristotelianism, and consequently the special object of
+reprobation to Georgios. In church matters, as in philosophy, the two
+were opposed,--Pletho maintaining strongly the principles of the Greek
+Church, and being unwilling to accept union through compromise, while
+Georgios, more politic and cautious, pressed the necessity for union and
+was instrumental in drawing up a form which from its vagueness and
+ambiguity might be accepted by both parties. He was at a disadvantage
+because, being a layman, he could not directly take part in the
+discussions of the council. But on his return to Greece his views
+changed, and he violently and obstinately opposed the union he had
+previously urged. In 1448 he became a monk at Pantokrator and took the
+name Gennadius. In 1453, after the capture of Constantinople by the
+Turks, Mahommed II., finding that the patriarchal chair had been vacant
+for some time, resolved to elect some one to the office, and the choice
+fell on Gennadius. While holding the episcopal office Gennadius drew up,
+apparently for the use of Mahommed, a lucid confession or exposition of
+the Christian faith, which was translated into Turkish by Ahmed, judge
+of Beroea, and first printed by A. Brassicanus at Vienna in 1530. After
+a couple of years Gennadius found the position of patriarch under a
+Turkish sultan so irksome that he retired to the monastery of John the
+Baptist near Serrae in Macedonia, where he died about 1468. About one
+hundred of his alleged writings exist, the majority in manuscript and of
+doubtful authenticity.
+
+  The fullest account of his writings is given in Gass, _Gennadius and
+  Pletho_ (Berlin, 1844), the second part of which contains Pletho's
+  _Contra Gennadium_. See also F. Schultze, _Gesch. der Phil. d.
+  Renaissance_, i. (1874). A list of the known writings of Gennadius is
+  given in Fabricius, _Bibliotheca Graeca_, ed. Harles, vol. xi., and
+  what has been printed is to be found in Migne, _Patrol. Gr._ vol. clx.
+
+
+
+
+GENOA (anc. _Genua_, Ital. _Genova_, Fr. _Gênes_), the chief port of
+Liguria, Italy, and capital of the province of Genoa, 119 m. N.W. of
+Leghorn by rail. Pop. (1906) 255,294 (town); 267,248 (commune). The town
+is situated on the Gulf of Genoa, and is the chief port and commercial
+town of Italy, the seat of an archbishop and a university, the
+headquarters of the IV. Italian army corps, and a strong fortress. The
+city, as seen from the sea, is "built nobly," and deserves the title it
+has acquired or assumed of the Superb. Finding only a small space of
+level ground along the shore, it has been obliged to climb the lower
+hills of the Ligurian Alps, which afford many a coign of vantage for the
+effective display of its architectural magnificence. The original
+nucleus of the city is that portion which lies to the east of the port
+in the neighbourhood of the old pier (Molo Vecchio). In the 10th century
+it began to feel a lack of room within the limits of its fortifications;
+and accordingly, in the middle of the 12th century, it was found
+necessary to extend the line of circumvallation. Even this second
+circuit, however, was of small compass, and it was not till 1320-1330
+that a third line took in the greater part of the modern site of the
+city proper. This presented about 3 m. of rampart towards the land side,
+and can still be easily traced from point to point through the city,
+though large portions, especially towards the east, have been
+dismantled. The present line of circumvallation dates from 1626-1632,
+the period when the independence of Genoa was threatened by the dukes of
+Savoy. From the mouth of the Bisagno in the east, and from the
+lighthouse point in the west, it stretches inland over hill and dale to
+the great fort of Sperone, i.e. the Spur, on the summits of Monte
+Peraldo at a height of 1650 ft.,--the circuit being little less than 12
+m., and all the important points along the line being defended by forts
+or batteries.
+
+A portion of the enclosed area is open country, dotted only here and
+there with houses and gardens. There are eight gates, the more important
+being Porta Pila and Porta Romana towards the east, and the Porta
+Lanterna or Lighthouse Gate to the west. The main architectural features
+of Genoa are its medieval churches, with striped façades of black and
+white marble, and its magnificent 16th-century palaces. The earlier
+churches of Genoa show a mixture of French Romanesque and the Pisan
+style--they are mostly basilicas with transepts, and as a rule a small
+dome; the pillars are sometimes ancient columns, and sometimes formed of
+alternate layers of black and white marble. The façades are simple,
+without galleries, having only pilasters projecting from the wall, and
+are also alternately black and white. This style continued in Gothic
+times also. The oldest is S. Maria di Castello (11th century), the
+columns and capitals of which are almost all antique. S. Cosma, S.
+Donato (with remains of the 10th-century building) and others belong to
+the 12th century, and S. Giovanni di Prè, S. Agostino (with a fine
+campanile), S. Stefano, S. Matteo and others to the 13th. The famous
+painting of the martyrdom of S. Stephen, by Giulio Romano, carried off
+by Napoleon in 1811, was restored to S. Stefano in 1815. S. Matteo, the
+church of the D'Oria or Doria family, was founded in 1126 by Martino
+Doria. The façade dates from 1278, and the interior of the edifice dates
+in the main from 1543. In the crypt is the tomb of Andrea Doria by
+Montorsoli, and above the main altar hangs the dagger presented to the
+doge by Pope Paul III. To the left of the church is an exquisite
+cloister of 1308 with double columns, in which a number of inscriptions
+relating to the Doria family and also the statue of Andrea Doria by
+Montorsoli are preserved. The little square in front of the church is
+surrounded by Gothic palaces of the Doria family. Of the churches the
+principal is the comparatively small cathedral of S. Lorenzo. Tradition
+makes its first foundation contemporary with St Lawrence himself; and a
+document of 987 implies that it was even then the metropolitan church.
+Reconstructed about the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th
+century, it was formally consecrated by Pope Gelasius II. on the 18th of
+October 1118; and since then it has undergone a large number of
+extensive though partial renovations. The façade, with its three
+elaborate doorways, belongs to the 14th century and is a copy of French
+models of the 13th. The two side portals with Romanesque sculptures
+belong to the 12th-14th centuries. Some pagan reliefs are built into the
+tower. The interior was rebuilt in 1307, the old columns being used. The
+belfry, which rises above the right-hand doorway, was erected about 1520
+by the doge, Ottaviano da Campofragoso, and the cupola was erected after
+the designs of the architect Galeazzo Alessi in 1567. The fine Early
+Renaissance (1448) sculptural decorations of the chapel of S. John the
+Baptist were due to Domenico Gagini of Bissone on the Lake of Lugano,
+who later transferred his activities to Naples and Palermo, and other
+Lombard masters. An edict of Innocent VIII. forbids women to enter the
+chapel except on one day in the year. In the treasury of the cathedral
+is a magnificent silver monstrance dating from 1553, and an octagonal
+bowl, the Sacro Catino, brought from Caesarea in 1101, which corresponds
+to the descriptions given of the Holy Grail, and was long regarded as an
+emerald of matchless value, but was found when broken at Paris, whither
+it had been carried by Napoleon I., to be only a remarkable piece of
+ancient glass. The choir-stalls are a very fine work of the 15th century
+and later, with intarsias. Near the cathedral is a small 12th-century
+(?) cloister.
+
+Of older date than the cathedral is the church of S. Ambrose and S.
+Andrew, if its first foundation be correctly assigned to the Milanese
+bishop Honoratus of the 6th century; but the present edifice is due to
+the Society of Jesus, who obtained possession of the church in 1587. The
+interior is richly decorated and contains the "Circumcision" and "St
+Ignatius" by Rubens, and the "Assumption" of Guido Reni. The Annunziata
+del Guastato is one of the largest churches in the city, erected in
+1587. It is a cruciform structure, with a dome, and the central nave is
+supported by fourteen Corinthian columns of white marble. To the
+otherwise unfinished brick façade a portal borne by marble columns was
+added in 1843. The interior is covered with gilding and frescoes of the
+17th century, and is somewhat overloaded with rich decoration, while a
+range of white marble columns supports the nave. Santa Maria delle Vigne
+probably dates from the 9th century, but the present structure was
+erected in 1586. The campanile, however, is a remarkable work of the
+13th century. Adjoining the church is a ruined cloister of the 11th
+century. San Siro, originally the "Church of the Apostles" and the
+cathedral of Genoa, was rebuilt by the Benedictines in the 11th century,
+and restored and enlarged by the Theatines in 1576, the façade being
+added in 1830; in this church in 1339 Simone Boccanera was elected first
+doge of Genoa. Santa Maria di Carignano, or more correctly Santa Maria
+Assunta e SS. Fabiano e Sebastiano, belongs mainly to the 16th century,
+and was designed by Galeazzo Alessi, in imitation of Bramante's plan for
+S. Peter's at Rome, as it was then being executed by Michelangelo. The
+interior is fine, harmonious and restrained, painted in white and grey,
+while the colouring of the exterior is less pleasing. From the highest
+gallery of the dome--368 ft. above the sea-level, and 194 ft. above the
+ground--a magnificent view is obtained of the city and the neighbouring
+coast.
+
+Buildings of the 15th century do not occupy an important place in Genoa,
+but there are some small private houses and remains of sculptural
+decoration of the Early Renaissance to be seen in the older portions of
+the town. The palaces of the Genoese patricians, famous for their
+sumptuous architecture, their general effectiveness (though the
+architectural details are often faulty if closely examined), and their
+artistic collections, were many of them built in the latter part of the
+16th century by Galeazzo Alessi, a pupil of Michelangelo, whose style is
+of an imposing and uniform character and displays marvellous ingenuity
+in using a limited or unfavourable site to the greatest advantage.
+Several of the villas in the vicinity of the city are also his work. The
+Via Garibaldi is flanked by a succession of magnificent palaces, chief
+among which is the Palazzo Rosso, so called from its red colour.
+Formerly the palace of the Brignole-Sale family, it was presented by the
+duchess of Galliera to the city in 1874, along with its valuable
+contents, its library and picture gallery, which includes fine examples
+of Van Dyck and Paris Bordone. The Palazzo Municipale, built by Rocco
+Lurago at the end of the 16th century, once the property of the dukes of
+Turin, has a beautiful entrance court and a hanging terraced garden
+fronting a noble staircase of marble which leads to the spacious council
+chamber. In an adjoining room are preserved a bronze tablet dating from
+117 B.C. (see below), two autograph letters of Columbus, and the violin
+of Paganini, also a native of Genoa. Opposite the Palazzo Rosso is the
+Palazzo Bianco, a palace full of art treasures bequeathed to the city by
+the duchess of Galliera upon her death in 1889, and subsequently
+converted into a museum. The Roman antiquities here preserved belong to
+other places--Luna, Libarna, &c. The Adorno, Giorgio Doria (both
+containing small but choice picture-galleries), Parodi and Serra and
+other palaces in this street are worthy of mention. The Via Balbi again
+contains a number of palaces. The Durazzo Pallavicini palace has a noble
+façade and staircase and a rich picture-gallery. The street takes its
+name, however, from the Palazzo Balbi-Senarega, which has Doric
+colonnades and a fine orangery. The Palazzo dell' Università has an
+extremely fine court and staircase of the early 17th century. The
+Palazzo Reale is also handsome but somewhat later. The Palazzo Doria in
+the Piazza del Principe, presented to Andrea Doria by the Genoese in
+1522, is on the other hand earlier; it was remodelled in 1529 by
+Montorsoli and decorated with fine frescoes by Perino del Vaga. The old
+palace of the doges, originally a building of the 13th century, to which
+the tower alone belongs, the rest of the building having been remodelled
+in the 16th century and modernized after a fire in 1777, stands in the
+Piazza Umberto Primo near the cathedral, and now contains the telegraph
+and other government offices. Another very fine building is the Gothic
+Palazzo di S. Giorgio, near the harbour, dating from about 1260,
+occupied from 1408 to 1797 by the Banca di S. Giorgio, and now converted
+into a produce exchange. The Campo Santo or Cimitero di Staglieno, about
+1½ m. from the city on the banks of the Bisagno, is one of the chief
+features of Genoa; its situation is of great natural beauty and it is
+remarkable for its sepulchral monuments, many of which have been
+executed by the foremost sculptors of modern Italy. The university,
+founded in 1471, is a flourishing institution with faculties in law,
+medicine, natural science, engineering and philosophy. Attached to it
+are a library, an observatory, a botanical garden, and a physical and
+natural history museum. Genoa is also well supplied with technical
+schools and other institutions for higher education, while ample
+provision is made for primary education. The hospitals and the asylum
+for the poor are among the finest institutions of their kind in Italy.
+Mention must also be made of the Academy of Fine Arts, the municipal
+library, the great Teatro Carlo Felice and the Verdi Institute of Music.
+
+
+The irregular relief of its site and its long confinement within the
+limits of fortifications, which it had outgrown, have both contributed
+to render Genoa a picturesque confusion of narrow streets, lanes and
+alleys, varied with stairways climbing the steeper slopes and bridges
+spanning the deeper valleys. Large portions of the town are inaccessible
+to ordinary carriages, and many of the important streets have very
+little room for traffic. In modern times, however, a number of fine
+streets and squares with beautiful gardens have been laid out. The
+Piazza Ferrari, a large irregular space, is the chief focus of traffic
+and the centre of the Genoese tramway system; it is embellished with a
+fine equestrian statue of Garibaldi, unveiled in 1893, which stands in
+front of the Teatro Carlo Felice. Leading from this piazza is the Via
+Venti Settembre, a broad, handsome street laid out since 1887, leading
+south-east to the Ponte Pila, the central bridge over the Bisagno. The
+street is itself spanned by an elegant bridge carrying the Corso Andrea
+Podesta, a modern avenue on the heights above. Adjoining the church of
+the Madonna della Consolazione is the new market, a building of no
+little beauty. The Via Roma, another important centre of traffic which
+gives on to the Via Carlo Felice near the Piazza Ferrari, leads to the
+Piazza Corvetto, in the centre of which stands the colossal equestrian
+statue of Victor Emmanuel II. To the left is the Villetta Dinegro, a
+beautiful park belonging to the city, decorated with cascades and a
+number of statues and busts of prominent statesmen and citizens. To the
+right is another park, the Acquasola, laid out in 1837 on the site of
+the old ramparts. In the west of the city, in front of the principal
+station, is the Piazza Acquaverde. On the north side, embowered in palm
+trees, is a great statue of Columbus, at whose feet kneels the figure of
+America. Opposite is the Palazzo Faraggiana, with scenes from the life
+of Columbus in relief on its marble pediment. Among other modern
+thoroughfares, the Via di Circonvallazione a Monte, laid out since 1876
+on the hills at the back of the town, leads by many curves from the
+Piazza Manin along the hill-tops westward, and finally descends into the
+Piazza Acquaverde; its entire length is traversed by an electric
+tramway, and it commands magnificent views of the town. A similar road,
+the Via di Circonvallazione a Mare, was laid out in 1893-1895 on the
+site of the outer ramparts, and skirts the sea-front from the Piazza
+Cavour to the mouth of the Bisagno, thence ascending the right bank to
+the Ponte Pila. Genoa is remarkably well served with electric tramways,
+which are found in all the wider streets, and run, often through
+tunnels, into the suburbs and to the surrounding country on the east as
+far as Nervi and to Pegli oh the west. Three funicular railways from
+different points of the city give access to the highest parts of the
+hills behind the town.
+
+  Though its existence as a maritime power was originally due to its
+  port, it is only since 1870 that Genoa has provided the conveniences
+  necessary for the modern development of its trade, the duke of
+  Galliera's gift of £800,000 to the city in 1875 being devoted to this
+  purpose. A further enlargement of the harbour was necessitated upon
+  the opening of the St Gotthard tunnel in 1882, which extended the
+  commercial range of the port through Switzerland into Germany. The old
+  harbour is semi-circular in shape, 232 acres in area, with numerous
+  quays, and protected by moles from southern and south-westerly winds.
+  An outer harbour, 247 acres in area, has been constructed in front of
+  this by extending the Molo Nuovo by the Molo Duca di Galliera, and
+  another basin, the Vittorio Emanuele III., for coal vessels, with an
+  area of 96 acres, is in course of construction to the west of this,
+  between it and the lofty lighthouse which rises on the promontory at
+  the south-west extremity of the harbour. This basin is to be entered
+  from both the east and the west, and allows for a future extension in
+  front of San Pier d'Arena as far as the mouth of the river Polcevera.
+  The port administration was placed under an autonomous harbour board
+  (_consorzio_) in 1903. The largest ships can enter the harbour, which
+  has a minimum depth of 30 ft.; it has two dry docks, a graving dock
+  and a floating dry dock. Very large warehouses have been constructed.
+  The exports are olive oil, hemp, flax, rice, fruit, wine, hats,
+  cheese, steel, velvets, gloves, flour, paper, soap and marble, while
+  the main imports are coal, cotton, grain, machinery, &c. Genoa has a
+  large emigrant traffic with America, and a large general passenger
+  steamer traffic both for America and for the East.
+
+  The development of industry has kept pace with that of the harbour.
+  The Ansaldo shipbuilding yards construct armoured cruisers both for
+  the Italian navy and for foreign governments, The Odero yards, for
+  the construction of merchant and passenger steamers, have been
+  similarly extended, and the Foce yard is also important. A number of
+  foundries and metallurgical works supply material for repairs and
+  shipbuilding. The sugar-refining industry has been introduced by two
+  important companies, and most of the capital employed in
+  sugar-refining in other parts of Italy has been subscribed at Genoa,
+  where the administrative offices of the principal companies and
+  individual refiners are situated. The old industries of macaroni and
+  cognate products maintain their superiority. Tanneries and
+  cotton-spinning and weaving mills have considerably extended
+  throughout the province. Cement works have acquired an extension
+  previously unknown, more than thirty firms being now engaged in that
+  branch of industry. The manufactures of crystallized fruits and of
+  filigree silver-work may also be mentioned. The trade of the port
+  increased from well under 1,000,000 tons in 1876 to 6,164,873 metric
+  tons in 1906 (the latter figure, however, includes home trade in a
+  proportion of about 12%). Of this large total 5,365,544 tons are
+  imports and only 799,319 tons are exports, and, comparing 1906 with
+  1905, we have a decrease of 34,355 tons on the exports, and an
+  increase of 436,123 tons on the imports. The effect upon the railway
+  problem is of course very great, inasmuch as, while the supply of
+  trucks required per day in 1906 was from 1000 to 1200, about 80% of
+  these had to be sent down empty to the harbour. Of the four main lines
+  which centre on Genoa--(1) to Novi, which is the junction for
+  Alessandria, where lines diverge to Turin and France via the Mont
+  Cenis, and to Novara and Switzerland and France via the Simplon, and
+  for Milan; (2) to Acqui and Piedmont; (3) to Savona, Ventimiglia and
+  the French Riviera, along the coast; (4) to Spezia and Pisa--the first
+  line has to take no less than 78% of the traffic. It has indeed two
+  alternative double lines for the passage over the Apennines, but one
+  of them has a maximum gradient of 1 : 18 and a tunnel over 2 m. long,
+  and the other has a maximum gradient of 1 : 62, and a tunnel over 5 m.
+  long. A marshalling station costing some £800,000, connected directly
+  with the harbour by tunnels, with 31 m. of rails, capable of taking
+  2000 trucks, was constructed at Campasso in 1906 north of San Pier
+  d'Arena (through which till then the traffic of the first three lines,
+  representing 95% of the total, had to pass). It is computed that some
+  40% of the total commerce of Italy passes through Genoa; it is indeed
+  the most important harbour in the western Mediterranean, with the
+  exception of Marseilles, with which it carries on a keen rivalry.
+  Genoa has in the past been somewhat handicapped in the race by the
+  insufficiency of railway communication, which, owing to the mountains
+  which encircle it, is difficult to secure, many tunnels being
+  necessary. The general condition of the Italian railways has also
+  affected it, and the increased traffic has not always found the
+  necessary facilities in the way of a proper amount of trucks to
+  receive the goods discharged, leading to considerable encumbrance of
+  the port and consequent diversion of a certain amount of trade
+  elsewhere, and besides this to serious temporary deficiencies in the
+  coal supply of northern Italy.
+
+  The imports of Genoa are divided into four main classes: about 50% of
+  the total weight is coal, grain about 12%, cotton about 6%, and
+  miscellaneous about 34%. Of the coal imports the great bulk is from
+  British ports: about half comes from Cardiff and Barry, one-tenth from
+  other Welsh ports, one-fifth from the Tyne ports. The amount shows an
+  almost continued increase from 617,798 tons in 1881 to 2,737,919 in
+  1906. The total of shipping entered in 1906 was 6586 vessels with a
+  tonnage of 6,867,442, while that cleared was 6611 vessels with a
+  tonnage of 6,682,104.
+
+_History._--Genoa, being a natural harbour of the first rank, must have
+been in use as a seaport as early as navigation began in the Tyrrhenian
+Sea. We hear nothing from ancient authorities of its having been visited
+or occupied by the Greeks, but the discovery of a Greek cemetery of the
+4th century B.C.[1] proves it. The construction of the Via Venti
+Settembre gave occasion for the discovery of a number of tombs, 85 in
+all, the bulk of which dated from the end of the 5th and the 4th
+centuries B.C. The bodies had in all cases been cremated, and were
+buried in small shaft graves, the interment itself being covered by a
+slab of limestone. The vases were of the last red figure style, and were
+mostly imported from Greece or Magna Graecia, while the bronze objects
+came from Etruria, and the brooches (_fibulae_) from Gaul. This
+illustrates the early importance of Genoa as a trading port, and the
+penetration of Greek customs, inhumation being the usual practice of the
+Ligurians. Genoa is believed to derive its name from the fact that the
+shape of this portion of the coast resembles that of a knee (_genu_).
+
+We hear of the Romans touching here in 216 B.C., and of its destruction
+by the Carthaginians in 209 B.C. and immediate restoration by the
+Romans, who made it and Placentia their headquarters against the
+Ligurians. It was reached from Rome by the Via Aurelia, which ran along
+the north-west coast, and its prolongation, which later acquired the
+name of the Via Aemilia (Scauri); for the latter was only constructed in
+109 B.C., and there must have been a coast-road long before, at least as
+early as 148 B.C., when the Via Postumia was built from Genua through
+Libarna (mod. Serravalle, where remains of an amphitheatre and
+inscriptions have been found), Dertona, Iria, Placentia, Cremona, and
+thence eastwards. We also have an inscription of 117 B.C. (now preserved
+in the Palazzo Municipale at Genoa) giving the text of the decision
+given by the _patroni_, Q. and M. Minucius, of Genua, in accordance with
+a decree of the Roman senate, in a controversy between the people of
+Genua and the Langenses or Langates (also known as the Viturii), the
+inhabitants of a neighbouring hill-town, which was included in the
+territory of Genua. But none of the other inscriptions found in Genoa or
+existing there at the present day, which are practically all sepulchral,
+can be demonstrated to have belonged to the ancient city; it is equally
+easy to suppose that they were brought from elsewhere by sea (Mommsen in
+_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ v. p. 884). It is only from inscriptions of other
+places that we know that it had municipal rights, and we do not know at
+what period it obtained them. Classical authors tell us but little of
+it. Strabo (iv. 6. 2, p. 202) states that it exported wood, skins and
+honey, and imported olive oil and wine, though Pliny speaks of the wine
+of the district as the best of Liguria (_H.N._ xiv. 67.)
+
+The history of Genoa during the dark ages, throughout the Lombard and
+Carolingian periods, is but the repetition of the general history of the
+Italian communes, which succeeded in snatching from contending princes
+and barons the first charters of their freedom. The patriotic spirit and
+naval prowess of the Genoese, developed in their defensive wars against
+the Saracens, led to the foundation of a popular constitution, and to
+the rapid growth of a powerful marine. From the necessity of leaguing
+together against the common Saracen foe, Genoa united with Pisa early in
+the 11th century in expelling the Moslems from the island of Sardinia,
+but the Sardinian territory thus acquired soon furnished occasions of
+jealousy to the conquering allies, and there commenced between the two
+republics the long naval wars destined to terminate so fatally for Pisa.
+With not less adroitness than Venice, Genoa saw and secured all the
+advantages of the great carrying trade which the crusades created
+between Western Europe and the East. The seaports wrested at the same
+period from the Saracens along the Spanish and Barbary coasts became
+important Genoese colonies, whilst in the Levant, on the shores of the
+Black Sea, and along the banks of the Euphrates were erected Genoese
+fortresses of great strength. No wonder if these conquests generated in
+the minds of the Venetians and the Pisans fresh jealousy against Genoa,
+and provoked fresh wars; but the struggle between Genoa and Pisa was
+brought to a disastrous conclusion for the latter state by the battle of
+Meloria in 1284.
+
+The commercial and naval successes of the Genoese during the middle ages
+were the more remarkable because, unlike their rivals, the Venetians,
+they were the unceasing prey to intestine discord--the Genoese commons
+and nobles fighting against each other, rival factions amongst the
+nobles themselves striving to grasp the supreme power in the state,
+nobles and commons alike invoking the arbitration and rule of some
+foreign captain as the sole means of obtaining a temporary truce. From
+these contests of rival nobles, in which the names of Spinola and Doria
+stand forth with greatest prominence, Genoa was soon drawn into the
+great vortex of the Guelph and Ghibelline factions; but its recognition
+of foreign authority--successively German, Neapolitan and Milanese--gave
+way to a state of greater independence in 1339, when the government
+assumed a more permanent form with the appointment of the first doge, an
+office held at Genoa for life, in the person of Simone Boccanera.
+Alternate victories and defeats of the Venetians and Genoese--the most
+terrible being the defeat sustained by the Venetians at Chioggia in
+1380--ended by establishing the great relative inferiority of the
+Genoese rulers, who fell under the power now of France, now of the
+Visconti of Milan. The Banca di S. Giorgio, with its large possessions,
+mainly in Corsica, formed during this period the most stable element in
+the state, until in 1528 the national spirit appeared to regain its
+ancient vigour when Andrea Doria succeeded in throwing off the French
+domination and restoring the old form of government. It was at this very
+period--the close of the 15th and commencement of the 16th century--that
+the genius and daring of a Genoese mariner, Christopher Columbus, gave
+to Spain that new world, which might have become the possession of his
+native state, had Genoa been able to supply him with the ships and
+seamen which he so earnestly entreated her to furnish. The government as
+restored by Andrea Doria, with certain modifications tending to impart
+to it a more conservative character, remained unchanged until the
+outbreak of the French Revolution and the creation of the Ligurian
+republic. During this long period of nearly three centuries, in which
+the most dramatic incident is the conspiracy of Fieschi, the Genoese
+found no small compensation for their lost traffic in the East in the
+vast profits which they made as the bankers of the Spanish crown and
+outfitters of the Spanish armies and fleets both in the old world and
+the new, and Genoa, more fortunate than many of the other cities of
+Italy, was comparatively immune from foreign domination.
+
+At the end of the 17th century the city was bombarded by the French, and
+in 1746, after the defeat of Piacenza, surrendered to the Austrians, who
+were, however, soon driven out. A revolt in Corsica, which began in
+1729, was suppressed with the help of the French, who in 1768 took
+possession of the island for themselves (see CORSICA: _History_).
+
+The short-lived Ligurian republic was soon swallowed up in the French
+empire, not, however, until Genoa had been made to experience, by the
+terrible privations of the siege when Masséna held the city against the
+Austrians (1800), all that was meant by a participation in the
+vicissitudes of the French Revolution. In 1814 Genoa rose against the
+French, on the assurance given by Lord William Bentinck that the allies
+would restore to the republic its independence. It had, however, been
+determined by a secret clause of the treaty of Paris that Genoa should
+be incorporated with the dominions of the king of Sardinia. The
+discontent created at the time by the provision of the treaty of Paris
+as confirmed by the congress of Vienna had doubtless no slight share in
+keeping alive in Genoa the republican spirit which, through the
+influence of a young Genoese citizen, Joseph Mazzini, assumed forms of
+permanent menace not only to the Sardinian monarchy but to all the
+established governments of the peninsula. Even the material benefits
+accruing from the union with Sardinia and the constitutional liberty
+accorded to all his subjects by King Charles Albert were unable to
+prevent the republican outbreak of 1848, when, after a short and sharp
+struggle, the city, momentarily seized by the republican party, was
+recovered by General Alfonzo La Marmora.
+
+  Among the earlier Genoese historians the most important are
+  Bartolommeo Fazio and Jacopo Bracelli, both of the 15th century, and
+  Paolo Partenopeo, Jacopo Bonfadio, Oberto Foglietta and Agostino
+  Giustiniano of the 16th. Paganetti wrote the ecclesiastical history of
+  the city; and Accinelli and Gaggero collected material for the
+  ecclesiastical archaeology. The memoirs of local writers and artists
+  were treated by Soprani and Ratti. Among more general works are
+  Bréquigny, _Histoire des révolutions de Gênes jusqu'en 1748_; Serra,
+  _La Storia dell' antica Liguria e di Genova_ (Turin, 1834); Varesi,
+  _Storia della repubblica di Genova sino al 1814_ (Genoa, 1835-1839);
+  Canale, _Storia dei Genovesi_ (Genoa, 1844-1854), _Nuova istoria della
+  repubblica di Genova_ (Florence, 1858), and _Storia della rep. di
+  Genova dall' anno 1528 al 1550_ (Genoa, 1874); Blumenthal, _Zur
+  Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsgeschichte Genua's im 12ten Jahrhundert_
+  (Kalbe an der Saale, 1872); Malleson, _Studies from Genoese History_
+  (London, 1875). The _Liber jurium reipublicae Genuensis_ was edited by
+  Ricotti in the 7th, 8th and 9th volumes of the _Monumenta historiae
+  patriae_ (Turin, 1854-1857). A great variety of interesting matter
+  will be found in the _Atti della Società Ligure di storia patria_
+  (1861 sqq.), and in the _Giornale Ligustico di archeologia, storia, e
+  belle arti_. The history of the university has been written by Lorenzo
+  Isnardi, and continued by Em. Celesia (2 vols., Genoa).     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See _Notizie degli scavi_ (1898), 395 (A. d'Andrade), 464 (G.
+    Ghirardini).
+
+
+
+
+GENOVESI, ANTONIO (1712-1769), Italian writer on philosophy and
+political economy, was born at Castiglione, near Salerno, on the 1st of
+November 1712. He was educated for the church, and, after some
+hesitation, took orders in 1736 at Salerno, where he was appointed
+professor of eloquence at the theological seminary. During this period
+of his life he began the study of philosophy, being especially attracted
+by Locke. Dissatisfied with ecclesiastical life, Genovesi resigned his
+post, and qualified as an advocate at Rome. Finding law as distasteful
+as theology, he devoted himself entirely to philosophy, of which he was
+appointed extraordinary professor in the university of Naples. His first
+works were _Elementa Metaphysicae_ (1743 et seq.) and _Logica_ (1745).
+The former is divided into four parts, Ontosophy, Cosmosophy, Theosophy,
+Psychosophy, supplemented by a treatise on ethics and a dissertation on
+first causes. The _Logic_, an eminently practical work, written from the
+point of view of Locke, is in five parts, dealing with (1) the nature of
+the human mind, its faculties and operations; (2) ideas and their kinds;
+(3) the true and the false, and the various degrees of knowledge; (4)
+reasoning and argumentation; (5) method and the ordering of our
+thoughts. If Genovesi does not take a high rank in philosophy, he
+deserves the credit of having introduced the new order of ideas into
+Italy, at the same time preserving a just mean between the two extremes
+of sensualism and idealism. Although bitterly opposed by the partisans
+of scholastic routine, Genovesi found influential patrons, amongst them
+Bartolomeo Intieri, a Florentine, who in 1754 founded the first Italian
+or European chair of political economy (commerce and mechanics), on
+condition that Genovesi should be the first professor, and that it
+should never be held by an ecclesiastic. The fruit of Genovesi's
+professorial labours was the _Lezioni di Commercio_, the first complete
+and systematic work in Italian on economics. On the whole he belongs to
+the "Mercantile" school, though he does not regard money as the only
+form of wealth. Specially noteworthy in the _Lezioni_ are the sections
+on human wants as the foundation of economical theory, on labour as the
+source of wealth, on personal services as economic factors, and on the
+united working of the great industrial functions. He advocated freedom
+of the corn trade, reduction of the number of religious communities, and
+deprecated regulation of the interest on loans. In the spirit of his age
+he denounced the relics of medieval institutions, such as entails and
+tenures in mortmain. Gioja's more important treatise owes much to
+Genovesi's lectures. Genovesi died on the 22nd of September 1769.
+
+  See C. Ugoni, _Della letteratura italiana nella seconda metà del
+  secolo XVIII_ (1820-1822); A. Fabroni, _Vitae Italorum doctrina
+  excellentium_ (1778-1799); R. Bobba, _Commemorazione di A. Genovesi_
+  (Benevento, 1867).
+
+
+
+
+GENSONNÉ, ARMAND (1758-1793), French politician, the son of a military
+surgeon, was born at Bordeaux on the 10th of August 1758. He studied
+law, and at the outbreak of the Revolution was an advocate of the
+parlement of Bordeaux. In 1790 he became _procureur_ of the Commune, and
+in July 1791 was elected by the newly created department of the Gironde
+a member of the court of appeal. In the same year he was elected deputy
+for the department to the Legislative Assembly. As reporter of the
+diplomatic committee, in which he supported the policy of Brissot, he
+proposed two of the most revolutionary measures passed by the Assembly:
+the decree of accusation against the king's brothers (January 1, 1792),
+and the declaration of war against the king of Bohemia and Hungary
+(April 20, 1792). He was vigorous in his denunciations of the intrigues
+of the court and of the "Austrian committee"; but the violence of the
+extreme democrats, culminating in the events of the 10th of August,
+alarmed him; and when he was returned to the National Convention, he
+attacked the Commune of Paris (October 24 and 25). At the trial of Louis
+XVI. he supported an appeal to the people, but voted for the death
+sentence. As a member of the Committee of General Defence, and as
+president of the Convention (March 7-21, 1793), he shared in the bitter
+attacks of the Girondists on the Mountain; and on the fatal day of the
+2nd of June his name was among the first of those inscribed on the
+prosecution list. He was tried by the Revolutionary Tribunal on the 24th
+of October 1793, condemned to death and guillotined on the 31st of the
+month, displaying on the scaffold a stoic fortitude. Gensonné was
+accounted one of the most brilliant of the little band of brilliant
+orators from the Gironde, though his eloquence was somewhat cold and he
+always read his speeches.
+
+
+
+
+GENTIAN, botanically _Gentiana_, a large genus of herbaceous plants
+belonging to the natural order Gentianaceae. The genus comprises about
+300 species,--most of them perennial plants with tufted growth, growing
+in hilly or mountainous districts, chiefly in the northern hemisphere,
+some of the blue-flowered species ascending to a height of 16,000 ft. in
+the Himalaya Mountains. The leaves are opposite, entire and smooth, and
+often strongly ribbed. The flowers have a persistent 4- to 5-lobed calyx
+and a 4- to 5-lobed tubular corolla; the stamens are equal in number to
+the lobes of the corolla. The ovary is one-celled, with two stigmas,
+either separate and rolled back or contiguous and funnel-shaped. The
+fruit when ripe separates into two valves, and contains numerous small
+seeds. The majority of the genus are remarkable for the deep or
+brilliant blue colour of their blossoms, comparatively few having
+yellow, white, or more rarely red flowers; the last are almost
+exclusively found in the Andes.
+
+Only a few species occur in Britain. _G. amarella_ (felwort) and _G.
+campestris_ are small annual species growing on chalky or calcareous
+hills, and bear in autumn somewhat tubular pale purple flowers; the
+latter is most easily distinguished by having two of the lobes of the
+calyx larger than the other two, while the former has the parts of the
+calyx in fives, and equal in size. Some intermediate forms between these
+two species occur, although rarely, in England; one of these, _G.
+germanica_, has larger flowers of a bluer tint, spreading branches, and
+a stouter stem. Some of these forms flower in spring. _G. pneumonanthe_,
+the Calathian violet, is a rather rare perennial species, growing in
+moist heathy places from Cumberland to Dorsetshire. Its average height
+is from 6 to 9 in. It has linear leaves, and a bright blue corolla 1½
+in. long, marked externally with five greenish bands, is without hairs
+in its throat, and is found in perfection about the end of August. It is
+the handsomest of the British species; two varieties of it are known in
+cultivation, one with spotted and the other with white flowers. _G.
+verna_ and _G. nivalis_ are small species with brilliant blue flowers
+and small leaves. The former is a rare and local perennial, occurring,
+however, in Teesdale and the county of Clare in Ireland in tolerable
+abundance. It has a tufted habit of growth, and each stem bears only one
+flower. It is sometimes cultivated as an edging for flower borders. _G.
+nivalis_ in Britain occurs only on a few of the loftiest Scottish
+mountains. It differs from the last in being an annual, and having a
+more isolated habit of growth, and in the stem bearing several flowers.
+On the Swiss mountains these beautiful little plants are very abundant;
+and the splendid blue colour of masses of gentian in flower is a sight
+which, when once seen, can never be forgotten. For ornamental purposes
+several species are cultivated. The great difficulty of growing them
+successfully renders them, however, less common than would otherwise be
+the case; although very hardy when once established, they are very
+impatient of removal, and rarely flower well until the third year after
+planting. Of the ornamental species found in British gardens some of the
+prettiest are _G. acaulis_, _G. verna_, _G. pyrenaica_, _G. bavarica_,
+_G. septemfida_ and _G. gelida_. Perhaps the handsomest and most easily
+grown is the first named, often called _Gentianella_, which produces its
+large intensely blue flowers early in the spring.
+
+All the species of the genus are remarkable for possessing an intense
+but pure bitter taste and tonic properties. About forty species are used
+in medicine in different parts of the world. The name of felwort given
+to _G. amarella_, but occasionally applied to the whole genus, is stated
+by Dr Prior to be given in allusion to these properties--_fel_ meaning
+gall, and _wort_ a plant. In the same way the Chinese call _G.
+asclepiadea_, and the Japanese _G. Buergeri_, "dragon's gall plants," in
+common with several other very bitter plants whose roots they use in
+medicine. _G. campestris_ is sometimes used in Sweden and other northern
+countries as a substitute for hops.
+
+By far the most important of the species used in medicine is _G. lutea_,
+a large handsome plant 3 or 4 ft. high, growing in open grassy places on
+the Alps, Apennines and Pyrenees, as well as on some of the mountainous
+ranges of France and Germany, extending as far east as Bosnia and the
+Danubian principalities. It has large oval strongly-ribbed leaves and
+dense whorls of conspicuous yellow flowers. Its use in medicine is of
+very ancient date. Pliny and Dioscorides mention that the plant was
+noticed by Gentius, a king of the Illyrians, living 180-167 B.C., from
+whom the name _Gentiana_ is supposed to be derived. During the middle
+ages it was much employed in the cure of disease, and as an ingredient
+in counter-poisons. In 1552 Hieronymus Bock (Tragus) (1498-1554), a
+German priest, physician and botanist, mentions the use of the root as a
+means of dilating wounds.
+
+The root, which is the part used in medicine, is tough and flexible,
+scarcely branched, and of a brownish colour and spongy texture. It has a
+pure bitter taste and faint distinctive odour. The bitter principle,
+known as _gentianin_, is a glucoside, soluble in water and alcohol. It
+can be decomposed into glucose and gentiopicrin by the action of dilute
+mineral acids. It is not precipitated by tannin or subacetate of lead. A
+solution of caustic potash or soda forms with gentianin a yellow
+solution, and the tincture of the root to which either of these alkalis
+has been added loses its bitterness in a few days. Gentian root also
+contains _gentianic acid_ (C14H10O5), which is inert and tasteless. It
+forms pale yellow silky crystals, very slightly soluble in water or
+ether, but soluble in hot strong alcohol and in aqueous alkaline
+solutions. This substance is also called _gentianin_, _gentisin_ and
+_gentisic acid_.
+
+The root also contains 12 to 15% of an uncrystallizable sugar called
+gentianose, of which fact advantage has long been taken in Switzerland
+and Bavaria for the production of a bitter cordial spirit called
+_Enzianbranntwein_. The use of this spirit, especially in Switzerland,
+has sometimes been followed by poisonous symptoms, which have been
+doubtfully attributed to inherent narcotic properties possessed by some
+species of gentian, the roots of which may have been indiscriminately
+collected with it; but it is quite possible that it may be due to the
+contamination of the root with that of _Veratrum album_, a poisonous
+plant growing at the same altitude, and having leaves extremely similar
+in appearance and size to those of _G. lutea_.
+
+Gentian is one of the most efficient of the class of substances which
+act upon the stomach so as to invigorate digestion and thereby increase
+the general nutrition, without exerting any direct influence upon any
+other portion of the body than the alimentary canal. Having a pleasant
+taste and being non-astringent (owing to the absence of tannic acid), it
+is the most widely used of all bitter tonics. The British Pharmacopoeia
+contains an aqueous extract (dose, 2-8 grains), a compound infusion with
+orange and lemon peel (dose, ½-1 ounce), and a compound tincture with
+orange peel and cardamoms (dose ½-1 drachm). It is used in dyspepsia,
+chlorosis, anaemia and various other diseases, in which the tone of the
+stomach and alimentary canal is deficient, and is sometimes added to
+purgative medicines to increase and improve their action. In veterinary
+medicine it is also used as a tonic, and enters into a well-known
+compound called _diapente_ as a chief ingredient.
+
+
+
+
+GENTIANACEAE (the gentian family), in botany, an order of Dicotyledons
+belonging to the sub-class Sympetalae or Gamopetalae, and containing
+about 750 species in 64 genera. It has a world-wide distribution, and
+representatives adapted to very various conditions, including, for
+instance, alpine plants, like the true gentians (_Gentiana_), meadow
+plants such as the British _Chlora perfoliata_ (yellow-wort) or
+_Erythraea Centaurium_ (centaury), marsh plants such as _Menyanthes
+trifoliata_ (bog-bean), floating water plants such as _Limnanthemum_, or
+steppe and sea-coast plants such as _Cicendia_. They are annual or
+perennial herbs, rarely becoming shrubby, and generally growing erect,
+with a characteristic forked manner of branching; the Asiatic genus
+_Crawfurdia_ has a climbing stem; they are often low-growing and
+caespitose, as in the alpine gentians.
+
+  The leaves are in decussating pairs (that is, each pair is in a plane
+  at right angles to the previous or succeeding pair), except in
+  _Menyanthes_ and a few allied aquatic or marsh genera, where they are
+  alternate or radical. Several genera, chiefly American, are
+  saprophytes, forming slender low-growing herbs, containing little or
+  no chlorophyll and with leaves reduced to scales; such are _Voyria_
+  and _Leiphaimos_, mainly tropical American. The inflorescence is
+  generally cymose, often dichasial, recalling that of Caryophyllaceae,
+  the lateral branches often becoming monochasial; it is sometimes
+  reduced to a few flowers or one only, as in some gentians. The flowers
+  are hermaphrodite, and regular with parts in 4's and 5's, with
+  reduction to 2 in the pistil; in _Chlora_ there are 6 to 8 members in
+  each whorl. The calyx generally forms a tube with teeth or segments
+  which usually overlap in the bud. The corolla shows great variety in
+  form; thus among the British genera it is rotate in _Chlora_,
+  funnel-shaped in _Erythraea_, and cylindrical, bell-shaped,
+  funnel-shaped or salver-shaped in _Gentiana_; the segments are
+  generally twisted to the right in the bud; the throat is often
+  fimbriate or bears scales. The stamens, as many as, and alternating
+  with, the corolla-segments, are inserted at very different heights on
+  the corolla-tube; the filaments are slender, the anthers are usually
+  attached dorsally, are versatile, and dehisce by two longitudinal
+  slits; after escape of the pollen they sometimes become spirally
+  twisted as in _Erythraea_. Dimorphic flowers are frequent, as in the
+  bog-bean (_Menyanthes_). There is considerable variation in the size,
+  shape and external markings of the pollen grains, and a division of
+  the order into tribes and subtribes based primarily on pollen
+  characters has been proposed. The form of the honey-secreting
+  developments of the disk at the base of the ovary also shows
+  considerable variety. The superior ovary is generally one-chambered,
+  with two variously developed parietal placentas, which occasionally
+  meet, forming two chambers; the ovules are generally very numerous and
+  anatropous or half-anatropous in form. The style, which varies much in
+  length, is simple, with an undivided or bilobed or bipartite stigma.
+  The fruit is generally a membranous or leathery capsule, splitting
+  septicidally into two valves; the seeds are small and numerous, and
+  contain a small embryo in a copious endosperm.
+
+  [Illustration: Central figure and figs. 1-4 after Curtis, _Flora
+  Londinensis_.
+
+  _Gentiana Amarella._
+
+    1, A small form, natural size.
+    2, Calyx and protruding style.
+    3, Corolla, laid open.
+    4, Capsule, bursting into two valves, and showing the seeds attached
+      to their margins.
+    5, Floral diagram.]
+
+  The brilliant colour of the flowers, often occurring in large numbers
+  (as in the alpine gentians), the presence of honey-glands and the
+  frequency of dimorphy and dichogamy, are adaptations for pollination
+  by insect visitors. In the true gentians (_Gentiana_) the flowers of
+  different species are adapted for widely differing types of insect
+  visitors. Thus _Gentiana lutea_, with a rotate yellow corolla and
+  freely exposed honey, is adapted to short-tongued insect visitors; _G.
+  Pneumonanthe_, with a long-tubed, bright blue corolla, is visited by
+  bumble bees; and _G. verna_, with a still longer narrower tube, is
+  visited by Lepidoptera.
+
+  _Gentiana_, the largest genus, contains nearly three hundred species,
+  distributed over Europe (including arctic), five being British, the
+  mountains of Asia, south-east Australia and New Zealand, the whole of
+  North America and along the Andes to Cape Horn; it does not occur in
+  Africa. Bitter principles are general in the vegetative parts,
+  especially in the rhizomes and roots, and have given a medicinal value
+  to many species, e.g. _Gentiana lutea_ and others.
+
+
+
+
+GENTILE, in the English Bible, the term generally applied to those who
+were not of the Jewish race. It is an adaptation of the Lat. _gentilis_,
+of or belonging to the same _gens_, the clan or family; as defined in
+Paulus ex Festo "gentilis dicitur et ex eodem genere ortus et is qui
+simili nomine; ut ait Cincius, gentiles mihi sunt, qui meo nomine
+appellantur." In post-Augustan Latin _gentilis_ became wider in meaning,
+following the usage of _gens_, in the sense of race, nation, and meant
+"national," belonging to the same race. Later still the word came to
+mean "foreign," i.e. other than Roman, and was so used in the Vulgate,
+with _gentes_, to translate the Hebrew _goyyim_, nations, LXX. [Greek:
+ethnê], the non-Israelitish peoples (see further JEWS).
+
+
+
+
+GENTILE DA FABRIANO (c. 1370-c. 1450), Italian painter, was born at
+Fabriano about 1370. He is said to have been a pupil of Allegretto di
+Nuzio, and has been supposed to have received most of his early
+instruction from Fra Angelico, to whose manner his bears in some
+respects a close similarity. About 1411 he went to Venice, where by
+order of the doge and senate he was engaged to adorn the great hall of
+the ducal palace with frescoes from the life of Barbarossa. He executed
+this work so entirely to the satisfaction of his employers that they
+granted him a pension for life, and accorded him the privilege of
+wearing the habit of a Venetian noble. About 1422 he went to Florence,
+where in 1423 he painted an "Adoration of the Magi" for the church of
+Santa Trinita, which is preserved in the Florence Accademia; this
+painting is considered his best work now extant. To the same period
+belongs a "Madonna and Child," which is now in the Berlin Museum. He had
+by this time attained a wide reputation, and was engaged to paint
+pictures for various churches, more particularly Siena, Perugia, Gubbio
+and Fabriano. About 1426 he was called to Rome by Martin V. to adorn the
+church of St John Lateran with frescoes from the life of John the
+Baptist. He also executed a portrait of the pope attended by ten
+cardinals, and in the church of St Francesco Romano a painting of the
+"Virgin and Child attended by St Benedict and St Joseph," which was much
+esteemed by Michelangelo, but is no longer in existence. Gentile da
+Fabriano died about 1450. Michelangelo said of him that his works
+resembled his name, meaning noble or refined. They are full of a quiet
+and serene joyousness, and he has a naïve and innocent delight in
+splendour and in gold ornaments, with which, however, his pictures are
+not overloaded.
+
+
+
+
+GENTILESCHI, ARTEMISIA and ORAZIO DE', Italian painters.
+
+ORAZIO (c. 1565-1646) is generally named Orazio Lomi de' Gentileschi; it
+appears that De' Gentileschi was his correct surname, Lomi being the
+surname which his mother had borne during her first marriage. He was
+born at Pisa, and studied under his half-brother Aurelio Lomi, whom in
+course of time he surpassed. He afterwards went to Rome, and was
+associated with the landscape-painter Agostino Tasi, executing the
+figures for the landscape backgrounds of this artist in the Palazzo
+Rospigliosi, and it is said in the great hall of the Quirinal Palace,
+although by some authorities the figures in the last-named building are
+ascribed to Lanfranco. His best works are "Saints Cecilia and Valerian,"
+in the Palazzo Borghese, Rome; "David after the death of Goliath," in
+the Palazzo Doria, Genoa; and some works in the royal palace, Turin,
+noticeable for vivid and uncommon colouring. At an advanced age
+Gentileschi went to England at the invitation of Charles I., and he was
+employed in the palace at Greenwich. Vandyck included him in his
+portraits of a hundred illustrious men. His works generally are strong
+in shadow and positive in colour. He died in England in 1646.
+
+ARTEMISIA (1590-1642), Orazio's daughter, studied first under Guido,
+acquired much renown for portrait-painting, and considerably excelled
+her father's fame. She was a beautiful and elegant woman; her likeness,
+limned by her own hand, is to be seen in Hampton Court. Her most
+celebrated composition is "Judith and Holofernes," in the Uffizi
+Gallery; certainly a work of singular energy, and giving ample proof of
+executive faculty, but repulsive and unwomanly in its physical horror.
+She accompanied her father to England, but did not remain there long;
+the best picture which she produced for Charles I. was "David with the
+head of Goliath." Artemisia refused an offer of marriage from Agostino
+Tasi, and bestowed her hand on Pier Antonio Schiattesi, continuing,
+however, to use her own surname. She settled in Naples, whither she
+returned after her English sojourn; she lived there in no little
+splendour, and there she died in 1642. She had a daughter and perhaps
+other children.
+
+
+
+
+GENTILI, ALBERICO (1552-1608), Italian jurist, who has great claims to
+be considered the founder of the science of international law, second
+son of Matteo Gentili, a physician of noble family and scientific
+eminence, was born on the 14th of January 1552 at Sanginesio, a small
+town of the march of Ancona which looks down from the slopes of the
+Apennines upon the distant Adriatic. After taking the degree of doctor
+of civil law at the university of Perugia, and holding a judicial office
+at Ascoli, he returned to his native city, and was entrusted with the
+task of recasting its statutes, but, sharing the Protestant opinions of
+his father, shared also, together with a brother, Scipio, afterwards a
+famous professor at Altdorf, his flight to Carniola, where in 1579
+Matteo was appointed physician to the duchy. The Inquisition condemned
+the fugitives as contumacious, and they soon received orders to quit the
+dominions of Austria.
+
+Alberico set out for England, travelling by way of Tübingen and
+Heidelberg, and everywhere meeting with the reception to which his
+already high reputation entitled him. He arrived at Oxford in the autumn
+of 1580, with a commendatory letter from the earl of Leicester, at that
+time chancellor of the university, and was shortly afterwards qualified
+to teach by being admitted to the same degree which he had taken at
+Perugia. His lectures on Roman law soon became famous, and the
+dialogues, disputations and commentaries, which he published henceforth
+in rapid succession, established his position as an accomplished
+civilian, of the older and severer type, and secured his appointment in
+1587 to the regius professorship of civil law. It was, however, rather
+by an application of the old learning to the new questions suggested by
+the modern relations of states that his labours have produced their most
+lasting result. In 1584 he was consulted by government as to the proper
+course to be pursued with Mendoza, the Spanish ambassador, who had been
+detected in plotting against Elizabeth. He chose the topic to which his
+attention had thus been directed as a subject for a disputation when
+Leicester and Sir Philip Sidney visited the schools at Oxford in the
+same year; and this was six months later expanded into a book, the _De
+legationibus libri tres_. In 1588 Alberico selected the law of war as
+the subject of the law disputations at the annual "Act" which took place
+in July; and in the autumn published in London the _De Jure Belli
+commentatio prima_. A second and a third _Commentatio_ followed, and the
+whole matter, with large additions and improvements, appeared at Hanau,
+in 1598, as the _De Jure Belli libri tres_. It was doubtless in
+consequence of the reputation gained by these works that Gentili became
+henceforth more and more engaged in forensic practice, and resided
+chiefly in London, leaving his Oxford work to be partly discharged by a
+deputy. In 1600 he was admitted to be a member of Gray's Inn, and in
+1605 was appointed standing counsel to the king of Spain. He died on the
+19th of June 1608, and was buried, by the side of Dr Matteo Gentili, who
+had followed his son to England, in the churchyard of St Helen's,
+Bishopsgate. By his wife, Hester de Peigni, he left two sons, Robert and
+Matthew, and a daughter, Anna, who married Sir John Colt. His notes of
+the cases in which he was engaged for the Spaniards were posthumously
+published in 1613 at Hanau, as _Hispanicae advocationis libri duo_. This
+was in accordance with his last wishes; but his direction that the
+remainder of his MSS. should be burnt was not complied with, since
+fifteen volumes of them found their way, at the beginning of the 19th
+century, from Amsterdam to the Bodleian library.
+
+The true history of Gentili and of his principal writings has only been
+ascertained in recent years, in consequence of a revived appreciation of
+the services which he rendered to international law. The movement to do
+him honour originated in 1875 in England, as the result of the inaugural
+lecture of Prof. T.E. Holland, and was warmly taken up in Italy. In
+spreading through Europe it encountered two curious cross-currents of
+opinion,--one the ultra-Catholic, which three centuries before had
+ordered his name to be erased from all public documents and placed his
+works in the _Index_; another the narrowly-Dutch, which is, it seems,
+needlessly careful of the supremacy of Grotius. These two currents
+resulted respectively in a bust of Garcia Moreno being placed in the
+Vatican, and in the unveiling in 1886, with much international oratory,
+of a fine statue of Grotius at Delft. The English committee, under the
+honorary presidency of Prince Leopold, in 1877 erected a monument to the
+memory of Gentili in St Helen's church, and saw to the publication of a
+new edition of the _De Jure Belli_. The Italian committee, of which
+Prince (afterwards King) Humbert was honorary president, was less
+successful. It was only in 1908, the tercentenary of the death of
+Alberico, that the statue of the great heretic was at length unveiled in
+his native city by the minister of public instruction, in the presence
+of numerous deputations from Italian cities and universities. Preceding
+writers had dealt with various international questions, but they dealt
+with them singly, and with a servile submission to the decisions of the
+church. It was left to Gentili to grasp as a whole the relations of
+states one to another, to distinguish international questions from
+questions with which they are more or less intimately connected, and to
+attempt their solution by principles entirely independent of the
+authority of Rome. He uses the reasonings of the civil and even the
+canon law, but he proclaims as his real guide the _Jus Naturae_, the
+highest common sense of mankind, by which historical precedents are to
+be criticized and, if necessary, set aside.
+
+His faults are not few. His style is prolix, obscure, and to the modern
+reader pedantic enough; but a comparison of his greatest work with what
+had been written upon the same subject by, for instance, Belli, or Soto,
+or even Ayala, will show that he greatly improved upon his predecessors,
+not only by the fulness with which he has worked out points of detail,
+but also by clearly separating the law of war from martial law, and by
+placing the subject once for all upon a non-theological basis. If, on
+the other hand, the same work be compared with the _De Jure Belli et
+Pacis_ of Grotius, it is at once evident that the later writer is
+indebted to the earlier, not only for a large portion of his
+illustrative erudition, but also for all that is commendable in the
+method and arrangement of the treatise.
+
+  The following is probably a complete list of the writings of Gentili,
+  with the places and dates of their first publication: _De juris
+  interpretibus dialogi sex_ (London, 1582); _Lectionum et epist. quae
+  ad jus civile pertinent libri tres_ (London, 1583-1584); _De
+  legationibus libri tres_ (London, 1585); _Legal. comitiorum Oxon.
+  actio_ (London, 1585-1586); _De divers. temp. appellationibus_ (Hanau,
+  1586); _De nascendi tempore disputatio_ (Witteb., 1586);
+  _Disputationum decas prima_ (London, 1587); _Conditionum liber
+  singularis_ (London, 1587); _De jure belli comm. prima_ (London,
+  1588); _secunda, ib._ (1588-1589); _tertia_ (1589); _De injustitia
+  bellica Romanorum_ (Oxon, 1590); _Ad tit. de Malef, et Math, de Prof.
+  et Med._ (Hanau, 1593); _De jure belli libri tres_ (Hanau, 1598); _De
+  armis Romanis, &c._ (Hanau, 1599); _De actoribus et de abusu mendacii_
+  (Hanau, 1599); _De ludis scenicis epist. duae_ (Middleburg, 1600); _Ad
+  I. Maccabaeorum et de linguarum mistura disp._ (Frankfurt, 1600);
+  _Lectiones Virgilianae_ (Hanau, 1600); _De nuptiis libri septem_
+  (1601); _In tit. si quis principi, et ad leg. Jul. maiest._ (Hanau,
+  1604); _De latin, vet. Bibl._ (Hanau, 1604); _De libro Pyano_ (Oxon,
+  1604); _Laudes Acad. Perus. et Oxon._ (Hanau, 1605); _De unione
+  Angliae et Scotiae_ (London, 1605); _Disputationes tres, de libris
+  jur. can., de libris jur. civ., de latinitate vet. vers._ (Hanau,
+  1605); _Regales disput. tres, de pot. regis absoluta, de unione
+  regnorum, de vi civium_ (London, 1605); _Hispanicae advocationis libri
+  duo_ (Hanau, 1613); _In tit. de verb. signif._ (Hanau, 1614); _De
+  legatis in test._ (Amsterdam, 1661). An edition of the _Opera omnia_,
+  commenced at Naples in 1770, was cut short by the death of the
+  publisher, Gravier, after the second volume. Of his numerous
+  unpublished writings, Gentili complained that four volumes were lost
+  "pessimo pontificiorum facinore," meaning probably that they were left
+  behind in his flight to Carniola.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Several tracts by the Abate Benigni in Colucci,
+  _Antichità Picene_ (1790); a dissertation by W. Reiger annexed to the
+  _Program of the Groningen Gymnasium_ for 1867; an inaugural lecture
+  delivered in 1874 by T.E. Holland, translated into Italian, with
+  additions by the author, by A. Saffi (1884); the preface to a new
+  edition of the _De jure belli_ (1877) and _Studies in International
+  Law_ (1898) (which see, for details as to the family and MSS. of
+  Gentili), by the same; works by Valdarnini and Foglietti (1875),
+  Speranza and De Giorgi (1876), Fiorini (a translation of the _De jure
+  belli_, with essay, 1877), A. Saffi (1878), L. Marson (1885), M. Thamm
+  (1896), B. Brugi (1898), T.A. Walker (an analysis of the principal
+  works of Gentili) in his _History of the Law of Nations_, vol.
+  i.(1899); H. Nézarel, in Pillet's _Fondateurs de droit international_
+  (1904); E. Agabiti (1908). See also E. Comba, in the _Rivista
+  Christiana_ (1876-1877); Sir T. Twiss, in the _Law Review_ (1878);
+  articles in the _Revue de droit international_ (1875-1878, 1883, 1886,
+  1908); O. Scalvanti, in the _Annali dell' Univ. di Perugia_, N.S.,
+  vol. viii. (1898).     (T. E. H.)
+
+
+
+
+GENTLE (through the Fr. _gentil_, from Lat. _gentilis_, belonging to the
+same _gens_, or family), properly an epithet of one born of a "good
+family"; the Latin _generosus_, "well born" (see GENTLEMAN), contrasted
+with "noble" on the one side and "simple" on the other. The word
+followed the wider application of the word "gentleman"; implying the
+manners, character and breeding proper to one to whom that name could be
+applied, courteous, polite; hence, with no reference to its original
+meaning, free from violence or roughness, mild, soft, kind or tender.
+With a physical meaning of soft to the touch, the word is used
+substantively of the maggot of the bluebottle fly, used as a bait by
+fishermen. At the end of the 16th century the French _gentil_ was again
+adapted into English in the form "gentile," later changed to "genteel."
+The word was common in the 17th and 18th centuries as applied to
+behaviour, manner of living, dress, &c., suitable or proper to persons
+living in a position in society above the ordinary, hence polite,
+elegant. From the early part of the 19th century it has also been used
+in an ironical sense, and applied chiefly to those who pay an excessive
+and absurd importance to the outward marks of respectability as evidence
+of being in a higher rank in society than that to which they properly
+belong.
+
+
+
+
+GENTLEMAN (from Lat. _gentilis_, "belonging to a race or _gens_," and
+"man"; Fr. _gentilhomme_, Span, _gentil hombre_, Ital. _gentil huomo_),
+in its original and strict signification, a term denoting a man of good
+family, the Lat. _generosus_ (its invariable translation in
+English-Latin documents). In this sense it is the equivalent of the Fr.
+_gentilhomme_, "nobleman," which latter term has in Great Britain been
+long confined to the peerage (see NOBILITY); and the term "gentry"
+("gentrice" from O. Fr. _genterise_ for _gentelise_) has much of the
+significance of the Fr. _noblesse_ or the Ger. _Adel_. This was what was
+meant by the rebels under John Ball in the 14th century when they
+repeated:
+
+  "When Adam delved and Eve span,
+   Who was then the gentleman?"
+
+Selden (_Titles of Honor_, 1672), discussing the title "gentleman,"
+speaks of "our English use of it" as "convertible with _nobilis_," and
+describes in connexion with it the forms of ennobling in various
+European countries. William Harrison, writing a century earlier, says
+"gentlemen be those whom their race and blood, or at the least their
+virtues, do make noble and known." But for the complete gentleman the
+possession of a coat of arms was in his time considered necessary; and
+Harrison gives the following account of how gentlemen were made in
+Shakespeare's day:
+
+  "... gentlemen whose ancestors are not known to come in with William
+  duke of Normandy (for of the Saxon races yet remaining we now make
+  none accompt, much less of the British issue) do take their beginning
+  in England after this manner in our times. Who soever studieth the
+  laws of the realm, who so abideth in the university, giving his mind
+  to his book, or professeth physic and the liberal sciences, or beside
+  his service in the room of a captain in the wars, or good counsel
+  given at home, whereby his commonwealth is benefited, can live without
+  manual labour, and thereto is able and will bear the port, charge and
+  countenance of a gentleman, he shall for money have a coat and arms
+  bestowed upon him by heralds (who in the charter of the same do of
+  custom pretend antiquity and service, and many gay things) and
+  thereunto being made so good cheap be called master, which is the
+  title that men give to esquires and gentlemen, and reputed for a
+  gentleman ever after. Which is so much the less to be disallowed of,
+  for that the prince doth lose nothing by it, the gentleman being so
+  much subject to taxes and public payments as is the yeoman or
+  husbandman, which he likewise doth bear the gladlier for the saving of
+  his reputation. Being called also to the wars (for with the government
+  of the commonwealth he medleth little) what soever it cost him, he
+  will both array and arm himself accordingly, and show the more manly
+  courage, and all the tokens of the person which he representeth. No
+  man hath hurt by it but himself, who peradventure will go in wider
+  buskins than his legs will bear, or as our proverb saith, now and then
+  bear a bigger sail than his boat is able to sustain."[1]
+
+In this way Shakespeare himself was turned, by the grant of his coat of
+arms, from a "vagabond" into a gentleman.
+
+The fundamental idea of "gentry," symbolized in this grant of
+coat-armour, had come to be that of the essential superiority of the
+fighting man; and, as Selden points out (p. 707), the fiction was
+usually maintained in the granting of arms "to an ennobled person though
+of the long Robe wherein he hath little use of them as they mean a
+shield." At the last the wearing of a sword on all occasions was the
+outward and visible sign of a "gentleman"; and the custom survives in
+the sword worn with "court dress." This idea that a gentleman must have
+a coat of arms, and that no one is a "gentleman" without one is,
+however, of comparatively late growth, the outcome of the natural desire
+of the heralds to magnify their office and collect fees for registering
+coats; and the same is true of the conception of "gentlemen" as a
+separate class. That a distinct order of "gentry" existed in England
+very early has, indeed, been often assumed, and is supported by weighty
+authorities. Thus, the late Professor Freeman (_Ency. Brit._ xvii. p.
+540 b, 9th ed.) said: "Early in the 11th century the order of
+'gentlemen' as a separate class seems to be forming as something new. By
+the time of the conquest of England the distinction seems to have been
+fully established." Stubbs (_Const. Hist._, ed. 1878, iii. 544, 548)
+takes the same view. Sir George Sitwell, however, has conclusively
+proved that this opinion is based on a wrong conception of the
+conditions of medieval society, and that it is wholly opposed to the
+documentary evidence. The fundamental social cleavage in the middle ages
+was between the _nobiles_, i.e. the tenants in chivalry, whether earls,
+barons, knights, esquires or franklins, and the _ignobiles_, i.e. the
+villeins, citizens and burgesses;[2] and between the most powerful noble
+and the humblest franklin there was, until the 15th century, no
+"separate class of gentlemen." Even so late as 1400 the word "gentleman"
+still only had the sense of _generosus_, and could not be used as a
+personal description denoting rank or quality, or as the title of a
+class. Yet after 1413 we find it increasingly so used; and the list of
+landowners in 1431, printed in _Feudal Aids_, contains, besides knights,
+esquires, yeomen and husbandmen (i.e. householders), a fair number who
+are classed as "gentilman."
+
+Sir George Sitwell gives a lucid explanation of this development, the
+incidents of which are instructive and occasionally amusing. The
+immediate cause was the statute I Henry V. cap. v. of 1413, which laid
+down that in all original writs of action, personal appeals and
+indictments, in which process of outlawry lies, the "estate degree or
+mystery" of the defendant must be stated, as well as his present or
+former domicile. Now the Black Death (1349) had put the traditional
+social organization out of gear. Before that the younger sons of the
+_nobiles_ had received their share of the farm stock, bought or hired
+land, and settled down as agriculturists in their native villages. Under
+the new conditions this became increasingly impossible, and they were
+forced to seek their fortunes abroad in the French wars, or at home as
+hangers-on of the great nobles. These men, under the old system, had no
+definite status; but they were _generosi_, men of birth, and, being now
+forced to describe themselves, they disdained to be classed with
+franklins (now sinking in the social scale), still more with yeomen or
+husbandmen; they chose, therefore, to be described as "gentlemen." On
+the character of these earliest "gentlemen" the records throw a lurid
+light. According to Sir George Sitwell (p. 76), "the premier gentleman
+of England, as the matter now stands, is 'Robert Erdeswyke of Stafford,
+gentilman,'" who had served among the men-at-arms of Lord Talbot at
+Agincourt (ib. note). He is typical of his class. "Fortunately--for the
+gentle reader will no doubt be anxious to follow in his footsteps--some
+particulars of his life may be gleaned from the public records. He was
+charged at the Staffordshire Assizes with housebreaking, wounding with
+intent to kill, and procuring the murder of one Thomas Page, who was cut
+to pieces while on his knees begging for his life." If any earlier
+claimant to the title of "gentleman" be discovered, Sir George Sitwell
+predicts that it will be within the same year (1414) and in connexion
+with some similar disreputable proceedings.[3]
+
+From these unpromising beginnings the separate order of "gentlemen" was
+very slowly evolved. The first "gentleman" commemorated on an existing
+monument was John Daundelyon of Margate (d. c. 1445); the first
+gentleman to enter the House of Commons, hitherto composed mainly of
+"valets," was "William Weston, gentylman"; but even in the latter half
+of the 15th century the order was not clearly established. As to the
+connexion of "gentilesse" with the official grant or recognition of
+coat-armour, that is a profitable fiction invented and upheld by the
+heralds; for coat-armour was but the badge assumed by gentlemen to
+distinguish them in battle, and many gentlemen of long descent never had
+occasion to assume it, and never did. This fiction, however, had its
+effect; and by the 16th century, as has been already pointed out, the
+official view had become clearly established that "gentlemen"
+constituted a distinct order, and that the badge of this distinction was
+the heralds' recognition of the right to bear arms. It is unfortunate
+that this view, which is quite unhistorical and contradicted by the
+present practice of many undoubtedly "gentle" families of long descent,
+has of late years been given a wide currency in popular manuals of
+heraldry.
+
+In this narrow sense, however, the word "gentleman" has long since
+become obsolete. The idea of "gentry" in the continental sense of
+_noblesse_ is extinct in England, and is likely to remain so, in spite
+of the efforts of certain enthusiasts to revive it (see A.C. Fox-Davies,
+_Armorial Families_, Edinburgh, 1895). That it once existed has been
+sufficiently shown; but the whole spirit and tendency of English
+constitutional and social development tended to its early destruction.
+The comparative good order of England was not favourable to the
+continuance of a class, developed during the foreign and civil wars of
+the 14th and 15th centuries, for whom fighting was the sole honourable
+occupation. The younger sons of noble families became apprentices in the
+cities, and there grew up a new aristocracy of trade. Merchants are
+still "citizens" to William Harrison; but he adds "they often change
+estate with gentlemen, as gentlemen do with them, by a mutual conversion
+of the one into the other." A frontier line between classes so
+indefinite could not be maintained, especially as in England there was
+never a "nobiliary prefix" to stamp a person as a gentleman by his
+surname, as in France or Germany.[4] The process was hastened, moreover,
+by the corruption of the Heralds' College and by the ease with which
+coats of arms could be assumed without a shadow of claim; which tended
+to bring the "science of armory" into contempt. The word "gentleman" as
+an index of rank had already become of doubtful value before the great
+political and social changes of the 19th century gave to it a wider and
+essentially higher significance. The change is well illustrated in the
+definitions given in the successive editions of the _Encyclopaedia
+Britannica_. In the 5th edition (1815) "a gentleman is one, who without
+any title, bears a coat of arms, or whose ancestors have been freemen."
+In the 7th edition (1845) it still implies a definite social status:
+"All above the rank of yeomen." In the 8th edition (1856) this is still
+its "most extended sense"; "in a more limited sense" it is defined in
+the same words as those quoted above from the 5th edition; but the
+writer adds, "By courtesy this title is generally accorded to all
+persons above the rank of common tradesmen when their manners are
+indicative of a certain amount of refinement and intelligence." The
+Reform Bill of 1832 has done its work; the "middle classes" have come
+into their own; and the word "gentleman" has come in common use to
+signify not a distinction of blood, but a distinction of position,
+education and manners. The test is no longer good birth, or the right to
+bear arms, but the capacity to mingle on equal terms in good society. In
+its best use, moreover, "gentleman" involves a certain superior standard
+of conduct, due, to quote the 8th edition once more, to "that
+self-respect and intellectual refinement which manifest themselves in
+unrestrained yet delicate manners." The word "gentle," originally
+implying a certain social status, had very early come to be associated
+with the standard of manners expected from that status. Thus by a sort
+of punning process the "gentleman" becomes a "gentle-man." Chaucer in
+the _Meliboeus_ (c. 1386) says: "Certes he sholde not be called a gentil
+man, that ... ne dooth his diligence and bisynesse, to kepen his good
+name"; and in the _Wife of Bath's Tale_:
+
+  "Loke who that is most vertuous alway
+   Prive and apert, and most entendeth ay
+   To do the gentil dedes that he can
+   And take him for the gretest gentilman,"
+
+and In the _Romance of the Rose_ (c. 1400) we find "he is gentil bycause
+he doth as longeth to a gentilman." This use develops through the
+centuries, until in 1714 we have Steele, in the _Tatler_ (No. 207),
+laying down that "the appellation of Gentleman is never to be affixed to
+a man's circumstances, but to his Behaviour in them," a limitation
+over-narrow even for the present day. In this connexion, too, may be
+quoted the old story, told by some--very improbably--of James II., of
+the monarch who replied to a lady petitioning him to make her son a
+gentleman, "I could make him a nobleman, but God Almighty could not make
+him a gentleman." Selden, however, in referring to similar stories "that
+no Charter can make a Gentleman, which is cited as out of the mouth of
+some great Princes that have said it," adds that "they without question
+understood Gentleman for _Generosus_ in the antient sense, or as if it
+came from _Gentilis_ in that sense, as _Gentilis_ denotes one of a noble
+Family, or indeed for a Gentleman by birth." For "no creation could make
+a man of another blood than he is." The word "gentleman," used in the
+wide sense with which birth and circumstances have nothing to do, is
+necessarily incapable of strict definition. For "to behave like a
+gentleman" may mean little or much, according to the person by whom the
+phrase is used; "to spend money like a gentleman" may even be no great
+praise; but "to conduct a business like a gentleman" implies a standard
+at least as high as that involved in the phrase "noblesse oblige." In
+this sense of a person of culture, character and good manners the word
+"gentleman" has supplied a gap in more than one foreign language.
+
+The evolution of this meaning of "gentleman" reflects very accurately
+that of English society; and there are not wanting signs that the
+process of evolution, in the one as in the other, is not complete. The
+indefinableness of the word mirrors the indefinite character of
+"society" in England; and the use by "the masses" of "gentleman" as a
+mere synonym for "man" has spread _pari passu_ with the growth of
+democracy. It is a protest against implied inferiority, and is cherished
+as the modern French _bourgeois_ cherishes his right of duelling with
+swords, under the _ancien régime_ a prerogative of the _noblesse_. Nor
+is there much justification for the denunciation by purists of the
+"vulgarization" and "abuse" of the "grand old name of gentleman." Its
+strict meaning has now fallen completely obsolete. Its current meaning
+varies with every class of society that uses it. But it always implies
+some sort of excellency of manners or morals. It may by courtesy be
+over-loosely applied by one common man to another; but the common man
+would understand the reproach conveyed in "You're no gentleman."
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Selden, _Titles of Honor_ (London, 1672); William
+  Harrison, _Description of England_, ed. G.F.J. Furnivall for the New
+  Shakspere Soc. (London, 1877-1878); Sir George Sitwell, "The English
+  Gentleman," in the _Ancestor_, No. 1 (Westminster, April 1902);
+  _Peacham's Compleat Gentleman_ (1634), with an introduction by G.S.
+  Gordon (Oxford, 1906); A. Smythe-Palmer, D.D., _The Ideal of a
+  Gentleman, or a Mirror for Gentlefolk: A Portrayal in Literature from
+  the Earliest Times_ (London, 1908), a very exhaustive collection of
+  extracts from authors so wide apart as Ptah-hotep (3300 B.C.) and
+  William Watson, arranged under headings: "The Historical Idea of a
+  Gentleman," "The Herald's Gentleman," "The Poet's Gentleman," &c.
+       (W. A. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Description of England_, bk. ii. ch. v. p. 128. Henry Peacham,
+    in his _Compleat Gentleman_ (1634), takes this matter more seriously.
+    "Neither must we honour or esteem," he writes, "those ennobled, or
+    made gentle in blood, who by mechanic and base means have raked up a
+    mass of wealth ... or have purchased an ill coat (of arms) at a good
+    rate; no more than a player upon the stage, for wearing a lord's cast
+    suit: since nobility hangeth not upon the airy esteem of vulgar
+    opinion, but is indeed of itself essential and absolute" (Reprint, p.
+    3). Elsewhere (p. 161) he deplores the abuse of heraldry, which had
+    even in his day produced "all the world over such a medley of coats"
+    that, but for the commendable activity of the earls marshals, he
+    feared that yeomen would soon be "as rare in _England_ as they are in
+    _France_." See also an amusing instance from the time of Henry VIII.,
+    given in "The Gentility of Richard Barker," by Oswald Barron, in the
+    _Ancestor_, vol. ii. (July 1902).
+
+  [2] Even this classification would seem to need modifying. For
+    certain of the great patrician families of the cities were certainly
+    _nobiles_.
+
+  [3] The designation "gentilman" is, indeed, found some two centuries
+    earlier. In the _Inquisitio maneriorum Ecclesiae S. Pauli Londin._ of
+    A.D. 1222 (W.A. Hale, _Domesday of St Paul's_, Camden Soc., 1858, p.
+    80) occurs the entry: _Adam gentilma dim acra, p' iii. d._ This is
+    probably the earliest record of the "grand old name of gentleman";
+    but Adam, who held half an acre at a rent of three pence--less by
+    half than that held by "Ralph the bondsman" (Rad' le bunde) in the
+    same list--was certainly not a "gentleman." "Gentilman" here was a
+    nickname, perhaps suggested by Adam's name, and thus in some sort
+    anticipating the wit of the famous couplet repeated by John Ball's
+    rebels.
+
+  [4] The prefix "de" attached to some English names is in no sense
+    "nobiliary." In Latin documents _de_ was the equivalent of the
+    English "of," as _de la_ of "at" (so de la Pole for Atte Poole, cf.
+    such names as Attwood, Attwater). In English this "of" was in the
+    15th century dropped; e.g. the grandson of Johannes de Stoke (John of
+    Stoke) in a 14th-century document becomes John Stoke. In modern
+    times, under the influence of romanticism, the prefix "de" has been
+    in some cases "revived" under a misconception, e.g. "de Trafford,"
+    "de Hoghton." Very rarely it is correctly retained as derived from a
+    foreign place-name, e.g. de Grey.
+
+
+
+
+GENTZ, FRIEDRICH VON (1764-1832), German publicist and statesman, was
+born at Breslau on the 2nd of May 1764. His father was an official, his
+mother an Ancillon, distantly related to the Prussian minister of that
+name. On his father's transference to Berlin, as director of the mint,
+the boy was sent to the Joachimsthal gymnasium there; his brilliant
+talents, however, did not develop until later, when at the university of
+Königsberg he fell under the influence of Kant. But though his intellect
+was sharpened and his zeal for learning quickened by the great thinker's
+influence, Kant's "categorical imperative" did not prevent him from
+yielding to the taste for wine, women and high play which pursued him
+through life. When in 1785 he returned to Berlin, he received the
+appointment of secret secretary to the royal _Generaldirectorium_, his
+talents soon gaining him promotion to the rank of councillor for war
+(_Kriegsrath_). During an illness, which kept him virtuous by confining
+him to his room, he studied French and English, gaining a mastery of
+these languages which, at that time exceedingly rare, opened up for him
+opportunities for a diplomatic career.
+
+His interest in public affairs was, however, first aroused by the
+outbreak of the French Revolution. Like most quick-witted young men, he
+greeted this at first with enthusiasm; but its subsequent developments
+cooled his ardour and he was converted to more conservative counsels by
+Burke's _Essay on the French Revolution_, a translation of which into
+German (1794) was his first literary venture. This was followed, next
+year, by translations of works on the Revolution by Mallet du Pan and
+Mounier, and at this time he also founded and edited a monthly journal,
+the _Neue deutsche Monatsschrift_, in which for five years he wrote,
+mainly on historical and political questions, maintaining the principles
+of British constitutionalism against those of revolutionary France. The
+knowledge he displayed of the principles and practice of finance was
+especially remarkable. In 1797, at the instance of English statesmen, he
+published a translation of a history of French finance by François
+d'Ivernois (1757-1842), an eminent Genevese exile naturalized and
+knighted in England, extracts from which he had previously given in his
+journal. His literary output at this time, all inspired by a moderate
+Liberalism, was astounding, and included an essay on the results of the
+discovery of America, and another, written in French, on the English
+financial system (_Essai sur l'état de l'administration des finances de
+la Grande-Bretagne_, London, 1800). Especially noteworthy, however, was
+the _Denkschrift_ or _Missive_ addressed by him to King Frederick
+William III. on his accession (1797), in which, _inter alia_, he urged
+upon the king the necessity for granting freedom to the press and to
+commerce. For a Prussian official to venture to give uncalled-for advice
+to his sovereign was a breach of propriety not calculated to increase
+his chances of favour; but it gave Gentz a conspicuous position in the
+public eye, which his brilliant talents and literary style enabled him
+to maintain. Moreover, he was from the first aware of the probable
+developments of the Revolution and of the consequences to Prussia of the
+weakness and vacillations of her policy. Opposition to France was the
+inspiring principle of the _Historisches Journal_ founded by him in
+1799-1800, which once more held up English institutions as the model,
+and became in Germany the mouthpiece of British policy towards the
+revolutionary aggressions of the French republic. In 1801 he ceased the
+publication of the _Journal_, because he disliked the regularity of
+journalism, and issued instead, under the title _Beiträge zur
+Geschichte_, &c., a series of essays on contemporary politics. The first
+of these was _Über den Ursprung und Charakter des Krieges gegen die
+französische Revolution_ (1801), by many regarded as Gentz's
+masterpiece; another important brochure, _Von dem politischen Zustande
+von Europa vor und nach der Revolution_, a criticism of Hauterive's _De
+l'état de la France à la fin de l'an VIII_, appeared the same year.
+
+This activity gained him recognition abroad and gifts of money from the
+British and Austrian governments; but it made his position as an
+official in Berlin impossible, for the Prussian government had no mind
+to abandon its attitude of cautious neutrality. Private affairs also
+combined to urge Gentz to leave the Prussian service; for, mainly
+through his own fault, a separation with his wife was arranged. In May
+1802, accordingly, he took leave of his wife and left with his friend
+Adam Müller for Vienna. In Berlin he had been intimate with the Austrian
+ambassador, Count Stadion, whose good offices procured him an
+introduction to the emperor Francis. The immediate result was the title
+of imperial councillor, with a yearly salary of 4000 gulden (December
+6th, 1802); but it was not till 1809 that he was actively employed.
+Before returning to Berlin to make arrangements for transferring himself
+finally to Vienna, Gentz paid a visit to London, where he made the
+acquaintance of Pitt and Granville, who were so impressed with his
+talents that, in addition to large money presents, he was guaranteed an
+annual pension by the British government in recognition of the value of
+the services of his pen against Bonaparte. From this time forward he was
+engaged in a ceaseless polemic against every fresh advance of the
+Napoleonic power and pretensions; with matchless sarcasm he lashed "the
+nerveless policy of the courts, which suffer indignity with
+resignation"; he denounced the recognition of Napoleon's imperial title,
+and drew up a manifesto of Louis XVIII. against it. The formation of the
+coalition and the outbreak of war for a while raised his hopes, in spite
+of his lively distrust of the competence of Austrian ministers; but the
+hopes were speedily dashed by Austerlitz and its results. Gentz used his
+enforced leisure to write a brilliant essay on "The relations between
+England and Spain before the outbreak of war between the two powers"
+(Leipzig, 1806); and shortly afterwards appeared _Fragmente aus der
+neuesten Geschichte des politischen Gleichgewichts in Europa_
+(translated _s.t. Fragments on the Balance of Power in Europe_, London,
+1806). This latter, the last of Gentz's works as an independent
+publicist, was a masterly exposé of the actual political situation, and
+at the same time prophetic in its suggestions as to how this should be
+retrieved: "Through Germany Europe has perished, through Germany it must
+rise again." He realized that the dominance of France could only be
+broken by the union of Austria and Prussia, acting in concert with Great
+Britain. He watched with interest the Prussian military preparations,
+and, at the invitation of Count Haugwitz, he went at the outset of the
+campaign to the Prussian headquarters at Erfurt, where he drafted the
+king's proclamation and his letter to Napoleon. The writer was known,
+and it was in this connexion that Napoleon referred to him as "a
+wretched scribe named Gentz, one of those men without honour who sell
+themselves for money." In this mission Gentz had no official mandate
+from the Austrian government, and whatever hopes he may have cherished
+of privately influencing the situation in the direction of an alliance
+between the two German powers were speedily dashed by the campaign of
+Jena.
+
+The downfall of Prussia left Austria the sole hope of Germany and of
+Europe. Gentz, who from the winter of 1806 onwards divided his time
+between Prague and the Bohemian watering-places, seemed to devote
+himself wholly to the pleasures of society, his fascinating personality
+gaining him a ready reception in those exalted circles which were to
+prove of use to him later on in Vienna. But, though he published
+nothing, his pen was not idle, and he was occupied with a series of
+essays on the future of Austria and the best means of liberating Germany
+and redressing the balance of Europe; though he himself confessed to his
+friend Adam Müller (August 4th, 1806) that, in the miserable
+circumstances of the time, his essay on "the principles of a general
+pacification" must be taken as a "political poem."
+
+In 1809, on the outbreak of war between Austria and France, Gentz was
+for the first time actively employed by the Austrian government under
+Stadion; he drafted the proclamation announcing the declaration of war
+(15th of April), and during the continuance of hostilities his pen was
+ceaselessly employed. But the peace of 1810 and the fall of Stadion once
+more dashed his hopes, and, disillusioned and "hellishly blasé," he once
+more retired to comparative inactivity at Prague. Of Metternich,
+Stadion's successor, he had at the outset no high opinion, and it was
+not till 1812 that there sprang up between the two men the close
+relations that were to ripen into life-long friendship. But when Gentz
+returned to Vienna as Metternich's adviser and henchman, he was no
+longer the fiery patriot who had sympathized and corresponded with Stein
+in the darkest days of German depression and in fiery periods called
+upon all Europe to free itself from foreign rule. Disillusioned and
+cynical, though clear-sighted as ever, he was henceforth before all
+things an Austrian, more Austrian on occasion even than Metternich; as,
+e.g., when, during the final stages of the campaign of 1814, he
+expressed the hope that Metternich would substitute "Austria" for
+"Europe" in his diplomacy and--strange advice from the old hater of
+Napoleon and of France--secure an Austro-French alliance by maintaining
+the husband of Marie Louise on the throne of France.
+
+For ten years, from 1812 onward, Gentz was in closest touch with all the
+great affairs of European history, the assistant, confidant, and adviser
+of Metternich. He accompanied the chancellor on all his journeys; was
+present at all the conferences that preceded and followed the war; no
+political secrets were hidden from him; and his hand drafted all
+important diplomatic documents. He was secretary to the congress of
+Vienna (1814-1815) and to all the congresses and conferences that
+followed, up to that of Verona (1822), and in all his vast knowledge of
+men and affairs made him a power. He was under no illusion as to their
+achievements; his memoir on the work of the congress of Vienna is at
+once an incisive piece of criticism and a monument of his own
+disillusionment. But the Liberalism of his early years was gone for
+ever, and he had become reconciled to Metternich's view that, in an age
+of decay, the sole function of a statesman was to "prop up mouldering
+institutions." It was the hand of the author of that offensive _Missive_
+to Frederick William III., on the liberty of the press, that drafted the
+Carlsbad decrees; it was he who inspired the policy of repressing the
+freedom of the universities; and he noted in his diary as "a day more
+important than that of Leipzig" the session of the Vienna conference of
+1819, in which it was decided to make the convocation of representative
+assemblies in the German states impossible, by enforcing the letter of
+Article XIII. of the Act of Confederation.
+
+As to Gentz's private life there is not much to be said. He remained to
+the last a man of the world, though tormented with an exaggerated terror
+of death. His wife he had never seen again since their parting at
+Berlin, and his relations with other women, mostly of the highest rank,
+were too numerous to record. But passion tormented him to the end, and
+his infatuation for Fanny Elssler, the celebrated _danseuse_, forms the
+subject of some remarkable letters to his friend Rahel, the wife of
+Varnhagen von Ense (1830-1831). He died on the 9th of June 1832.
+
+Gentz has been very aptly described as a mercenary of the pen, and
+assuredly no other such mercenary has ever carved out for himself a more
+remarkable career. To have done so would have been impossible, in spite
+of his brilliant gifts, had he been no more than the "wretched scribe"
+sneered at by Napoleon. Though by birth belonging to the middle class in
+a country of hide-bound aristocracy, he lived to move on equal terms in
+the society of princes and statesmen; which would never have been the
+case had he been notoriously "bought and sold." Yet that he was in the
+habit of receiving gifts from all and sundry who hoped for his backing
+is beyond dispute. He notes that at the congress of Vienna he received
+22,000 florins through Talleyrand from Louis XVIII., while Castlereagh
+gave him £600, accompanied by _les plus folles promesses_; and his diary
+is full of such entries. Yet he never made any secret of these gifts;
+Metternich was aware of them, and he never suspected Gentz of writing or
+acting in consequence against his convictions. As a matter of fact, no
+man was more free or outspoken in his criticism of the policy of his
+employers than this apparently venal writer. These gifts and pensions
+were rather in the nature of subsidies than bribes; they were the
+recognition by various powers of the value of an ally whose pen had
+proved itself so potent a weapon in their cause.
+
+It is, indeed, the very impartiality and objectivity of his attitude
+that make the writings of Gentz such illuminating documents for the
+period of history which they cover. Allowance must of course be made for
+his point of view, but less so perhaps than in the case of any other
+writer so intimately concerned with the policies which he criticizes.
+And, apart from their value as historical documents, Gentz's writings
+are literary monuments, classical examples of nervous and luminous
+German prose, or of French which is a model for diplomatic style.
+
+  A selection of Gentz's works (_Ausgewählte Schriften_) was published
+  by Weick in 5 vols. (1836-1838); his lesser works (Mannheim,
+  1838-1840) in 5 vols. and _Mémoires et lettres inédites_ (Stuttgart,
+  1841) were edited by G. Schlesier. Subsequently there have appeared
+  _Briefe an Chr. Garve_ (Breslau, 1857); correspondence
+  (_Briefwechsel_) with Adam Müller (Stuttgart, 1857); _Briefe an Pilat_
+  (2 vols., Leipzig, 1868); _Aus dem Nachlass Friedrichs von Gentz_ (2
+  vols.), edited by Count Anton Prokesch-Osten (Vienna, 1867); _Aus der
+  alten Registratur der Staats-Kanzlei: Briefe politischen Inhalts von
+  und an Friedrich von Gentz_, edited by C. von Klinkowström (Vienna,
+  1870); _Dépêches inédites du chev. de Gentz aux Hospodars de Valachie
+  1813-1828_ (a correspondence on current affairs commissioned by the
+  Austrian government), edited by Count Anton von Prokesch-Osten the
+  younger (3 vols., Paris, 1876), incomplete, but partly supplemented in
+  _Österreichs Teilnahme an den Befreiungskriegen_ (Vienna, 1887), a
+  collection of documents of the greatest value; _Zur Geschichte der
+  orientalischen Frage: Briefe aus dem Nachlass Friedrichs von Gentz_
+  (Vienna, 1877), edited by Count Prokesch-Osten the younger. Finally
+  Gentz's diaries, from 1800 to 1828, an invaluable mine of authentic
+  material, were edited by Varnhagen von Ense and published after his
+  death under the title _Tagebücher_, &c. (Leipzig, 1861; new ed., 4
+  vols., _ib._ 1873). Several lives of Gentz exist. The latest is by E.
+  Guglia, _Friedrich von Gentz_ (Vienna, 1901).     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+
+
+GEOCENTRIC, referred to the centre of the earth (Gr. [Greek: gê]) as an
+origin; a term designating especially the co-ordinates of a heavenly
+body referred to this origin.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 11, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 5
+       "Gassendi, Pierre" to "Geocentric"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August 31, 2011 [EBook #37282]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 11 SL 5 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME XI SLICE V<br /><br />
+Gassendi, Pierre to Geocentric</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">GASSENDI, PIERRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">GEFLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">GASTEIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">GEGENBAUR, CARL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">GASTRIC ULCER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">GEGENSCHEIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">GASTRITIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76"> GEIBEL, EMANUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">GASTROPODA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">GEIGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">GASTROTRICHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">GEIGER, ABRAHAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">GATAKER, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">GEIJER, ERIK GUSTAF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">GATCHINA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">GATE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">GEIKIE, JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">GATEHOUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">GEIKIE, WALTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">GATES, HORATIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">GEILER VON KAISERSBERG, JOHANN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">GATESHEAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">GEINITZ, HANS BRUNO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">GATH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">GEISHA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">GATLING, RICHARD JORDAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">GEISLINGEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">GATTY, MARGARET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">GEISSLER, HEINRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">GAU, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">GELA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">GAUDEN, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">GELADA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">GAUDICHAUD-BEAUPRÉ, CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">GELASIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">GAUDRY, JEAN ALBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">GELATI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">GAUDY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">GELATIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">GAUERMANN, FRIEDRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">GELDERLAND</a> (duchy)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">GAUGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">GELDERLAND</a> (province of Holland)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">GAUHATI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">GELDERN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">GELL, SIR WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">GAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">GELLERT, CHRISTIAN FÜRCHTEGOTT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">GAULT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">GELLERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">GAUNTLET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99"> GELLIUS, AULUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">GAUR</a> (ruined city of India)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">GELLIVARA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">GAUR</a> (wild ox)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">GELNHAUSEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">GAUSS, KARL FRIEDRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">GELO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">GAUSSEN, FRANÇOIS SAMUEL ROBERT LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">GELSEMIUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">GAUTIER, ÉMILE THÉODORE LÉON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">GELSENKIRCHEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">GAUTIER, THÉOPHILE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">GEM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">GAUTIER D'ARRAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">GEM, ARTIFICIAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">GAUZE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">GEMBLOUX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">GAVARNI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">GEMINI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">GAVAZZI, ALESSANDRO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">GEMINIANI, FRANCESCO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">GAVELKIND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">GEMISTUS PLETHO, GEORGIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">GAVESTON, PIERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">GEMMI PASS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">GAVOTTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">GENDARMERIE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">GAWAIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">GENEALOGY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">GAWLER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">GENELLI, GIOVANNI BUONAVENTURA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">GAY, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">GENERAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">GAY, MARIE FRANÇOISE SOPHIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">GENERATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">GAY, WALTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">GENESIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">GAYA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">GENET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">GAYAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">GENEVA</a> (New York, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">GAYANGOS Y ARCE, PASCUAL DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">GENEVA</a> (Switzerland)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">GAYARRÉ, CHARLES ÉTIENNE ARTHUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">GENEVA CONVENTION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">GAY-LUSSAC, JOSEPH LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">GENEVA, LAKE OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">GAZA, THEODORUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">GENEVIÈVE, ST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">GAZA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">GENEVIÈVE, OF BRABANT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">GAZALAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">GENGA, GIROLAMO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">GAZEBO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">GENISTA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">GAZETTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">GENIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">GEAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">GENUS, STÉPHANIE-FÉLICITÉ DU CREST DE SAINT-AUBIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">GEBER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">GENNA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">GEBHARD TRUCHSESS VON WALDBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">GENNADIUS II.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">GEBWEILER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">GENOA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">GECKO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">GENOVESI, ANTONIO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">GED, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">GENSONNÉ, ARMAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">GEDDES, ALEXANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">GENTIAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">GEDDES, ANDREW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">GENTIANACEAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">GEDDES, JAMES LORRAINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">GENTILE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">GEDDES, SIR WILLIAM DUGUID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">GENTILE DA FABRIANO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">GEDYMIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">GENTILESCHI, ARTEMISIA and ORAZIO DE&rsquo;</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">GEE, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">GENTILI, ALBERICO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">GEEL, JACOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">GENTLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">GEELONG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">GENTLEMAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">GEESTEMÜNDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">GENTZ, FRIEDRICH VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">GEFFCKEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">GEOCENTRIC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">GEFFROY, MATHIEU AUGUSTE</a></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503"></a>503</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">GASSENDI<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span><a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> [<span class="sc">Gassend</span>], <b>PIERRE</b> (1592-1655), French philosopher,
+scientist and mathematician, was born of poor parents
+at Champtercier, near Digne, in Provence, on the 22nd of January
+1592. At a very early age he gave indications of remarkable
+mental powers and was sent to the college at Digne. He showed
+particular aptitude for languages and mathematics, and it is
+said that at the age of sixteen he was invited to lecture on
+rhetoric at the college. Soon afterwards he entered the university
+of Aix, to study philosophy under P. Fesaye. In 1612 he was
+called to the college of Digne to lecture on theology. Four
+years later he received the degree of doctor of theology at Avignon,
+and in 1617 he took holy orders. In the same year he was
+called to the chair of philosophy at Aix, and seems gradually to
+have withdrawn from theology. He lectured principally on the
+Aristotelian philosophy, conforming as far as possible to the
+orthodox methods. At the same time, however, he followed
+with interest the discoveries of Galileo and Kepler, and became
+more and more dissatisfied with the Peripatetic system. It was
+the period of revolt against the Aristotelianism of the schools,
+and Gassendi shared to the full the empirical tendencies of the
+age. He, too, began to draw up objections to the Aristotelian
+philosophy, but did not at first venture to publish them. In
+1624, however, after he had left Aix for a canonry at Grenoble,
+he printed the first part of his <i>Exercitationes paradoxicae adversus
+Aristoteleos</i>. A fragment of the second book was published
+later at La Haye (1659), but the remaining five were never
+composed, Gassendi apparently thinking that after the <i>Discussiones
+Peripateticae</i> of Francesco Patrizzi little field was left
+for his labours.</p>
+
+<p>After 1628 Gassendi travelled in Flanders and Holland.
+During this time he wrote, at the instance of Mersenne, his
+examination of the mystical philosophy of Robert Fludd (<i>Epistolica
+dissertatio in qua praecipua principia philosophiae Ro.
+Fluddi deteguntur</i>, 1631), an essay on parhelia (<i>Epistola de
+parheliis</i>), and some valuable observations on the transit of
+Mercury which had been foretold by Kepler. He returned to
+France in 1631, and two years later became provost of the
+cathedral church at Digne. Some years were then spent in
+travelling through Provence with the duke of Angoulême,
+governor of the department. The only literary work of this
+period is the <i>Life of Peiresc</i>, which has been frequently reprinted,
+and was translated into English. In 1642 he was engaged by
+Mersenne in controversy with Descartes. His objections to the
+fundamental propositions of Descartes were published in 1642;
+they appear as the fifth in the series contained in the works
+of Descartes. In these objections Gassendi&rsquo;s tendency towards
+the empirical school of speculation appears more pronounced
+than in any of his other writings. In 1645 he accepted the chair
+of mathematics in the Collège Royal at Paris, and lectured for
+many years with great success. In addition to controversial
+writings on physical questions, there appeared during this period
+the first of the works by which he is known in the history of
+philosophy. In 1647 he published the treatise <i>De vita, moribus,
+et doctrina Epicuri libri octo</i>. The work was well received, and
+two years later appeared his commentary on the tenth book of
+Diogenes Laërtius, <i>De vita, moribus, et placitis Epicuri, seu
+Animadversiones in X. librum Diog. Laër</i>. (Lyons, 1649; last
+edition, 1675). In the same year the more important <i>Syntagma
+philosophiae Epicuri</i> (Lyons, 1649; Amsterdam, 1684) was
+published.</p>
+
+<p>In 1648 ill-health compelled him to give up his lectures at the
+Collège Royal. He travelled in the south of France, spending
+nearly two years at Toulon, the climate of which suited him.
+In 1653 he returned to Paris and resumed his literary work,
+publishing in that year lives of Copernicus and Tycho Brahe.
+The disease from which he suffered, lung complaint, had, however,
+established a firm hold on him. His strength gradually
+failed, and he died at Paris on the 24th of October 1655. A
+bronze statue of him was erected by subscription at Digne in
+1852.</p>
+
+<p>His collected works, of which the most important is the <i>Syntagma
+philosophicum</i> (<i>Opera</i>, i. and ii.), were published in 1658
+by Montmort (6 vols., Lyons). Another edition, also in 6 folio
+volumes, was published by N. Averanius in 1727. The first
+two are occupied entirely with his <i>Syntagma philosophicum</i>;
+the third contains his critical writings on Epicurus, Aristotle,
+Descartes, Fludd and Lord Herbert, with some occasional
+pieces on certain problems of physics; the fourth, his <i>Institutio
+astronomica</i>, and his <i>Commentarii de rebus celestibus</i>; the
+fifth, his commentary on the tenth book of Diogenes Laërtius,
+the biographies of Epicurus, N.C.F. de Peiresc, Tycho Brahe,
+Copernicus, Georg von Peuerbach, and Regiomontanus, with
+some tracts on the value of ancient money, on the Roman
+calendar, and on the theory of music, to all which is appended
+a large and prolix piece entitled <i>Notitia ecclesiae Diniensis</i>;
+the sixth volume contains his correspondence. The <i>Lives</i>,
+especially those of Copernicus, Tycho and Peiresc, have been
+justly admired. That of Peiresc has been repeatedly printed;
+it has also been translated into English. Gassendi was one of
+the first after the revival of letters who treated the <i>literature</i>
+of philosophy in a lively way. His writings of this kind, though
+too laudatory and somewhat diffuse, have great merit; they
+abound in those anecdotal details, natural yet not obvious
+reflections, and vivacious turns of thought, which made Gibbon
+style him, with some extravagance certainly, though it was true
+enough up to Gassendi&rsquo;s time&mdash;&ldquo;le meilleur philosophe des
+littérateurs, et le meilleur littérateur des philosophes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gassendi holds an honourable place in the history of physical
+science. He certainly added little to the stock of human knowledge,
+but the clearness of his exposition and the manner in which he, like
+Bacon, urged the importance of experimental research, were of
+inestimable service to the cause of science. To what extent any
+place can be assigned him in the history of philosophy is more doubtful.
+The <i>Exercitationes</i> on the whole seem to have excited more
+attention than they deserved. They contain little or nothing
+beyond what had been already advanced against Aristotle. The
+first book expounds clearly, and with much vigour, the evil effects of
+the blind acceptance of the Aristotelian dicta on physical and philosophical
+study; but, as is the case with so many of the anti-Aristotelian
+works of this period, the objections show the usual ignorance
+of Aristotle&rsquo;s own writings. The second book, which contains the
+review of Aristotle&rsquo;s dialectic or logic, is throughout Ramist in tone
+and method. The objections to Descartes&mdash;one of which at least,
+through Descartes&rsquo;s statement of it in the appendix of objections
+in the <i>Meditationes</i> has become famous&mdash;have no speculative value,
+and in general are the outcome of the crudest empiricism. His
+labours on Epicurus have a certain historical value, but the want of
+consistency inherent in the philosophical system raised on Epicureanism
+is such as to deprive it of genuine worth. Along with strong
+expressions of empiricism we find him holding doctrines absolutely
+irreconcilable with empiricism in any form. For while he maintains
+constantly his favourite maxim &ldquo;that there is nothing in the intellect
+which has not been in the senses&rdquo; (<i>nihil in intellectu quod non prius
+fuerit in sensu</i>), while he contends that the imaginative faculty
+(<i>phantasia</i>) is the counterpart of sense&mdash;that, as it has to do with
+material images, it is itself, like sense, material, and essentially the
+same both in men and brutes; he at the same time admits that the
+intellect, which he affirms to be immaterial and immortal&mdash;the most
+characteristic distinction of humanity&mdash;attains notions and truths of
+which no effort of sensation or imagination can give us the slightest
+apprehension (<i>Op.</i> ii. 383). He instances the capacity of forming
+&ldquo;general notions&rdquo;; the very conception of universality itself (<i>ib.</i>
+384), to which he says brutes, who partake as truly as men in the
+faculty called <i>phantasia</i>, never attain; the notion of God, whom he
+says we may imagine to be corporeal, but understand to be incorporeal;
+and lastly, the reflex action by which the mind makes its
+own phenomena and operations the objects of attention.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Syntagma philosophicum</i>, in fact, is one of those eclectic
+systems which unite, or rather place in juxtaposition, irreconcilable
+dogmas from various schools of thought. It is divided, according to
+the usual fashion of the Epicureans, into logic (which, with Gassendi
+as with Epicurus, is truly <i>canonic</i>), physics and ethics. The logic,
+which contains at least one praiseworthy portion, a sketch of the
+history of the science, is divided into theory of right apprehension
+(<i>bene imaginari</i>), theory of right judgment (<i>bene proponere</i>), theory
+of right inference (<i>bene colligere</i>), theory of right method (<i>bene
+ordinare</i>). The first part contains the specially empirical positions
+which Gassendi afterwards neglects or leaves out of account. The
+senses, the sole source of knowledge, are supposed to yield us immediately
+cognition of individual things; phantasy (which Gassendi
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page504" id="page504"></a>504</span>
+takes to be material in nature) reproduces these ideas; understanding
+compares these ideas, which are particular, and frames
+general ideas. Nevertheless, he at the same time admits that the
+senses yield knowledge&mdash;not of things&mdash;but of qualities only, and
+holds that we arrive at the idea of thing or substance by induction.
+He holds that the true method of research is the analytic, rising from
+lower to higher notions; yet he sees clearly, and admits, that inductive
+reasoning, as conceived by Bacon, rests on a general proposition
+not itself proved by induction. He ought to hold, and in
+disputing with Descartes he did apparently hold, that the evidence
+of the senses is the only convincing evidence; yet he maintains, and
+from his special mathematical training it was natural he should
+maintain, that the evidence of reason is absolutely satisfactory.
+The whole doctrine of judgment, syllogism and method is a mixture
+of Aristotelian and Ramist notions.</p>
+
+<p>In the second part of the <i>Syntagma</i>, the physics, there is more
+that deserves attention; but here, too, appears in the most glaring
+manner the inner contradiction between Gassendi&rsquo;s fundamental
+principles. While approving of the Epicurean physics, he rejects
+altogether the Epicurean negation of God and particular providence.
+He states the various proofs for the existence of an immaterial,
+infinite, supreme Being, asserts that this Being is the author of the
+visible universe, and strongly defends the doctrine of the foreknowledge
+and particular providence of God. At the same time he
+holds, in opposition to Epicureanism, the doctrine of an immaterial
+rational soul, endowed with immortality and capable of free determination.
+It is altogether impossible to assent to the supposition
+of Lange (<i>Gesch. des Materialismus</i>, 3rd ed., i. 233), that all this
+portion of Gassendi&rsquo;s system contains nothing of his own opinions,
+but is introduced solely from motives of self-defence. The positive
+exposition of atomism has much that is attractive, but the hypothesis
+of the <i>calor vitalis</i> (vital heat), a species of <i>anima mundi</i> (world-soul)
+which is introduced as physical explanation of physical phenomena,
+does not seem to throw much light on the special problems which
+it is invoked to solve. Nor is his theory of the weight essential
+to atoms as being due to an inner force impelling them to motion
+in any way reconcilable with his general doctrine of mechanical
+causes.</p>
+
+<p>In the third part, the ethics, over and above the discussion on
+freedom, which on the whole is indefinite, there is little beyond
+a milder statement of the Epicurean moral code. The final end of
+life is happiness, and happiness is harmony of soul and body
+(<i>tranquillitas animi et indolentia corporis</i>). Probably, Gassendi
+thinks, perfect happiness is not attainable in this life, but it may
+be in the life to come.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Syntagma</i> is thus an essentially unsystematic work, and
+clearly exhibits the main characteristics of Gassendi&rsquo;s genius. He
+was critical rather than constructive, widely read and trained
+thoroughly both in languages and in science, but deficient in speculative
+power and original force. Even in the department of natural
+science he shows the same inability steadfastly to retain principles
+and to work from them; he wavers between the systems of Brahe
+and Copernicus. That his revival of Epicureanism had an important
+influence on the general thinking of the 17th century may be admitted;
+that it has any real importance in the history of philosophy
+cannot be granted.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Gassendi&rsquo;s life is given by Sorbière in the first
+collected edition of the works, by Bugerel, <i>Vie de Gassendi</i> (1737;
+2nd ed., 1770), and by Damiron, <i>Mémoire sur Gassendi</i> (1839). An
+abridgment of his philosophy was given by his friend, the celebrated
+traveller, Bernier (<i>Abrégé de la philosophie de Gassendi</i>, 8 vols., 1678;
+2nd ed., 7 vols., 1684). The most complete surveys of his work are
+those of G.S. Brett (<i>Philosophy of Gassendi</i>, London, 1908), Buhle
+(<i>Geschichte der neuern Philosophie</i>, iii. 1, 87-222), Damiron (<i>Mémoires
+pour servir à l&rsquo;histoire de philosophie au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>), and P.F. Thomas
+(<i>La Philosophie de Gassendi</i>, Paris, 1889). See also Ritter, <i>Geschichte
+der Philosophie</i>, x. 543-571; Feuerbach, <i>Gesch. d. neu. Phil. von
+Bacon bis Spinoza</i>, 127-150; F.X. Kiefl, <i>P. Gassendis Erkenntnistheorie
+und seine Stellung zum Materialismus</i> (1893) and &ldquo;Gassendi&rsquo;s
+Skepticismus&rdquo; in <i>Philos. Jahrb.</i> vi. (1893); C. Güttler, &ldquo;Gassend
+oder Gassendi?&rdquo; in <i>Archiv f. Gesch. d. Philos.</i> x. (1897), pp.
+238-242.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. Ad.; X.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It was formerly thought that <i>Gassendi</i> was really the genitive
+of the Latin form <i>Gassendus</i>. C. Güttler, however, holds that it is
+a modernized form of the O. Fr. <i>Gassendy</i> (see paper quoted in
+bibliography).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GASTEIN,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> in the duchy of Salzburg, Austria, a side valley of
+the Pongau or Upper Salzach, about 25 m. long and 1¼ m.
+broad, renowned for its mineral springs. It has an elevation
+of between 3000 and 3500 ft. Behind it, to the S., tower the
+mountains Mallnitz or Nassfeld-Tauern (7907 ft.) and Ankogel
+(10,673 ft.), and from the right and left of these mountains two
+smaller ranges run northwards forming its two side walls. The
+river Ache traverses the valley, and near Wildbad-Gastein forms
+two magnificent waterfalls, the upper, the Kesselfall (196 ft.),
+and the lower, the Bärenfall (296 ft.). Near these falls is the
+Schleierfall (250 ft.), formed by the stream which drains the
+Bockhart-see. The valley is also traversed by the so-called
+Tauern railway (opened up to Wildbad-Gastein in September
+1905), which goes to Mallnitz, piercing the Tauern range by a
+tunnel 9260 yds. in length. The principal villages of the valley
+are Hof-Gastein, Wildbad-Gastein and Böckstein.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Hof-Gastein</span>, pop. (1900) 840, the capital of the valley, is
+also a watering-place, the thermal waters being conveyed here
+from Wildbad-Gastein by a conduit 5 m. long, constructed in
+1828 by the emperor Francis I. of Austria. Hof-Gastein was,
+after Salzburg, the richest place in the duchy, owing to its gold
+and silver mines, which were already worked during the Roman
+period. During the 16th century these mines were yielding
+annually 1180 &#8468; of gold and 9500 &#8468; of silver, but since the
+17th century they have been much neglected and many of them
+are now covered by glaciers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Wildbad-Gastein</span>, commonly called <i>Bad-Gastein</i>, one of
+the most celebrated watering-places in Europe, is picturesquely
+situated in the narrow valley of the Gasteiner Ache, at an
+altitude of 3480 ft. The thermal springs, which issue from
+the granite mountains, have a temperature of 77°-120° F., and
+yield about 880,000 gallons of water daily. The water contains
+only 0.35 to 1000 of mineral ingredients and is used for bathing
+purposes. The springs are resorted to in cases of nervous
+affections, senile and general debility, skin diseases, gout and
+rheumatism. Wildbad-Gastein is annually visited by over
+8500 guests. The springs were known as early as the 7th century,
+but first came into fame by a successful visit paid to them by
+Duke Frederick of Austria in 1436. Gastein was a favourite
+resort of William I. of Prussia and of the Austrian imperial
+family, and it was here that, on the 14th of August 1865, was
+signed the agreement known as the Gastein Convention, which
+by dividing the administration of the conquered provinces of
+Schleswig and Holstein between Austria and Prussia postponed
+for a while the outbreak of war between the two powers. It
+was also here (August-September 1879) that Prince Bismarck
+negotiated with Count Julius Andrássy the Austro-German
+treaty, which resulted in the formation of the Triple Alliance.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Pröll, <i>Gastein, Its Springs and Climate</i> (Vienna, 5th ed.,
+1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GASTRIC ULCER<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (ulcer of the stomach), a disease of much
+gravity, commonest in females, and especially in anaemic
+domestic servants. It is connected in many instances with
+impairment of the circulation in the stomach and the formation
+of a clot in a small blood-vessel (thrombosis). It may be due
+to an impoverished state of the blood (anaemia), but it may also
+arise from disease of the blood-vessels, the result of long-continued
+indigestion and gastric catarrh.</p>
+
+<p>When clotting takes place in a blood-vessel the nutrition of
+that limited area of the stomach is cut off, and the patch undergoes
+digestion by the unresisted action of the gastric juices, an
+ulcer being formed. The ulcer is usually of the size of a silver
+threepence or sixpence, round or oval, and, eating deeply, is apt
+to make a hole right through the coats of the stomach. Its
+usual site is upon the posterior wall of the upper curvature, near
+to the pyloric orifice. It may undergo a healing process at any
+stage, in which case it may leave but little trace of its existence;
+while, on the other hand, it may in the course of cicatrizing
+produce such an amount of contraction as to lead to stricture
+of the pylorus, or to a peculiar hour-glass deformity of the stomach.
+Perforation is in most cases quickly fatal, unless previously
+the stomach has become adherent to some neighbouring organ,
+by which the dangerous effects of this occurrence may be averted,
+or unless the condition has been promptly recognized and an
+operation has been quickly done. Usually there is but one ulcer,
+but sometimes there are several ulcers.</p>
+
+<p>The symptoms of ulcer of the stomach are often indefinite and
+obscure, and in some cases the diagnosis has been first made on
+the occurrence of a fatal perforation. First among the symptoms
+is pain, which is present at all times, but is markedly increased
+after food. The pain is situated either at the lower end of the
+breast-bone or about the middle of the back. Sometimes it is
+felt in the sides. It is often extremely severe, and is usually
+accompanied with localized tenderness and also with a sense of
+oppression, and by an inability to wear tight clothing. The pain
+is due to the movements of the stomach set up by the presence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505"></a>505</span>
+of the food, as well as to the irritation of the inflamed nerve
+filaments in the floor of the ulcer. Vomiting is a usual symptom.
+It occurs either soon after the food is swallowed or at a later
+period, and generally relieves the pain and discomfort. Vomiting
+of blood (haematemesis) is a frequent and important symptom.
+The blood may show itself in the form of a brown or coffee-like
+mixture, or as pure blood of dark colour and containing clots.
+It comes from some vessel or vessels which the ulcerative process
+has ruptured. Blood is also found mixed with the discharges
+from the bowels, rendering them dark or tarry-looking. The
+general condition of the patient with gastric ulcer is, as a rule,
+that of extreme ill-health, with pallor, emaciation and debility.
+The tongue is red, and there is usually constipation. In most
+of the cases the disease is chronic, lasting for months or years;
+and in those cases where the ulcers are large or multiple, incomplete
+healing may take place, relapses occurring from time
+to time. But the ulcers may give rise to no marked symptoms,
+and there have been instances where fatal perforation suddenly
+took place, and where post-mortem examination revealed the
+existence of long-standing ulcers which had given rise to no
+suggestive symptoms. While gastric ulcer is to be regarded as
+dangerous, its termination, in the great majority of cases, is
+in recovery. It frequently, however, leaves the stomach in a
+delicate condition, necessitating the utmost care as regards diet.
+Occasionally the disease proves fatal by sudden haemorrhage,
+but a fatal result is more frequently due to perforation and the
+escape of the contents of the stomach into the peritoneal cavity,
+in which case death usually occurs in from twelve to forty-eight
+hours, either from shock or from peritonitis. Should the stomach
+become adherent to another organ, and fatal perforation be
+thus prevented, chronic &ldquo;indigestion&rdquo; may persist, owing to
+interference with the natural movements of the stomach.
+Stricture of the pylorus and consequent dilatation of the stomach
+may be caused by the cicatrization of an ulcer.</p>
+
+<p>The patient should at once be sent to bed and kept there, and
+allowed for a while nothing stronger than milk and water or
+milk and lime water. But if bleeding has recently taken place
+no food whatever should be allowed by the stomach, and the
+feeding should be by nutrient enemata. As the symptoms
+quiet down, eggs may be given beaten up with milk, and later,
+bread and milk and home-made broths and soups. Thus the
+diet advances to chicken and vegetables rubbed through a
+sieve, to custard pudding and bread and butter. As regards
+medicines, iron is the most useful, but no pills of any sort should
+be given. Under the influence of rest and diet most gastric
+ulcers get well. The presence of healthy-looking scars upon the
+surface of the stomach, which are constantly found in operating
+upon the interior of the abdomen, or as revealed in post-mortem
+examinations, are evidence of the truth of this statement. It
+is unlikely that under the treatment just described perforation
+of the stomach will take place, and if the surgeon is called in
+to assist he will probably advise that operation is inadvisable.
+Moreover, he knows that if he should open the abdomen to search
+for an ulcer of the stomach he might fail to find it; more than
+that, his search might also be in vain if he opened the stomach
+itself and examined the interior. Serious haemorrhages, however,
+may make it necessary that a prompt and thorough search should
+be made in order that the surgeon may endeavour to locate the
+ulcer, and, having found it, secure the damaged vessel and save
+the patient from death by bleeding.</p>
+
+<p>Perforation of a gastric ulcer having taken place, the septic
+germs, which were harmless whilst in the stomach, escape with
+the rest of the contents of the stomach into the general peritoneal
+cavity. The immediate effects of this leakage are sudden and
+severe pain in the upper part of the abdomen and a great shock
+to the system (collapse). The muscles of the abdominal wall
+become hard and resisting, and as peritonitis appears and
+the intestines are distended with gas, the abdomen is distended
+and becomes greatly increased in size and ceases to move,
+the respiratory movements being short and quick. At first,
+most likely, the temperature drops below normal, and the
+pulse quickens. Later, the temperature rises. If nothing is
+done, death from the septic poisoning of peritonitis is almost
+certain.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment of ruptured gastric ulcer demands immediate
+operation. An incision should be made in the upper part of
+the middle line of the abdomen, and the perforation should be
+looked for. There is not, as a rule, much difficulty in finding it,
+as there are generally deposits of lymph near the spot, and other
+signs of local inflammation; moreover, the contents of the
+stomach may be seen escaping from the opening. The ulcer is
+to be closed by running a &ldquo;purse-string&rdquo; suture in the healthy
+tissue around it, and the place is then buried in the stomach by
+picking up small folds of the stomach-wall above and below it
+and fixing them together by suturing. This being done, the
+surface of the stomach, and the neighbouring viscera which have
+been soiled by the leakage, are wiped clean and the abdominal
+wound is closed, provision being made for efficient drainage. A
+large proportion of cases of perforated gastric ulcer thus treated
+recover.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. O.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GASTRITIS<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="gastêr">&#947;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#961;</span>, stomach), an inflammatory affection
+of the stomach, of which the condition of catarrh, or irritation of
+its mucous membrane, is the most frequent and most readily
+recognized. This may exist in an acute or a chronic form, and
+depends upon some condition, either local or general, which produces
+a congested state of the circulation in the walls of the
+stomach (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Digestive Organs</a></span>: <i>Pathology</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Acute Gastritis</i> may arise from various causes. The most
+intense forms of inflammation of the stomach are the toxic
+conditions which follow the swallowing of corrosive poisons,
+such as strong mineral acids of alkalis which may extensively
+destroy the mucous membrane. Other non-corrosive poisons
+cause acute degeneration of the stomach wall (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poisons</a></span>).
+Acute inflammatory conditions may be secondary to zymotic
+diseases such as diphtheria, pyaemia, typhus fever and others.
+Gastritis is also caused by the ingestion of food which has begun
+to decompose, or may result from eating unsuitable articles
+which themselves remain undigested and so excite acute catarrhal
+conditions. These give rise to the symptoms well known as
+characterizing an acute &ldquo;bilious attack,&rdquo; consisting in loss of
+appetite, sickness or nausea, and headache, frontal or occipital,
+often accompanied with giddiness. The tongue is furred, the
+breath foetid, and there is pain or discomfort in the region of the
+stomach, with sour eructations, and frequently vomiting, first of
+food and then of bilious matter. An attack of this kind tends to
+subside in a few days, especially if the exciting cause be removed.
+Sometimes, however, the symptoms recur with such frequency
+as to lead to the more serious chronic form of the disease.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment bears reference, in the first place, to any known
+source of irritation, which, if it exist, may be expelled by an
+emetic or purgative (except in cases due to poisoning). This,
+however, is seldom necessary, since vomiting is usually present.
+For the relief of sickness and pain the sucking of ice and counter-irritation
+over the region of the stomach are of service. Further,
+remedies which exercise a soothing effect upon an irritable
+mucous membrane, such as bismuth or weak alkaline fluids, and
+along with these the use of a light milk diet, are usually sufficient
+to remove the symptoms.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chronic Gastric Catarrh</i> may result from the acute or may arise
+independently. It is not infrequently connected with antecedent
+disease in other organs, such as the lungs, heart, liver or kidneys,
+and it is especially common in persons addicted to alcoholic
+excess. In this form the texture of the stomach is more altered
+than in the acute form, except in the toxic and febrile forms above
+referred to. It is permanently in a state of congestion, and its
+mucous membrane and muscular coat undergo thickening and
+other changes, which markedly affect the function of digestion.
+The symptoms are those of dyspepsia in an aggravated form
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dyspepsia</a></span>), of which discomfort and pain after food, with
+distension and frequently vomiting, are the chief; and the
+treatment must be conducted in reference to the causes giving
+rise to it. The careful regulation of the diet, alike as to the
+amount, the quality, and the intervals between meals, demands
+special attention. Feeding on artificially soured milk may in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page506" id="page506"></a>506</span>
+many cases be useful. Lavage or washing out of the stomach
+with weak alkaline solutions has been used with marked success in
+the treatment of chronic gastritis. Of medicinal agents, bismuth,
+arsenic, nux vomica, and the mineral acids are all of acknowledged
+efficacy, as are also preparations of pepsin.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GASTROPODA,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> the second of the five classes of animals
+constituting the phylum Mollusca. For a discussion of the relationship
+of the Gastropoda to the remaining classes of the
+phylum, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mollusca</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Gastropoda are mainly characterized by a loss of symmetry,
+produced by torsion of the visceral sac. This torsion may be resolved
+into two successive movements. The first is a ventral flexure
+in the antero-posterior or sagittal plane; the result of this is to
+approximate the two ends of the alimentary canal. In development,
+the openings of the mantle-cavity and the anus are always
+originally posterior; later they are brought forward ventrally.
+During this first movement flexure is also produced by the coiling
+of the visceral sac and shell; primitively the latter was bowl-shaped;
+but the ventral flexure, which brings together the two extremities
+of the digestive tube, gives the visceral sac the outline of a more or
+less acute cone. The shell necessarily takes this form also, and then
+becomes coiled in a dorsal or anterior plane&mdash;that is to say, it
+becomes exogastric. This condition may be seen in embryonic
+<i>Patellidae</i>, <i>Fissurellidae</i> and <i>Trochidae</i> (fig. 1, A), and agrees with
+the method of coiling of a mollusc without lateral torsion, such as
+<i>Nautilus</i>. But ultimately the coil becomes ventral or endogastric,
+in consequence of the second torsion movement then apparent.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:525px; height:198px" src="images/img506a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">From Lankester&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Three stages in the development of Trochus, during the
+process of torsion. (After Robert.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A, Nearly symmetrical larva (veliger).</p>
+<p>B, A stage 1½ hours later than A.</p>
+<p>C, A stage 3½ hours later than B.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Foot.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>op</i>, Operculum.</p>
+<p><i>pac</i>, Pallial cavity.</p>
+<p><i>ve</i>, Velum.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The shell is represented as fixed, while the head and foot rotate
+from left to right. In reality the head and foot are fixed and the
+shell rotates from right to left.</p>
+
+<p>The second movement is a lateral torsion of the visceral mass, the
+foot remaining a fixed point; this torsion occurs in a plane approximately
+at right angles to that of the first movement, and carries the
+pallial aperture and the anus from behind forwards. If, at this
+moment, the animal were placed with mouth and ventral surface
+turned towards the observer, this torsion carries the circumanal
+complex in a clockwise direction (along the right side in dextral
+forms) through 180° as compared with its primitive condition. The
+(primitively) right-hand organs of the complex thus become left-hand,
+and vice versa. The visceral commissure, while still surrounding
+the digestive tract, becomes looped; its right half, with its
+proper ganglion, passes to the left side over the dorsal face of the
+alimentary canal (whence the name supra-intestinal), while the left
+half passes below towards the right side, thus originating the name
+infra-intestinal given to this half and to its ganglion. Next, the
+shell, the coil of which was at first exogastric, being also included
+in this rotation through 180°, exhibits an endogastric coiling (fig. 1,
+B, C). This, however, is not generally retained in one plane, and the
+spire projects, little by little, on the side which was originally left,
+but finally becomes right (in dextral forms, with a clockwise direction,
+if viewed from the side of the spire; but counter-clockwise in sinistral
+forms). Finally, the original symmetry of the circumanal complex
+vanishes; the anus leaves the centre of the pallial cavity and passes
+towards the right side (left side in sinistral forms); the organs of this
+side become atrophied and disappear. The essential feature of the
+asymmetry of Gastropoda is the atrophy or disappearance of the
+primitively left half of the circumanal complex (the right half in
+sinistral forms), including the gill, the auricle, the osphradium, the
+hypobranchial gland and the kidney.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:216px; height:237px" src="images/img506b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Lankester&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Four stages in the
+development of a Gastropod
+showing the process of body
+torsion. (After Robert.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>A, Embryo without flexure.</p>
+<p>B, Embryo with ventral flexure of the intestine.</p>
+<p>C, Embryo with ventral flexure and exogastric shell.</p>
+<p>D, Embryo with lateral torsion and an endogastric shell.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Anus.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Foot.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, Mouth.</p>
+<p><i>pa</i>, Mantle.</p>
+<p><i>pac</i>, Pallial cavity.</p>
+<p><i>ve</i>, Velum.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In dextral Gastropods the only structure found on the topographically
+right side of the rectum is the genital duct. But this is
+not part of the primitive complex. It is absent in the most primitive
+and symmetrical forms, such as <i>Haliotis</i> and <i>Pleurotomaria</i>. Originally
+the gonads opened into the kidneys. In the most primitive
+existing Gastropods the gonad opens into the right kidney (<i>Patellidae</i>,
+<i>Trochidae</i>, <i>Fissurellidae</i>). The gonaduct, therefore, is derived from
+the topographically right kidney. The transformation has been
+actually shown to take place in the development of Paludina. In
+a dextral Gastropod the shell is coiled in a right-handed spiral from
+apex to mouth, and the spiral also
+projects to the right of the median
+plane of the animal.</p>
+
+<p>When the shell is sinistral the
+asymmetry of the organs is usually
+reversed, and there is a complete situs
+<i>inversus viscerum</i>, the direction of the
+spiral of the shell corresponding to
+the position of the organs of the
+body. <i>Triforis</i>, <i>Physa</i>, <i>Clausilia</i> are
+examples of sinistral Gastropods, but
+reversal also occurs as an individual
+variation among forms normally dextral.
+But there are forms in which
+the involution is &ldquo;hyperstrophic,&rdquo;
+that is to say, the turns of the spire
+projecting but slightly, the spire,
+after flattening out gradually, finally
+becomes re-entrant and transformed
+into a false umbilicus; at the same
+time that part which corresponds to
+the umbilicus of forms with a normal
+coil projects and constitutes a false
+spire; the coil thus appears to be
+sinistral, although the asymmetry
+remains dextral, and the coil of the
+operculum (always the opposite to
+that of the shell) sinistral (<i>e.g.</i>
+<i>Lanistes</i> among Streptoneura, <i>Limacinidae</i>
+among Opisthobranchia). The
+same, <i>mutatis mutandis</i>, may occur
+in sinistral shells.</p>
+
+<p>The problem of the causes of the
+torsion of the Gastropod body has
+been much discussed. E.R. Lankester
+in the ninth edition of this
+work attributed it to the pressure of the shell and visceral hump
+towards the right side. He referred also to the nautiloid shell of
+the larva falling to one side. But these are two distinct processes.
+In the larva a nautiloid shell is developed which is coiled exogastrically,
+that is, dorsally, and the pallial cavity is posterior or
+ventral (fig. 2, C): the larva therefore resembles <i>Nautilus</i> in the
+relations of body and shell. The shell then rotates towards the left
+side through 180°, so that it becomes ventral or endogastric (fig. 2,
+D). The pallial cavity, with its organs, is by this torsion moved
+up the <i>right</i> side of the larva to the dorsal surface, and thus the left
+organs become right and vice versa. In the subsequent growth of
+the shell the spire comes to project on the right side, which was
+originally the left. Neither the rotation of the shell as a whole nor
+its helicoid spiral coiling is the immediate cause of the torsion of the
+body in the individual, for the direction of the torsion is indicated
+in the segmentation of the ovum, in which there is a complete
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page507" id="page507"></a>507</span>
+reversal of the cleavage planes in sinistral as compared with dextral
+forms. The facts, however, strongly suggest that the original cause
+of the torsion was the weight of the exogastric shell and visceral
+hump, which in an animal creeping on its ventral surface necessarily
+fell over to one side. It is not certain that the projection of the spire
+to the originally left side of the shell has anything to do with the
+falling over of the shell to that side. The facts do not support such
+a suggestion. In the larva there is no projection at the time the
+torsion takes place. In some forms the coiling disappears in the
+adult, leaving the shell simply conical as in <i>Patellidae</i>, <i>Fissurellidae</i>,
+&amp;c., and in some cases the shell is coiled in one plane, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Planorbis</i>. In
+all these cases the torsion and asymmetry of the body are unaffected.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:463px; height:254px" src="images/img506c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig 3.</span>&mdash;Sketch of a model designed so as to show the effect of
+torsion or rotation of the visceral hump in Streptoneurous Gastropoda.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A, Unrotated ancestral condition.</p>
+<p>B, Quarter-rotation.</p>
+<p>C, Complete semi-rotation (the limit).</p>
+<p><i>an</i>, Anus.</p>
+<p><i>ln, rn</i>, Primarily left nephridium and primarily right nephridium.</p>
+<p><i>lvg</i>, Primarily left (subsequently the sub-intestinal) visceral ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>rvg</i>, Primarily right (subsequently the sub-intestinal) visceral ganglion.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>cerg</i>, Cerebral ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>plg</i>, Pleural ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>pedg</i>, Pedal ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>abg</i>, Abdominal ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>bucc</i>, Buccal mass.</p>
+<p><i>W</i>, Wooden arc representing the base-line of the wall of the visceral hump.</p>
+<p><i>x, x&prime;</i>, Pins fastening the elastic cord (representing the visceral nerve loop) to <i>W</i>.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The characteristic torsion attains its maximum effect among the
+majority of the Streptoneura. It is followed in some specialized
+Heteropoda and in the Euthyneura by a torsion in the opposite
+direction, or detorsion, which brings the anus farther back and untwists
+the visceral commissure (see Euthyneura, below). This conclusion
+has shown that the Euthyneura do not represent an archaic
+form of Gastropoda, but are themselves derived from streptoneurous
+forms. The difference between the two sub-classes has been shown
+to be slight; certain of the more archaic Tectibranchia (<i>Actaeon</i>)
+and Pulmonata (<i>Chilina</i>) still have the visceral commissure long
+and not untwisted. The fact that all the Euthyneura are hermaphrodite
+is not a fundamental difference; several Streptoneura are so,
+likewise <i>Valvata</i>, <i>Oncidiopsis</i>, <i>Marsenina</i>, <i>Odostomia</i>, <i>Bathysciadium</i>,
+<i>Entoconcha</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Classification.</i>&mdash;The class Gastropoda is subdivided as follows:</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2">Sub-class I. Streptoneura.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2"> &emsp; Order 1. Aspidobranchia.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; Sub-order</td> <td class="tcl">1. Docoglossa.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; </td> <td class="tcl">2. Rhipidoglossa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2"> &emsp; Order 2. Pectinibranchia.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; Sub-order</td> <td class="tcl">1. Taenioglossa.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; Tribe</td> <td class="tcl">1. Platypoda.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &ensp; </td> <td class="tcl">2. Heteropoda.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; Sub-order</td> <td class="tcl">2. Stenoglossa.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; Tribe</td> <td class="tcl">1. Rachiglossa.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &ensp; </td> <td class="tcl">2. Toxiglossa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2">Sub-class II. Euthyneura.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2"> &emsp; Order 1. Opisthobranchia.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; Sub-order</td> <td class="tcl">1. Tectibranchia.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; Tribe</td> <td class="tcl">1. Bullomorpha.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &ensp; </td> <td class="tcl">2. Aplysiomorpha.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &ensp; </td> <td class="tcl">3. Pleurobranchomorpha.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; Sub-order</td> <td class="tcl">2. Nudibranchia.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; Tribe</td> <td class="tcl">1. Tritoniomorpha.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &ensp; </td> <td class="tcl">2. Doridomorpha.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &ensp; </td> <td class="tcl">3. Eolidomorpha.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &ensp; </td> <td class="tcl">4. Elysiomorpha.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2"> &emsp; Order 2. Pulmonata.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; Sub-order</td> <td class="tcl">1. Basommatophora.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; </td> <td class="tcl">2. Stylommatophora.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; Tribe</td> <td class="tcl">1. Holognatha.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &ensp; </td> <td class="tcl">2. Agnatha.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &ensp; </td> <td class="tcl">3. Elasmognatha.</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tcr"> &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &ensp; </td> <td class="tcl">4. Ditremata.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">Sub-Class I.&mdash;<span class="sc">Streptoneura</span></p>
+
+<p>In this division the torsion of the visceral mass and visceral
+commissure is at its maximum, the latter being twisted into a
+figure of eight. The right half of the commissure with its ganglion
+is supra-intestinal, the left half with its ganglion infra-intestinal.
+In some cases each pleural ganglion is connected with the opposite
+branch of the visceral commissure by anastomosis with the
+pallial nerve, a condition which is called dialyneury; or there
+may be a direct connective from the pleural ganglion to the
+visceral ganglion of the opposite side, which is called zygoneury.
+The head bears only one pair of tentacles. The radular teeth are
+of several different kinds in each transverse row. The heart is
+usually posterior to the branchia (proso-branchiate). The sexes
+are usually separate.</p>
+
+<p>The old division into Zygobranchia and Azygobranchia must
+be abandoned, for the Azygobranchiate Rhipidoglossa have
+much greater affinity to the Zygobranchiate <i>Haliotidae</i> and
+<i>Fissurellidae</i> than to the Azygobranchia in general. This is
+shown by the labial commissure and pedal cords of the nervous
+system, by the opening of the gonad into the right kidney, and by
+other points. Further, the <i>Pleurotomariidae</i> have been discovered
+to possess two branchiae. The sub-class is now divided into two
+orders: the Aspidobranchia in which the branchia or ctenidium
+is bipectinate and attached only at its base, and the Pectinibranchia
+in which the ctenidium is monopectinate and attached
+to the mantle throughout its length.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:340px; height:429px" src="images/img507a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;The Common Limpet (<i>Patella vulgata</i>) in its shell, seen from
+the pedal surface. (Lankester.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>x</i>, <i>y</i>, The median antero-posterior axis.</p>
+
+<p><i>a</i>, Cephalic tentacle.</p>
+
+<p><i>b</i>, Plantar surface of the foot.</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i>, Free edge of the shell.</p>
+
+<p><i>d</i>, The branchial efferent vessel carrying aerated blood to the
+auricle, and here interrupting the circlet of gill lamellae.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>e</i>, Margin of the mantle-skirt.</p>
+
+<p><i>f</i>, Gill lamellae (<i>not</i> ctenidia, but special pallial growths, comparable
+with those of Pleurophyllidia).</p>
+
+<p><i>g</i>, The branchial efferent vessel.</p>
+
+<p><i>h</i>, Factor of the branchial advehent vessel.</p>
+
+<p><i>i</i>, Interspaces between the muscular bundles of the root of
+the foot, causing the separate areae seen in fig. 5, <i>c</i>.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:276px; height:330px" src="images/img507b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;Dorsal surface of the
+Limpet removed from its shell and deprived of its black pigmented epithelium;
+the internal organs are seen through the transparent body-wall. (Lankester.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>c</i>, Muscular bundles forming the root of the foot, and adherent to the shell.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Free mantle-skirt.</p>
+<p><i>em</i>, Tentaculiferous margin of the same.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, Smaller (left) nephridium.</p>
+<p><i>k</i>, Larger (right) nephridium.</p>
+<p><i>l</i>, Pericardium.</p>
+<p><i>lx</i>, Fibrous septum, behind the pericardium.</p>
+<p><i>n</i>, Liver.</p>
+<p><i>int</i>, Intestine.</p>
+<p><i>ecr</i>, Anterior area of the mantle-skirt over-hanging the head (cephalic hood).</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2">Order I. <span class="sc">Aspidobranchia.</span>&mdash;These are the most primitive Gastropods,
+retaining to a great degree the original symmetry of the
+organs of the pallial complex, having two kidneys, in some cases
+two branchiae, and two auricles. The gonad has no accessory
+organs and except in <i>Neritidae</i>
+no duct, but discharges
+into the right kidney.</p>
+
+<p>Forms adapted to terrestrial
+life and to aerial respiration
+occur in various
+divisions of Gastropods, and
+do not constitute a single
+homogeneous group. Thus
+the <i>Helicinidae</i>, which are
+terrestrial, are now placed
+among the Aspidobranchia.
+In these there are neither
+branchia nor osphradium,
+and the pallial chamber
+which retains its large opening
+serves as a lung. Degeneration
+of the shell
+occurs in some members of
+the order. It is largely
+covered by the mantle in
+some <i>Fissurellidae</i>, is entirely
+internal in <i>Pupilia</i>
+and absent in <i>Titiscaniidae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The common limpet is a
+specially interesting and
+abundant example of the
+more primitive Aspidobranchia.
+The foot of the
+limpet is a nearly circular
+disk of muscular tissue; in
+front, projecting from and
+raised above it, are the head
+and neck (figs. 4, 13). The
+visceral hump forms a low
+conical dome above the sub-circular
+foot, and standing
+out all round the base of this
+dome so as completely to
+overlap the head and foot,
+is the circular mantle-skirt.
+The depth of free mantle-skirt
+is greatest in front, where the head and neck are covered
+in by it. Upon the surface of the visceral dome, and extending
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508"></a>508</span>
+to the edge of the free mantle-skirt, is the conical shell. When
+the shell is taken away (best effected by immersion in hot
+water) the surface of the visceral dome is found to be covered by a
+black-coloured epithelium, which may be removed, enabling the
+observer to note the position
+of some organs lying
+below the transparent integument
+(fig. 5). The
+muscular columns (<i>c</i>) attaching
+the foot to the
+shell form a ring incomplete
+in front, external to
+which is the free mantle-skirt.
+The limits of the
+large area formed by the
+flap over the head and
+neck (<i>ecr</i>) can be traced,
+and we note the anal
+papilla showing through
+and opening on the right
+shoulder, so to speak, of
+the animal into the large
+anterior region of the
+sub-pallial space. Close
+to this the small renal
+organ (<i>i</i>, mediad) and the
+larger renal organ (<i>k</i>, to
+the right and posteriorly)
+are seen, also the pericardium
+(<i>l</i>) and a coil of
+the intestine (<i>int</i>) embedded
+in the compact
+liver.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:289px; height:227px" src="images/img508a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.&mdash;Anterior portion of the same
+Limpet, with the overhanging cephalic
+hood removed. (Lankester.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a</i>, Cephalic tentacle.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Foot.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Muscular substance forming the root of the foot.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, The capito-pedal organs of Lankester (= rudimentary ctenidia).</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Mantle-skirt.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Papilla of the larger nephridium.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, Anus.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>h</i>, Papilla of the smaller nephridium.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, Smaller nephridium.</p>
+<p><i>k</i>, Larger nephridium.</p>
+<p><i>l</i>, Pericardium.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, Cut edge of the mantle-skirt.</p>
+<p><i>n</i>, Liver.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, Snout.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:303px; height:263px" src="images/img508b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 7.&mdash;The same specimen viewed
+from the left front, so as to show the sub-anal tract (<i>ff</i>) of the larger nephridium,
+by which it communicates with the pericardium. <i>o</i>, Mouth; other letters as in fig. 6.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>On cutting away the
+anterior part of the
+mantle-skirt so as to
+expose the sub-pallial
+chamber in the region
+of the neck, we find the
+right and left renal papillae (discovered by Lankester in 1867) on
+either side of the anal papilla (fig. 6), but no gills. If a similar
+examination be made of the allied genus <i>Fissurella</i> (fig. 17, <i>d</i>), we
+find right and left of the two renal apertures a right and left gill-plume
+or ctenidium, which here as in <i>Haliotis</i> and <i>Pleurotomaria</i>
+retain their original paired condition. In <i>Patella</i> no such plumes
+exist, but right and left of the neck are seen a pair of minute oblong
+yellow bodies (fig. 6, <i>d</i>), which were originally described by Lankester
+as orifices possibly connected with the evacuation of the generative
+products. On account of their position they were termed by him
+the &ldquo;capito-pedal orifices,&rdquo; being placed near the junction of head
+and foot. J.W. Spengel has, however, in a most ingenious way
+shown that these bodies are the representatives of the typical pair
+of ctenidia, here reduced to a mere rudiment. Near to each rudimentary
+ctenidium Spengel has discovered an olfactory patch or
+osphradium (consisting of modified epithelium) and an olfactory
+nerve-ganglion (fig. 8). It will be remembered that, according to
+Spengel, the osphradium of mollusca is definitely and intimately
+related to the gill-plume or ctenidium, being always placed near the
+base of that organ; further,
+Spengel has shown
+that the nerve-supply of
+this olfactory organ is
+always derived from the
+visceral loop. Accordingly,
+the nerve-supply
+affords a means of testing
+the conclusion that
+we have in Lankester&rsquo;s
+capito-pedal bodies the
+rudimentary ctenidia.
+The accompanying diagrams
+(figs. 9, 10) of
+the nervous systems of
+<i>Patella</i> and of <i>Haliotis</i>,
+as determined by
+Spengel, show the identity
+in the origin of the
+nerves passing from the
+visceral loop to Spengel&rsquo;s
+olfactory ganglion of the
+Limpet, and that of the
+nerves which pass from
+the visceral loop of <i>Haliotis</i> to the olfactory patch or osphradium,
+which lies in immediate relation on the right and on the left side
+to the right and left gill-plumes (ctenidia) respectively. The same
+diagrams serve to demonstrate the streptoneurous condition of the
+visceral loop in Aspidobranchia.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:370px; height:420px" src="images/img508c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;A, Section in a plane vertical to the surface of the neck
+of <i>Patella</i> through <i>a</i>, the rudimentary ctenidium (Lankester&rsquo;s organ),
+and <i>b</i>, the olfactory epithelium (osphradium); <i>c</i>, the olfactory
+(osphradial) ganglion. (After Spengel.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><br />B, Surface view of a rudimentary ctenidium of <i>Patella</i> excised
+and viewed as a transparent object. (Lankester.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:182px; height:333px" src="images/img508d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.&mdash;Nervous system
+of <i>Patella</i>; the visceral loop is lightly shaded; the buccal ganglia are omitted. (After Spengel.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><i>ce</i>, Cerebral ganglia.</p>
+<p><i>c&rsquo;e</i>, Cerebral commissure.</p>
+<p><i>pl</i>, Pleural ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>pe</i>, Pedal ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>p&prime;e</i>, Pedal nerve.</p>
+<p><i>s</i>, <i>s&prime;</i>, Nerves (right and left) to the mantle.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, Olfactory ganglion, connected by nerve to the streptoneurous visceral loop.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Thus, then, we find that the limpet possesses a symmetrically
+disposed pair of ctenidia in a rudimentary condition, and justifies
+its position among Aspidobranchia. At the same time it possesses
+a totally distinct series of <i>functional</i> gills, which are not derived
+from the modification of the typical molluscan ctenidium. These gills
+are in the form of delicate lamellae (fig. 4, <i>f</i>), which form a series
+extending completely round the inner face of the depending mantle-skirt.
+This circlet of gill-lamellae led Cuvier to class the limpets
+as Cyclobranchiata, and, by erroneous identification of them with
+the series of metamerically repeated ctenidia of <i>Chiton</i>, to associate
+the latter mollusc with the former. The gill-lamellae of <i>Patella</i> are
+processes of the mantle comparable with the plait-like folds often
+observed on the roof of the branchial chamber in other Gastropoda
+(<i>e.g.</i> <i>Buccinum</i> and <i>Haliotis</i>). They are
+termed pallial gills. The only other molluscs
+in which they are exactly represented
+are the curious Opisthobranchs
+<i>Phyllidia</i> and <i>Pleurophyllidia</i> (fig. 55).
+In these, as in <i>Patella</i>, the typical ctenidia
+are aborted, and the branchial function is
+assumed by close-set lamelliform processes
+arranged in a series beneath the
+mantle-skirt on either side of the foot. In
+fig. 4, <i>d</i>, the large branchial vein of <i>Patella</i>
+bringing blood from the gill-series to the
+heart is seen; where it crosses the series
+of lamellae there is a short interval devoid
+of lamellae.</p>
+
+<p>The heart in <i>Patella</i> consists of a single
+auricle (not two as in <i>Haliotis</i> and
+<i>Fissurella</i>) and a ventricle; the former
+receives the blood from the branchial
+vein, the latter distributes it through a
+large aorta which soon leads into irregular
+blood-lacunae.</p>
+
+<p>The existence of two renal organs in
+<i>Patella</i>, and their relation to the pericardium
+(a portion of the coelom), is
+important. Each renal organ is a sac
+lined with glandular epithelium (ciliated
+cell, with concretions) communicating
+with the exterior by its papilla, and by
+a narrow passage with the pericardium.
+The connexion with the pericardium of
+the smaller of the two renal organs was
+demonstrated by Lankester in 1867, at a
+time when the fact that the renal organ
+of the Mollusca, as a rule, opens into the
+pericardium, and is therefore a typical
+nephridium, was not known. Subsequent
+investigations carried on under the direction
+of the same naturalist have shown
+that the larger as well as the smaller renal
+sac is in communication with the pericardium. The walls of the renal
+sacs are deeply plaited and thrown into ridges. Below the surface these
+walls are excavated with blood-vessels, so that the sac is practically
+a series of blood-vessels covered with renal epithelium, and forming
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page509" id="page509"></a>509</span>
+a meshwork within a space communicating with the exterior. The
+larger renal sac (remarkably enough, that which is aborted in other
+Anisopleura) extends between the liver and the integument of the
+visceral dome very widely. It also bends round the liver as shown
+in fig. 12, and forms a large sac on half of the upper surface of the
+muscular mass of the foot. Here it lies close upon the genital body
+(ovary or testis), and in such intimate relationship with it that,
+when ripe, the gonad bursts into the renal sac, and its products are
+carried to the exterior by the papilla on the right side of the anus
+(Robin, Dall). This fact led Cuvier erroneously to the belief that a
+duct existed leading from the gonad to this papilla. The position
+of the gonad, best seen in the diagrammatic section (fig. 13), is, as
+in other Aspidobranchia, devoid of a special duct communicating
+with the exterior. This condition, probably an archaic one, distinguishes
+the Aspidobranchia from other Gastropoda.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:330px; height:465px" src="images/img509a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 10.&mdash;Nervous system of <i>Haliotis</i>; the visceral loop is lightly
+shaded; the buccal ganglia are omitted. (After Spengel.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>ce</i>, Cerebral ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>pl.pe</i>, The fused pleural and pedal ganglia.</p>
+<p><i>pe</i>, The right pedal nerve.</p>
+<p><i>ce.pl</i>, The cerebro-pleural connective.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>ce.pe</i>, The cerebro-pedal connective.</p>
+<p><i>s</i>, <i>s&prime;</i>, Right and left mantle nerves.</p>
+<p><i>ab</i>, Abdominal ganglion or site of same.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, <i>o</i>, Right and left olfactory ganglia and osphardia receiving nerve from visceral loop.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"><tr><td>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:265px; height:493px" src="images/img509b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"> <span class="sc">Fig</span>. 11.&mdash;Nervous system of
+<i>Fissurella</i>. (From Gegenbaur, after Jhering.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>pl</i>, Pallial nerve.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, Pedal nerve.</p>
+<p><i>A</i>, Abdominal ganglia in the streptoneurous visceral commissure, with supra- and sub-intestine
+ganglion on each side.</p>
+<p><i>B</i>, Buccal ganglia.</p>
+<p><i>C</i>, <i>C</i>, Cerebral ganglia.</p>
+<p><i>es</i>, Cerebral commissure.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, Otocysts attached to the cerebro-pedal connectives.</p></td></tr></table>
+</td>
+
+<td>
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:236px; height:270px" src="images/img509c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 12.&mdash;Diagram of the two
+renal organs (nephridia), to show their relation to the rectum and
+to the pericardium. (Lankester.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>f</i>, Papilla of the larger nephridium.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, Anal papilla with rectum leading from it.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Papilla of the smaller nephridium, which is only represented by dotted outlines.</p>
+<p><i>l</i>, Pericardium indicated by a dotted outline&mdash;at its right
+side are seen the two reno-pericardial pores.</p>
+<p><i>ff</i>, The sub-anal tract of the large nephridium given off near its
+papilla and seen through the unshaded smaller nephridium.</p>
+<p><i>ks.a</i>, Anterior superior lobe of the large nephridium.</p>
+<p><i>ks.l</i>, Left lobe of same.</p>
+<p><i>ks.p</i>, Posterior lobe of same.</p>
+<p><i>ks.i</i>, Inferior sub-visceral lobe of same.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:445px; height:258px" src="images/img509d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Diagram of a vertical antero-postero median section
+of a Limpet. Letters as in figs. 6, 7, with following additions.
+(Lankester.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>q</i>, Intestine in transverse section.</p>
+<p><i>r</i>, Lingual sac (radular sac).</p>
+<p><i>rd</i>, Radula.</p>
+<p><i>s</i>, Lamellated stomach.</p>
+<p><i>t</i>, Salivary gland.</p>
+<p><i>u</i>, Duct of same.</p>
+<p><i>v</i>, Buccal cavity</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>w</i>, Gonad.</p>
+<p><i>br.a</i>, Branchial advehent vessel (artery).</p>
+<p><i>br.v</i>, Branchial efferent vessel (vein).</p>
+<p><i>bv</i>, Blood-vessel.</p>
+<p><i>odm</i>, Muscles and cartilage of the odontophore.</p>
+<p><i>cor</i>, Heart within the pericardium.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:450px; height:219px" src="images/img509e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Vertical section in a plane running right and left through
+the anterior part of the visceral hump of <i>Patella</i> to show the two renal
+organs and their openings into the pericardium. (J.T. Cunningham.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Large or external or right renal organ.</p>
+<p><i>ab</i>, Narrow process of the same running <i>below</i> the intestine and leading by <i>k</i> into the pericardium.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Small or median renal organ.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Pericardium.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Rectum.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Liver.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>f</i>, Manyplies.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, Epithelium of the dorsal surface.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Renal epithelium lining the renal sacs.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, Aperture connecting the small sac with the pericardium.</p>
+<p><i>k</i>, Aperture connecting the large sac with the pericardium.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The digestive tract of <i>Patella</i> offers some interesting features.
+The odontophore is powerfully developed; the radular sac is extraordinarily
+long, lying coiled in a space between the mass of the liver
+and the muscular foot. The radula has 160 rows of teeth with twelve
+teeth in each row. Two pairs of salivary ducts, each leading from a
+salivary gland, open into the buccal chamber. The oesophagus leads
+into a remarkable stomach, plaited like the manyplies of a sheep,
+and after this the intestine takes a very large number of turns embedded
+in the yellow liver, until at last it passes between the
+two renal sacs to the anal papilla. A curious ridge (spiral? valve)
+which secretes a slimy cord is found upon the inner wall of the intestine.
+The general structure of the Molluscan intestine has not been
+sufficiently investigated to render any comparison of this structure
+of <i>Patella</i> with that of other Mollusca possible. The eyes of the
+limpet deserve mention as examples of the most primitive kind of
+eye in the Molluscan series. They are found one on each cephalic
+tentacle, and are simply minute open pits or depressions of the
+epidermis, the epidermic cells lining them being pigmented and
+connected with nerves (compare fig. 14, art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cephalopoda</a></span>).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page510" id="page510"></a>510</span>
+The limpet breeds upon the southern English coast in the early
+part of April, but its development has not been followed. It has
+simply been traced as far as the formation of a diblastula which
+acquires a ciliated band, and becomes a nearly spherical trochosphere.
+It is probable that the limpet takes several years to attain full
+growth, and during that period it frequents the same spot, which
+becomes gradually sunk below the surrounding surface, especially
+if the rock be carbonate of lime. At low tide the limpet (being a
+strictly intertidal organism) is exposed to the air, and (according to
+trustworthy observers) quits its attachment and walks away in
+search of food (minute encrusting algae), and then once more returns
+to the identical spot, not an inch in diameter, which belongs, as it
+were, to it. Several million limpets&mdash;twelve million in Berwickshire
+alone&mdash;are annually used on the east coast of Britain as bait.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-order 1. <i>Docoglossa.</i>&mdash;Nervous system without dialyneury.
+Eyes are open invaginations without crystalline lens. Two osphradia
+present but no hypobranchial glands nor operculum. Teeth of radula
+beam-like, and at most three marginal teeth on each side. Heart
+has only a single auricle, neither heart nor pericardium traversed
+by rectum. Shell conical without spire.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1.&mdash;<i>Acmaeidae.</i> A single bipectinate ctenidium on left side.
+Acmaea, without pallial branchiae, British. Scurria, with
+pallial branchiae in a circle beneath the mantle.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2.&mdash;<i>Tryblidiidae.</i> Muscle scar divided into numerous
+impressions. <i>Tryblidium</i>, Silurian.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3.&mdash;<i>Patellidae</i>. No ctenidia but pallial branchiae in a circle
+between mantle and foot. <i>Patella</i>, pallial branchiae forming
+a complete circle, no epipodial tentacles, British. <i>Ancistromesus</i>,
+radula with median central tooth. <i>Nacella</i>, epipodial
+tentacles present. <i>Helcion</i>, circlet of branchiae interrupted
+anteriorly, British.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 4.&mdash;<i>Lepetidae.</i> Neither ctenidia nor pallial branchiae.
+<i>Lepeta</i>, without eyes. <i>Pilidium.</i> <i>Propilidium.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 5.&mdash;<i>Bathysciadidae.</i> Hermaphrodite; head with appendage
+on right side; radula without central tooth. <i>Bathysciadium</i>,
+abyssal.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sub-order 2. <span class="sc">Rhipidoglossa.</span>&mdash;Aspidobranchia with a palliovisceral
+anastomosis (dialyneurous); eye-vesicle closed, with
+crystalline lens; ctenidia, osphradia and hypobranchial glands
+paired or single. Radula with very numerous marginal teeth arranged
+like the rays of a fan. Heart with two auricles; ventricle
+traversed by the rectum, except in the <i>Helicinidae</i>. An epipodial
+ridge on each side of the foot and cephalic expansions between the
+tentacles often present.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1.&mdash;<i>Pleurotomariidae</i>. Shell spiral; mantle and shell with
+an anterior fissure; two ctenidia; a horny operculum. <i>Pleurotomaria</i>,
+epipodium without tentacles. Genus includes several
+hundred extinct species ranging from the Silurian to the Tertiary.
+Five living species from the Antilles, Japan and the
+Moluccas. Moluccan species is 19 cm. in height.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2.&mdash;<i>Bellerophontidae.</i> 300 species, all fossil, from Cambrian
+to Trias.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3.&mdash;<i>Euomphalidae.</i> Also extinct, from Cambrian to Cretaceous.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 4.&mdash;<i>Haliotidae.</i> Spire of shell much reduced; two bipectinate
+ctenidia, the right being the smaller; no operculum.
+Haliotis.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 5.&mdash;<i>Velainiellidae</i>, an extinct family from the Eocene.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:446px; height:256px" src="images/img510a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;<i>Halio tistuberculata.</i> <i>d</i>, Foot; <i>i</i>, tentacular processes
+of the mantle. (From Owen, after Cuvier.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 6.&mdash;<i>Fissurellidae.</i> Shell conical; slit or hole in anterior
+part of mantle; two symmetrical ctenidia; no operculum.
+<i>Emarginula</i>, mantle and shell with a slit, British. <i>Scutum</i>,
+mantle split anteriorly and reflected over shell, which has no
+slit. <i>Puncturella</i>, mantle and shell with a foramen in front of
+the apex, British. <i>Fissurella</i>, mantle and shell perforated at
+apex, British.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 7.&mdash;<i>Cocculinidae.</i> Shell conical, symmetrical, without slit
+or perforation. <i>Cocculina</i>, abyssal.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 8.&mdash;<i>Trochidae.</i> Shell spirally coiled; a single ctenidium;
+eyes perforated; a horny operculum; lobes between the
+tentacles. <i>Trochus</i>, shell umbilicated, spire pointed and prominent,
+British. <i>Monodonta</i>, no jaws, spire not prominent,
+no umbilicus, columella toothed. <i>Gibbula</i>, with jaws, three
+pairs of epipodial cirri without pigment spots at their bases,
+British. <i>Margarita</i>, five to seven pairs of epipodial cirri with a
+pigment spot at base of each.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"><tr><td>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:175px; height:394px" src="images/img510b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;<i>Scutum</i>,
+seen from the pedal surface. (Lankester.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>o</i>, Mouth.</p>
+<p><i>T</i>, Cephalic tentacle.</p>
+<p><i>br</i>, One of the two symmetrical gills placed on the neck.</p></td></tr></table></td>
+
+<td>
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:223px; height:316px" src="images/img510c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Dorsal aspect of a specimen of <i>Fissurella</i> from
+which the shell has been removed, whilst the anterior area of the mantle-skirt has
+been longitudinally slit and its sides reflected. (Lankester.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>a</i>, Cephalic tentacle.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Foot.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Left (archaic right) gill-plume.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Reflected mantle-flap.</p>
+<p><i>fi</i>, The fissure or hole in the mantle-flap traversed by the longitudinal incision.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Right (archaic left) nephridium&rsquo;s aperture.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, Anus.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Left (archaic right) aperture of nephridium.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, Snout.</p></td></tr></table>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p class="pt2">Fam. 9.&mdash;<i>Stomatellidae.</i> Spire of shell much reduced; a single
+ctenidium. <i>Stomatella</i>, foot truncated posteriorly, an operculum
+present, no epipodial tentacles. <i>Gena</i>, foot elongated
+posteriorly, no operculum.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 10.&mdash;<i>Delphinulidae.</i> Shell spirally coiled; operculum
+horny; intertentacular lobes absent. <i>Delphinula.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 11.&mdash;<i>Liotiidae</i>, shell globular, margin of aperture thickened.
+<i>Liotia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 12.&mdash;<i>Cyclostrematidae.</i> Shell flattened, umbilicated; foot
+anteriorly truncated with angles produced into lobes. <i>Cyclostrema.</i>
+<i>Teinostoma.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 13.&mdash;<i>Trochonematidae.</i> All extinct, Cambrian to Cretaceous.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 14.&mdash;<i>Turbinidae.</i> Shell spirally coiled; epipodial tentacles
+present; operculum thick and calcareous. <i>Turbo.</i> <i>Astralium.</i>
+<i>Molleria.</i> <i>Cyclonema.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 15.&mdash;<i>Phasianellidae.</i> Shell not nacreous, without umbilicus,
+with prominent spire and polished surface. <i>Phasianella.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 16.&mdash;<i>Umboniidae.</i> Shell flattened, not umbilicated, generally
+smooth; operculum horny. <i>Umbonium.</i> <i>Isanda.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 17.&mdash;<i>Neritopsidae.</i> Shell semi-globular, with short spire;
+operculum calcareous, not spiral. <i>Neritopsis.</i> <i>Naticopsis</i>, extinct.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 18.&mdash;<i>Macluritidae.</i> Extinct, Cambrian and Silurian.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 19.&mdash;<i>Neritidae.</i> Shell with very low spire, without umbilicus,
+internal partitions frequently absorbed; a single
+ctenidium; a cephalic penis present. <i>Nerita</i>, marine. <i>Neritina</i>,
+freshwater, British. <i>Septaria</i>, shell boat-shaped.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 20.&mdash;<i>Titiscaniidae.</i> Without shell and operculum, but
+with pallial cavity and ctenidium. <i>Titiscania</i>, Pacific.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 21.&mdash;<i>Helicinidae.</i> No ctenidium, but a pulmonary cavity;
+heart with a single auricle, not traversed by the rectum. <i>Helicina.</i>
+<i>Eutrochatella.</i> <i>Stoastoma.</i> <i>Bourceria.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 22.&mdash;<i>Hydrocenidae.</i> No ctenidium, but a pulmonary
+cavity; operculum with an apophysis. <i>Hydrocena</i>, Dalmatia.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 23.&mdash;<i>Proserpinidae.</i> No operculum. <i>Proserpina</i>, Central
+America.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Order 2. <span class="sc">Pectinibranchia.</span>&mdash;In this order there is no longer any
+trace of bilateral symmetry in the circulatory, respiratory and
+excretory organs, the topographically right half of the pallial complex
+having completely disappeared, except the right kidney, which is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page511" id="page511"></a>511</span>
+represented by the genital duct. There is usually a penis in the male.
+The ctenidium is monopectinate and attached to the mantle along
+its whole length, except in <i>Adeorbis</i> and <i>Valvata</i>; in the latter alone
+it is bipectinate. There is a single well-developed, often pectinated
+osphradium. The eye is always a closed vesicle, and the internal
+cornea is extensive. In the radula there is a single central tooth or
+none.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:663px; height:365px" src="images/img511a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.&mdash;Animal and shell of <i>Pyrula laevigata</i>. (From Owen.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Siphon.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Head-tentacles.</p>
+<p><i>C</i>, Head, the letter placed near the right eye.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>d</i>, The foot, expanded as in crawling.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, The mantle-skirt reflected over the sides of the shell.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The former classification into Holochlamyda, Pneumochlamyda
+and Siphonochlamyda has been abandoned, as it was founded on
+adaptive characters not always indicative of true affinities. The
+order is now divided into two sub-orders: the Taenioglossa, in
+which there are three teeth on each side of the median tooth of the
+radula, and the Stenoglossa, in which there is only one tooth on each
+side of the median tooth. In the latter a pallial siphon, a well-developed
+proboscis and an unpaired oesophageal gland are always
+present, in the former they are usually absent. The siphon is an
+incompletely tubular outgrowth of the mantle margin on the left
+side, contained in a corresponding outgrowth of the edge of the
+shell-mouth, and serving to conduct water to the respiratory cavity.</p>
+
+<p>The condition usually spoken of as a &ldquo;proboscis&rdquo; appears to be
+derived from the condition of a simple rostrum (having the mouth
+at its extremity) by the process of <i>incomplete introversion</i> of that
+simple rostrum. There is no reason in the actual significance of
+the word why the term &ldquo;proboscis&rdquo; should be applied to an alternately
+introversible and eversible tube connected with an animal&rsquo;s
+body, and yet such is a very customary use of the term. The introversible
+tube may be completely closed, as in the &ldquo;proboscis&rdquo; of
+Nemertine worms, or it may have a passage in it leading into a
+non-eversible oesophagus, as in the present case, and in the case of
+the eversible pharynx of the predatory Chaetopod worms. The
+diagrams here introduced (fig. 19) are intended to show certain
+important distinctions which obtain amongst the various &ldquo;introverts,&rdquo;
+or intro- and e-versible tubes so frequently met with in animal
+bodies. Supposing the tube to be completely introverted and to
+commence its eversion, we then find that eversion may take place,
+either by a forward movement of the side of the tube near its attached
+base, as in the proboscis of the Nemertine worms, the pharynx
+of Chaetopods and the eye-tentacle of Gastropods, or by a forward
+movement of the inverted apex of the tube, as in the proboscis of
+the Rhabdocoel Planarians, and in that of Gastropods here under
+consideration. The former case we call &ldquo;pleurecbolic&rdquo; (fig. 19,
+A, B, C, H, I, K), the latter &ldquo;acrecbolic&rdquo; tubes or introverts (fig.
+19, D, E, F, G). It is clear that, if we start from the condition of
+full eversion of the tube and watch the process of introversion, we
+shall find that the pleurecbolic variety is introverted by the apex
+of the tube sinking inwards; it may be called acrembolic, whilst
+conversely the acrecbolic tubes are pleurembolic. Further, it is
+obvious enough that the process either of introversion or of eversion
+of the tube may be arrested at any point, by the development of
+fibres connecting the wall of the introverted tube with the wall of
+the body, or with an axial structure such as the oesophagus; on
+the other hand, the range of movement of the tubular introvert may
+be unlimited or complete. The acrembolic proboscis or frontal
+introvert of the Nemertine worms has a complete range. So has the
+acrembolic pharynx of Chaetopods, if we consider the organ as terminating
+at that point where the jaws are placed and the oesophagus
+commences. So too the acrembolic eye-tentacle of the snail has a
+complete range of movement, and also the pleurembolic proboscis of
+the Rhabdocoel prostoma. The introverted rostrum of the Pectinibranch
+Gastropods presents in contrast to these a limited range of
+movement. The &ldquo;introvert&rdquo; in these Gastropods is not the pharynx
+as in the Chaetopod worms, but a prae-oral structure, its apical
+limit being formed by the true lips and jaws,
+whilst the apical limit of the Chaetopod&rsquo;s
+introvert is formed by the jaws placed at the
+junction of pharynx and oesophagus, so that
+the Chaetopod&rsquo;s introvert is part of the stomodaeum
+or fore-gut, whilst that of the Gastropod
+is external to the alimentary canal altogether,
+being in front of the mouth, not behind it, as
+is the Chaetopod&rsquo;s. Further, the Gastropod&rsquo;s
+introvert is pleurembolic (and therefore acrecbolic),
+and is limited both in eversion and in
+introversion; it cannot be completely everted
+owing to the muscular bands (fig. 19, G), nor
+can it be fully introverted owing to the bands
+(fig. 19, F) which tie the axial pharynx to the
+adjacent wall of the apical part of the introvert.
+As in all such intro- and e-versible
+organs, eversion of the Gastropod proboscis is
+effected by pressure communicated by the
+muscular body-wall to the liquid contents
+(blood) of the body-space, accompanied by
+the relaxation of the muscles which directly
+pull upon either the sides or the apex of the
+tubular organ. The inversion of the proboscis
+is effected directly by the contraction of these
+muscles. In various members of the Pectinibranchia
+the mouth-bearing cylinder is introversible
+(<i>i.e.</i> is a <i>proboscis</i>)&mdash;with rare
+exceptions these forms have a siphonate
+mantle-skirt. On the other hand, many which have a siphonate
+mantle-skirt are not provided with an introversible mouth-bearing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page512" id="page512"></a>512</span>
+cylinder, but have a simple non-introversible rostrum, as it
+has been termed, which is also the condition presented by the
+mouth-bearing region in nearly all other Gastropoda. One of
+the best examples of the introversible mouth-cylinder or proboscis
+which can be found is that of the common whelk (<i>Buccinum
+undatum</i>) and its immediate allies. In fig. 23 the proboscis is
+seen in an everted state; it is only so carried when feeding, being
+withdrawn when the animal is at rest. Probably its use is to enable
+the animal to introduce its rasping and licking apparatus into very
+narrow apertures for the purposes of feeding, <i>e.g.</i> into a small hole
+bored in the shell of another mollusc.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:435px; height:556px" src="images/img511b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Diagrams explanatory of the nature of so-called
+proboscides or &ldquo;introverts.&rdquo; (Lankester.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A, Simple introvert completely introverted.</p>
+
+<p>B, The same, partially everted by eversion of the sides, as in the
+Nemertine proboscis and Gastropod eye-tentacle = pleurecbolic.</p>
+
+<p>C, The same, fully everted.</p>
+
+<p>D, E, A similar simple introvert in course of eversion by the forward
+movement, not of its sides, but of its apex, as in the proboscidean
+Rhabdocoels = acrecbolic.</p>
+
+<p>F, Acrecbolic (= pleurembolic) introvert, formed by the snout of
+the proboscidiferous Gastropod. <i>al</i>, alimentary canal; <i>d</i>, the true
+mouth. The introvert is not a simple one with complete range both
+in eversion and introversion, but is arrested in introversion by the
+fibrous bands at <i>c</i>, and similarly in eversion by the fibrous bands at <i>b</i>.</p>
+
+<p>G, The acrecbolic snout of a proboscidiferous Gastropod, arrested
+short of complete eversion by the fibrous band <i>b</i>.</p>
+
+<p>H, The acrembolic (= pleurecbolic) pharynx of a Chaetopod fully
+introverted. <i>al</i>, alimentary canal; at <i>d</i>, the jaws; at a, the mouth;
+therefore <i>a</i> to <i>d</i> is stomodaeum, whereas in the Gastropod (F) <i>a</i> to <i>d</i>
+is inverted body-surface.</p>
+
+<p>I, Partial eversion of H.</p>
+
+<p>K, Complete eversion of H.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"><tr><td>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:277px; height:412px" src="images/img512a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.&mdash;Male of <i>Littorina littoralis</i>,
+Lin., removed from its shell; the mantle-skirt cut along its right line of
+attachment and thrown over to the left side of the animal so as to expose
+the organs on its inner face.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>a</i>, Anus.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, Intestine.</p>
+<p><i>r</i>, Nephridium (kidney).</p>
+<p><i>r&prime;</i>, Aperture of the nephridium.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Heart.</p>
+<p><i>br</i>, Ctenidium (gill-plume).</p>
+<p><i>pbr</i>, Parabranchia (= the osphradium or olfactory patch).</p>
+<p><i>x</i>, Glandular lamellae of the inner face of the mantle-skirt.</p>
+<p><i>y</i>, Adrectal (purpuriparous) gland.</p>
+<p><i>t</i>, Testis.</p>
+<p><i>vd</i>, Vas deferens.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, Penis.</p>
+<p><i>mc</i>, Columella muscle (muscular process grasping the shell).</p>
+<p><i>v</i>, Stomach.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Liver.</p>
+<p><i>N.B.</i>&mdash;Note the simple snout or rostrum not introverted as a &ldquo;proboscis.&rdquo;</p></td></tr></table>
+</td>
+
+<td>
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:162px; height:312px" src="images/img512b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 21.&mdash;Nervous system of <i>Paludina</i>
+as a type of the streptoneurous condition. (From Gegenbaur, after Jhering.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>B</i>, Buccal (suboesophageal) ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>C</i>, Cerebral ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>Co</i>, Pleural ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>P</i>, Pedal ganglion with otocyst attached.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, Pedal nerve.</p>
+<p><i>A</i>, Abdominal ganglion at the extremity of the twisted visceral &ldquo;loop.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><i>sp</i>, Supra-intestinal visceral ganglion on the course of the right visceral cord.</p>
+<p><i>sb</i>, Sub-intestinal ganglion on the course of the left visceral cord.</p></td></tr></table>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The very large assemblage of forms coming under this order comprises
+the most highly developed predaceous sea-snails, numerous
+vegetarian species, a considerable number of freshwater and some
+terrestrial forms. The partial dissection of a male specimen of the
+common periwinkle, <i>Littorina littoralis</i>, drawn in fig. 20, will serve
+to exhibit the disposition of viscera which prevails in the group.
+The branchial chamber formed by the mantle-skirt overhanging
+the head has been exposed by cutting along a line extending backward
+from the letters vd to the base of the columella muscle mc, and
+the whole roof of the chamber thus detached from the right side of
+the animal&rsquo;s neck has been thrown over to the left, showing the
+organs which lie upon the roof. No opening into the body-cavity
+has been made; the organs which lie in the coiled visceral hump
+show through its transparent walls. The head is seen in front
+resting on the foot and carrying a median non-retractile snout or
+rostrum, and a pair of cephalic tentacles at the base of each of which
+is an eye. In many Gastropoda the eyes are not thus sessile but
+raised upon special eye-tentacles (figs. 25, 56). To the right of the
+head is seen the muscular penis <i>p</i>, close to the termination of the vas
+deferens (spermatic duct) <i>vd</i>. The testis <i>t</i> occupies a median
+position in the coiled visceral mass. Behind the penis on the same
+side is the hook-like columella muscle, a development of the retractor
+muscle of the foot, which clings to the spiral column or columella of
+the shell (see fig. 33). This columella muscle is the same thing as the
+muscles adhering to the shell in <i>Patella</i>, and the posterior adductor of
+Lamellibranchs.</p>
+
+<p>The surface of the neck is covered by integument forming the
+floor of the branchial cavity. It has not been cut into. Of the
+organs lying on the reflected mantle-skirt, that which in the natural
+state lay nearest to the vas deferens on the right side of the median
+line of the roof of the branchial chamber is the rectum <i>i&prime;</i>, ending in
+the anus <i>a</i>. It can be traced back to the intestine <i>i</i> near the surface
+of the visceral hump, and it is found that the apex of the coil formed
+by the hump is occupied by the liver <i>h</i> and the stomach <i>v</i>. Pharynx
+and oesophagus are concealed in the head. The enlarged glandular
+structure of the walls of the rectum is frequent in the Pectinibranchia,
+as is also though not universal the gland marked <i>y</i>, next
+to the rectum. It is the adrectal gland, and in the genera <i>Murex</i>
+and <i>Purpura</i> secretes a colourless liquid which turns purple upon
+exposure to the atmosphere, and was used by the ancients as a dye.
+Near this and less advanced into the branchial chamber is the single
+renal organ or nephridium <i>r</i> with its opening to the exterior <i>r&prime;</i>.
+Internally this glandular sac presents a second slit or aperture which
+leads into the pericardium (as is now found to be the case in all
+Mollusca). The heart <i>c</i> lying in the pericardium is seen in close
+proximity to the renal organ, and consists of a single auricle receiving
+blood from the gill, and of a single ventricle which pumps it
+through the body by an anterior and posterior aorta. The surface
+<i>x</i> of the mantle between the rectum and the gill-plume is thrown into
+folds which in many sea-snails (whelks or <i>Buccinidae</i>, &amp;c.) are very
+strongly developed. The whole of this surface appears to be active
+in the secretion of a mucous-like substance. The single gill-plume
+<i>br</i> lies to the left of the median line in natural position. It corresponds
+to the right of the two primitive ctenidia in the untwisted
+archaic condition of the molluscan body, and does not project freely
+into the branchial cavity, but its axis is attached (by concrescence)
+to the mantle-skirt (roof of the branchial chamber). It is rare for
+the gill-plume of a Pectinibranch Gastropod to stand out freely
+as a plume, but occasionally this more archaic condition is exhibited
+as in <i>Valvata</i> (fig. 30). Next beyond (to the left of) the gill-plume
+we find the so-called parabranchia, which is here simple, but sometimes
+lamellated as in <i>Purpura</i> (fig. 22). This organ has, without
+reason, been supposed to represent the second ctenidium of the
+typical mollusc, which it cannot do on account of its position. It
+should be to the right of the anus were this the case. Spengel showed
+that the parabranchia of Gastropods is the typical olfactory organ
+or osphradium in a highly developed condition. The minute structure
+of the epithelium which clothes it, as well as the origin of the
+nerve which is distributed to the parabranchia,
+proves it to be the same organ
+which is found universally in molluscs at
+the base of each gill-plume, and tests the
+indrawn current of water by the sense of
+smell. The nerve to this organ is given
+off from the superior (original right, see
+fig. 3) visceral ganglion.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:188px; height:211px" src="images/img512c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;Female of
+<i>Purpura lapillus</i> removed from its shell; the mantle-skirt cut along its
+left line of attachment and thrown over to the right side of the animal
+so as to expose the organs on its inner face.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>a</i>, Anus.</p>
+<p><i>vg</i>, Vagina.</p>
+<p><i>gp</i>, Adrectal purpuriparous gland.</p>
+<p><i>r&prime;</i>, Aperture of the nephridium (kidney).</p>
+<p><i>br</i>, Ctenidium (branchial plume).</p>
+<p><i>br&prime;</i>, Parabranchia (= the comb-like osphradium or olfactory organ).</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The figures which are given here of
+various Pectinibranchia are in most cases
+sufficiently explained by the references
+attached to them. As an excellent general
+type of the nervous system, attention
+may be directed to that of <i>Paludina</i>
+drawn in fig. 21. On the whole the
+ganglia are strongly individualized in the
+Pectinibranchia, nerve-cell tissue being
+concentrated in the ganglia and absent
+from the cords. At the same time, the
+junction of the visceral loop above the
+intestine prevents in all Streptoneura the
+shortening of the visceral loop, and it is
+rare to find a fusion of the visceral
+ganglia with either pleural, pedal or
+cerebral&mdash;a fusion which can and does
+take place where the visceral loop is not
+above but below the intestine, <i>e.g.</i> in
+the Euthyneura (fig. 48), Cephalopoda
+and Lamellibranchia. As contrasted
+with the Aspidobranchia, we find that in
+the Pectinibranchia the pedal nerves are
+distinctly nerves given off from the pedal
+ganglia, rather than cord-like nerve-tracts
+containing both nerve-cells or
+ganglionic elements and nerve-fibres.
+Yet in some Pectinibranchia (<i>Paludina</i>)
+a ladder-like arrangement of the two
+pedal nerves and their lateral branches has been detected. The
+histology of the nervous system of Mollusca has yet to be seriously
+inquired into.</p>
+
+<p>The alimentary canal of the Pectinibranchia presents little diversity
+of character, except in so far as the buccal region is concerned.
+Salivary glands are present, and in some carnivorous forms (<i>Dolium</i>)
+these secrete free sulphuric acid (as much as 2% is present in the
+secretion), which assists the animal in boring holes by means of its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page513" id="page513"></a>513</span>
+rasping tongue through the shells of other molluscs upon which it
+preys. A crop-like dilatation of the gut and a recurved intestine,
+embedded in the compact yellowish-brown liver, the ducts of which
+open into it, form the rest of the digestive tract and occupy a large
+bulk of the visceral hump. The buccal region presents a pair of
+shelly jaws placed laterally upon the lips, and a wide range of
+variation in the form of the denticles of the lingual ribbon or radula.</p>
+
+<p>Well-developed glandular invaginations occur in different positions
+on the foot in Pectinibranchia. The most important of these opens
+by the ventral pedal pore, situated in the median line in the anterior
+half of the foot. This organ is probably homologous with the byssogenous
+gland of Lamellibranchs. The aperture, which was formerly
+supposed to be an aquiferous pore, leads into an extensive and often
+ramified cavity surrounded by glandular tubules. The gland has
+been found in both sub-orders of the Pectinibranchia, in <i>Cyclostoma</i>
+and <i>Cypraea</i> among the Taenioglossa, in <i>Hemifusus</i>, <i>Cassis</i>, <i>Nassa</i>,
+<i>Murex</i>, <i>Fasciolariidae</i>, <i>Turbinellidae</i>, <i>Olividae</i>, <i>Marginellidae</i> and
+<i>Conidae</i> among the Stenoglossa. It was discovered by J.T. Cunningham
+that in <i>Buccinum</i> the egg-capsules are formed by this pedal
+gland and not by any accessory organ of the generative system.
+Such horny egg-capsules doubtless have the same origin in all other
+species in which they occur, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Fusus</i>, <i>Pyrula</i>, <i>Purpura</i>, <i>Murex</i>,
+<i>Nassa</i>, <i>Trophon</i>, <i>Voluta</i>, &amp;c. The float of the pelagic <i>Janthina</i>, to
+which the egg-capsules are attached, probably is also formed by the
+secretion of the pedal gland.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:433px; height:253px" src="images/img513a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;A, <i>Triton variegatum</i>, to show the proboscis or buccal
+introvert (<i>e</i>) in a state of eversion.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Siphonal notch of the shell occupied by the siphonal fold of the mantle-skirt (Siphonochlamyda).</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Edge of the mantle-skirt resting on the shell.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Cephalic eye.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Cephalic tentacle.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Everted buccal introvert (proboscis).</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>f</i>, Foot.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, Operculum.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Penis.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, Under surface of the mantle-skirt forming the roof of the sub-pallial chamber.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="2">B, Sole of the foot of <i>Pyrula tuba</i>, to show a, the pore usually said
+to be &ldquo;aquiferous&rdquo; but probably the orifice of a gland; <i>b</i>, median
+line of foot.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Other glands opening on or near the foot are: (1) The suprapedal
+gland opening in the middle line between the snout and the
+anterior border of the foot. It is most commonly found in sessile
+forms and in terrestrial genera such as <i>Cyclostoma</i>; (2) the anterior
+pedal gland opening into the anterior groove of the foot, generally
+present in aquatic species; (3) dorsal posterior mucous glands in
+certain <i>Cyclostomatidae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The foot of the Pectinibranchia, unlike the simple muscular disk
+of the Isopleura and Aspidobranchia, is very often divided into
+lobes, a fore, middle and hind lobe (pro-, meso- and meta-podium,
+see figs. 24 and 25). Very usually, but not universally, the metapodium
+carries an operculum. The division of the foot into lobes is
+a simple case of that much greater elaboration or breaking up into
+processes and regions which it undergoes in the class Cephalopoda.
+Even among some Gastropoda (viz. the Opisthobranchia) we find
+the lobation of the foot still further carried out by the development
+of lateral lobes, the parapodia, whilst there are many Pectinibranchia,
+on the other hand, in which the foot has a simple oblong
+form without any trace of lobes.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the Pectinibranchia has been followed in
+several examples, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Paludina</i>, <i>Purpura</i>, <i>Nassa</i>, <i>Vermetus</i>, <i>Neritina</i>.
+As in other Molluscan groups, we find a wide variation in the early
+process of the formation of the first embryonic cells, and their
+arrangement as a diblastula, dependent on the greater or less amount
+of food-yolk which is present in the egg-cell when it commences
+its embryonic changes. In fig. 26 the early stages of <i>Paludina
+vivipara</i> are represented. There is but very little food-material in
+the egg of this Pectinibranch, and consequently the diblastula forms
+by invagination; the blastopore or orifice of invagination coincides
+with the anus, and never closes entirely. A well-marked trochosphere
+is formed by the development of an equatorial ciliated band;
+and subsequently, by the disproportionate growth of the lower
+hemisphere, the trochosphere becomes a veliger. The primitive
+shell-sac or shell-gland is well marked at this stage, and the pharynx
+is seen as a new ingrowth (the stomodaeum), about to fuse with and
+open into the primitively invaginated arch-enteron (fig. 26, F).</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:401px; height:346px" src="images/img513b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;Animal and shell of <i>Phorus exutus</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Snout (not introversible).</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Cephalic tentacles.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Right eye.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>d</i>, Pro- and meso-podium; to the right of this is seen the metapodium
+bearing the sculptured operculum.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:450px; height:290px" src="images/img513c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;Animal and shell of <i>Rostellaria rectirostris</i>. (From
+Owen.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Snout or rostrum.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Cephalic tentacle.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Eye.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Propodium and mesopodium.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>e</i>, Metapodium.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Operculum.</p>
+<p><i>h&prime;</i>, Prolonged siphonal notch of the shell occupied by the siphon,
+or trough-like process of the mantle-skirt.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">In other Pectinibranchia (and such variations are representative
+for all Mollusca, and not characteristic only of Pectinibranchia) we
+find that there is a very unequal division of the egg-cell at the commencement
+of embryonic development, as in <i>Nassa</i>. Consequently
+there is, strictly speaking, no invagination (emboly), but an overgrowth
+(epiboly) of the smaller cells to enclose the larger. The
+general features of this process and of the relation of the blastopore
+to mouth and anus have been explained in treating of the development
+of Mollusca generally. In such cases the blastopore may
+entirely close, and both mouth and anus develop as new ingrowths
+(stomodaeum and proctodaeum), whilst, according to the observations
+of N. Bobretzky, the closed blastopore may coincide in
+position with the mouth in some instances (<i>Nassa</i>, &amp;c.), instead of
+with the anus. But in these epibolic forms, just as in the embolic
+<i>Paludina</i>, the embryo proceeds to develop its ciliated band and shell-gland,
+passing through the earlier condition of a trochosphere to
+that of the veliger. In the veliger stage many Pectinibranchia
+(<i>Purpura</i>, <i>Nassa</i>, &amp;c.) exhibit, in the dorsal region behind the head,
+a contractile area of the body-wall. This acts as a larval heart, but
+ceases to pulsate after a time. Similar rhythmically contractile
+areas are found on the foot of the embryo Pulmonate <i>Limax</i> and on
+the yolk-sac (distended foot-surface) of the Cephalopod <i>Loligo</i>.
+The preconchylian invagination or shell-gland is formed in the
+embryo behind the velum, on the surface opposite the blastopore.
+It is surrounded by a ridge of cells which gradually extends over the
+visceral sac and secretes the shell. In forms which are naked in the
+adult state, the shell falls off soon after the reduction of the velum,
+but in <i>Cenia</i>, <i>Runcina</i> and <i>Vaginula</i> the shell-gland and shell are not
+developed, and the young animal when hatched has already the
+naked form of the adult.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page514" id="page514"></a>514</span></p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:439px; height:699px" src="images/img514a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 26.&mdash;Development of the River-Snail, <i>Paludina vivipara</i>.
+(After Lankester, 17.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>dc</i>, Directive corpuscle (outcast cell).</p>
+<p><i>ae</i>, Arch-enteron or cavity lined by the enteric cell-layer or endoderm.</p>
+<p><i>bl</i>, Blastopore.</p>
+<p><i>vr</i>, Velum or circlet of ciliated cells.</p>
+<p><i>dv</i>, Velar area or cephalic dome.</p>
+<p><i>sm</i>, Site of the as yet unformed mouth.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>f</i>, Foot.</p>
+<p><i>mes</i>, Rudiments of the skeleto-trophic tissues.</p>
+<p><i>pi</i>, The pedicle of invagination, the future rectum.</p>
+<p><i>shgl</i>, The primitive shell-sac or shell-gland.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, Mouth.</p>
+<p><i>an</i>, Anus.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A, Diblastula phase (optical section).</p>
+
+<p>B, The diblastula has become a trochosphere by the development
+of the ciliated ring vr (optical section).</p>
+
+<p>C, Side view of the trochosphere with commencing formation of the
+foot.</p>
+
+<p>D, Further advanced trochosphere (optical section).</p>
+
+<p>E, The trochosphere passing to the veliger stage, dorsal view
+showing the formation of the primitive shell-sac.</p>
+
+<p>F, Side view of the same, showing foot, shell-sac (<i>shgl</i>), velum (<i>vr</i>),
+mouth and anus.</p>
+
+<p><i>N.B.</i>&mdash;In this development the blastopore is not elongated; it
+persists as the anus. The mouth and stomodaeum form independently
+of the blastopore.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2">One further feature of the development of the Pectinibranchia
+deserves special mention. Many Gastropoda deposit their eggs, after
+fertilization, enclosed in capsules; others, as <i>Paludina</i>, are viviparous;
+others, again, as the Zygobranchia, agree with the Lamellibranch
+Conchifera (the bivalves) in having simple exits for the ova
+without glandular walls, and therefore discharge their eggs unenclosed
+in capsules freely into the sea-water; such unencapsuled
+eggs are merely enclosed each in its own delicate chorion. When
+egg-capsules are formed they are often of large size, have tough
+walls, and in each capsule are several eggs floating in a viscid fluid.
+In some cases all the eggs in a capsule develop; in other cases one
+egg only in a capsule (<i>Neritina</i>), or a small proportion (<i>Purpura,
+Buccinum</i>), advance in development; the rest are arrested either
+after the first process of cell-division (cleavage) or before that process.
+The arrested embryos or eggs are then swallowed and digested by
+those in the same capsule which have advanced in development.
+This is clearly the same process in essence as that of the formation
+of a vitellogenous gland from part of the primitive ovary, or of the
+feeding of an ovarian egg by the absorption of neighbouring potential
+eggs; but here the period at which the sacrifice of one egg to another
+takes place is somewhat late. What it is that determines the arrest
+of some eggs and the progressive development of others in the same
+capsule is at present unknown.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:454px; height:366px" src="images/img514b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 27.&mdash;<i>Oxygyrus Keraudrenii</i>.
+(From Owen.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Mouth and odontophore.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Cephalic tentacles.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Eye.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Propodium (<i>B</i>) and mesopodium.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Metapodium.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Operculum.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Mantle-chamber.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, Ctenidium (gill-plume).</p>
+<p><i>k</i>, Retractor muscle of foot.</p>
+<p><i>l</i>, Optic tentacle.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, Stomach.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>n</i>, Dorsal surface overhung by the mantle-skirt; the letter is close to the salivary gland.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, Rectum and anus.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, Liver.</p>
+<p><i>q</i>, Renal organ (nephridium).</p>
+<p><i>s</i>, Ventricle.</p>
+<p><i>u</i>, The otocyst attached to the cerebral ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>w</i>, Testis.</p>
+<p><i>x</i>, Auricle of the heart.</p>
+<p><i>y</i>, Vesicle on genital duct.</p>
+<p><i>z</i>, Penis.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">In the tribe of Pectinibranchia called Heteropoda the foot takes
+the form of a swimming organ. The nervous system and sense
+organs are highly developed. The odontophore also is remarkably
+developed, its lateral teeth being mobile, and it serves as an efficient
+organ for attacking the other pelagic forms on which the Heteropoda
+prey. The sexes are distinct, as in all Streptoneura; and
+genital ducts and accessory glands and pouches are present, as in
+all Pectinibranchia. The Heteropoda exhibit a series of modifications
+in the form and proportions of the visceral mass and foot,
+leading from a condition readily comparable with that of a typical
+Pectinibranch such as <i>Rostellaria</i>, with the three regions of the foot
+strongly marked and a coiled visceral hump of the usual proportions,
+up to a condition in which the whole body is of a tapering cylindrical
+shape, the foot a plate-like vertical fin, and the visceral hump almost
+completely atrophied. Three steps of this modification may be
+distinguished as three families:&mdash;<i>Atlantidae</i>, <i>Carinariidae</i> and
+<i>Pterotrachaeidae</i>. They are true Pectinibranchia which have taken
+to a pelagic life, and the peculiarities of structure which they exhibit
+are strictly adaptations consequent upon their changed mode of
+life. Such adaptations are the transparency and colourlessness of
+the tissues, and the modifications of the foot, which still shows in
+<i>Atlanta</i> the form common in Pectinibranchia (compare fig. 27 and
+fig. 24). The cylindrical body of <i>Pterotrachaea</i> is paralleled by the
+slug-like forms of Euthyneura. J.W. Spengel has shown that the
+visceral loop of the Heteropoda is streptoneurous. Special to the
+Heteropoda is the high elaboration of the lingual ribbon, and, as an
+agreement with some of the opisthobranchiate Euthyneura, but as
+a difference from the Pectinibranchia, we find the otocysts closely
+attached to the cerebral ganglia. This is, however, less of a difference
+than it was at one time supposed to be, for it has been shown by
+H. Lacaze-Duthiers, and also by F. Leydig, that the otocysts of
+Pectinibranchia even when lying close upon the pedal ganglion (as
+in fig. 21) yet receive their special nerve (which can sometimes be
+readily isolated) from the cerebral ganglion (see fig. 11). Accordingly
+the difference is one of position of the otocyst and not of its
+nerve-supply. The Heteropoda are further remarkable for the high
+development of their cephalic eyes, and for the typical character
+of their osphradium (Spengel&rsquo;s olfactory organ). This is a groove,
+the edges of which are raised and ciliated, lying near the branchial
+plume in the genera which possess that organ, whilst in <i>Firoloida</i>,
+which has no branchial plume, the osphradium occupies a corresponding
+position. Beneath the ciliated groove is placed an elongated
+ganglion (olfactory ganglion) connected by a nerve to the supra-intestinal
+(therefore the primitively dextral) ganglion of the long
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page515" id="page515"></a>515</span>
+visceral nerve-loop, the strands of which cross one another&mdash;this
+being characteristic of Streptoneura (Spengel).</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:709px; height:409px" src="images/img515a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 28.&mdash;<i>Carinaria mediterranea</i>. (From Owen.)<br />
+A, The animal. B, The shell removed. C, D, Two views of the shell of <i>Cardiopoda</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Mouth and odontophore.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Cephalic tentacles.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Eye.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, The fin-like mesopodium.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>&rsquo;, Its sucker.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Metapodium.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Salivary glands.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Border of the mantle-flap.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, Ctenidium (gill-plume).</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, Stomach.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>n</i>, Intestine.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, Anus.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, Liver.</p>
+<p><i>t</i>, Aorta, springing from the ventricle.</p>
+<p><i>u</i>, Cerebral ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>v</i>, Pleural and pedal ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>w</i>, Testis.</p>
+<p><i>x</i>, Visceral ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>y</i>, Vesicula seminalis.</p>
+<p><i>z</i>, Penis.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The Heteropoda belong to the &ldquo;pelagic fauna&rdquo; occurring near
+the surface in the Mediterranean and great oceans in company with
+the Pteropoda, the Siphonophorous Hydrozoa, Salpae, Leptocephali,
+and other specially-modified transparent swimming representatives
+of various groups of the animal kingdom. In development they pass
+through the typical trochosphere and veliger stages provided with
+boat-like shell.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-order 1.&mdash;<span class="sc">Taenioglossa</span>. Radula with a median tooth and
+three teeth on each side of it. Formula 3 : 1 : 3.</p>
+
+<p>Tribe 1.&mdash;<span class="sc">Platypoda</span>. Normal Taenioglossa of creeping habit.
+The foot is flattened ventrally, at all events in its anterior part
+(<i>Strombidae</i>). Otocysts situated close to the pedal nerve-centres.
+Accessory organs are rarely found on the genital ducts, but occur
+in <i>Paludina, Cyclostoma, Naticidae, Calyptraeidae</i>, &amp;c. Mandibles
+usually present. This is the largest group of Mollusca, including
+nearly sixty families, some of which are insufficiently known from
+the anatomical point of view.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1.&mdash;<i>Paludinidae</i>. Pedal centres in the form of ganglionated
+cords; kidney provided with a ureter; viviparous; fluviatile.
+<i>Paludina</i>. <i>Neothauma</i>, from Lake Tanganyika. <i>Tylopoma</i>,
+extinct, Tertiary.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:429px; height:142px" src="images/img515b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 29</span>.&mdash;<i>Pterotrachea mutica</i> seen from the right side.
+(After Keferstein.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Pouch for reception of the snout when retracted.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Pericardium.</p>
+<p><i>ph</i>, Pharynx.</p>
+<p><i>oc</i>, Cephalic eye.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, Cerebral ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>g&rsquo;</i>, Pleuro-pedal ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>pr</i>, Foot (mesopodium).</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>v</i>, Stomach.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, Intestine.</p>
+<p><i>n</i>, So-called nucleus.</p>
+<p><i>br</i>, Branchial plume (ctenidium).</p>
+<p><i>w</i>, Osphradium.</p>
+<p><i>mt</i>, Foot (metapodium).</p>
+<p><i>z</i>, Caudal appendage.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p class="pt2">Fam. 2.&mdash;<i>Cyclophoridae</i>. No ctenidium, pallial cavity transformed
+into a lung; aperture of shell circular; terrestrial.
+<i>Pomatias</i>, shell turriculated. <i>Diplommatina</i>. <i>Hybocystis</i>. <i>Cyclophorus</i>,
+shell umbilicated, with a short spire and horny operculum.
+Cyclosurus, shell uncoiled. <i>Dermatocera</i>, foot with a
+horn-shaped protuberance at its posterior end. Spiraculum.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3.&mdash;<i>Ampullariidae</i>. To the left of the ctenidium a pulmonary
+sac, separated from it by an incomplete septum, amphibious.
+<i>Ampullaria</i>, shell dextral, coiled. <i>Lanistes</i>, shell
+sinistral, spire short or obsolete. <i>Meladomus.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 4.&mdash;<i>Littorinidae.</i> Oesophageal pouches present; pedal
+nerve-centres concentrated; a pedal penis near the right
+tentacle. <i>Littorina</i>, shell not umbilicated, littoral habit.
+<i>Lacuna</i>, foot with two posterior appendages, marine, entirely
+aquatic. <i>Cremnoconchus</i>, entirely
+aerial, Indian. <i>Risella. Tectarius.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 5.&mdash;<i>Fossaridae.</i> Head with two
+lobes in some Rhipidoglossa. <i>Fossaria.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 6.&mdash;<i>Purpurinidae</i>, extinct.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 7.&mdash;<i>Planaxidae.</i> Shell with
+pointed spire; a short pallial
+siphon. Planaxis.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 8.&mdash;<i>Cyclostomatidae.</i> Pallial
+cavity transformed into a lung;
+pedal centres concentrated; a deep
+pedal groove. <i>Cyclostoma</i>, shell
+turbinated, operculum calcareous,
+British. <i>Omphalotropis.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 9.&mdash;<i>Aciculidae.</i> Pallial cavity
+transformed into a lung; operculum
+horny; shell narrow and
+elongated. <i>Acicula.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 10.&mdash;<i>Valvatidae.</i> Ctenidium bipectinate,
+free; hermaphrodite;
+fluviatile. <i>Valvata</i>, British.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 11.&mdash;<i>Rissoidae.</i> Epipodial filaments
+present; one or two pallial
+tentacles. <i>Rissoa.</i> <i>Rissoina.</i> <i>Stiva.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 12.&mdash;<i>Litiopidae.</i> An epipodium
+bearing three pairs of tentacles and
+an operculigerous lobe with two
+appendages; inhabitants of the
+Sargasso weed. <i>Litiopa.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 13.&mdash;<i>Adeorbiidae.</i> Mantle with
+two posterior appendages; ctenidium
+large and capable of protrusion from
+pallial cavity. <i>Adeorbis</i>, British.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 14.&mdash;<i>Jeffreysiidae.</i> Head with
+two long labial palps; shell ovoid;
+operculum horny, semicircular, carinated.
+<i>Jeffreysia.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 15.&mdash;<i>Homalogyridae.</i> Shell flattened; no cephalic tentacles.
+<i>Homalogyra</i>, British. <i>Ammoniceras.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 16.&mdash;<i>Skeneidae.</i> Shell depressed, with rounded aperture;
+cephalic tentacles long. <i>Skenea</i>, British.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 17.&mdash;<i>Choristidae.</i> Shell spiral; four cephalic tentacles;
+eyes absent; two pedal appendages. <i>Choristes.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 18.&mdash;<i>Assimineidae.</i> Eyes at free extremities of tentacles.
+Assiminea, estuarine, British.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 19.&mdash;<i>Truncatellidae.</i> Snout very long, bilobed; foot short.
+<i>Truncatella.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:191px; height:176px" src="images/img515c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 30.</span>&mdash;<i>Valvata cristata</i>,
+Müll.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>o</i>, Mouth.</p>
+<p><i>op</i>, Operculum.</p>
+<p><i>br</i>, Ctenidium (branchial plume).</p>
+<p><i>x</i>, Filiform appendage (? rudimentary ctenidium).</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">The freely projecting ctenidium of typical form not having its axis fused
+to the roof of the branchial chamber is the notable character of this genus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 20.&mdash;<i>Hydrobiidae.</i> Shell with prominent spire; penis
+distant from right tentacle, generally
+appendiculated; brackish water or
+fluviatile. <i>Hydrobia</i>, British. <i>Baikalia</i>,
+from Lake Baikal. <i>Pomatiopsis.</i>
+<i>Bithynella.</i> <i>Lithoglyphus.</i> <i>Spekia</i>,
+viviparous, from Lake Tanganyika.
+<i>Tanganyicia.</i> <i>Limnotrochus</i>, from
+Lake Tanganyika. <i>Chytra.</i> <i>Littorinida.</i>
+<i>Bithynia</i>, British, fluviatile.
+<i>Stenothyra.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 21.&mdash;<i>Melaniidae.</i> Spire of shell
+somewhat elongated; mantle-border
+fringed; viviparous; fluviatile.
+<i>Melania.</i> <i>Faunus.</i> <i>Paludomus.</i>
+<i>Melanopsis.</i> <i>Nassopsis.</i> <i>Bythoceras</i>,
+from Lake Tanganyika.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 22.&mdash;<i>Typhobiidae.</i> Foot wide;
+shell turriculated, with carinated
+whorls, the carinae tuberculated or
+spiny. <i>Typhobia.</i> <i>Bathanalia</i>, from
+Lake Tanganyika.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 23.&mdash;<i>Pleuroceridae.</i> Like
+<i>Melaniidae</i>, but mantle-border not
+fringed and reproduction oviparous.
+<i>Pleurocera.</i> <i>Anculotus.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 24.&mdash;<i>Pseudomelaniidae.</i> All extinct.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 25.&mdash;<i>Subulitidae.</i> All extinct.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 26.&mdash;<i>Nerineidae.</i> All extinct.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 27.&mdash;<i>Cerithiidae.</i> Shell with numerous tuberculated whorls;
+aperture canaliculated anteriorly; short pallial siphon. <i>Cerithium.</i>
+<i>Bittium.</i> <i>Potamides.</i> <i>Triforis.</i> <i>Laeocochlis.</i> <i>Cerithiopsis.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 28.&mdash;<i>Modulidae.</i> Shell with short spire; no siphon.
+<i>Modulus.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page516" id="page516"></a>516</span></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 29.&mdash;<i>Vermetidae.</i> Animal fixed by the shell, the last whorls
+of which are not in contact with each other; foot small; two
+anterior pedal tentacles. <i>Vermetus.</i> <i>Siliquaria.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 30.&mdash;<i>Caecidae.</i> Shell almost completely uncoiled, in one
+plane, with internal septa. <i>Caecum</i>, British.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 31.&mdash;<i>Turritellidae.</i> Shell very long; head large; foot
+broad. <i>Turritella</i>, British. <i>Mesalia.</i> <i>Mathilda.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 32.&mdash;<i>Struthiolariidae.</i> Shell conical; aperture slightly
+canaliculated; siphon slightly developed. <i>Struthiolaria.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 33.&mdash;<i>Chenopodidae.</i> Shell elongated; aperture expanded;
+siphon very short.
+<i>Chenopus</i>, British.
+<i>Alaria</i>, <i>Spinigera</i>,
+<i>Diartema</i>, extinct.</p>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">Fam. 34.&mdash;<i>Strombidae.</i>
+Foot narrow, compressed,
+without sole.
+<i>Strombus.</i> <i>Pteroceras.</i>
+<i>Rostellaria.</i> <i>Terebellum.</i></p>
+</div>
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:303px; height:284px" src="images/img516a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.</span>&mdash;Shell of <i>Crucibulum</i>, seen
+from below so as to show the inner whorl
+<i>b</i>, concealed by the cap-like outer whorl <i>a</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:300px; height:152px" src="images/img516b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 32.</span>&mdash;Animal and shell of <i>Ovula</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>b</i>, Cephalic tentacles.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Foot.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Mantle-skirt, which is naturally carried in a reflected condition so as
+to cover the sides of the shell.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 35.&mdash;<i>Xenophoridae.</i>
+Foot transversely
+divided into
+two parts. <i>Xenophorus.</i>
+<i>Eotrochus</i>,
+Silurian.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 36.&mdash;<i>Capulidae.</i>
+Shell conical, not
+coiled, but slightly incurved
+posteriorly;
+a tongue-shaped projection
+between snout
+and foot. <i>Capulus.</i> <i>Thyca</i>, parasitic on asterids. <i>Platyceras</i>,
+extinct.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 37.&mdash;<i>Hipponycidae.</i> Shell conical; foot secreting a ventral
+calcareous plate; animal fixed. <i>Hipponyx.</i> <i>Mitrularia.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 38.&mdash;<i>Calyptraeidae.</i> Shell with short spire; lateral cervical
+lobes present; accessory genital glands. <i>Calyptraea</i>, British.
+<i>Crepidula.</i> <i>Crucibulum.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 39.&mdash;<i>Naricidae.</i> Foot divided into two, posterior half
+bearing the operculum; a wide epipodial velum; shell turbinated.
+Narica.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 40.&mdash;<i>Naticidae.</i> Foot large, with aquiferous system;
+propodium reflected over head; eyes degenerate; burrowing
+habit. <i>Natica</i>, British. <i>Amaura.</i> <i>Sigaretus.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 41.&mdash;<i>Lamellariidae.</i> Shell thin, more or less covered by the
+mantle; no operculum. <i>Lamellaria.</i> <i>Velutina.</i> <i>Marsenina</i>,
+<i>Oncidiopsis</i>, hermaphrodite.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 42.&mdash;<i>Trichotropidae.</i> Shell with short spire, carinate and
+pointed. <i>Trichotropis.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 43.&mdash;<i>Seguenziidae.</i> Shell trochiform, with canaliculated
+aperture and twisted columella. <i>Seguenzia</i>, abyssal.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 44.&mdash;<i>Janthinidae.</i> Shell thin; operculum absent; tentacles
+bifid; foot secretes a float; pelagic. <i>Janthina.</i> <i>Recluzia.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 45.&mdash;<i>Cypraeidae.</i> Shell inrolled, solid, polished, aperture
+very narrow in adult; short siphon; anus posterior; osphradium
+with three lobes; mantle reflected over shell. <i>Cypraea.</i>
+<i>Pustularia.</i> <i>Ovula.</i> <i>Pedicularia</i>, attached to corals. <i>Erato</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 46.&mdash;<i>Tritonidae.</i> Shell turriculated and siphonated, thick,
+each whorl with varices; foot broad and truncated anteriorly;
+pallial siphon well
+developed; proboscis
+present. <i>Triton.</i> <i>Persona.</i>
+<i>Ranella.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 47.&mdash;<i>Columbellinidae.</i>
+All extinct.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 48.&mdash;<i>Cassididae.</i>
+Shell ventricose, with
+elongated aperture,
+and short spire; proboscis
+and siphon
+long; operculum with
+marginal nucleus.
+<i>Cassis.</i> <i>Cassidaria.</i>
+<i>Oniscia.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 49&mdash;<i>Oocorythidae.</i>
+Shell globular and
+ventricose; aperture
+oval and canaliculated; operculum spiral. <i>Oocorys</i>, abyssal.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 50.&mdash;<i>Doliidae.</i> Shell ventricose, with short spire, and wide
+aperture; no varices and no operculum; foot very broad, with
+projecting anterior angles; siphon long. <i>Dolium.</i> <i>Pyrula.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 51.&mdash;<i>Solariidae.</i> <i>Solarium.</i> <i>Torinia.</i> <i>Fluxina.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 52.&mdash;<i>Scalariidae.</i> Shell turriculated, with elongated spire;
+proboscis short; siphon rudimentary. <i>Scalaria.</i> <i>Eglisia.</i>
+Crossea. Aclis.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">The three following families have neither radula nor jaws, and
+are therefore called <i>Aglossa</i>. They have a well-developed proboscis
+which is used as a suctorial organ; some are abyssal, but the majority
+are either commensals or parasites of Echinoderms.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:202px; height:418px" src="images/img516c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 33.</span>&mdash;Section of the
+shell of <i>Triton</i>, Cuv. (From Owen.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>a</i>, Apex.</p>
+<p><i>ac</i>, Siphonal notch of the mouth of the shell.</p>
+<p><i>ac</i> to <i>pc</i>, Mouth of the shell.</p>
+<p><i>w, w</i>, Whorls of the shell.</p>
+<p><i>s, s</i>. Sutures.</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Occupying the axis, and exposed by the section, is seen the &ldquo;columella&rdquo; or
+spiral pillar. The upper whorls of the shell are seen to be divided into separate
+chambers by the formation of successively formed &ldquo;septa.&rdquo;</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 53.&mdash;<i>Pyramidellidae.</i> Summit of spire heterostrophic; a
+projection, the mentum, between head and foot; operculum
+present. <i>Pyramidella.</i> <i>Turbonilla.</i>
+<i>Odostomia</i>, British. <i>Myxa.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 54.&mdash;<i>Eulimidae.</i> Visceral mass
+still coiled spirally; shell thin
+and shining. <i>Eulima</i>, foot well
+developed, with an operculum,
+animal usually free, but some live
+in the digestive cavity of Holothurians.
+<i>Mucronalia</i>, foot reduced,
+but still operculate, eyes
+present, animal fixed by its very
+long proboscis which is deeply
+buried in the tissues of an Echinoderm,
+no pseudopallium. <i>Stylifer</i>,
+the operculum is lost, animal fixed
+by a large proboscis which forms a
+pseudopallium covering the whole
+shell except the extremity of the
+spire, parasitic on all groups of
+Echinoderms. <i>Entosiphon</i>, visceral
+mass still coiled; shell much reduced,
+proboscis very long forming
+a pseudopallium which covers the
+whole body and projects beyond
+in the form of a siphon, foot and
+nervous system present, eyes,
+branchia and anus absent, parasite
+in the Holothurian <i>Deima
+blakei</i> in the Indian Ocean.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 55.&mdash;<i>Entoconchidae.</i> No shell;
+visceral mass not coiled; no
+sensory organs, nervous system,
+branchia or anus; body reduced
+to a more or less tubular sac;
+hermaphrodite and viviparous;
+parasitic in Holothurians; larvae
+are veligers, with shell and operculum.
+<i>Entocolax</i>, mouth at free
+extremity, animal fixed by aboral
+orifice of pseudopallium, Pacific.
+<i>Entoconcha</i>, body elongated and
+tubular, animal fixed by the oral
+extremity, protandric hermaphrodite,
+parasitic in testes of
+Holothurians causing their abortion.
+<i>Enteroxenos</i>, no pseudopallium
+and no intestine, hermaphrodite, larvae with operculum.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tribe 2.&mdash;<span class="sc">Heteropoda.</span> Pelagic Taenioglossa with foot large
+and laterally compressed to form a fin.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1. <i>Atlantidae.</i> Visceral sac and shell coiled in one plane;
+foot divided transversely into two parts, posterior part bearing
+an operculum, anterior part forming a fin provided with a
+sucker. <i>Atlanta.</i> <i>Oxygyrus.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2.&mdash;<i>Carinariidae.</i> Visceral sac and shell small in proportion to
+the rest of the body, which cannot be withdrawn into the shell;
+foot elongated, fin-shaped, with sucker, but without operculum.
+<i>Carinaria.</i> <i>Cardiopoda.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3.&mdash;<i>Pterotrachaeidae.</i> Visceral sac very much reduced;
+without shell or mantle; anus posterior; foot provided with
+sucker in male only. <i>Pterotrachaea.</i> <i>Firoloida.</i> <i>Pterosoma.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sub-order 2.&mdash;<span class="sc">Stenoglossa.</span> Radula narrow with one lateral
+tooth on each side, and one median tooth or none.</p>
+
+<p>Tribe 1.&mdash;<span class="sc">Rachiglossa.</span> Radula with a median tooth and a single
+tooth on each side of it. Formula 1 : 1 : 1. Rudimentary jaws
+present.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:431px; height:137px" src="images/img516d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 34.</span>&mdash;Female <i>Janthina</i>, with egg-float (<i>a</i>) attached to the foot;
+<i>b</i>, egg-capsules; <i>c</i>, ctenidium (gill-plume); <i>d</i>, cephalic tentacles.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1.&mdash;<i>Turbinellidae.</i> Shell solid, piriform, with thick folded
+columella; lateral teeth of radula bicuspidate. <i>Turbinella.</i>
+<i>Cynodonta.</i> <i>Fulgur.</i> <i>Hemifusus.</i> <i>Tudicla.</i> <i>Strepsidura.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2.&mdash;<i>Fasciolariidae.</i> Shell elongated, with long siphon;
+lateral teeth of radula multicuspidate. <i>Fasciolaria.</i> <i>Fusus.</i>
+<i>Clavella.</i> <i>Latirus.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3.&mdash;<i>Mitridae.</i> Shell fusiform and solid, aperture elongated,
+columella folded; no operculum; eyes on sides of tentacles.
+<i>Mitra.</i> <i>Turricula.</i> <i>Cylindromitra.</i> <i>Imbricaria.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 4.&mdash;<i>Buccinidae.</i> Foot large and broad; eyes at base of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page517" id="page517"></a>517</span>
+tentacles; operculum horny. <i>Buccinum.</i> <i>Chrysodomus.</i>
+<i>Liomesus.</i> <i>Cominella.</i> <i>Tritonidea.</i> <i>Pisania.</i> <i>Euthria.</i>
+<i>Phos.</i> <i>Dipsacus.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 5.&mdash;<i>Nassidae.</i> Foot broad, with two slender posterior
+appendages; operculum unguiculate. <i>Nassa</i>, marine, British.
+<i>Canidia</i>, fluviatile. <i>Bullia.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 6.&mdash;<i>Muricidae.</i> Shell with moderately long spire and canal,
+ornamented with ribs, often spiny; foot truncated anteriorly.
+<i>Murex</i>, British. <i>Trophon</i>, British. <i>Typhis.</i> <i>Urosalpinx.</i>
+<i>Lachesis.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 7.&mdash;<i>Purpuridae.</i> Shell thick, with short spire, last whorl
+large and canal short; aperture wide; operculum horny.
+<i>Purpura</i>, British. <i>Rapana.</i> <i>Monoceros.</i> <i>Sistrum.</i> <i>Concholepas.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 8.&mdash;<i>Haliidae.</i> Shell ventricose, thin and smooth, with wide
+aperture; foot large and thick, without operculum. <i>Halia.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 9.&mdash;<i>Cancellariidae.</i> Shell ovoid, with short spire and folded
+columella; foot small, no operculum; siphon short. <i>Cancellaria.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 10.&mdash;<i>Columbellidae.</i> Spire of shell prominent, aperture
+narrow, canal very short, columella crenelated; foot large.
+<i>Columbella.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 11.&mdash;<i>Coralliophilidae.</i> Shell irregular; radula absent;
+foot and siphon short; sedentary animals, living in corals.
+<i>Coralliophila.</i> <i>Rhizochilus.</i> <i>Leptoconchus.</i> <i>Magilus.</i> <i>Rapa.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 12.&mdash;<i>Volutidae.</i> Head much flattened and wide, with eyes
+on sides; foot broad; siphon with internal appendages.
+<i>Valuta.</i> <i>Guivillea.</i> <i>Cymba.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 13.&mdash;<i>Olividae.</i> Foot with anterior transverse groove; a
+posterior pallial tentacle; generally burrowing. <i>Olivia.</i>
+<i>Olivella.</i> <i>Ancillaria.</i> <i>Agaronia.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 14.&mdash;<i>Marginellidae.</i> Foot very large; mantle reflected over
+shell. <i>Marginella.</i> <i>Pseudomarginella.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 15.&mdash;<i>Harpidae.</i> Foot very large; without operculum;
+shell with short spire and longitudinal ribs; siphon long.
+<i>Harpa.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tribe 2.&mdash;<span class="sc">Toxiglossa.</span> No jaws. No median tooth in radula.
+Formula: 1 : 0 : 1. Poison-gland present whose duct traverses
+the nerve-collar.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1.&mdash;<i>Pleurotomatidae.</i> Shell fusiform, with elongated spire;
+margin of shell and mantle notched. <i>Pleurotoma.</i> <i>Clavatula.</i>
+<i>Mangilia.</i> <i>Bela.</i> <i>Pusionella.</i> <i>Pontiothauma.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2.&mdash;<i>Terebridae.</i> Shell turriculated, with numerous whorls;
+aperture and operculum oval; eyes at summits of tentacles;
+siphon long. <i>Terebra.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3.&mdash;<i>Conidae.</i> Shell conical, with very short spire, and
+narrow aperture with parallel borders; operculum unguiform
+<i>Conus.</i></p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">Sub-Class II.&mdash;<span class="sc">Euthyneura</span></p>
+
+<p>The most important general character of the Euthyneura
+is the absence of torsion in the visceral commissure, and the
+more posterior position of the anus and pallial organs. Comparative
+anatomy and embryology prove that this condition is due,
+not as formerly supposed to a difference in the relations of the
+visceral commissure which prevented it from being included in
+the torsion of the visceral hump, but to an actual detorsion which
+has taken place in evolution and is repeated to a great extent
+in individual development. In several of the more primitive
+forms the same torsion occurs as in Streptoneura, viz. in <i>Actaeon</i>
+and <i>Limacina</i> among Opisthobranchia, and <i>Chilina</i> among
+Pulmonata. <i>Actaeon</i> is proso-branchiate, the visceral commissure
+is twisted in <i>Actaeon</i> and <i>Chilina</i>, and even slightly still in <i>Bulla</i>
+and <i>Scaphander</i>; in <i>Actaeon</i> and <i>Limacina</i> the osphradium is
+to the left, innervated by the supra-intestinal ganglion. But
+in the other members of the sub-class the detorsion of the visceral
+mass has carried back the anus and circumanal complex from the
+anterior dorsal region to the right side, as in <i>Bulla</i> and <i>Aplysia</i>,
+or even to the posterior end of the body, as in <i>Philine</i>, <i>Oncidium</i>,
+<i>Doris</i>, &amp;c. Different degrees of the same process of detorsion are,
+as we have seen, exhibited by the Heteropoda among the Streptoneura,
+and both in them and in the Euthyneura the detorsion
+is associated with degeneration of the shell. Where the modification
+is carried to its extreme degree, not only the shell but the
+pallial cavity, ctenidium and visceral hump disappear, and the
+body acquires a simple elongated form and a secondary external
+symmetry, as in <i>Pterotrachaea</i> and in <i>Doris</i>, <i>Eolis</i>, and other
+Nudibranchia. These facts afford strong support to the hypothesis
+that the weight of the shell is the original cause of the
+torsion of the dorsal visceral mass in Gastropods. But this
+hypothesis leaves the elevation of the visceral mass and the
+exogastric coiling of the shell in the ancestral form unexplained.
+In those Euthyneura in which the shell is entirely absent in the
+adult, it is, except in the three genera <i>Cenia</i>, <i>Runcina</i> and
+<i>Vaginula</i>, developed in the larva and then falls off. In other
+cases (Tectibranchs) the reduced shell is enclosed by upgrowths
+of the edge of the mantle and becomes internal, as in many
+Cephalopods. A few Euthyneura in which the shell is not much
+reduced retain an operculum in the adult state, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Actaeon</i>,
+<i>Limacina</i>, and the marine Pulmonate, <i>Amphibola</i>. The detorted
+visceral commissure shows a tendency to the concentration
+of all its elements round the oesophagus, so that except in the
+Bullomorpha and in <i>Aplysia</i> the whole nervous system is aggregated
+in the cephalic region, either dorsally or ventrally. The
+radula has a number of uniform teeth on each side of the median
+tooth in each transverse row. The head in most cases bears
+two pairs of tentacles. All the Euthyneura are hermaphrodite.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:357px; height:117px" src="images/img517.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 35.</span>&mdash;<i>Acera bullata.</i> A single row of teeth of the Radula.
+(Formula, x.l.x.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the most primitive condition the genital duct is single
+throughout its length and has a single external aperture; it is
+therefore said to be monaulic. The hermaphrodite aperture is
+on the right side near the opening of the pallial cavity, and a
+ciliated groove conducts the spermatozoa to the penis, which is
+situated more anteriorly. This is the condition in the Bullomorpha,
+the Aplysiomorpha, and in one Pulmonate, <i>Pythia</i>.
+In some cases while the original aperture remains undivided,
+the seminal groove is closed and so converted into a canal.
+This is the modification found in <i>Cavolinia longirostris</i> among
+the Bullomorpha, and in all the <i>Auriculidae</i> except <i>Pythia</i>. A
+further degree of modification occurs when the male duct takes
+its origin from the hermaphrodite duct above the external
+opening, so that there are two distinct apertures, one male and
+one female, the latter being the original opening. The genital
+duct is now said to be diaulic, as in <i>Valvata</i>, <i>Oncidiopsis</i>, <i>Actaeon</i>,
+and <i>Lobiger</i> among the Bullomorpha, in the <i>Pleurobranchidae</i>,
+in the Nudibranchia, except the Doridomorpha and most of
+the Elysiomorpha, and in the Pulmonata. Originally in this
+condition the female aperture is at some distance from the male,
+as in the Basommatophora and in other cases; but in some
+forms the female aperture itself has shifted and come to be
+contiguous with the male opening and penis as in the Stylommatophora.
+In all these cases the female duct bears a bursa
+copulatrix or receptaculum seminis. In some forms this receptacle
+acquires a separate external opening remaining connected
+with the oviduct internally. There are thus two female openings,
+one for copulation, the other for oviposition, as well as a male
+opening. The genital duct is now trifurcated or triaulic, a
+condition which is confined to certain Nudibranchs, viz. the
+Doridomorpha and most of the Elysiomorpha.</p>
+
+<p>The Pteropoda, formerly regarded as a distinct class of the
+Mollusca, were interpreted by E.R. Lankester as a branch of
+the Cephalopoda, chiefly on account of the protrusible sucker-bearing
+processes at the anterior end of <i>Pneumonoderma</i>. These
+he considered to be homologous with the arms of Cephalopods.
+He fully recognized, however, the similarity of Pteropods to
+Gastropods in their general asymmetry and in the torsion of the
+visceral mass in <i>Limacinidae</i>. It is now understood that they
+are Euthyneurous Gastropods adapted to natatory locomotion
+and pelagic life. The sucker-bearing processes of <i>Pneumonoderma</i>
+are outgrowths of the proboscis. The fins of Pteropods
+are now interpreted as the expanded lateral margins of the foot,
+termed parapodia, not homologous with the siphon of Cephalopods
+which is formed from epipodia. The Thecosomatous Pteropoda
+are allied to <i>Bulla</i>, the Gymnosomatous forms to <i>Aplysia</i>. The
+Euthyneura comprises two orders, Opisthobranchia and Pulmonata.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page518" id="page518"></a>518</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:441px; height:341px" src="images/img518a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 36.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A, Veliger-larva of an Opisthobranch (<i>Polycera</i>). <i>f</i>, Foot; <i>op</i>,
+operculum; <i>mn</i>, anal papilla; <i>ry</i>, <i>dry</i>, two portions of unabsorbed
+nutritive yolk on either side of the intestine. The right otocyst is
+seen at the root of the foot.</p>
+
+<p>B, Trochosphere of an Opisthobranch (<i>Pleurobranchidium</i>)
+showing&mdash;<i>shgr</i>, the shell-gland or primitive shell-sac; <i>v</i>, the cilia of
+the velum; <i>ph</i>, the commencing stomodaeum or oral invagination;
+<i>ot</i>, the left otocyst; <i>pg</i>, red-coloured pigment spot.</p>
+
+<p>C, Diblastula of an Opisthobranch (<i>Polycera</i>) with elongated
+blastopore <i>oi</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(All from Lankester.)</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:301px; height:157px" src="images/img518b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"> <span class="sc">Fig. 37.</span>&mdash;<i>Phyllirhoë bucephala</i>, twice
+the natural size, a transparent pisciform
+pelagic Opisthobranch. The internal
+organs are shown as seen by transmitted
+light. (After W. Keferstein.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>a</i>, Mouth.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Radular sac.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Oesophagus.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Stomach.</p>
+<p><i>c&rsquo;</i>, Intestine.</p>
+<p><i>f&rsquo;</i>, Anus.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, <i>g&prime;</i>, <i>g&Prime;</i>, <i>g&Prime;&prime;</i>, The four lobes of the liver.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, The heart (auricle and ventricle).</p>
+<p><i>l</i>, The renal sac (nephridium).</p>
+<p><i>l&prime;</i>, The ciliated communication of the renal sac with the pericardium.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, The external opening of the renal sac.</p>
+<p><i>n</i>, The cerebral ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, The cephalic tentacles.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, The genital pore.</p>
+<p><i>y</i>, The ovo-testes.</p>
+<p><i>w</i>, The parasitic hydromedusa Mnestra, usually found attached in this
+position by the aboral pole of its umbrella.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Order 1.&mdash;<span class="sc">Opisthobranchia</span>. Marine Euthyneura, the more
+archaic forms of which have a relatively large foot and a small
+visceral hump, from the base of which projects on the right side a
+short mantle-skirt. The anus is placed in such forms far back beyond
+the mantle-skirt. In front of the anus, and only partially covered
+by the mantle-skirt, is the ctenidium with its free end turned backwards.
+The heart lies in front of, instead of to the side of, the attachment
+of the ctenidium&mdash;hence Opisthobranchia as opposed to
+&ldquo;Prosobranchia,&rdquo; which correspond to the Streptoneura. A shell
+is possessed in the adult state by but few Opisthobranchia, but all
+pass through a veliger larval stage with a nautiloid shell (fig. 36).
+Many Opisthobranchia have by a process of atrophy lost the typical
+ctenidium and the mantle-skirt,
+and have developed
+other organs in their place.
+As in some Pectinibranchia,
+the free margin of the
+mantle-skirt is frequently
+reflected over the shell
+when a shell exists; and,
+as in some Pectinibranchia,
+broad lateral outgrowths
+of the foot (parapodia) are
+often developed which may
+be thrown over the shell
+or naked dorsal surface of
+the body.</p>
+
+<p>The variety of special
+developments of structure
+accompanying the atrophy
+of typical organs in the
+Opisthobranchia and
+general degeneration of
+organization is very great.
+The members of the order
+present the same wide
+range of superficial appearance
+as do the Pectinibranchiate
+Streptoneura,
+forms carrying well-developed
+spiral shells and
+large mantle-skirts being
+included in the group,
+together with flattened or
+cylindrical slug-like forms.
+But in respect of the substitution
+of other parts for
+the mantle-skirt and for
+the gill which the more degenerate Opisthobranchia exhibit, this order
+stands alone. Some Opisthobranchia are striking examples of degeneration
+(some Nudibranchia), having none of those regions or
+processes of the body developed which distinguish the archaic
+Mollusca from such flat-worms as the Dendrocoel Planarians. Indeed,
+were it not for their retention of the characteristic odontophore
+we should have little or no indication that such forms as
+<i>Phyllirhoë</i> and <i>Limapontia</i> really belong to the Mollusca at all.
+The interesting little <i>Rhodope veranyii</i>, which has no odontophore,
+has been associated by systematists both with these simplified
+Opisthobranchs and with Rhabdocoel Planarians.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:444px; height:382px" src="images/img518c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 38.</span>&mdash;Three views of <i>Aplysia sp.</i>, in various conditions of
+expansion and retraction. (After Cuvier.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>t</i>, Anterior cephalic tentacles.</p>
+<p><i>t²</i>, Posterior cephalic tentacles.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Eyes.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Metapodium.</p>
+<p><i>ep</i>, Epipodium.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>g</i>, Gill-plume (ctenidium).</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, Mantle-flap reflected over the thin oval shell.</p>
+<p><i>os</i>, <i>s</i>, Orifice formed by the unclosed border of the reflected
+mantle-skirt, allowing the shell to show.</p>
+<p><i>pe</i>, The spermatic groove.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:321px; height:398px" src="images/img519a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 39.&mdash;<i>Aplysia leporina</i> (<i>camelus</i>,
+Cuv.), with epipodia and mantle reflected
+away from the mid-line. (Lankester.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>a</i>, Anterior cephalic tentacle.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Posterior cephalic tentacle; between <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, the eyes.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Right epipodium.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Left epipodium.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Hinder part of visceral hump.</p>
+<p><i>fp</i>, Posterior extremity of the foot.</p>
+<p><i>fa</i>, Anterior part of the foot underlying the head.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, The ctenidium (branchial plume).</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, The mantle-skirt tightly spread over the horny shell and pushed with it towards the left side.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, The spermatic groove.</p>
+<p><i>k</i>, The common genital pore (male and female).</p>
+<p><i>l</i>, Orifice of the grape-shaped (supposed poisonous) gland.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, The osphradium (olfactory organ of Spengel).</p>
+<p><i>n</i>, Outline of part of the renal sac (nephridium) below the surface.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, External aperture of the nephridium.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, Anus.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">In many respects the sea-hare (<i>Aplysia</i>), of which several species
+are known (some occurring on the English coast), serves as a convenient
+example of the fullest development of the organization
+characteristic of Opisthobranchia. The woodcut (fig. 38) gives a
+faithful representation of the great mobility of the various parts
+of the body. The head is well marked and joined to the body by a
+somewhat constricted neck. It carries two pairs of cephalic tentacles
+and a pair of sessile eyes. The visceral hump is low and not drawn
+out into a spire. The foot is long, carrying the oblong visceral mass
+upon it, and projecting (as metapodium) a little beyond it (<i>f</i>). Laterally
+the foot gives rise to a pair of mobile fleshy lobes, the parapodia
+(<i>ep</i>), which can be thrown up so as to cover in the dorsal surface of
+the animal. Such parapodia are common, though by no means
+universal, among Opisthobranchia. The torsion of the visceral
+hump is not carried out very fully, the consequence being that the
+anus has a posterior position a little to the right of the median line
+above the metapodium, whilst the branchial chamber formed by the
+overhanging mantle-skirt faces the right side of the body instead of
+lying well to the front as in Streptoneura and as in Pulmonate Euthyneura.
+The gill-plume, which in <i>Aplysia</i> is the typical Molluscan ctenidium,
+is seen in fig. 39 projecting from the branchial sub-pallial space.
+The relation of the delicate shell to the mantle is peculiar, since it
+occupies an oval area upon the visceral hump, the extent of which
+is indicated in fig. 38, C, but may be better understood by a glance
+at the figures of the allied genus <i>Umbrella</i> (fig. 40), in which the
+margin of the mantle-skirt coincides, just as it does in the limpet,
+with the margin of the shell. But in <i>Aplysia</i> the mantle is reflected
+over the edge of the shell, and grows over its upper surface so as to
+completely enclose it, excepting at the small central area <i>s</i> where
+the naked shell is exposed. This enclosure of the shell is a permanent
+development of the arrangement seen in many Streptoneura (<i>e.g.</i>
+<i>Pyrula</i>, <i>Ovula</i>, see figs. 18 and 32), where the border of the mantle
+can be, and usually is, drawn over the shell, though it is withdrawn
+(as it cannot be in <i>Aplysia</i>) when they are irritated. From the fact
+that <i>Aplysia</i> commences its life as a free-swimming veliger with a
+nautiloid shell not enclosed in any way by the border of the mantle,
+it is clear that the enclosure of the shell in the adult is a secondary
+process. Accordingly, the shell of <i>Aplysia</i> must not be confounded
+with a primitive shell in its shell-sac, such as we find realized in the
+shells of <i>Chiton</i> and in the plugs which form in the remarkable
+transitory &ldquo;shell-sac&rdquo; or &ldquo;shell-gland&rdquo; of Molluscan embryos (see
+figs. 26, 60). <i>Aplysia</i>, like other Mollusca, develops a primitive shell-sac
+in its trochosphere stage of development, which disappears and
+is succeeded by a nautiloid shell (fig. 36). This forms the nucleus
+of the adult shell, and, as the animal grows, becomes enclosed by a
+reflection of the mantle-skirt. When the shell of an <i>Aplysia</i> enclosed
+in its mantle is pushed well to the left, the sub-pallial space is fully
+exposed as in fig. 39, and the various apertures of the body are seen.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page519" id="page519"></a>519</span>
+Posteriorly we have the anus, in front of this the lobate gill-plume,
+between the two (hence corresponding in position to that of the
+Pectinibranchia) we have the aperture of the renal organ. In front,
+near the anterior attachment of the gill-plume, is the osphradium
+(olfactory organ) discovered
+by J.W.
+Spengel, yellowish in
+colour, in the typical
+position, and overlying
+an olfactory ganglion
+with typical nerve-connexion
+(see fig. 43). To
+the right of Spengel&rsquo;s
+osphradium is the opening
+of a peculiar gland
+which has, when dissected
+out, the form of
+a bunch of grapes; its
+secretion is said to be
+poisonous. On the
+under side of the free
+edge of the mantle are
+situated the numerous
+small cutaneous glands
+which, in the large
+<i>Aplysia camelus</i> (not
+in other species), form
+the purple secretion
+which was known to
+the ancients. In front
+of the osphradium is
+the single genital pore,
+the aperture of the common
+or hermaphrodite
+duct. From this point
+there passes forward to
+the right side of the
+head a groove&mdash;the
+spermatic groove&mdash;down
+which the spermatic
+fluid passes. In
+other Euthyneura this
+groove may close up
+and form a canal. At
+its termination by the
+side of the head is the
+muscular introverted
+penis. In the hinder
+part of the foot (not
+shown in any of the
+diagrams) is the opening
+of a large mucus-forming
+gland very
+often found in the
+Molluscan foot.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to internal
+organization we
+may commence with
+the disposition of the
+renal organ (nephridium), the external opening of which has already
+been noted. The position of this opening and other features of the
+renal organ were determined by J.T. Cunningham.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:353px; height:177px" src="images/img519b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 40.&mdash;<i>Umbrella mediterranea</i>. <i>a</i>, mouth; <i>b</i>, cephalic tentacle;
+<i>h</i>, gill (ctenidium). The free edge of the mantle is seen just below
+the margin of the shell (compare with <i>Aplysia</i>, fig. 39). (From
+Owen.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>There is considerable uncertainty with respect to the names of
+the species of <i>Aplysia</i>. There are two forms which are very common
+in the Gulf of Naples. One is quite black in colour, and measures when
+outstretched 8 or 9 in. in length. The other is light brown and somewhat
+smaller, its length usually not exceeding 7 in. The first is
+flaccid and sluggish in its movements, and has not much power of
+contraction; its epipodial lobes are enormously developed and extend
+far forward along the body; it gives out when handled an abundance
+of purple liquid, which is derived from cutaneous glands situated
+on the under side of the free edge of the mantle. According to F.
+Blochmann it is identical with <i>A. camelus</i> of Cuvier. The other
+species is <i>A. depilans</i>; it is firm to the touch, and contracts forcibly
+when irritated; the secretion of the mantle-glands is not abundant,
+and is milky white in appearance. The kidney has similar relations
+in both species, and is identical with the organ spoken of by many
+authors as the triangular gland. Its superficial extent is seen when
+the folds covering the shell are cut away and the shell removed; the
+external surface forms a triangle with its base bordering the pericardium,
+and its apex directed posteriorly and reaching the the left-hand
+posterior corner of the shell-chamber. The dorsal surface of
+the kidney extends to the left beyond the shell-chamber beneath the
+skin in the space between the shell-chamber and the left parapodium.</p>
+
+<p>When the animal is turned on its left-hand side and the mantle-chamber
+widely opened, the gill being turned over to the left, a
+part of the kidney is seen beneath the skin between the attachment
+of the gill and the right parapodium (fig. 39). On examination
+this is found to be the under surface of the posterior limb of the
+gland, the upper surface of which has just been described as lying
+beneath the shell. In the posterior third of this portion, close to
+that edge which is adjacent to the base of the gill, is the external
+opening (fig. 39, <i>o</i>).</p>
+
+<p>When the pericardium is cut open from above in an animal
+otherwise entire, the anterior face of the kidney is seen forming
+the posterior wall of the pericardial chamber; on the deep edge of
+this face, a little to the left of the attachment of the auricle to the
+floor of the pericardium, is seen a depression; this depression contains
+the opening from the pericardium into the kidney.</p>
+
+<p>To complete the account of the relations of the organ: the right
+anterior corner can be seen superficially in the wall of the mantle-chamber
+above the gill. Thus the base of the gill passes in a slanting
+direction across the right-hand side of the kidney, the posterior
+end being dorsal to the apex of the gland, and the anterior end
+ventral to the right-hand corner.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:184px; height:340px" src="images/img519c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 41.</span>&mdash;Gonad, and
+accessory glands and ducts of <i>Aplysia</i>. (Lankester.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>i</i>, Ovo-testis.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Hermaphrodite duct.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, Albuminiparous gland.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Vesicula seminalis.</p>
+<p><i>k</i>, Opening of the albuminiparous gland into the hermaphrodite duct.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Hermaphrodite duct (uterine portion).</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Vaginal portion of the uterine duct.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Spermatheca.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Its duct.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Genital pore.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>As so great a part of the whole surface of the kidney lies adjacent
+to external surfaces of the body, the remaining part which faces
+the internal organs is small; it consists of the left part of the under
+surface; it is level with the floor of the pericardium, and lies over
+the globular mass formed by the liver and convoluted intestine.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the renal organ of <i>Aplysia</i> is shown to conform to the
+Molluscan type. The heart lying within the adjacent pericardium
+has the usual form, a single auricle and
+ventricle. The vascular system is not
+extensive, the arteries soon ending in the
+well-marked spongy tissue which builds
+up the muscular foot, parapodia, and
+dorsal body-wall.</p>
+
+<p>The alimentary canal commences with
+the usual buccal mass; the lips are cartilaginous,
+but not armed with horny
+jaws, though these are common in other
+Opisthobranchs; the lingual ribbon is
+multidenticulate, and a pair of salivary
+glands pour in their secretion. The oesophagus
+expands into a curious gizzard,
+which is armed internally with large
+horny processes, some broad and thick,
+others spinous, fitted to act as crushing
+instruments. From this we pass to a
+stomach and a coil of intestine embedded
+in the lobes of a voluminous liver; a
+caecum of large size is given off near the
+commencement of the intestine. The liver
+opens by two ducts into the digestive
+tract.</p>
+
+<p>The generative organs lie close to the
+coil of intestine and liver, a little to the
+left side. When dissected out they appear
+as represented in fig. 41. The
+essential reproductive organ or gonad
+consists of both ovarian and testicular
+cells (see fig. 42). It is an ovo-testis.
+From it passes a common or hermaphrodite
+duct, which very soon becomes
+entwined in the spire of a gland&mdash;the
+albuminiparous gland. The latter opens
+into the common duct at the point <i>k</i>,
+and here also is a small diverticulum of
+the duct <i>f</i>. Passing on, we find not
+far from the genital pore a glandular
+spherical body (the spermatheca <i>c</i>) opening
+by means of a longish duct into
+the common duct, and then we reach
+the pore (fig. 39, <i>k</i>). Here the female apparatus terminates. But
+when the male secretion of the ovo-testis is active, the seminal
+fluid passes from the genital pore along the spermatic groove (fig. 39)
+to the penis, and is by the aid of that eversible muscular organ introduced
+into the genital pore of a second <i>Aplysia</i>, whence it passes
+into the spermatheca, there to await the activity of the female
+element of the ovo-testis of this second <i>Aplysia</i>. After an interval
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520"></a>520</span>
+of some days&mdash;possibly weeks&mdash;the ova of the second <i>Aplysia</i>
+commence to descend the hermaphrodite duct; they become enclosed
+in a viscid secretion at the point where the albuminiparous
+gland opens into the duct intertwined with it; and on reaching the
+point where the spermathecal duct debouches they are impregnated
+by the spermatozoa which escape now
+from the spermatheca and meet the ova.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:374px; height:235px" src="images/img520a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 42.</span>&mdash;Follicles of the hermaphrodite gonads of Euthyneurous
+Gastropods. <i>A</i>, of <i>Helix</i>; <i>B</i>, of <i>Eolis</i>; <i>a</i>, ova; <i>b</i>, developing
+spermatozoa; <i>c</i>, common efferent duct.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:122px; height:513px" src="images/img520b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 43.</span>&mdash;Nervous system of <i>Aplysia</i>, as
+a type of the long-looped Euthyneurous condition. The untwisted visceral loop
+is lightly shaded. (After Spengel.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>ce</i>, Cerebral ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>pl</i>, Pleural ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>pe</i>, Pedal ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>ab. sp</i>, Abdominal ganglion which represents also the supra-intestinal ganglion of Streptoneura
+and gives off the nerve to the osphradium (olfactory organ) <i>o</i>, and another to an unlettered so-called
+&ldquo;genital&rdquo; ganglion. The buccal nerves and ganglia are omitted.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The development of <i>Aplysia</i> from the
+egg presents many points of interest from
+the point of view of comparative embryology,
+but in relation to the morphology
+of the Opisthobranchia it is sufficient to
+point to the occurrence of a trochosphere
+and a veliger stage (fig. 36), and of a
+shell-gland or primitive shell-sac (fig. 36,
+<i>shgr</i>), which is succeeded by a nautiloid
+shell.</p>
+
+<p>In the nervous system of <i>Aplysia</i> the
+great ganglion-pairs are well developed and
+distinct. The euthyneurous visceral loop
+is long, and presents only one ganglion (in
+<i>Aplysia camelus</i>, but two distinct ganglia
+joined to one another in <i>Aplysia hybrida</i>
+of the English coast), placed at its extreme
+limit, representing both the right and left
+visceral ganglia and the third or abdominal
+ganglion, which are so often separately
+present. The diagram (fig. 43) shows the
+nerve connecting this abdomino-visceral
+ganglion with the olfactory ganglion of
+Spengel. It is also seen to be connected
+with a more remote ganglion&mdash;the genital.
+Such special irregularities in the development
+of ganglia upon the visceral loop,
+and on one or more of the main nerves
+connected with it, are very frequent. Our
+figure of the nervous system of <i>Aplysia</i>
+does not give the small pair of buccal
+ganglia which are, as in all glossophorous
+Molluscs, present upon the nerves passing
+from the cerebral region to the odontophore.</p>
+
+<p>For a comparison of various Opisthobranchs,
+<i>Aplysia</i> will be found to present
+a convenient starting-point. It is one of
+the more typical Opisthobranchs, that is
+to say, it belongs to the section Tectibranchia,
+but other members of the suborder,
+namely, <i>Bulla</i> and <i>Actaeon</i> (figs. 44
+and 45), are less abnormal than <i>Aplysia</i>
+in regard to their shells and the form of the
+visceral hump. They have naked spirally
+twisted shells which may be concealed from
+view in the living animal by the expansion
+and reflection of the parapodia, but are not
+enclosed by the mantle, whilst <i>Actaeon</i> is
+remarkable for possessing an operculum
+like that of so many Streptoneura.</p>
+
+<p>The great development of the parapodia
+seen in <i>Aplysia</i> is usual in Tectibranchiate
+Opisthobranchs. The whole surface of the
+body becomes greatly modified in those
+Nudibranchiate forms which have lost, not
+only the shell, but also the ctenidium. Many
+of these have peculiar processes developed
+on the dorsal surface (fig. 46, A, B), or
+retain purely negative characters (fig. 46,
+D). The chief modification of internal
+organization presented by these forms, as compared with <i>Aplysia</i>,
+is found in the condition of the alimentary canal. The liver is no
+longer a compact organ opening by a pair of ducts into the median
+digestive tract, but we find very numerous hepatic diverticula on a
+shortened axial tract (fig. 47). These diverticula extend usually one
+into each of the dorsal papillae or &ldquo;cerata&rdquo; when these are present.
+They are not merely digestive glands, but are sufficiently wide to act
+as receptacles of food, and in them the digestion of food proceeds just
+as in the axial portion of the canal. A precisely similar modification
+of the liver or great digestive gland is found in the scorpions, where
+the axial portion of the digestive canal is short and straight, and the
+lateral ducts sufficiently wide to admit food into the ramifications
+of the gland there to be digested; whilst in the spiders the gland is
+reduced to a series of simple caeca.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:445px; height:198px" src="images/img520c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 44.&mdash;<i>Bulla vexillum</i> (Chemnitz), as seen crawling. <i>á</i>, oral
+hood (compare with Tethys, fig. 46, B), possibly a continuation of
+the epipodia; <i>b, b&prime;</i>, cephalic tentacles. (From Owen.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The typical character is retained by the heart, pericardium, and
+the communicating nephridium or renal organ in all Opisthobranchs.
+An interesting example of this is furnished by the fish-like transparent
+<i>Phyllirhoë</i> (fig. 37), in which it is possible most satisfactorily
+to study in the living animal, by means of the microscope, the course
+of the blood-stream, and also the reno-pericardial communication.
+In many of the Nudibranchiate Opisthobranchs the nervous system
+presents a concentration of the ganglia (fig. 48), contrasting greatly
+with what we have seen in <i>Aplysia</i>. Not only are the pleural ganglia
+fused to the cerebral, but also the visceral to these (see in further
+illustration the condition attained by the Pulmonate <i>Limnaeus</i>,
+fig. 59), and the visceral loop is astonishingly short and insignificant
+(fig. 48, <i>e&prime;</i>). That the parts are rightly thus identified is probable
+from J.W. Spengel&rsquo;s observation of the osphradium and its nerve-supply
+in these forms; the nerve to that organ, which is placed
+somewhat anteriorly&mdash;on the dorsal surface&mdash;being given off from
+the hinder part (visceral) of the right compound ganglion&mdash;the
+fellow to that marked A in fig. 48. The Eolid-like Nudibranchs,
+amongst other specialities of structure, possess (in some cases at any
+rate) apertures at the apices of the &ldquo;cerata&rdquo; or dorsal papillae,
+which lead from the exterior into the hepatic caeca. Some amongst
+them (<i>Tergipes, Eolis</i>) are also remarkable for possessing peculiarly
+modified cells placed in sacs (cnidosacs) at the apices of these same
+papillae, which resemble the &ldquo;thread-cells&rdquo; of the Coelentera.
+According to T.S. Wright and J.H. Grosvenor these nematocysts
+are derived from the hydroids on which the animals feed.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:199px; height:127px" src="images/img520d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 45.&mdash;<i>Actaeon. h</i>, shell; <i>b</i>, oral hood; <i>d</i>, foot;
+<i>f</i>, operculum.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The development of many Opisthobranchia has been examined&mdash;<i>e.g.</i>
+<i>Aplysia, Pleurobranchidium, Elysia, Polycera, Doris, Tergipes</i>.
+All pass through trochosphere and veliger stages, and in all a nautiloid
+or boat-like shell is developed, preceded by a well-marked
+&ldquo;shell-gland&rdquo; (see fig. 36). The transition from the free-swimming
+veliger larva with its nautiloid shell
+(fig. 36) to the adult form has not
+been properly observed, and many
+interesting points as to the true nature
+of folds (whether parapodia or mantle
+or velum) have yet to be cleared up
+by a knowledge of such development
+in forms like <i>Tethys, Doris, Phyllidia</i>,
+&amp;c. As in other Molluscan groups,
+we find even in closely-allied genera
+(for instance, in <i>Aplysia</i> and <i>Pleurobranchidium</i>,
+and other genera), the
+greatest differences as to the <i>amount</i>
+of food-material by which the egg-shell is encumbered. Some
+form their diblastula by emboly, others by epiboly; and in the
+later history of the further development of the enclosed cells (arch-enteron)
+very marked variations occur in closely-allied forms, due
+to the influence of a greater or less abundance of food-material
+mixed with the protoplasm of the egg.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-order 1.&mdash;<span class="sc">Tectibranchia</span>. Opisthobranchs provided in the
+adult state with a shell and a mantle, except <i>Runcina, Pleurobranchaea,
+Cymbuliidae</i>, and some Aplysiomorpha. There is a
+ctenidium, except in some Thecosomata and Gymnosomata, and an
+osphradium.</p>
+
+<p>Tribe 1.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bullomorpha</span>. The shell is usually well developed,
+except in <i>Runcina</i> and <i>Cymbuliidae</i>, and may be external or internal.
+No operculum, except in <i>Actaeonidae</i> and <i>Limacinidae</i>. The pallial
+cavity is always well developed, and contains the ctenidium, at least
+in part; ctenidium, except in <i>Lophocercidae</i>, of folded type. With
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521"></a>521</span>
+the exception of the <i>Aplustridae</i>, <i>Lophocercidae</i> and <i>Thecosomata</i>,
+the head is devoid of tentacles, and its dorsal surface forms a digging
+disk or shield. The edges of the foot form parapodia, often transformed
+into fins. Posteriorly the mantle forms a large pallial lobe
+under the pallial aperture. Stomach generally provided with
+chitinous or calcified masticatory plates. Visceral commissure fairly
+long, except in <i>Runcina, Lobiger</i> and <i>Thecosomata</i>. Hermaphrodite
+genital aperture, connected with the penis by a ciliated
+groove, except in <i>Actaeon, Lobiger</i> and <i>Cavolinia longirostris</i>, in
+which the spermiduct is a closed tube. Animals either swim or
+burrow.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:422px; height:497px" src="images/img521a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 46.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="2">A, <i>Eolis papillosa</i> (Lin.), dorsal view.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, Posterior and anterior cephalic tentacles.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>c</i>, The dorsal &ldquo;cerata.&rdquo;</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="2">B, <i>Tethys leporina</i>, dorsal view.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>  <i>a</i>, The cephalic hood.</p>
+<p>  <i>b</i>, Cephalic tentacles.</p>
+<p>  <i>c</i>, Neck.</p>
+<p>  <i>d</i>, Genital pore.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>  <i>e</i>, Anus.</p>
+<p>  <i>f</i>, Large cerata.</p>
+<p>  <i>g</i>, Smaller cerata.</p>
+<p>  <i>h</i>, Margin of the foot.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="2">C, <i>Doris</i> (<i>Actinocyclus</i>) <i>tuberculatus</i> (Cuv.), seen from the pedal
+surface.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>  <i>m</i>, Mouth.</p>
+<p>  <i>b</i>, Margin of the head.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>  <i>f</i>, Sole of the foot.</p>
+<p><i>sp</i>, The mantle-like epipodium.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="2">D, E, Dorsal and lateral view of <i>Elysia</i> (<i>Actaeon</i>) <i>viridis</i>.
+<i>ep</i>, epipodial outgrowths. (After Keferstein.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"><tr><td>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:207px; height:391px" src="images/img521b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 47.&mdash;Enteric Canal of <i>Eolis papillosa</i>. (From
+Gegenbaur, after Alder and Hancock.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>ph</i>, Pharynx.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, Midgut, with its hepatic appendages <i>h</i>, all of which are not figured.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Hind gut.</p>
+<p><i>an</i>, Anus.</p></td></tr></table></td>
+
+<td><table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:250px; height:215px" src="images/img521c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 48.&mdash;Central Nervous System of
+<i>Fiona</i> (one of the Nudibranchia), showing a tendency
+to fusion of the great ganglia. (From Gegenbaur,
+after Bergh.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>A</i>, Cerebral, pleural and visceral ganglia united.</p>
+<p><i>B</i>, Pedal ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>C</i>, Buccal ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>D</i>, Oesophageal ganglion connected with, the Buccal.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Nerve to superior cephalic tentacle.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Nerves to inferior cephalic tentacles.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Nerve to generative organs.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Pedal nerve.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Pedal commissure.</p>
+<p><i>e&prime;</i>, Visceral loop or commissure (?).</p></td></tr></table>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:265px; height:263px" src="images/img521d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 49.&mdash;<i>Cavolinia tridentata</i>, Forsk.
+from the Mediterranean, magnified two
+diameters. (From Owen.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>a</i>, Mouth.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Pair of cephalic tentacles.</p>
+<p><i>C, C</i>, Pteropodial lobes of the foot.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Median web connecting these.</p>
+<p><i>e, e</i>, Processes of the mantle-skirt reflected over the surface of the shell.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, The shell enclosing the visceral hump.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>. The median spine of the shell.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:225px; height:126px" src="images/img521e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 50.&mdash;Shell of <i>Cavolinia
+tridentata</i>, seen from the side.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>f</i>, Postero-dorsal surface.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, Antero-ventral surface.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Median dorsal spine.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, Mouth of the shell.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1.&mdash;<i>Actaeonidae.</i> Cephalic shield bifid posteriorly; margins
+of foot slightly developed; genital duct diaulic; visceral commissure
+streptoneurous;
+shell thick, with
+prominent spire and
+elongated aperture; a
+horny operculum.
+<i>Actaeon</i>, British. <i>Solidula.
+Tornatellaea</i>, extinct.
+<i>Adelactaeon.
+Bullina. Bullinula.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2.&mdash;<i>Ringiculidae.</i>
+Cephalic disk enlarged
+anteriorly, forming an
+open tube posteriorly;
+shell external, thick,
+with prominent spire;
+no operculum. <i>Ringicula.
+Pugnus.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3.&mdash;<i>Tornatinidae.</i>
+Margins of foot not
+prominent; no radula;
+shell external, with
+inconspicuous spire.
+<i>Tornatina</i>, British. <i>Retusa.
+Volvula.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 4.&mdash;<i>Scaphandridae.</i>
+Cephalic shield short,
+truncated posteriorly;
+eyes deeply embedded;
+three calcareous stomachal
+plates; shell external,
+with reduced
+spire. <i>Scaphander</i>,
+British. <i>Atys. Smaragdinella. Cylichna</i>, British. <i>Amphisphyra</i>,
+British.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 5.&mdash;<i>Bullidae.</i> Margins of foot well developed; eyes superficial;
+three chitinous stomachal plates; shell external, with
+reduced spire. Bulla, British. <i>Haminea</i>, British.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 6.&mdash;<i>Aceratidae.</i> Cephalic shield continuous with neck;
+twelve to fourteen stomachal plates; a posterior pallial filament
+passing through a notch in shell. <i>Acera</i>, British. <i>Cylindrobulla.
+Volutella.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 7.&mdash;<i>Aplustridae.</i> Foot very broad; cephalic shield with
+four tentacles; shell external, thin, without prominent spire.
+<i>Aplustrum. Hydatina. Micromelo.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 8.&mdash;<i>Philinidae.</i> Cephalic shield broad, thick and simple;
+shell wholly internal, thin, spire much reduced, aperture
+very large. <i>Philine</i>, British. <i>Cryptophthalmus. Chelinodura.
+Phanerophthalmus. Colpodaspis</i>, British. <i>Colobocephalus.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 9.&mdash;<i>Doridiidae.</i> Cephalic shield ending posteriorly in a
+median point; shell internal, largely membranous; no radula
+or stomachal plates. <i>Doridium. Navarchus.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 10.&mdash;<i>Gastropteridae.</i> Cephalic shield pointed behind; shell
+internal, chiefly membranous, with calcified nucleus, nautiloid;
+parapodia forming fins. <i>Gastropteron.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 11.&mdash;<i>Runcinidae.</i> Cephalic shield continuous with dorsal
+integument; no shell; ctenidium projecting from mantle
+cavity. <i>Runcina.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 12.&mdash;<i>Lophocercidae.</i> Shell external, globular or ovoid; foot
+elongated, parapodia separate
+from ventral surface; genital
+duct diaulic. <i>Lobiger. Lophocercus.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next three families form the
+group formerly known as Thecosomatous
+Pteropods. They are
+all pelagic, the foot being entirely
+transformed into a pair of anterior
+fins; eyes are absent, and the nerve
+centres are concentrated on the ventral
+side of the oesophagus.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 13.&mdash;<i>Limacinidae.</i> Dextral
+animals, with shell coiled
+pseudo-sinistrally; operculum
+with sinistral spiral; pallial
+cavity dorsal. <i>Limacina</i>, British. <i>Peraclis</i>, ctenidium present.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 14.&mdash;<i>Cymbuliidae.</i> Adult without shell; a sub-epithelial
+pseudoconch formed by connective tissue; pallial cavity
+ventral. <i>Cymbulia. Cymbuliopsis. Gleba. Desmopterus.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 15.&mdash;<i>Cavoliniidae.</i> Shell not coiled, symmetrical; pallial
+cavity ventral. <i>Cavolinia. Clio. Cuvierina.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tribe 2.&mdash;<span class="sc">Aplysiomorpha</span>. Shell more or less internal, much
+reduced or absent. Head bears two pairs of tentacles. Parapodia
+separate from ventral surface, and generally transformed into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page522" id="page522"></a>522</span>
+swimming lobes. Visceral commissure much shortened, except in
+<i>Aplysia</i>. Genital duct monaulic; hermaphrodite duct connected
+with penis by a ciliated groove. Animals either swim or crawl.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1.&mdash;<i>Aplysiidae</i>. Shell partly or wholly internal, or absent;
+foot long, with well-developed ventral surface. <i>Aplysia.
+Dolabella. Dolabrifer. Aplysiella. Phyllaplysia. Notarchus</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next six families include the animals formerly known as
+Gymnosomatous Pteropods, characterized by the absence of mantle
+and shell, the reduction of the ventral surface of the foot, and the
+parapodial fins at the anterior end of the body. They are all pelagic.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 2.&mdash;<i>Pneumonodermatidae</i>. Pharynx evaginable, with
+suckers. <i>Pneumonoderma. Dexiobranchaea. Spongiobranchaea.
+Schizobrachium</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3.&mdash;<i>Clionopsidae</i>. No buccal appendages or suckers; a
+very long evaginable proboscis;
+a quadriradiate terminal branchia.
+<i>Clionopsis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 4.&mdash;<i>Notobranchaeidae</i>. Posterior
+branchia triradiate. Notobranchaea.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 5.&mdash;<i>Thliptodontidae</i>. Head
+very large, not marked off from
+the body; neither branchia nor
+suckers; fins situated near the
+middle of the body. <i>Thliptodon</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"><tr><td>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:266px; height:416px" src="images/img522a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 51.&mdash;Embryo of <i>Cavolinia
+tridentata</i>. (From Balfour, after Fol.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>a</i>, Anus.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Median portion of the foot.</p>
+<p><i>pn</i>, Pteropodial lobe of the foot.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Heart.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, Intestine.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>. Mouth.</p>
+<p><i>ot</i>, Otocyst.</p>
+<p><i>q</i>, Shell.</p>
+<p><i>r</i>, Nephridium.</p>
+<p><i>s</i>, Oesophagus.</p>
+<p>&sigma;, Sac containing nutritive yolk.</p>
+<p><i>mb</i>, Mantle-skirt.</p>
+<p><i>mc</i>, Sub-pallial chamber.</p>
+<p><i>Kn</i>, Contractile sinus.</p></td></tr></table></td>
+
+<td><table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:227px; height:652px" src="images/img522b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 52.&mdash;<i>Styliola acicula</i>,
+Rang. sp. enlarged. (From Owen.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>C, C</i>, The wing-like lobes of the foot.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Median fold of same.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Copulatory organ.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Pointed extremity of the shell.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, Anterior margin of the shell.</p>
+<p><i>n</i>, Stomach.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, Liver.</p>
+<p><i>u</i>. Hermaphrodite gonad.</p></td></tr></table>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 6.&mdash;<i>Clionidae</i>. No branchia
+of any kind; a short evaginable pharynx, bearing paired conical
+buccal appendages or &ldquo;cephalocones.&rdquo; <i>Clione. Paraclione.
+Fowlerina</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 7.&mdash;<i>Halopsychidae</i>. No branchia; two long and branched
+buccal appendages. <i>Halopsyche</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tribe 3.&mdash;<span class="sc">Pleurobranchomorpha.</span> Two pairs of tentacles.
+Foot without parapodia; no pallial cavity, but always a single
+ctenidium situated on the right side between mantle and foot.
+Genital duct diaulic, without open seminal groove; male and
+female apertures contiguous. Visceral commissure short, tendency
+to concentration of all ganglia in dorsal side of oesophagus.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1.&mdash;<i>Tylodinidae</i>. Shell external and conical; anterior
+tentacles form a frontal veil; ctenidium extending only over
+right side; a distinct osphradium. <i>Tylodina</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2.&mdash;<i>Umbrellidae</i>. Shell external, conical, much flattened;
+anterior tentacles very small, and situated with the mouth in
+a notch of the foot below the head; ctenidium very large.
+<i>Umbrella</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3.&mdash;<i>Pleurobranchidae</i>. Shell covered by mantle, or absent;
+anterior tentacles form a frontal veil; mantle contains spicules.
+<i>Pleurobranchus. Berthella. Haliotinella. Oscanius</i>, British.
+<i>Oscaniella. Oscaniopsis. Pleurobranchaea.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sub-order 2.&mdash;<span class="sc">Nudibranchia</span>. Shell absent in the adult; no
+ctenidium or osphradium. Body generally slug-like, and externally
+symmetrical. Visceral mass not marked off from the foot, except in
+<i>Hedylidae.</i> Dorsal respiratory appendages frequently present.
+Visceral commissure reduced; nervous system concentrated on
+dorsal side of oesophagus. Marine; generally carnivorous, and
+brightly coloured, affording many instances of protective resemblance.</p>
+
+<p>Tribe 1.&mdash;<span class="sc">Tritoniomorpha</span>. Liver wholly or partially contained
+in the visceral mass. Anus lateral, on the right side. Usually two
+rows of ramified dorsal appendages. Genital duct diaulic; male
+and female apertures contiguous.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1.&mdash;<i>Tritoniidae.</i> Anterior tentacles form a frontal veil;
+foot rather broad. <i>Tritonia</i>, British. <i>Marionia.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2.&mdash;<i>Scyllaeidae.</i> No anterior tentacles; dorsal appendages
+broad and foliaceous; foot very narrow; stomach with horny
+plates. <i>Scyllaea</i>, pelagic.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3.&mdash;<i>Phyllirhoidae.</i> No anterior tentacles, and no dorsal
+appendages; body laterally compressed, transparent; pelagic.
+<i>Phyllirhoë.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 4.&mdash;<i>Tethyidae.</i> Head broad, surrounded by a funnel-shaped
+velum or hood; no radula; dorsal appendages foliaceous.
+<i>Tethys. Melibe.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 5.&mdash;<i>Dendronotidae.</i> Anterior tentacles forming a scalloped
+frontal veil; dorsal appendages and tentacles similarly ramified.
+<i>Dendronotus. Campaspe.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 6.&mdash;<i>Bornellidae.</i> Dorsum furnished on either side with
+papillae, at the base of which are ramified appendages. <i>Bornella.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 7.&mdash;<i>Lomanotidae.</i> Body flattened, the two dorsal borders
+prominent and foliaceous. <i>Lomanotus</i>, British.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tribe 2.&mdash;<span class="sc">Doridomorpha</span>. Body externally symmetrical; anus
+median, posterior, and generally dorsal, surrounded by ramified
+pallial appendages, constituting a secondary branchia. Liver not
+ramified in the integuments. Genital duct triaulic. Spicules present
+in the mantle.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"><tr><td>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:278px; height:396px" src="images/img522c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 53.&mdash;<i>Halopsyche gaudichaudii</i>,
+Soul. (From Owen.) Much enlarged; the body-wall removed.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>a</i>, The mouth.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, The pteropodial lobes of the foot.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, The centrally-placed hind-foot.</p>
+<p><i>d, l, e</i>, Three pairs of tentacle-like processes placed at the sides of
+the mouth, and developed (in all probability) from the fore-foot.</p>
+<p><i>o&prime;</i>, Anus.</p>
+<p><i>y</i>, Genital pore.</p>
+<p><i>k</i>, Retractor muscles.</p>
+<p><i>o</i> and <i>p</i>, The liver.</p>
+<p><i>u, v, w</i>, Genitalia.</p></td></tr></table></td>
+
+<td><table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:157px; height:354px" src="images/img522d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 54.&mdash;<i>Ancula
+cristata</i>, one of the pygobranchiate Opisthobranchs (dorsal view). (From Gegenbaur,
+after Alder and Hancock.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>a</i>, Anus.</p>
+<p><i>br</i>, Secondary branchia surrounding the anus.</p>
+<p><i>t</i>, Cephalic tentacles.</p>
+<p>External to the branchia are seen ten club-like processes of
+the dorsal wall, these are the &ldquo;cerata&rdquo; which are characteristically
+developed in another suborder of Opisthobranchs.</p></td></tr></table>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p class="pt2">Fam. 1.&mdash;<i>Polyceratidae.</i> A more or less prominent frontal
+veil; branchiae non-retractile. <i>Euplocamus. Polycera</i>, British.
+<i>Thecacera</i>, British. <i>Aegirus</i>, British. <i>Plocamopherus. Palio.
+Crimora. Triopa</i>, British. <i>Triopella.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2.&mdash;<i>Goniodorididae.</i> Mantle-border projecting; frontal
+veil reduced, and often covered by the anterior border of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page523" id="page523"></a>523</span>
+mantle. <i>Goniodoris</i>, British. <i>Acanthodoris</i>, British. <i>Idalia</i>,
+British. <i>Ancula</i>, British. <i>Doridunculus</i>. <i>Lamellidoris</i>. <i>Ancylodoris</i>,
+the only fresh-water Nudibranch, from Lake Baikal.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3.&mdash;<i>Heterodorididae</i>. No branchia. <i>Heterodoris</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 4.&mdash;<i>Dorididae</i>. Mantle oval, covering the head and the
+greater part of the body; anterior tentacles, ill-developed;
+branchiae generally retractile. <i>Doris</i>, British. <i>Hexabranchus</i>.
+<i>Chromodoris</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 5.&mdash;<i>Doridopsidae</i>. Pharynx suctorial; no radula; branchial
+rosette on the dorsal surface, above the mantle-border.
+<i>Doridopsis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 6.&mdash;<i>Corambidae</i>. Anus and branchia posterior, below the
+mantle-border. <i>Corambe</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 7.-<i>-Phyllidiidae</i>. Pharynx suctorial; branchiae surrounding
+the body, between the mantle and foot. <i>Phyllidia</i>.
+<i>Fryeria</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The last three families constitute the sub-tribe Porostomata,
+characterized by the reduction of the buccal mass, which is modified
+into a suctorial apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>Tribe 3.&mdash;<span class="sc">Eolidomorpha</span> (<i>Cladohepatica</i>). The whole of the liver
+contained in the integuments and tegumentary papillae. Genital
+duct diaulic; male and female apertures contiguous. The anus is
+antero-lateral, except in the <i>Proctonotidae</i>, in which it is median.
+Tegumentary papillae not ramified, and containing cnidosacs with
+nematocysts.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1.&mdash;<i>Eolididae</i>. Dorsal papillae spindle-shaped or club-shaped.
+<i>Eolis</i>, British. <i>Facelina</i>, British. <i>Tergipes</i>, British.
+<i>Gonieolis</i>. <i>Cuthona</i>. <i>Embletonia</i>. <i>Galvina</i>. <i>Calma</i>. <i>Hero</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2.&mdash;<i>Glaucidae</i>. Body furnished with three pairs of lateral
+lobes, bearing the tegumentary papillae; foot very narrow;
+pelagic. <i>Glaucus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3.&mdash;<i>Hedylidae</i>. Body elongated; visceral mass marked
+off from foot posteriorly; dorsal appendages absent, or reduced
+to a single pair; spicules in the integument. <i>Hedyle</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 4.&mdash;<i>Pseudovermidae</i>. Head without tentacles; body
+elongated; anus on right side. <i>Pseudovermis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 5.&mdash;<i>Proctonotidae</i>. Anus posterior, median; anterior
+tentacles, atrophied; foot broad. <i>Janus</i>, British. <i>Proctonotus</i>,
+British.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 6.&mdash;<i>Dotonidae</i>. Bases of the rhinophores surrounded by
+a sheath; dorsal papillae tuberculated and club-shaped, in a
+single row on either side of the dorsum; no cnidosacs. <i>Doto</i>,
+British. <i>Gellina</i>. <i>Heromorpha</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 7.&mdash;<i>Fionidae</i>. Dorsal papillae with a membranous expansion;
+male and female apertures at some distance from
+each other; pelagic. <i>Fiona</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 8.&mdash;<i>Pleurophyllidae</i>. Anterior tentacles in the form of a
+digging shield; mantle without appendages, but respiratory
+papillae beneath the mantle-border. <i>Pleurophyllidia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 9.&mdash;<i>Dermatobranchidae</i>. Like the last, but wholly without
+branchiae. <i>Dermatobranchus</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tribe 4.&mdash;<span class="sc">Elysiomorpha</span>. Liver ramifies in integuments and extends
+into dorsal papillae, but there are no cnidosacs. Genital duct
+always triaulic, and male and female apertures distant from each
+other. No mandibles, and radula uniserial. Never more than one
+pair of tentacles, and these are absent in <i>Alderia</i> and some species
+of <i>Limapontia</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:290px; height:290px" src="images/img523a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 55.&mdash;Dorsal and Ventral View of
+<i>Pleurophyllidia lineata</i> (Otto), one of the Eolidomorph Nudibranchs. (After Keferstein.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>b</i>, The mouth.</p>
+<p><i>l</i>, The lamelliform sub-pallial gills, which (as in Patella) replace the
+typical Molluscan ctenidium.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1.&mdash;<i>Hermaeidae</i>. Foot narrow; dorsal papillae linear or
+fusiform, in several
+series. <i>Hermaea</i>,
+British. <i>Stiliger</i>. <i>Alderia</i>,
+British.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2.&mdash;<i>Phyllobranchidae</i>.
+Foot
+broad; dorsal papillae
+flattened and foliaceous.
+<i>Phyllobranchus</i>.
+<i>Cyerce</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3.&mdash;<i>Plakobranchidae</i>.
+Body depressed,
+without dorsal
+papillae, but with two
+very large lateral expansions,
+with dorsal
+plications. <i>Plakobranchus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 4.&mdash;<i>Elysiidae</i>.
+Body elongated, with
+lateral expansions;
+tentacles large; foot
+narrow. <i>Elysia</i>,
+British. <i>Tridachia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 5.&mdash;<i>Limapontiidae</i>.
+No lateral expansions,
+and no dorsal papillae;
+body planariform; anus
+dorsal, median and posterior. <i>Limapontia</i>, British. <i>Actaeonia</i>,
+British. <i>Cenia</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Order 2 (of the Euthyneura).&mdash;<span class="sc">Pulmonata</span>. Euthyneurous
+Gastropoda, probably derived from ancestral forms similar to the
+Tectibranchiate Opisthobranchia by adaptation to a terrestrial life.
+The ctenidium is atrophied, and the edge of the mantle-skirt is fused
+to the dorsal integument by concrescence, except at one point which
+forms the aperture of the mantle-chamber, thus converted into a
+nearly closed sac. Air is admitted to this sac for respiratory and
+hydrostatic purposes, and it thus becomes a lung. An operculum
+is present only in <i>Amphibola</i>; a contrast being thus afforded with the
+operculate pulmonate Streptoneura (<i>Cyclostoma</i>, &amp;c.), which differ
+in other essential features of structure from the Pulmonata. The
+Pulmonata are, like the other Euthyneura, hermaphrodite, with
+elaborately developed copulatory organs and accessory glands.
+Like other Euthyneura, they have very numerous small denticles
+on the lingual ribbon. In aquatic Pulmonata the osphradium is
+retained.</p>
+
+<p>In some Pulmonata (snails) the foot is extended at right angles
+to the visceral hump, which rises from it in the form of a coil as in
+Streptoneura; in others the visceral hump is not elevated, but is
+extended with the foot, and the shell is small or absent (slugs).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:428px; height:558px" src="images/img523b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 56.</span>&mdash;A Series of Stylommatophorous Pulmonata, showing
+transitional forms between snail and slug.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p>A, <i>Helix pomatia</i>. (From Keferstein.)</p>
+
+<p>B, <i>Helicophanta brevipes</i>. (From Keferstein, after Pfeiffer.)</p>
+
+<p>C, <i>Testacella haliotidea</i>. (From Keferstein.)</p>
+
+<p>D, <i>Arion ater</i>, the great black slug. (From Keferstein.)<br /></p>
+<p>&emsp; <i>a</i>, Shell in A, B, C, shell-sac (closed) in D; <i>b</i>, orifice leading
+into the sub-pallial chamber (lung).</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:133px; height:95px" src="images/img523c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 57.</span>&mdash;<i>Ancylus</i>
+<i>fluviatilis</i>, a patelliform
+aquatic Pulmonate.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Pulmonata are widely distinguished from a small number of
+Streptoneura at one time associated with them on account of their
+mantle-chamber being converted, as in Pulmonata, into a lung, and
+the ctenidium or branchial plume aborted. The terrestrial Streptoneura
+(represented in England by the common genus <i>Cyclostoma</i>)
+have a twisted visceral nerve-loop, an operculum on the foot, a
+complex rhipidoglossate or taenio-glossate radula, and are of distinct
+sexes. The Pulmonata have a straight visceral nerve-loop, usually
+no operculum even in the embryo, and a multidenticulate radula,
+the teeth being equi-formal; and they are hermaphrodite. Some
+Pulmonata (<i>Limnaea</i>, &amp;c.) live in fresh waters although breathing
+air. The remarkable discovery has been made
+that in deep lakes such <i>Limnaei</i> do not
+breathe air, but admit water to the lung-sac
+and live at the bottom. The lung-sac serves
+undoubtedly as a hydrostatic apparatus in
+the aquatic Pulmonata, as well as assisting
+respiration.</p>
+
+<p>The same general range of body-form is
+shown in Pulmonata as in the Heteropoda
+and in the Opisthobranchia; at one extreme
+we have snails with coiled visceral hump, at
+the other cylindrical or flattened slugs (see
+fig. 56). Limpet-like forms are also found (fig. 57, <i>Ancylus</i>). The
+foot is always simple, with its flat crawling surface extending from
+end to end, but in the embryo <i>Limnaea</i> it shows a bilobed character,
+which leads on to the condition characteristic of Pteropoda.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page524" id="page524"></a>524</span></p>
+
+<p>The adaptation of the Pulmonata to terrestrial life has entailed
+little modification of the internal organization. In one genus
+(<i>Planorbis</i>) the plasma of the blood is coloured red by haemoglobin,
+this being the only instance of the presence of this body in the blood
+of Glossophorous Mollusca, though it occurs in corpuscles in the blood
+of the bivalves <i>Arca</i> and <i>Solen</i> (Lankester).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:179px; height:451px" src="images/img524a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 58.</span>&mdash;Hermaphrodite
+Reproductive Apparatus of the Garden Snail (<i>Helix hortensis</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p>&tau;, Ovo-testis.</p>
+<p><i>ve</i>, Hermaphrodite duct.</p>
+<p><i>Ed</i>, Albuminiparous gland.</p>
+<p><i>u</i>, Uterine dilatation of the hermaphrodite duct.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Digitate accessory glands on the female duct.</p>
+<p><i>ps</i>, Calciferous gland or dart-sac on the female duct.</p>
+<p><i>Rf</i>, Spermatheca or receptacle of the sperm in copulation, opening into the female duct.</p>
+<p><i>vd</i>, Male duct (vas deferens).</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, Penis.</p>
+<p><i>fl</i>, Flagellum.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The generative apparatus of the snail (<i>Helix</i>) may serve as an
+example of the hermaphrodite apparatus common to the Pulmonata
+and Opisthobranchia (fig. 58). From
+the ovo-testis, which lies near the apex
+of the visceral coil, a common hermaphrodite
+duct <i>ve</i> proceeds, which
+receives the duct of the compact white
+albuminiparous gland, <i>Ed</i>, and then
+becomes much enlarged, the additional
+width being due to the development of
+glandular folds, which are regarded as
+forming a uterus <i>u</i>. Where these folds
+cease the common duct splits into two
+portions, a male and a female. The
+male duct <i>vd</i> becomes fleshy and
+muscular near its termination at the
+genital pore, forming the penis <i>p</i>.
+Attached to it is a diverticulum <i>fl</i>, in
+which the spermatozoa which have
+descended from the ovo-testis are
+stored and modelled into sperm ropes
+or spermatophores. The female portion
+of the duct is more complex. Soon
+after quitting the uterus it is joined by
+a long duct leading from a glandular
+sac, the spermatheca (<i>Rf</i>). In this duct
+and sac the spermatophores received
+in copulation from another snail are
+lodged. In <i>Helix hortensis</i> the spermatheca
+is simple. In other species of
+<i>Helix</i> a second duct (as large in <i>Helix</i>
+<i>aspersa</i> as the chief one) is given off
+from the spermathecal duct, and in the
+natural state is closely adherent to the
+wall of the uterus. This second duct
+has normally no spermathecal gland at
+its termination, which is simple and
+blunt. But in rare cases in <i>Helix</i>
+<i>aspersa</i> a second spermatheca is found
+at the end of this second duct. Tracing
+the widening female duct onwards we
+now come to the openings of the
+digitate accessory glands <i>d</i>, <i>d</i>, which
+probably assist in the formation of the
+egg-capsule. Close to them is the remarkable
+dart-sac <i>ps</i>, a thick-walled
+sac, in the lumen of which a crystalline
+four-fluted rod or dart consisting of
+carbonate of lime is found. It is supposed
+to act in some way as a stimulant
+in copulation, but possibly has to do
+with the calcareous covering of the
+egg-capsule. Other Pulmonata exhibit
+variations of secondary importance in
+the details of this hermaphrodite apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>The nervous system of <i>Helix</i> is not
+favourable as an example on account of the fusion of the ganglia
+to form an almost uniform ring of nervous matter around the
+oesophagus. The pond-snail (<i>Limnaeus</i>) furnishes, on the other
+hand, a very beautiful case of distinct ganglia and connecting
+cords (fig. 59). The demonstration which it affords of the extreme
+shortening of the Euthyneurous visceral nerve-loop is most
+instructive and valuable for comparison with and explanation of
+the condition of the nervous centres in Cephalopoda, as also of
+some Opisthobranchia. The figure (fig. 59) is sufficiently described
+in the letterpress attached to it; the pair of buccal ganglia joined
+by the connectives to the cerebrals are, as in most of our figures,
+omitted. Here we need only further draw attention to the osphradium,
+discovered by Lacaze-Duthiers, and shown by Spengel to
+agree in its innervation with that organ in all other Gastropoda.
+On account of the shortness of the visceral loop and the proximity
+of the right visceral ganglion to the oesophageal nerve-ring, the nerve
+to the osphradium and olfactory ganglion is very long. The position
+of the osphradium corresponds more or less closely with that of the
+vanished right ctenidium, with which it is normally associated. In
+<i>Helix</i> and <i>Limax</i> the osphradium has not been described, and
+possibly its discovery might clear up the doubts which have
+been raised as to the nature of the mantle-chamber of those
+genera. In <i>Planorbis</i>, which is sinistral (as are a few other genera
+or exceptional varieties of various Anisopleurous Gastropods),
+instead of being dextral, the osphradium is on the left side,
+and receives its nerve from the left visceral ganglion, the
+whole series of unilateral organs being reversed. This is, as
+might be expected, what is found to be the case in all &ldquo;reversed&rdquo;
+Gastropods.</p>
+
+<p>The shell of the Pulmonata, though always light and delicate, is in
+many cases a well-developed spiral &ldquo;house&rdquo; into which the creature
+can withdraw itself; and, although the foot possesses no operculum,
+yet in <i>Helix</i> the aperture of the shell is closed in the winter by a
+complete lid, the &ldquo;hybernaculum&rdquo; more or less calcareous in nature,
+which is secreted by the foot. In <i>Clausilia</i> a peculiar modification of
+this lid exists permanently in the adult, attached by an elastic stalk
+to the mouth of the shell, and known as the &ldquo;clausilium.&rdquo; In
+<i>Limnaeus</i> the permanent shell is preceded in the embryo by a well-marked
+shell-gland or primitive shell-sac (fig. 60), at one time supposed
+to be the developing anus, but shown by Lankester to be
+identical with the &ldquo;shell-gland&rdquo; discovered by him in other Mollusca
+(<i>Pisidium</i>, <i>Pleurobranchidium</i>, <i>Neritina</i>, &amp;c.). As in other
+Gastropoda Anisopleura, this shell-sac may abnormally develop
+a plug of chitinous matter, but normally it flattens out and disappears,
+whilst the cap-like rudiment of the permanent shell is shed
+out from the dome-like surface of the visceral hump, in the centre of
+which the shell-sac existed for a brief period.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:333px; height:305px" src="images/img524b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 59.</span>&mdash;Nervous System of the Pond-Snail,
+<i>Limnaeus stagnalis</i>, as a type of the short-looped euthyneurous condition. The
+short visceral &ldquo;loop&rdquo; with its three ganglia is lightly-shaded.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>ce</i>, Cerebral ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>pe</i>, Pedal ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>pl</i>, Pleural ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>ab</i>, Abdominal ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>sp</i>, Visceral ganglion of the left side; opposite to it is the visceral ganglion of
+the right side, which gives off the long nerve to the olfactory ganglion and osphradium <i>o</i>.</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">In <i>Planorbis</i> and in <i>Auricula</i> (Pulmonata,
+allied to <i>Limnaeus</i>) the olfactory organ is
+on the <i>left</i> side and receives its nerve from
+the <i>left</i> visceral ganglion. (After Spengel.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In <i>Clausilia</i>, according to the observations of C. Gegenbaur, the
+primitive shell-sac does not flatten out and disappear, but takes the
+form of a flattened closed sac. Within this closed sac a plate of calcareous
+matter is developed, and after a time the upper wall of the
+sac disappears, and the calcareous plate continues to grow as the
+nucleus of the permanent shell. In the slug <i>Testacella</i> (fig. 56, C)
+the shell-plate never attains a large size, though naked. In other
+slugs, namely, <i>Limax</i> and <i>Arion</i>, the shell-sac remains permanently
+closed over the shell-plate, which in the latter genus consists of a
+granular mass of carbonate of lime. The permanence of the primitive
+shell-sac in these slugs is a point of considerable interest. It is
+clear enough that the sac is of a different origin from that of <i>Aplysia</i>
+(described in the section treating of Opisthobranchia), being primitive
+instead of secondary. It seems probable that it is identical
+with one of the open sacs in which each shell-plate of a <i>Chiton</i> is
+formed, and the series of plate-like imbrications which are placed
+behind the single shell-sac on the dorsum of the curious slug, <i>Plectrophorus</i>,
+suggest the possibility of the formation of a series of shell-sacs
+on the back of that animal similar to those which we find in
+<i>Chiton</i>. Whether the closed primitive shell-sac of the slugs (and
+with it the transient embryonic shell-gland of all other Mollusca) is
+precisely the same thing as the closed sac in which the calcareous
+pen or shell of the Cephalopod <i>Sepia</i> and its allies is formed,
+is a further question
+which we shall consider
+when dealing
+with the Cephalopoda.
+It is important here
+to note that <i>Clausilia</i>
+furnishes us with an
+exceptional instance
+of the <i>continuity</i> of the
+shell or secreted product
+of the primitive
+shell-sac with the
+adult shell. In most
+other Mollusca (Anisopleurous
+Gastropods,
+Pteropods and Conchifera)
+there is a want
+of such continuity;
+the primitive shell-sac
+contributes no factor
+to the permanent shell,
+or only a very minute
+knob-like particle
+(<i>Neritina</i> and <i>Paludina</i>).
+It flattens out
+and disappears before
+the work of forming
+the permanent shell
+commences. And just
+as there is a break
+at this stage, so (as
+observed by A. Krohn
+in <i>Marsenia</i> = <i>Echinospira</i>)
+there <i>may</i> be a
+break at a later stage,
+the nautiloid shell
+formed on the larva
+being cast, and a new
+shell of a different form
+being formed afresh on
+the surface of the visceral hump. It is, then, in this sense that we
+may speak of primary, secondary and tertiary shells in Mollusca
+recognizing the fact that they <i>may</i> be merely phases fused by continuity
+of growth so as to form but one shell, or that in other cases
+they <i>may</i> be presented to us as separate individual things, in virtue
+of the non-development of the later phases, or in virtue of sudden
+changes in the activity of the mantle-surface causing the shedding
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page525" id="page525"></a>525</span>
+or disappearance of one phase of shell-formation before a later one
+is entered upon.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the aquatic Pulmonata from the egg offers
+considerable facilities for study, and that of <i>Limnaeus</i> has been
+elucidated by E.R. Lankester, whilst H. Rabl has with remarkable
+skill applied the method of sections to the study of the minute
+embryos of <i>Planorbis</i>. The chief features in the development of
+<i>Limnaeus</i> are exhibited in fig. 60. There is not a very large amount
+of food-material present in the egg of this snail, and accordingly the
+cells resulting from division are not so unequal as in many other
+cases. The four cells first formed are of equal size, and then four
+smaller cells are formed by division of these four so as to lie at one
+end of the first four (the pole corresponding to that at which the
+&ldquo;directive corpuscles&rdquo; are extruded and remain). The smaller cells
+now divide and spread over the four larger cells; at the same time
+a space&mdash;the cleavage cavity or blastocoel&mdash;forms in the centre of
+the mulberry-like mass. Then the large cells recommence the
+process of division and sink into the hollow of the sphere, leaving
+an elongated groove, the blastopore, on the surface. The invaginated
+cells (derived from the division of the four big cells) form the endoderm
+or arch-enteron; the outer cells are the ectoderm. The blastopore
+now closes along the middle part of its course, which coincides
+in position with the future &ldquo;foot.&rdquo; One end of the blastopore
+becomes nearly closed, and an ingrowth of ectoderm takes place
+around it to form the stomodaeum or fore-gut and mouth. The
+other extreme end closes, but the invaginated endoderm cells remain
+in continuity with this extremity of the blastopore, and form the
+&ldquo;rectal peduncle&rdquo; or &ldquo;pedicle of invagination&rdquo; of Lankester,
+although the endoderm cells retain no contact with the middle region
+of the now closed-up blastopore. The anal opening forms at a late
+period by a very short ingrowth or proctodaeum coinciding with the
+blind termination of the rectal peduncle (fig. 60, <i>pi</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:380px; height:357px" src="images/img525a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 60.</span>&mdash;Embryo of <i>Limnaeus stagnalis</i>, at a stage when the
+Trochosphere is developing foot and shell-gland and becoming a
+Veliger, seen as a transparent object under slight pressure. (Lankester.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>ph</i>, Pharynx (stomodaeal invagination).</p>
+<p><i>v</i>, <i>v</i>, The ciliated band marking out the velum.</p>
+<p><i>ng</i>, Cerebral nerve-ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>re</i>, Stiebel&rsquo;s canal (left side), probably an evanescent embryonic nephridium.</p>
+<p><i>sh</i>, The primitive shell-sac or shell-gland.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>pi</i>, The rectal peduncle or pedicle of invagination; its attachment to the ectoderm
+is coincident with the hindmost extremity of the elongated blastopore of fig. 3, C.</p>
+<p><i>tge</i>, Mesoblastic (skeleto-trophic and muscular) cells investing <i>gs</i>, the bilobed arch-enteron
+or lateral vesicles of invaginated endoderm, which will develop into liver.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, The foot.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The body-cavity and the muscular, fibrous and vascular tissues
+are traced partly to two symmetrically disposed &ldquo;mesoblasts,&rdquo;
+which bud off from the invaginated arch-enteron, partly to cells
+derived from the ectoderm, which at a very early stage is connected
+by long processes with the invaginated endoderm. The external
+form of the embryo goes through the same changes as in other
+Gastropods, and is not, as was held previously to Lankester&rsquo;s observations,
+exceptional. When the middle and hinder regions of the
+blastopore are closing in, an equatorial ridge of ciliated cells is
+formed, converting the embryo into a typical trochosphere.</p>
+
+<p>The foot now protrudes below the mouth, and the post-oral hemisphere
+of the trochosphere grows more rapidly then the anterior or
+velar area. The young foot shows a bilobed form. Within the velar
+area the eyes and the cephalic tentacles commence to rise up, and
+on the surface of the post-oral region is formed a cap-like shell and
+an encircling ridge, which gradually increases in prominence and
+becomes the freely depending mantle-skirt. The outline of the velar
+area becomes strongly emarginated and can be traced through the
+more mature embryos to the cephalic lobes or labial processes of the
+adult <i>Limnaeus</i> (fig. 61).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:429px; height:265px" src="images/img525b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 61.</span>&mdash;A, B, C. Three views of <i>Limnaeus stagnalis</i>, in order to
+show the persistence of the larval velar area <i>v</i>, as the circum-oral lobes
+of the adult. <i>m</i>, Mouth; <i>f</i>, foot; <i>v</i>, velar area, the margin <i>v</i> corresponding
+with the ciliated band which demarcates the velar area
+or velum of the embryo Gastropod (see fig. 4, D, E, F, H, I, <i>v</i>).
+(Original.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The increase of the visceral dome, its spiral twisting, and the
+gradual closure of the space overhung by the mantle-skirt so as to
+convert it into a lung-sac with a small contractile aperture, belong to
+stages in the development later than any represented in our figures.</p>
+
+<p>We may now revert briefly to the internal organization at a period
+when the trochosphere is beginning to show a prominent foot growing
+out from the area where the mid-region of the elongated blastopore
+was situated, and having therefore at one end of it the mouth and
+at the other the anus. Fig. 60 represents such an embryo under
+slight compression as seen by transmitted light. The ciliated band
+of the left side of the velar area is indicated by a line extending
+from <i>v</i> to <i>v</i>; the foot <i>f</i> is seen between the pharynx <i>ph</i> and the
+pedicle of invagination <i>pi</i>. The mass of the arch-enteron or invaginated
+endodermal sac has taken on a bilobed form, and its cells
+are swollen (<i>gs</i> and <i>tge</i>). This bilobed sac becomes <i>entirely</i> the liver
+in the adult; the intestine and stomach are formed from the pedicle
+of invagination, whilst the pharynx, oesophagus and crop form from
+the stomodaeal invagination <i>ph</i>. To the right (in the figure) of the
+rectal peduncle is seen the deeply invaginated shell-gland <i>ss</i>, with a
+secretion <i>sh</i> protruding from it. The shell-gland is destined in
+<i>Limnaeus</i> to become very rapidly stretched out, and to disappear.
+Farther up, within the velar area, the rudiments of the cerebral
+nerve-ganglion <i>ng</i> are seen separating from the ectoderm. A remarkable
+cord of cells having a position just below the integument occurs
+on each side of the head. In the figure the cord of the left side is
+seen, marked <i>re</i>. This paired organ consists of a string of cells which
+are perforated by a duct opening to the exterior and ending internally
+in a flame-cell. Such cannulated cells are characteristic of the nephridia
+of many worms, and the organs thus formed in the embryo
+<i>Limnaeus</i> are embryonic nephridia. The most important fact about
+them is that they disappear, and are in no way connected with the
+typical nephridium of the adult. In reference to their first observer
+they were formerly called &ldquo;Stiebel&rsquo;s canals.&rdquo; Other Pulmonata
+possess, when embryos, Stiebel&rsquo;s canals in a more fully developed
+state, for instance, the common slug <i>Limax</i>. Here too they disappear
+during embryonic life. Similar larval nephridia occur in
+other Gastropoda. In the marine Streptoneura they are ectodermic
+projections which ultimately fall off; in the Opisthobranchs they
+are closed pouches; in <i>Paludina</i> and <i>Bithynia</i> they are canals as in
+Pulmonata.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:429px; height:139px" src="images/img525c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 62.</span>&mdash;<i>Oncidium tonganum</i>, a littoral Pulmonate, found on the
+shores of the Indian and Pacific Oceans (Mauritius, Japan).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Marine Pulmonata.</i>&mdash;Whilst the Pulmonata are essentially a
+terrestrial and fresh-water group, there is one genus of slug-like
+Pulmonates which frequent the sea-coast (<i>Oncidium</i>, fig. 62). Karl
+Semper has shown that these slugs have, in addition to the usual
+pair of cephalic eyes, a number of eyes developed upon the dorsal
+integument. These dorsal eyes are very perfect in elaboration,
+possessing lens, retinal nerve-end cells, retinal pigment and optic
+nerve. Curiously enough, however, they differ from the cephalic
+Molluscan eye in the fact that, as in the vertebrate eye, the filaments
+of the optic nerve penetrate the retina, and are connected with the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page526" id="page526"></a>526</span>
+surfaces of the nerve-end cells nearer the lens instead of with the
+opposite end. The significance of this arrangement is not known,
+but it is important to note, as shown by V. Henson, S.J. Hickson and
+others, that in the bivalves <i>Pecten</i> and <i>Spondylus</i>, which also have
+eyes upon the mantle quite distinct from typical cephalic eyes,
+there is the same relationship as in Oncidiidae of the optic nerve to
+the retinal cells. In both Oncidiidae and <i>Pecten</i> the pallial eyes have
+probably been developed by the modification of tentacles, such as
+coexist in an unmodified form with the eyes. The Oncidiidae are,
+according to K. Semper, pursued as food by the leaping fish <i>Periophthalmus</i>,
+and the dorsal eyes are of especial value to them in aiding
+them to escape from this enemy.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-order 1.&mdash;<span class="sc">Basommatophora</span>. Pulmonata with an external
+shell. The head bears a single pair of contractile but not invaginable
+tentacles, at the base of which are the eyes. Penis at some distance
+from the female aperture, except in <i>Amphibola</i> and <i>Siphonaria</i>.
+All have an osphradium, except the <i>Auriculidae</i>, which are terrestrial,
+and it is situated outside the pallial cavity in those forms in
+which water is not admitted into the lung. There is a veliger stage
+in development, but the velum is reduced.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1.&mdash;<i>Auriculidae</i>. Terrestrial and usually littoral; genital
+  duct monaulic, the penis being connected with the aperture by
+  an open or closed groove; shell with a prominent spire, the
+  internal partitions often absorbed and the aperture denticulated.
+  <i>Auricula</i>. <i>Cassidula</i>. <i>Alexia</i>. <i>Melampus</i>. <i>Carychium</i>,
+  terrestrial, British. <i>Scarabus</i>. <i>Leuconia</i>, British. <i>Blauneria</i>.
+  <i>Pedipes</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2.&mdash;<i>Otinidae</i>. Shell with short spire, and wide oval aperture;
+  tentacles short. <i>Otina</i>, British. <i>Camptonyx</i>, terrestrial.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3.&mdash;<i>Amphibolidae</i>. Shell spirally coiled; head broad,
+  without prominent tentacles; foot short, operculated; marine.
+  <i>Amphibola</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 4.&mdash;<i>Siphonariidae</i>. Visceral mass and shell conical; tentacles
+  atrophied; head expanded; genital apertures contiguous;
+  marine animals, with an aquatic pallial cavity containing
+  secondary branchial laminae. <i>Siphonaria</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 5.&mdash;<i>Gadiniidae</i>. Visceral mass and shell conical; head
+  flattened; pallial cavity aquatic, but without a branchia;
+  genital apertures separated. <i>Gadinia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 6.&mdash;<i>Chilinidae</i>. Shell ovoid, with short spire, wide aperture
+  and folded columella; inferior pallial lobe thick; visceral
+  commissure still twisted. <i>Chilina</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 7.&mdash;<i>Limnaeidae</i>. Shell thin, dextral, with prominent spire
+  and oval aperture; no inferior pallial lobe. <i>Limnaea</i>, British.
+  <i>Amphipeplea</i>, British.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 8.&mdash;<i>Pompholygidae</i>. Shell dextral, hyperstrophic, animal
+  sinistral. <i>Pompholyx</i>. <i>Choanomphalus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 9.&mdash;<i>Planorbidae</i>. Visceral mass and shell sinistral; inferior
+  pallial lobe very prominent, and transformed into a branchia.
+  <i>Planorbis</i>, British. <i>Bulinus</i>. <i>Miratesta</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 10.&mdash;<i>Ancylidae</i>. Shell conical, not spiral; inferior pallial
+  lobe transformed into a branchia. <i>Ancylus</i>, British. <i>Latia</i>.
+  <i>Grundlachia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 11.&mdash;<i>Physidae</i>. Visceral mass and shell sinistrally coiled;
+  shell thin, with narrow aperture; no inferior pallial lobe. <i>Physa</i>,
+  British. <i>Aplexa</i>, British.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sub-order 2.&mdash;<span class="sc">Stylommatophora</span>. Pulmonata with two pairs
+of tentacles, except <i>Janellidae</i> and <i>Vertigo</i>; these tentacles are invaginable,
+and the eyes are borne on the summits of the posterior
+pair. Male and female genital apertures open into a common vestibule,
+except in <i>Vaginulidae</i> and <i>Oncidiidae</i>. Except in <i>Oncidium</i>,
+there is no longer a veliger stage in development.</p>
+
+<p>Tribe 1.&mdash;<span class="sc">Holognatha</span>. Jaw simple, without a superior appendage.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1.&mdash;<i>Selenitidae</i>. Radula with elongated and pointed teeth,
+  like those of the Agnatha; a jaw present. <i>Plutonia</i>. <i>Trigonochlamys</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2.&mdash;<i>Zonitidae</i>. Shell external, smooth, heliciform or
+  flattened; radula with pointed marginal teeth. <i>Zonites</i>,
+  British. <i>Ariophanta</i>. <i>Orpiella</i>. <i>Vitrina</i>. <i>Helicarion</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3.&mdash;<i>Limacidae</i>. Shell internal. <i>Limax</i>, British. <i>Parmacella</i>.
+  <i>Urocyclus</i>. <i>Parmarion</i>. <i>Amalia</i>. <i>Agriolimax</i>.
+  <i>Mesolimax</i>. <i>Monochroma</i>. <i>Paralimax</i>. <i>Metalimax</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 4.&mdash;<i>Philomycidae</i>. No shell; mantle covers the whole
+  surface of the body; radula with squarish teeth. <i>Philomycus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 5.&mdash;<i>Ostracolethidae</i>. Shell largely chitinous, not spiral, its
+  calcareous apex projecting through a small hole in the mantle.
+  <i>Ostracolethe</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 6.&mdash;<i>Arionidae</i>. Shell internal, or absent; mantle restricted
+  to the anterior and middle part of the body; radula with
+  squarish teeth. <i>Arion</i>, British. <i>Geomalacus</i>. <i>Ariolimax</i>. <i>Anadenus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 7.&mdash;<i>Helicidae</i>. Shell with medium spire, external or partly
+  covered by the mantle; genital aperture below the right posterior
+  tentacle; genital apparatus generally provided with a
+  dart-sac and multifid vesicles. <i>Helix</i>, British. <i>Bulimus</i>.
+  <i>Hemphillia</i>. <i>Berendtia</i>. <i>Cochlostyla</i>. <i>Rhodea</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 8.&mdash;<i>Endodontidae</i>. Shell external, spiral, generally ornamented
+  with ribs; borders of aperture thin and not reflected;
+  radula with square teeth; genital ducts without accessory
+organs. <i>Endodonta.</i> <i>Punctum.</i> <i>Sphyradium.</i> <i>Laoma.</i> <i>Pyramidula.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 9.&mdash;<i>Orthalicidae.</i> Shell external, ovoid, the last whorl
+swollen, aperture oval with a simple border; radular teeth in
+oblique rows. <i>Orthalicus.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 10.&mdash;<i>Bulimulidae.</i> Jaw formed of folds imbricated externally
+and meeting at an acute angle near the base. <i>Bulimulus.</i>
+<i>Peltella.</i> <i>Amphibulimus.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 11.&mdash;<i>Cylindrellidae.</i> Shell turriculated, with numerous
+whorls, the last more or less detached. <i>Cylindrella.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 12.&mdash;<i>Pupidae.</i> Shell external, with elongated spire and
+numerous whorls, aperture generally narrow; male genital
+duct without multifid vesicles. <i>Pupa</i>, British. <i>Eucalodium.</i>
+<i>Vertigo</i>, British. <i>Buliminus</i>, British. <i>Clausilia</i>, British. <i>Balea.</i>
+<i>Zospeum.</i> <i>Megaspira.</i> <i>Strophia.</i> <i>Anostoma.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 13.&mdash;<i>Stenogyridae.</i> Shell elongated, with a more or less
+obtuse summit; aperture with a simple border. <i>Achatina.</i>
+<i>Stenogyra.</i> <i>Ferussacia</i>, British. <i>Cionella.</i> <i>Caecilianella.</i>
+<i>Azeca.</i> <i>Opeas.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 14.&mdash;<i>Helicteridae.</i> Shell bulimoid, dextral or sinistral;
+radular teeth, expanded at their extremities and multicuspidate.
+<i>Helicter.</i> <i>Tornatellina.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tribe 2.&mdash;<span class="sc">Agnatha.</span> No jaws; teeth narrow and pointed;
+carnivorous.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1.&mdash;<i>Oleacinidae.</i> Shell oval, elongated, with narrow aperture;
+neck very long; labial palps prominent. <i>Oleacina
+(Glandina).</i> <i>Streptostyla.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2.&mdash;<i>Testacellidae.</i> Shell globular or auriform, external or
+partly covered by the mantle. <i>Streptaxis.</i> <i>Gibbulina.</i> <i>Aerope.</i>
+<i>Rhytida.</i> <i>Daudebardia.</i> <i>Testacella.</i> <i>Chlamydophorus.</i> <i>Schizoglossa.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3.&mdash;<i>Rathouisiidae.</i> No shell, a carinated mantle covering
+the whole body; male and female apertures distant, the female
+near the anus. <i>Rathouisia.</i> <i>Atopos.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tribe 3.&mdash;<span class="sc">Elasmognatha.</span> Jaw with a well-developed dorsal
+appendage.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1.&mdash;<i>Succineidae.</i> Anterior tentacles much reduced; male
+and female apertures contiguous but distinct; shell thin,
+spiral, with short spire. <i>Succinea</i>, British. <i>Homalonyx.</i> <i>Hyalimax.</i>
+<i>Neohyalimax.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2.&mdash;<i>Janellidae.</i> Limaciform, with internal rounded shell;
+mantle very small and triangular; pulmonary chamber with
+tracheae; no anterior tentacles. <i>Janella.</i> <i>Aneitella.</i> <i>Aneitea.</i>
+<i>Triboniophorus.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tribe 4.&mdash;<span class="sc">Ditremata.</span> Male and female apertures distant.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1.&mdash;<i>Vaginulidae.</i> No shell; limaciform; terrestrial;
+female aperture on right side in middle of body; anus posterior.
+<i>Vaginula.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2.&mdash;<i>Oncidiidae.</i> No shell; limaciform; littoral; female
+aperture posterior, near anus; a reduced pulmonary cavity
+with a distinct aperture. <i>Oncidium.</i> <i>Oncidiella</i>, British.
+<i>Peronia.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;L. Boutan, &ldquo;La Cause principale de l&rsquo;asymétrie
+des mollusques gastéropodes,&rdquo; <i>Arch. de zool. expér.</i> (3), vii. (1899);
+A. Lang, &ldquo;Versuch einer Erklärung der Asymmetrie der Gastropoder,&rdquo;
+<i>Vierteljahrsschr. naturforsch. Gesellschaft</i>, Zürich, 36 (1892);
+A. Robert, &ldquo;Recherches sur le développement des Troques,&rdquo; <i>Arch.
+de zool. expér.</i> (3), x. (1903); P. Pelseneer, &ldquo;Report on the Pteropoda,&rdquo;
+<i>Zool. &ldquo;Challenger&rdquo; Expedit.</i> pts. lviii., lxv., lxvi. (1887,
+1888); P. Pelseneer, &ldquo;Protobranches aériens et Pulmonés branchifères,&rdquo;
+<i>Arch. de biol.</i> xiv. (1895); W.A. Herdman, &ldquo;On the Structure
+and Functions of the Cerata or Dorsal Papillae in some Nudibranchiate
+Mollusca,&rdquo; <i>Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.</i> (1892); J.T. Cunningham,
+&ldquo;On the Structure and Relations of the Kidney in Aplysia,&rdquo;
+<i>Mitt. Zool. Stat. Neapel</i>, iv. (1883); Böhmig, &ldquo;Zur feineren Anatomie
+von <i>Rhodope veranyi</i>, Kölliker,&rdquo; <i>Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool.</i> vol. lvi. (1893).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Treatises.</span>&mdash;S.P. Woodward, <i>Manual of the Mollusca</i> (2nd ed.,
+with appendix, London, 1869); E. Forbes and S. Hanley, <i>History
+of British Mollusca</i> (4 vols., London, 1853); Alder and Hancock,
+<i>Monograph of British Nudibranchiate Mollusca</i> (London, Roy.
+Society, 1845); P. Pelseneer, <i>Mollusca. Treatise on Zool.</i>, edited
+by E. Ray Lankester, pt. v. (1906); E. Ray Lankester, &ldquo;Mollusca,&rdquo;
+in 9th ed. of this Encyclopaedia, to which this article is much indebted.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. T. C)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:217px; height:531px" src="images/img527.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From <i>Zeitschrift für Wissenschaft
+Zoologie</i>, vol. xlix. p. 209,
+by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><i>Chaetonotus maximus</i>,
+Ehrb., ventral side. (After
+Zelinka.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>Bo</i>, Bristles surrounding the mouth.</p>
+<p><i>ds</i>, Dorsal bristles.</p>
+<p><i>hCi</i>, Posterior lateral cilia.</p>
+<p><i>Ke</i>, Cuticular dome.</p>
+<p><i>Mr</i>, Oral cavity.</p>
+<p><i>lT</i>, Lateral sensory hairs.</p>
+<p><i>Pl</i>, Cuticular plates.</p>
+<p><i>Sa</i>, Dorsal bristle of the basal part.</p>
+<p><i>Sch</i>, Plates.</p>
+<p><i>Se</i>, Lateral bristles.</p>
+<p><i>Vb</i>, Point of union of ciliated tract.</p>
+<p><i>vCi</i>, Anterior group of cilia.</p>
+<p><i>vS</i>, Ventral bristles of the basal part.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">GASTROTRICHA<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span>, a small group of fairly uniform animals
+which live among Rotifers and Protozoa at the bottom of ponds
+and marshes, biding amongst the recesses of the algae and
+sphagnum and other fresh-water plants and eating organic
+débris and Infusoria. They are of minute size varying from one-sixtieth
+to one-three-hundredth of an inch, and they move by
+means of long cilia. Two ventral bands composed of regular
+transverse rows of cilia are usually found. The head bears some
+especially large cilia. The cuticle which covers the body is here
+and there raised into overlapping scales which may be prolonged
+into bristles. An enlarged, frontal scale may cover the head, and
+a row of scales separates the ventral ciliated areas from one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page527" id="page527"></a>527</span>
+another, whilst two series of alternating rows cover the back and
+side. The body, otherwise circular in section, is slightly flattened
+ventrally. The mouth is anterior and slightly ventral; it leads
+into a protrusible pharynx armed with recurved teeth that can be
+everted. This leads to a muscular
+oesophagus with a triradiate lumen,
+which acts as a sucking pump and
+ends in a funnel-valve projecting
+into the stomach. The last named
+is oval and formed of four rows of
+large cells; it is separated by a
+sphincter from the rectum, which
+opens posteriorly and dorsally.
+The nitrogenous excretory apparatus
+consists of a coiled tube on each
+side of the stomach; internally the
+tubes end in large flame-cells, and
+externally by small pores which lie
+on the edges of the ventral row of
+scales. A cerebral ganglion rests on
+the oesophagus and supplies the
+cephalic cilia and hairs; it is continued
+some way back as two dorsal
+nerve trunks. The sense organs are
+the hairs and bristles and in some
+species eyes. The muscles are simple
+and unstriated and for the most part
+run longitudinally.</p>
+
+<p>The two ovaries lie at the level of
+the juncture of the stomach and
+rectum. The eggs become very
+large, sometimes half the length of
+the mother; they are laid amongst
+water weeds. The male reproductive
+system is but little known, a small
+gland lying between the ovaries has
+been thought to be a testis, and if
+it be, the Gastrotricha are hermaphrodite.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Zelinka classifies the group as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Sub-order 1.&mdash;<span class="sc">Euichthydina</span> with a
+forked tail.</p>
+
+<p>(i.) Fam. Ichthydidae, without
+bristles. Genera: <i>Ichthydium</i>, <i>Lepidoderma</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(ii.) Fam. Chaetonotidae, with
+bristles. Genera: <i>Chaetonotus</i>,
+<i>Chaetura</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-order 2.&mdash;<span class="sc">Apodina</span>, tail not
+forked. Genera: <i>Dasydytes</i>, <i>Gossea</i>,
+<i>Stylochaeta</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The genus <i>Aspidiophorus</i> recently
+described by Voigt seems in some
+respects intermediate between <i>Lepidoderma</i> and <i>Chaetonotus</i>.
+<i>Zelinkia</i> and <i>Philosyrtis</i> are two slightly aberrant forms described
+by Giard from certain diatomaceous sands. Altogether there must
+be some forty to fifty described species.</p>
+
+<p>The group is an isolated one and shows no clear affinities with any
+of the great phyla. Those that are usually dwelt on are treated
+with the Rotifers and Nematoda and Turbellaria.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;A.C. Stokes, <i>The Microscope</i> (Detroit, 1887-1888);
+C. Zelinka, <i>Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.</i> xlix., 1890, p. 209; M. Voigt,
+<i>Forschber. Plön.</i> Th. ix., 1904, p. 1; A. Giard, <i>C. R. Soc. Biol.</i> lvi.
+pp. 1061 and 1063; E. Daday, <i>Termes. Fuzetek.</i> xxiv. p. 1; F.
+Zschokke, <i>Denk. Schweiz. Ges.</i> xxxvii. p. 109; S. Hlava, <i>Zool. Anz.</i>
+xxviii., 1905, p. 331.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. E. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">GATAKER, THOMAS<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1574-1654), English divine, was born
+in London in September 1574, and educated at St John&rsquo;s College,
+Cambridge. From 1601 to 1611 he held the appointment of
+preacher to the society of Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn, which he resigned on
+accepting the rectory of Rotherhithe. In 1642 he was chosen a
+member of the assembly of divines at Westminster, and annotated
+for that assembly the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Lamentations.
+He disapproved of the introduction of the Covenant,
+and declared himself in favour of episcopacy. He was one of
+the forty-seven London clergymen who disapproved of the
+trial of Charles I. He was married four times, and died in July
+1654.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His principal works, besides some volumes of sermons are&mdash;<i>On
+the Nature and Use of Lots</i> (1619), a curious treatise which led to his
+being accused of favouring games of chance; <i>Dissertatio de stylo
+Novi Testamenti</i> (1648); <i>Cinnus, sive Adversaria miscellanea, in
+quibus Sacrae Scripturae primo, deinde aliorum scriptorum, locis
+aliquam multis lux redditur</i> (1651), to which was afterwards subjoined
+<i>Adversaria Posthuma</i>; and his edition of <i>Marcus Antoninus</i>
+(1652), which, according to Hallam, is the &ldquo;earliest edition of any
+classical writer published in England with original annotations,&rdquo;
+and, for the period at which it was written, possesses remarkable
+merit. His collected works were published at Utrecht in 1698.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GATCHINA<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span>, a town of Russia, in the government of St Petersburg,
+29 m. by rail S. of the city of St Petersburg, in 59° 34&prime; N. and
+30° 6&prime; E. Pop. (1860) 9184; (1897) 14,735. It is situated in a
+flat, well-wooded, and partly marshy district, and on the south
+side of the town are two lakes. Among its more important
+buildings are the imperial palace, which was founded in 1770 by
+Prince Orlov, and constructed according to the plans of the
+Italian architect Rinaldi; a military orphanage, founded in
+1803; and a school for horticulture. Among the few industrial
+establishments is a porcelain factory. At Gatchina an alliance
+was concluded between Russia and Sweden on the 29th of October
+1799.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GATE<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span>, an opening into any enclosure for entrance or exit,
+capable of being closed by a barrier at will. The word is of wide
+application, embracing not only the defensive entrance ways into
+a fortified place, with which this article mainly deals, or the
+imposing architectural features which form the main entrances to
+palaces, colleges, monastic buildings, &amp;c., but also the common
+five-barred barrier which closes an opening into a field. The most
+general distinction that can be made between &ldquo;door&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;gate&rdquo; is that of size, the greater entrance into a court containing
+other buildings being the &ldquo;gate,&rdquo; the smaller entrances
+opening directly into the particular buildings the &ldquo;doors,&rdquo; or
+that of construction, the whole entrance way being a &ldquo;gate&rdquo; or
+gateway, the barrier which closes it a &ldquo;door.&rdquo; A further distinction
+is drawn by applying &ldquo;door&rdquo; to the solid barriers or
+&ldquo;valves&rdquo; of wood, metal, &amp;c., made in panels and fitted to a
+framework, and &ldquo;gate&rdquo; to an openwork structure, whether of
+metal or wood (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Door</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metal-work</a></span>). The
+ultimate origin of the word is obscure; the early forms appear
+with a palatalized initial letter, still surviving in such dialectical
+forms as &ldquo;yate,&rdquo; or in Scots &ldquo;yett.&rdquo; It is probably connected
+with the root of &ldquo;get,&rdquo; in the sense either of &ldquo;means of access&rdquo;
+or of &ldquo;holding,&rdquo; &ldquo;receptacle&rdquo;; cf. Dutch <i>gat</i>, hole. There may be
+a connexion, however, with &ldquo;gate,&rdquo; now usually spelled &ldquo;gait,&rdquo;
+a manner of walking,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> but originally a way, passage; cf. Ger.
+<i>Gasse</i>, narrow street, lane.</p>
+
+<p>The entrance through the enclosing walls of a city or fortification
+has been from the earliest times a place of the utmost
+importance, considered architecturally, socially or from the point
+of view of the military engineer. In the East the &ldquo;gate&rdquo; was
+and still is in many Mahommedan countries the central place of
+civic life. Here was the seat of justice and of audience, the most
+important market-place, the spot where men gathered to receive
+and exchange news. The references in the Bible to the gates of
+the city in all these varied aspects are innumerable (cf. Gen. xix.
+1; Deut. xxv. 7; Ruth iv. 1; 2 Sam. xix. 8; 2 Kings vii. 1). Later
+the seat of justice and of government is transferred to the gate of
+the palace of the king (cf. Dan. ii. 49, and Esther ii. 19), and this
+use is preserved to-day in the official title of the seat of government
+of the Turkish empire at Constantinople, the &ldquo;Sublime
+Porte,&rdquo; a translation of the Turkish <i>Bab Aliy</i> (<i>bab</i>, gate, and <i>aliy</i>,
+high). A full account with many modern instances of Eastern
+customs will be found in Sir Charles Warren&rsquo;s article &ldquo;Gate&rdquo; in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528"></a>528</span>
+Hastings&rsquo;s <i>Dict. of Bible</i>. For the &ldquo;pylon,&rdquo; the typical gate of
+Egyptian architecture, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The gates into a walled town or other fortified place were
+necessarily in early times the chief points on which the attack
+concentrated, and the features, common throughout the ages, of
+flanking or surmounting towers and of galleries over the entrance
+way, are found in the Assyrian gate at Khorsabad (cf. 2 Chron.
+xxvi. 9; 2 Sam. xviii. 24). With the coming of peaceful times to
+a city or the removal of the fear of sudden attack, the gateways
+would take a form adapted more for ready exit and entrance
+than for defence, though the possibility of defending them was
+not forgotten. Such city gates often had separate openings
+for entrance and exit, and again for foot passengers and for
+vehicles. The Gallo-Roman gate at Autun has four entrances,
+two just wide enough to admit carriages, and two narrow alleys
+for foot passengers. A fine example of a Roman city gate, dating
+from the time of Constantine, is at Trèves. It is four storeys
+high, with ornamental windows, and decorated with columns
+on each storey. The two outer wings project beyond the central
+part, the two entrance ways are 14 ft. wide, and could be closed by
+doors and a portcullis. The chambers in the storeys above were
+used for the purposes of civil administration. In more modern
+times city gateways have often followed the type of the Roman
+triumphal arch, with a single wide opening and purely ornamental
+superstructure. On the other hand, the defensive gate formed
+by an archway entering as it were through a tower has been
+constantly followed as a type of entrance to buildings of an
+entirely peaceful character. A fine example of such a gateway,
+originally built for defence, is at Battle Abbey; this was built
+by Abbot Retlynge in 1338, when Edward III. granted a licence
+to fortify and crenellate the abbey. Such gateways are typical
+of Tudor palaces, as at St James&rsquo;s or at Hampton Court, and are
+the most common form in the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge.
+The Tom Gate at Christ Church, Oxford, with its surmounted
+domed bell tower, or the cupola resting on columns at Queen&rsquo;s
+College, Oxford, are further examples of the gate architecturally
+considered.</p>
+
+<p>The changes the fortified gateway has undergone in construction
+and the varying relative importance it has held in the scheme
+of defence follow the lines of development taken by the history
+of <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fortification and Siegecraft</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>). The following is a
+short sketch of the main stages in its history. A good example
+of the Roman fortified city gate still remains at Pompeii. Here
+there is one passage way for vehicles, 14 ft. wide; this is open to
+the sky. The two footways on either side are arched, with
+openings in the centre on to the central way. The doors of the
+gate are on the city side, but a portcullis (<i>cataracta</i>) closed it
+on the country side. The gateways of the Roman permanent
+camps (<i>castra stativa</i>) were four in number, the <i>porta praetoria</i>
+and <i>Decumana</i> at either end, with <i>principalis dextra</i> and <i>sinistra</i>
+on the side (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Camp</a></span>). At Pevensey (<i>Anderida</i>) a small
+postern on the north side of the Roman walls was laid bare
+in 1906-1907, in which the passage curves in the thickness of the
+wall, and from a width admitting two men abreast narrows so
+that one alone could block it. Flanking towers or bastions
+guarded the main entrances, while in front were built outworks,
+of palisades, &amp;c., to protect it; these were known as <i>procastra</i>
+or <i>antemuralia</i>, and the entrances to these were placed
+so that they could be flanked from the main walls.</p>
+
+<p>In the defence of a fortified place the gate had not only to be
+protected from sudden surprise, but also had to undergo protracted
+attacks concentrated upon it during a siege. Thus until
+the coming of gunpowder, the ingenuity of military engineers
+was exhausted in accumulating the most complicated defences
+round the gateways, and the strength of a fortified place could
+be estimated by the fewness of its gates. Viollet-le-Duc (<i>Dict.
+de l&rsquo;arch. du moyen âge</i>, s.v. <i>Porte</i>) takes the Narbonne and Aude
+gates (E. and W.) of Carcassonne as typical instances of this
+complication. The following brief account of the Narbonne
+Gate (fig. 1), one of the principal parts of the work on the fortifications
+begun by Philip the Bold in 1285, will give some idea of
+the varied means of defence, which may be found individually if
+not always in such collective abundance in the fortified gateways
+of the middle ages. Two massive towers flanked the actual
+entrance and were linked across by an iron chain; over the
+entrance (E) was a machicolation, further added to in time of
+war by a hoarding of timber; and an outer portcullis fell in
+front of the heavy iron-lined doors. On to the passage way
+between the first and second doors opened a square machicolation
+(G) from which the defenders in the upper chambers of the gate
+could attack an enemy that had succeeded in breaking through
+the first entrance or had been trapped by the falling of the first
+portcullis. Another machicolation (I) opened from the roof in
+front of the second portcullis and second door. So much for the
+gate itself; but before an attack could reach that point, the
+following defences had to be passed: an immense circular
+barbican (A) protected the entrance across the moat and through
+the outer <i>enceinte</i> of the city. This entrance was flanked by a
+masked return of the wall (C), while palisades (P) still further
+hampered the assailant in his passage across the &ldquo;lists&rdquo; to the
+foot of the gate towers. Here sappers would find themselves
+exposed to a fire from the loopholes and from the machicolated
+hoardings above them, while the projecting horns with which
+the face of the towers terminated forced them to uncover themselves
+to a flanking fire from the indents in the main curtain on
+either side of the towers.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:415px; height:316px" src="images/img528.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Plan of the Narbonne Gate of the city of Carcassonne.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The later history of the gateway is merged in that of modern
+fortification. The more elaborate the gate defences the greater
+was the inducement for the besieger to attack the walls, and
+improvements in methods of siegecraft ultimately compelled the
+defender to develop the <i>enceinte</i> from its medieval form of a ring
+wall with flanking towers to the 17th century form of bastions,
+curtains, tenailles and ravelins, all intimately connected in one
+general scheme of defence. By Vauban&rsquo;s time there is little to
+distinguish the position and defences of the gateways from the
+rest of the fortifications surrounding a town. A road from the
+country usually entered one of the ravelins, sinking into the
+glacis, crossing the ditch of the ravelin and piercing the parapet
+almost at right angles to its proper direction (see fig. 2, which
+also shows a typical arrangement of minor communications
+such as ramps and staircases). From the interior of the ravelin
+it passed across the main ditch to a gate in the curtain of the
+enceinte. The road was in fact artificially made to wind in such a
+way that it was kept under fire from the defences throughout, while
+the part of it inside the works was bent so as to place a covering
+mass between the enemy&rsquo;s fire and troops using the road for a
+sortie. Thus the gate itself was merely a barrier against a <i>coup
+de main</i> and to keep out unauthorized persons. In conditions
+precluding the making of a breach in the walls, <i>i.e.</i> in surprises
+and assaults <i>de vive force</i>, the gateway and accompanying
+drawbridge continue to play their part in the 16th, 17th and
+18th centuries, but they seldom or never appear as the objectives
+of a siege <i>en règle</i>. In Vauban&rsquo;s works, and those of most other
+engineers, there was generally a postern giving access to the
+floor of the main ditch, in the centre of the curtain escarp. The
+gates of Vauban&rsquo;s and later fortresses are strong heavy wooden
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529"></a>529</span>
+doors, and the gateways more or less ornamental archways,
+exactly as in many private mansions of castellar form. In
+modern fortresses the gate of a detached fort or an <i>enceinte de
+sureté</i> is intended purely as a defence against an unexpected
+rush. The usual method is to have two gates, the outer one a
+lattice or portcullis of iron bars and the inner one a plate of half-inch
+steel armour, backed by wood and loopholed. The defenders
+of the gate can by this arrangement fire from the inner loopholes
+through the outer gate upon the approaches, and also keep the
+enemy under fire whilst he is trying to force the outer gate
+itself. The ditches are crossed either by drawbridges or by ramps
+leading the road down to the floor of the ditch.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:476px; height:349px" src="images/img529.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Plan of Gate Arrangements of an 18th Century Fortress.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;gate&rdquo; as a barrier to be removed and as an entrance
+to be passed is of constant occurrence in figurative language
+and in symbolical usage. The gates of the temple of Janus (<i>q.v.</i>)
+at Rome stood open in war and closed in peace. The <i>pylon</i> of
+ancient Egypt had a symbolical meaning in the Book of the Dead,
+and religious significance attaches to the <i>torii</i>, one of the outward
+signs of the Shinto religion in Japan, the Buddhist <i>toran</i>, and to
+the Chinese <i>pai-loo</i>, the honorific gateways erected to ancestors.
+The gates of heaven and hell, the gates of death and darkness,
+the wide and narrow gates that lead to destruction and life
+(Matt. vii. 13 and 14), are familiar metaphorical phrases in the
+Bible. In Greek and Roman legend dreams pass through
+gates of transparent horn if true, if deceptive and false
+through opaque gates of ivory (Hom. <i>Od</i>. xix. 560 sq.; Virg.
+<i>Aen</i>. vi. 893).</p>
+<div class="author">(C. We.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The spelling &ldquo;gait&rdquo; is confined to this meaning&mdash;the only literary
+one surviving. In the form &ldquo;gate&rdquo; it appears dialectally in this
+sense and in such particular meanings as a right to run cattle on
+common or private ground or as a passage way in mines. The principal
+survival is in names of streets in the north and midlands of
+England and in Scotland, <i>e.g.</i> Briggate at Leeds, Wheeler Gate and
+Castle Gate at Nottingham, Gallow Tree Gate at Leicester, and
+Canongate and Cowgate at Edinburgh.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GATEHOUSE<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span>. In the second half of the 16th century in
+England the entrance gateway, which formed part of the principal
+front of the earlier feudal castles, became a detached feature
+attached to the mansions only by a wall enclosing the entrance
+court. The gatehouse then constituted a structure of some
+importance, and included sometimes many rooms as at Stanway
+Hall, Gloucestershire, where it measures 44 ft. by 22 ft. and has
+three storeys; at Westwood, Worcestershire, it had a frontage
+of 54 ft. with two storeys; and at Burton Agnes, Yorkshire,
+it was still larger and was flanked by great octagonal towers
+at the angles and had three storeys. At a later period smaller
+accommodation was provided so that it virtually became a lodge,
+but being designed to harmonize with the mansion it presented
+sometimes a monumental structure. On the continent of
+Europe the gatehouse forms a much more important building,
+as it formed part of the town fortifications, where it sometimes
+defended the passage of a bridge across the stream or moat.
+There are numerous examples in France and Germany.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GATES, HORATIO<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1728-1806), American general, was born
+at Maldon in Essex, England, in 1728. He entered the English
+army at an early age, and was rapidly promoted. He accompanied
+General Braddock in his disastrous expedition against
+Fort Duquesne in 1755, and was severely wounded in the battle
+of July 9; and he saw other active service in the Seven Years&rsquo;
+War. After the peace of 1763 he purchased an estate in Virginia,
+where he lived till the outbreak of the War of Independence in
+1775, when he was named by Congress adjutant-general. In 1776
+he was appointed to command the troops which had lately
+retreated from Canada, and in August 1777, as a result of a
+successful intrigue, was appointed to supersede General Philip
+Schuyler in command of the Northern Department. In the two
+battles of Saratoga (<i>q.v.</i>) his army defeated General Burgoyne,
+who, on the 17th of October, was forced to surrender his whole
+army. This success was, however, largely due to the previous
+man&oelig;uvres of Schuyler and to Gates&rsquo;s subordinate officers. The
+intrigues of the Conway Cabal to have Washington superseded
+by Gates completely failed, but Gates was president for a time
+of the Board of War, and in 1780 was placed in chief command in
+the South. He was totally defeated at Camden, S. C., by Cornwallis
+on the 17th of August 1780, and in December was superseded
+by Greene, though an investigation into his conduct
+terminated in acquittal (1782). He then retired to his Virginian
+estate, whence he removed to New York in 1790, after emancipating
+his slaves and providing for those who needed assistance.
+He died in New York on the 10th of April 1806.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GATESHEAD<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span>, a municipal, county and parliamentary
+borough of Durham, England; on the S. bank of the Tyne
+opposite Newcastle, and on the North Eastern railway. Pop.
+(1891) 85,692; (1901) 109,888. Though one of the largest
+towns in the county, neither its streets nor its public buildings,
+except perhaps its ecclesiastical buildings, have much claim
+to architectural beauty. The parish church of St Mary is an
+ancient cruciform edifice surmounted by a lofty tower; but
+extensive restoration was necessitated by a fire in 1854 which
+destroyed a considerable part of the town. The town-hall, public
+library and mechanic&rsquo;s institute are noteworthy buildings.
+Education is provided by a grammar school, a large day school
+for girls, and technical and art schools. There is a service of
+steam trams in the principal streets, and three fine bridges
+connect the town with Newcastle-upon-Tyne. There are large
+iron works (including foundries and factories for engines, boilers,
+chains and cables), shipbuilding yards, glass manufactories,
+chemical, soap and candle works, brick and tile works, breweries
+and tanneries. The town also contains a depot of the North
+Eastern railway, with large stores and locomotive works. Extensive
+coal mines exist in the vicinity; and at Gateshead Fell are
+large quarries for grindstones, which are much esteemed and are
+exported to all parts of the world. Large gas-works of the
+Newcastle and Gateshead Gas Company are also situated in the
+borough. The parliamentary borough returns one member.
+The corporation consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen, and 27
+councillors. Area, 3132 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Gateshead (Gateshewed) probably grew up during late Saxon
+times, the mention of the church there in which Bishop Walcher
+was murdered in 1080 being the first evidence of settlement.
+The borough probably obtained its charter during the following
+century, for Hugh de Puiset, bishop of Durham (1153-1195),
+confirmed to his burgesses similar rights to those of the burgesses
+of Newcastle, freedom of toll within the palatinate and other
+privileges. The bishop had a park here in 1348, and in 1438
+Bishop Nevill appointed a keeper of the &ldquo;tower.&rdquo; The position
+of the town led to a struggle with Newcastle over both fishing
+and trading rights. An inquisition of 1322 declared that the
+water of the Tyne was divided into three parts: the northern,
+belonging to Northumberland; the southern to Durham; and
+the central, common to all. At another inquisition held in 1336
+the men of Gateshead claimed liberty of trading and fishing
+along the coast of Durham, and freedom to sell their fish where
+they would. In 1552, on the temporary extinction of the
+diocese of Durham, Gateshead was attached to Newcastle, but
+in 1554 was regranted to Bishop Tunstall. As compensation
+the bishop granted to Newcastle, at a nominal rent, the Gateshead
+salt-meadows, with rights of way to the High Street, thus
+abolishing the toll previously paid to the bishop. During the
+next century Bishop Tunstall&rsquo;s successors incorporated nearly
+all the various trades of Gateshead, and Cromwell continued
+this policy. The town government during this period was by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530"></a>530</span>
+the bishop&rsquo;s bailiff, and the holders of the burgages composed
+the juries of the bishop&rsquo;s courts leet and baron. No charter of
+incorporation is extant, but in 1563 contests were carried on
+under the name of the bailiffs, burgesses and commonalty, and
+a list of borough accounts exists for 1696. The bishop appointed
+the last borough bailiff in 1681, and though the inhabitants in
+1772 petitioned for a bailiff the town remained under a steward
+and grassmen until the 19th century. As part of the palatinate
+of Durham, Gateshead was not represented in parliament until
+1832. At the inquisition of 1336 the burgesses claimed an annual
+fair on St Peter&rsquo;s Day, and depositions in 1577 mention a borough
+market held on Tuesday and Friday, but these were apparently
+extinct in Camden&rsquo;s day, and no grant of them is extant. The
+medieval trade seems to have centred round the fisheries and the
+neighbouring coal mines which are mentioned in 1364 and also
+by Leland.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GATH<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span>, one of the five chief cities of the Philistines. It is
+frequently mentioned in the historical books of the Old Testament,
+and from Amos vi. 2 we conclude that, like Ashdod, it fell to
+Sargon in 711. Its site appears to have been known in the 4th
+century, but the name is now lost. Eusebius (in the <i>Onomasticon</i>)
+places it near the road from Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrïn) to
+Diospolis (Ludd) about five Roman miles from the former. The
+Roman road between these two towns is still traceable, and its
+milestones remain in places. East of the road at the required
+distance rises a white cliff, almost isolated, 300 ft. high and
+full of caves. On the top is the little mud village of Tell e&#7779;-&#7778;&#257;fi
+(&ldquo;the shining mound&rdquo;), and beside the village is the mound
+which marks the site of the Crusaders&rsquo; castle of Blanchegarde
+(Alba Custodia), built in 1144. Tell e&#7779;-&#7778;&#257;fi was known by its
+present name as far back as the 12th century; but it appears
+not improbable that the strong site here existing represents
+the ancient Gath. The cliff stands on the south side of the
+mouth of the Valley of Elah, and Gath appears to have been
+near this valley (1 Sam. xvii. 2, 52). This identification is not
+certain, but it is at least much more probable than the theory
+which makes Gath, Eleutheropolis, and Beit Jibrïn one and the
+same place. The site was partially excavated by the Palestine
+Exploration Fund in 1899, and remains extending in date
+back to the early Canaanite period were discovered.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GATLING, RICHARD JORDAN<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1818-1903), American inventor,
+was born in Hertford county, North Carolina, on the
+12th of September 1818. He was the son of a well-to-do planter
+and slave-owner, from whom he inherited a genius for mechanical
+invention and whom he assisted in the construction and perfecting
+of machines for sowing cotton seeds, and for thinning the plants.
+He was well educated and was successively a school teacher and a
+merchant, spending all his spare time in developing new inventions.
+In 1839 he perfected a practical screw propeller for steamboats,
+only to find that a patent had been granted to John
+Ericsson for a similar invention a few months earlier. He established
+himself in St Louis, Missouri, and taking the cotton-sowing
+machine as a basis he adapted it for sowing rice, wheat and
+other grains, and established factories for its manufacture. The
+introduction of these machines did much to revolutionize the
+agricultural system in the country. Becoming interested in the
+study of medicine through an attack of smallpox, he completed a
+course at the Ohio Medical College, taking his M.D. degree in 1850.
+In the same year he invented a hemp-breaking machine, and in
+1857 a steam plough. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was
+living in Indianapolis, and devoted himself at once to the perfecting
+of fire-arms. In 1861 he conceived the idea of the rapid fire
+machine-gun which is associated with his name. By 1862 he
+had succeeded in perfecting a gun that would discharge 350
+shots per minute; but the war was practically over before the
+Federal authorities consented to its official adoption. From that
+time, however, the success of the invention was assured, and
+within ten years it had been adopted by almost every civilized
+nation. Gatling died in New York City on the 26th of February
+1903.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GATTY, MARGARET<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1809-1873), English writer, daughter of
+the Rev. Alexander Scott (1768-1840), chaplain to Lord Nelson,
+was born at Burnham, Essex, in 1809. She early began to draw
+and to etch on copper, being a regular visitor to the print-room
+of the British Museum from the age of ten. She also illuminated
+on vellum, copying the old strawberry borders and designing
+initials. In 1839 Margaret Scott married the Rev. Alfred Gatty,
+D.D., vicar of Ecclesfield near Sheffield, subdean of York
+cathedral, and the author of various works both secular and religious.
+In 1842 she published in association with her husband a
+life of her father; but her first independent work was <i>The Fairy
+Godmother and other Tales</i>, which appeared in 1851. This was
+followed in 1855 by the first of five volumes of <i>Parables from
+Nature</i>, the last being published in 1871. It was under the <i>nom
+de plume</i> of Aunt Judy, as a pleasant and instructive writer for
+children, that Mrs Gatty was most widely known. Before starting
+<i>Aunt Judy&rsquo;s Magazine</i> in May 1866, she had brought out
+<i>Aunt Judy&rsquo;s Tales</i> (1858) and <i>Aunt Judy&rsquo;s Letters</i> (1862), and
+among the other children&rsquo;s books which she subsequently
+published were <i>Aunt Judy&rsquo;s Song Book for Children</i> and <i>The
+Mother&rsquo;s Book of Poetry</i>. &ldquo;Aunt Judy&rdquo; was the nickname given
+by her daughter Juliana Horatia Ewing (<i>q.v.</i>). The editor of the
+magazine was on the friendliest terms with her young correspondents
+and subscribers, and her success was largely due to the
+sympathy which enabled her to look at things from the child&rsquo;s
+point of view. Besides other excellences her children&rsquo;s books
+are specially characterized by wholesomeness of sentiment and
+cheerful humour. Her miscellaneous writings include, in addition
+to several volumes of tales, <i>The Old Folks from Home</i>, an account
+of a holiday ramble in Ireland; <i>The Travels and Adventures of
+Dr Wolff the Missionary</i> (1861), an autobiography edited by
+her; <i>British Sea Weeds</i> (1862); <i>Waifs and Strays of Natural
+History</i> (1871); <i>A Book of Emblems</i> and <i>The Book of Sun-Dials</i>
+(1872). She died at Ecclesfield vicarage on the 4th of
+October 1873.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAU, JOHN<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1495-? 1553), Scottish translator, was born at
+Perth towards the close of the 15th century. He was educated
+in St Salvator&rsquo;s College at St Andrews. He appears to have been
+in residence at Malmö in 1533, perhaps as chaplain to the Scots
+community there. In that year John Hochstraten, the exiled
+Antwerp printer, issued a book by Gau entitled: <i>The Richt vay
+to the Kingdome of Heuine</i>, of which the chief interest is that it is
+the first Scottish book written on the side of the Reformers. It is
+a translation of Christiern Pedersen&rsquo;s <i>Den rette vey till Hiemmerigis
+Rige</i> (Antwerp, 1531), for the most part direct, but showing
+intimate knowledge in places of the German edition of Urbanus
+Rhegius. Only one copy of Gau&rsquo;s text is extant, in the library of
+Britwell Court, Bucks. It has been assumed that all the copies
+were shipped from Malmö to Scotland, and that the cargo was
+intercepted by the Scottish officers on the look out for the
+heretical works which were printed abroad in large numbers.
+This may explain the silence of all the historians of the Reformed
+Church&mdash;Knox, Calderwood and Spottiswood. Gau married in
+1536 a Malmö citizen&rsquo;s daughter, bearing the Christian name
+Birgitta. She died in 1551, and he in or about 1553.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first reference to the <i>Richt Vay</i> appeared in Chalmers&rsquo;s
+<i>Caledonia</i>, ii. 616. Chalmers, who was the owner of the unique
+volume before it passed into the Britwell Court collection, considered
+it to be an original work. David Laing printed extracts for the
+Bannatyne Club (<i>Miscellany</i>, iii., 1855). The evidence that the
+book is a translation was first given by Sonnenstein Wendt in a
+paper &ldquo;Om Reformatorerna i Malmö,&rdquo; in Rördam&rsquo;s <i>Ny Kirkehistoriske
+Samlinger</i>, ii. (Copenhagen, 1860). A complete edition was
+edited by A.F. Mitchell for the Scottish Text Society (1888). See
+also Lorimer&rsquo;s <i>Patrick Hamilton</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAUDEN, JOHN<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1605-1662), English bishop and writer,
+reputed author of the <i>Eikon Basilike</i>, was born in 1605 at Mayland,
+Essex, where his father was vicar of the parish. Educated
+at Bury St Edmunds school and at St John&rsquo;s College, Cambridge,
+he took his M.A. degree in 1625/6. He married Elizabeth,
+daughter of Sir William Russell of Chippenham, Cambridgeshire,
+and was tutor at Oxford to two of his wife&rsquo;s brothers. He seems
+to have remained at Oxford until 1630, when he became vicar of
+Chippenham. His sympathies were at first with the parliamentary
+party. He was chaplain to Robert Rich, second earl of
+Warwick, and preached before the House of Commons in 1640.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page531" id="page531"></a>531</span>
+In 1641 he was appointed to the rural deanery of Bocking.
+Apparently his views changed as the revolutionary tendency of
+the Presbyterian party became more pronounced, for in 1648/9
+he addressed to Lord Fairfax <i>A Religious and Loyal Protestation</i>
+... against the proceedings of the parliament. Under
+the Commonwealth he faced both ways, keeping his ecclesiastical
+preferment, but publishing from time to time pamphlets on behalf
+of the Church of England. At the Restoration he was made
+bishop of Exeter. He immediately began to complain to Hyde,
+earl of Clarendon, of the poverty of the see, and based claims for a
+better benefice on a certain secret service, which he explained on
+the 20th of January 1661 to be the sole invention of the <i>Eikon
+Basilike, The Pourtraicture of his sacred Majestie in his Solitudes
+and Sufferings</i> put forth within a few hours after the execution of
+Charles I. as written by the king himself. To which Clarendon
+replied that he had been before acquainted with the secret and
+had often wished he had remained ignorant of it. Gauden
+was advanced in 1662, not as he had wished to the see of
+Winchester, but to Worcester. He died on the 23rd of May of
+the same year.</p>
+
+<p>The evidence in favour of Gauden&rsquo;s authorship rests chiefly on
+his own assertions and those of his wife (who after his death sent
+to her son John a narrative of the claim), and on the fact that it
+was admitted by Clarendon, who <span class="correction" title="amended from sould">should</span> have had means of being
+acquainted with the truth. Gauden&rsquo;s letters on the subject are
+printed in the appendix to vol. iii. of the <i>Clarendon Papers</i>. The
+argument is that Gauden had prepared the book to inspire
+sympathy with the king by a representation of his pious and
+forgiving disposition, and so to rouse public opinion against his
+execution. In 1693 further correspondence between Gauden,
+Clarendon, the duke of York, and Sir Edward Nicholas was
+published by Mr Arthur North, who had found them among the
+papers of his sister-in-law, a daughter-in-law of Bishop Gauden;
+but doubt has been thrown on the authenticity of these papers.
+Gauden stated that he had begun the book in 1647 and was
+entirely responsible for it. But it is contended that the work was
+in existence at Naseby,<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and testimony to Charles&rsquo;s authorship
+is brought forward from various witnesses who had seen Charles
+himself occupied with it at various times during his imprisonment.
+It is stated that the MS. was delivered by one of the king&rsquo;s agents
+to Edward Symmons, rector of Raine, near Bocking, and that it
+was in the handwriting of Oudart, Sir Edward Nicholas&rsquo;s secretary.
+The internal evidence has, as is usual in such cases, been brought
+forward as a conclusive argument in favour of both contentions.
+Doubt was thrown on Charles&rsquo;s authorship in Milton&rsquo;s <i>Eikonoklastes</i>
+(1649), which was followed almost immediately by a royalist
+answer, <i>The Princely Pelican. Royall Resolves&mdash;Extracted from
+his Majesty&rsquo;s Divine Meditations, with satisfactory reasons ...
+that his Sacred Person was the only Author of them</i> (1649). The
+history of the whole controversy, which has been several times
+renewed, was dealt with in Christopher Wordsworth&rsquo;s tracts in
+a most exhaustive way. He eloquently advocated Charles&rsquo;s
+authorship. Since he wrote in 1829, some further evidence has
+been forthcoming in favour of the Naseby copy. A correspondence
+relating to the French translation of the work has also
+come to light among the papers of Sir Edward Nicholas. None of
+the letters show any doubt that King Charles was the author.
+S.R. Gardiner (<i>Hist. of the Great Civil War</i>, iv. 325) regards Mr
+Doble&rsquo;s articles in the <i>Academy</i> (May and June 1883) as finally
+disposing of Charles&rsquo;s claim to the authorship, but this is by no
+means the attitude of other recent writers. If Gauden was the
+author, he may have incorporated papers, &amp;c., by Charles, who
+may have corrected the work and thus been joint-author. This
+theory would reconcile the conflicting evidence, that of those who
+saw Charles writing parts and read the MS. before publication,
+and the deliberate statements of Gauden.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also the article by Richard Hooper in the <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>;
+Christopher Wordsworth, <i>Who wrote Eikon Basilike?</i> two letters
+addressed to the archbishop of Canterbury (1824), and <i>King Charles
+the First, the Author of Icon Basilikè</i> (1828); H.J. Todd, <i>A Letter
+to the Archbishop of Canterbury concerning Eikon Basilike</i> (1825);
+<i>Bishop Gauden, The Author of the Icôn Basilikè</i> (1829); W.G.
+Broughton, <i>A Letter to a Friend</i> (1826), <i>Additional Reasons ...</i> (1829),
+supporting the contention in favour of Dr Gauden; Mr
+E.J.L. Scott&rsquo;s introduction to his reprint (1880) of the original
+edition; articles in the <i>Academy</i>, May and June 1883, by Mr C.E.
+Doble; another reprint edited by Mr Edward Almack for the King&rsquo;s
+Classics (1904); and Edward Almack, <i>Bibliography of the King&rsquo;s
+Book</i> (1896). This last book contains a summary of the arguments
+on either side, a full bibliography of works on the subject, and
+facsimiles of the title pages, with full descriptions of the various
+extant copies.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See a note in Archbishop Tenison&rsquo;s handwriting in his copy of the
+<i>Eikon Basilike</i> preserved at Lambeth Palace, and quoted in Almack&rsquo;s
+<i>Bibliography</i>, p. 15.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAUDICHAUD-BEAUPRÉ, CHARLES<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1789-1854), French
+botanist, was born at Angoulême on the 4th of September 1789.
+He studied pharmacy first in the shop of a brother-in-law at
+Cognac, and then under P.J. Robiquet at Paris, where from
+R.L. Desfontaines and L.C. Richard he acquired a knowledge
+of botany. In April 1810 he was appointed dispenser in the
+military marine, and from July 1811 to the end of 1814 he served
+at Antwerp. In 1817 he joined the corvette &ldquo;Uranie&rdquo; as
+pharmaceutical botanist to the circumpolar expedition commanded
+by D. de Freycinet. The wreck of the vessel on the
+Falkland Isles, at the close of 1819, deprived him of more than
+half the botanical collections he had made in various parts of
+the world. In 1830-1833 he visited Chile, Peru and Brazil, and
+in 1836-1837 he acted as botanist to &ldquo;La Bonite&rdquo; during its
+circumnavigation of the globe. His theory accounting for the
+growth of plants by the supposed coalescence of elementary
+&ldquo;phytons&rdquo; involved him, during the latter years of his life,
+in much controversy with his fellow-botanists, more especially
+C.F.B. de Mirbel. He died in Paris on the 16th of January 1854.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides accounts of his voyages round the world, Gaudichaud-Beaupré
+wrote &ldquo;Lettres sur l&rsquo;organographie et la physiologie,&rdquo;
+<i>Arch. de botanique</i>, ii., 1883; &ldquo;Recherches générales sur l&rsquo;organographie,&rdquo;
+&amp;c. (prize essay, 1835), <i>Mém. de l&rsquo;Académie des Sciences</i>,
+t. viii. and kindred treatises, with memoirs on the potato-blight, the
+multiplication of bulbous plants, the increase in diameter of dicotyledonous
+plants, and other subjects; and <i>Réfutation de toutes les
+objections contre les nouveaux principes physiologiques</i> (1852).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAUDRY, JEAN ALBERT<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1827-1908), French geologist and
+palaeontologist, was born at St Germain-en-Laye on the 16th
+of September 1827, and was educated at the college, Stanislas.
+At the age of twenty-five he made explorations in Cyprus and
+Greece, residing in the latter country from 1855 to 1860. He
+then investigated the rich deposit of fossil vertebrata at Pikermi
+and brought to light a remarkable mammalian fauna, Miocene
+in age, and intermediate in its forms between European, Asiatic
+and African types. He also published an account of the geology
+of the island of Cyprus (<i>Mém. Soc. Géol. de France</i>, 1862). In
+1853, while still in Cyprus, he was appointed assistant to A.
+d&rsquo;Orbigny, who was the first to hold the chair of palaeontology
+in the museum of natural history at Paris. In 1872 he succeeded
+to this important post; in 1882 he was elected member of the
+Academy of Sciences; and in 1900 he presided over the meetings
+of the eighth International Congress of Geology then held in
+Paris. He died on the 27th of November 1908. He is distinguished
+for his researches on fossil mammalia, and for the support
+which his studies have rendered to the theory of evolution.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Publications.</span>&mdash;<i>Animaux fossiles et géologie de l&rsquo;Attique</i> (2 vols.,
+1862-1867); <i>Cours de paléontologie</i> (1873); <i>Animaux fossiles du
+Mont Lebéron</i> (1873); <i>Les Enchaînements du monde animal dans
+les temps géologiques</i> (<i>Mammifères Tertiaires</i>, 1878; <i>Fossiles
+primaires</i>, 1883; <i>Fossiles secondaires</i>, 1890); <i>Essai de paléontologie
+philosophique</i> (1896). Brief memoir with portrait in <i>Geol.
+Mag.</i> (1903), p. 49.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. B. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAUDY<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span>, an adjective meaning showy, very bright, gay,
+especially with a sense of tasteless or vulgar extravagance, of
+colour or ornament. The accurate origin of the various senses
+which this word and the substantive &ldquo;gaud&rdquo; have taken are
+somewhat difficult to trace. They are all ultimately to be referred
+to the Lat. <i>gaudere</i>, to rejoice, <i>gaudium</i>, joy, some of them
+directly, others to the French derivative <i>gaudir</i>, to rejoice, and
+O. Fr. <i>gaudie</i>. As a noun, in the sense of rejoicing or feast,
+&ldquo;gaudy&rdquo; is still used of a commemoration dinner at a college
+at the university of Oxford. &ldquo;Gaud,&rdquo; meaning generally a toy,
+a gay adornment, a piece of showy jewelry, is more specifically
+applied to larger and more decorative beads in a rosary.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532"></a>532</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAUERMANN, FRIEDRICH<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1807-1862), Austrian painter,
+son of the landscape painter Jacob Gauermann (1773-1843),
+was born at Wiesenbach near Gutenstein in Lower Austria
+on the 20th of September 1807. It was the intention of his father
+that he should devote himself to agriculture, but the example
+of an elder brother, who, however, died early, fostered his inclination
+towards art. Under his father&rsquo;s direction he began studies
+in landscape, and he also diligently copied the works of the chief
+masters in animal painting which were contained in the academy
+and court library of Vienna. In the summer he made art tours
+in the districts of Styria, Tirol and Salzburg. Two animal pieces
+which he exhibited at the Vienna Exhibition of 1824 were regarded
+as remarkable productions for his years, and led to his receiving
+commissions in 1825 and 1826 from Prince Metternich and
+Caraman, the French ambassador. His reputation was greatly
+increased by his picture &ldquo;The Storm,&rdquo; exhibited in 1829, and
+from that time his works were much sought after and obtained
+correspondingly high prices. His &ldquo;Field Labourer&rdquo; was regarded
+by many as the most noteworthy picture in the Vienna exhibition
+of 1834, and his numerous animal pieces have entitled him to a
+place in the first rank of painters of that class of subjects. The
+peculiarity of his pictures is the representation of human and
+animal figures in connexion with appropriate landscapes and in
+characteristic situations so as to manifest nature as a living
+whole, and he particularly excels in depicting the free life of
+animals in wild mountain scenery. Along with great mastery
+of the technicalities of his art, his works exhibit patient and keen
+observation, free and correct handling of details, and bold and
+clear colouring. He died at Vienna on the 7th of July 1862.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Many of his pictures have been engraved, and after his death a
+selection of fifty-three of his works was prepared for this purpose
+by the Austrian <i>Kunstverein</i> (Art Union).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAUGE<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Gage</span> (Med. Lat. <i>gauja</i>, <i>jaugia</i>, Fr. <i>jauge</i>, perhaps
+connected with Fr. <i>jale</i>, a bowl, <i>galon</i>, gallon), a standard of
+measurement, and also the name given to various instruments
+and appliances by which measurement is effected. The word
+seems to have been primarily used in connexion with the process
+of ascertaining the contents of wine casks; the name gauger
+is still applied to certain custom-house officials in the United
+States, and in Scotland it means an exciseman. Thence it was
+extended to other measurements, and used of the instruments
+used in making them or of the standards to which they were
+referred. In the mechanical arts gauges are employed in great
+variety to enable the workmen to ascertain whether the object
+he is making is of the proper dimensions (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tool</a></span>), and similar
+gauges of various forms are employed to ascertain and to specify
+the sizes of manufactured articles such as wire and screws. A
+rain gauge is an apparatus for measuring the amount of the
+rainfall at any locality, and a wind gauge indicates the pressure
+and force of the wind. The boilers of steam engines are provided
+with a water gauge and a steam or pressure gauge. The purpose
+of the former is to enable the attendant to see whether or not
+there is a sufficient quantity of water in the boiler. It consists of
+two cocks or taps communicating with the interior, one being
+placed at the lowest point to which it is permissible for the water
+to fall, and the other at the point above which it should not rise;
+a glass tube connects the two cocks, and when they are both open
+the water in this stands at the same level as in the boiler. The
+steam gauge shows the pressure of the steam in the boiler. One
+of the commonest forms, known as the Bourdon gauge, depends
+on the fact that a curved tube tends to straighten itself if the
+pressure within it is greater than that outside it. This gauge
+therefore consists of a curved or coiled tube of elastic material,
+and preferably of elliptic section, connected with the boiler and
+arranged with a multiplying gear so that its bending or unbending
+actuates a pointer moving over a graduated scale. If the pressure
+within the tube is less than that outside it, the tube tends to
+bend or coil itself up further; with a pointer arranged as before,
+the gauge then becomes a vacuum gauge, indicating how far
+the pressure in the vessel to which it is attached is below that
+of the atmosphere. In railway engineering the gauge of a line
+is the distance between the two rails (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Railway</a></span>). In nautical
+language, a ship is said to have the weather gage when she is
+to windward of another, and similarly the lee gage when to
+leeward of another; in this sense the word is usually spelt &ldquo;gage,&rdquo;
+a spelling which prevails in America for all senses.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAUHATI<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span>, a town of British India, in the Kamrup district
+of Eastern Bengal and Assam, mainly on the left or south, but
+partly on the right bank of the Brahmaputra. Pop. (1901)
+14,244. It is beautifully situated, with an amphitheatre of
+wooded hills to the south, but is not very healthy. There are
+many evidences, such as ancient earthworks and tanks, of its
+historical importance. During the 17th century it was taken
+and retaken by Mahommedans and Ahoms eight times in fifty
+years, but in 1681 it became the residence of the Ahom governor
+of lower Assam, and in 1786 the capital of the Ahom raja. On
+the cession of Assam to the British in 1826 it was made the seat
+of the British administration of Assam, and so continued till
+1874, when the headquarters were removed to Shillong in the
+Khasi hills, 67 m. distant, with which Gauhati is connected
+by an excellent cart-road. Two much-frequented places of
+Hindu pilgrimage are situated in the immediate vicinity, the
+temple of Kamakhya on a hill 2 m. west of the town, and the
+rocky island of Umananda in the mid-channel of the Brahmaputra.
+Gauhati is still the headquarters of the district and of
+the Brahmaputra Valley division, though no longer a military
+cantonment. It is the river terminus of a section of the Assam-Bengal
+railway. There are a second-grade college, a government
+high school, a law class and a training school for masters.
+Gauhati is an important centre of river trade, and the largest
+seat of commerce in Assam. Cotton-ginning, flour-milling, and
+an export trade in mustard seed, cotton, silk and forest produce
+are carried on. Gauhati suffered very severely from the earthquake
+of the 12th of June 1897.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (1855-&emsp;&emsp;), American artist,
+was born in Jersey City, New Jersey, on the 31st of March 1855.
+He was a pupil of J.G. Brown and L.E. Wilmarth, and he
+became a painter of military pictures, portraying incidents of
+the American Civil War. He was elected an associate of the
+National Academy of Design in 1880, and in 1882 a full
+academician, and in the latter year became a member of the
+Society of American Artists. His important works include:
+&ldquo;Charging the Battery,&rdquo; &ldquo;News from Home,&rdquo; &ldquo;Cold Comfort
+on the Outpost,&rdquo; &ldquo;Silenced,&rdquo; &ldquo;On the Look-out,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Guerillas
+returning from a Raid.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAUL<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span>, the modern form of the Roman <i>Gallia</i>, the name
+of the two chief districts known to the Romans as inhabited
+by Celtic-speaking peoples, (<i>a</i>) <i>Gallia Cisalpina</i> (or <i>Citerior</i>,
+&ldquo;Hither&rdquo;), <i>i.e.</i> north Italy between Alps and Apennines and
+(<i>b</i>) the far more important <i>Gallia Transalpina</i> (or <i>Ulterior</i>,
+&ldquo;Further&rdquo;), usually called <i>Gallia</i> (Gaul) simply, the land
+bounded by the Alps, the Mediterranean, the Pyrenees, the
+Atlantic, the Rhine, <i>i.e.</i> modern France and Belgium with parts
+of Holland, Germany and Switzerland. The Greek form of
+<i>Gallia</i> was <span class="grk" title="Galatia">&#915;&#945;&#955;&#945;&#964;&#943;&#945;</span>, but Galatia in Latin denoted another Celtic
+region in central Asia Minor, sometimes styled <i>Gallograecia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Gallia Cisalpina was mainly conquered by Rome by 222
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>; later it adopted Roman civilization; about 42 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it
+was united with Italy and its subsequent history is merged in that
+of the peninsula. Its chief distinctions are that during the later
+Republic and earlier Empire it yielded excellent soldiers, and
+thus much aided the success of Caesar against Pompey and of
+Octavian against Antony, and that it gave Rome the poet Virgil
+(by origin a Celt), the historian Livy, the lyrist Catullus, Cornelius
+Nepos, the elder and the younger Pliny and other distinguished
+writers.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Gaul proper first enters ancient history when the Greek
+colony of Massilia was founded (? 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Roman armies
+began to enter it about 218 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In 121 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the coast from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page533" id="page533"></a>533</span>
+Montpellier to the Pyrenees (<i>i.e.</i> all that was not Massiliot) with
+its port of Narbo (mod. <i>Narbonne</i>) and its trade route by Toulouse
+to the Atlantic, was formed into the province of Gallia Narbonensis
+and Narbo itself into a Roman municipality. Commercial
+motives prompted the step, and Roman traders and land speculators
+speedily flocked in. Gradually the province was extended
+north of Massilia, up the Rhone, while the Greek town itself
+became weak and dependent on Rome.</p>
+
+<p>It is not, however, until the middle of the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> that
+we have any detailed knowledge of pre-Roman Gaul. The earliest
+account is that contained in the <i>Commentaries</i> of Julius Caesar.
+According to this authority, Gaul was at that time divided among
+three peoples, more or less distinct from one another, the Aquitani,
+the Gauls, who called themselves Celts, and the Belgae. The
+first of these extended from the Pyrenees to the Garumna
+(Garonne); the second, from that river to the Sequana (Seine)
+and its chief tributary the Matrona (Marne), reaching eastward
+presumably as far as the Rhenus (Rhine); and the third, from
+this bounding line to the mouth of the last-named river, thus
+bordering on the Germans. By implication Caesar recognizes
+as a fourth division the province of Gallia Narbonensis. By
+far the greater part of the country was a plain watered by
+numerous rivers, the chief of which have already been mentioned,
+with the exception of its great central stream, the Liger or Ligeris
+(Loire). Its principal mountain ranges were Cebenna or Gebenna
+(Cévennes) in the south, and Jura, with its continuation Vosegus
+or Vogesus (Vosges), in the east. The tribes inhabiting Gaul in
+Caesar&rsquo;s time, and belonging to one or other of the three races
+distinguished by him, were numerous. Prominent among them,
+and dwelling in the division occupied by the Celts, were the
+Helvetii, the Sequani and the Aedui, in the basins of the
+Rhodanus and its tributary the Arar (Saône), who, he says, were
+reckoned the three most powerful nations in all Gaul; the
+Arverni in the mountains of Cebenna; the Senones and Carnutes
+in the basin of the Liger; the Veneti and other Armorican tribes
+between the mouths of the Liger and Sequana. The Nervii,
+Bellovaci, Suessiones, Remi, Morini, Menapii and Aduatuci
+were Belgic tribes; the Tarbelli and others were Aquitani;
+while the Allobroges inhabited the north of the Provincia, having
+been conquered in 121 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The ethnological divisions thus set
+forth by Caesar have been much discussed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Celt</a></span>, and articles
+on the chief tribes).</p>
+
+<p>The Gallic Wars (58-51) of Caesar (<i>q.v.</i>) added all the rest of
+Gaul, north-west of the Cévennes, to the Rhine and the Ocean,
+and in 49 also annexed Massilia. All Gaul was now Roman
+territory. Now the second period of her history opens; it
+remained for Roman territory to become romanized.</p>
+
+<p>Caesar had no time to organize his conquest; this work was
+left to Augustus. As settled by him, and in part perhaps also
+by his successor Tiberius, it fell into the following five administrative
+areas.</p>
+
+<p>(i) <i>Narbonensis</i>, that is, the land between Alps, sea and
+Cévennes, extending up the Rhone to Vienne, was as Augustus
+found it, distinct in many ways from the rest of Gaul. By nature
+it is a sun-steeped southern region, the home of the vine and
+olive, of the minstrelsy of the Provençal and the exuberance of
+Tartarin, distinct from the colder and more sober north. By
+history it had already (in the time of Augustus) been Roman
+for from 80 to 100 years and was familiar with Roman ways. It
+was ready to be Italianized and it was civilized enough to need
+no garrison. Accordingly, it was henceforward governed by a
+proconsul (appointed by the senate) and freed from the burden
+of troops, while its local government was assimilated to that of
+Italy. The old Celtic tribes were broken up: instead, municipalities
+of Roman citizens were founded to rule their territories.
+Thus the Allobroges now disappear and the <i>colonia</i> of Vienna
+takes their place: the Volcae vanish and we find Nemausus
+(Nîmes). Thus thrown into Italian fashion, the province took
+rapidly to Italian ways. By <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 70 it was &ldquo;Italia verius quam
+provincia&rdquo; (Pliny). The Gauls obviously had a natural bias
+towards the Italian civilization, and there soon became no
+difference between Italy and southern Gaul. But though education
+spread, the results were somewhat disappointing. Trade
+flourished; the corporations of bargemen and the like on the
+Rhone made money; the many towns grew rich and could afford
+splendid public buildings. But no great writer and no great administrator
+came from Narbonensis; itinerant lecturers and journalists
+alone were produced in plenty, and at times minor poets.</p>
+
+<p>(ii.-iv.) Across the Cévennes lay Caesar&rsquo;s conquests, Atlantic
+in climate, new to Roman ways. The whole area, often collectively
+styled &ldquo;Gallia Comata,&rdquo; often &ldquo;Tres Provinciae,&rdquo; was
+divided into three provinces, each under a <i>legatus pro praetore</i>
+appointed by the emperor, with a common capital at Lugudunum
+(Lyons). The three provinces were: <i>Aquitania</i>, reaching from
+the Pyrenees almost to the Loire; <i>Lugudunensis</i>, the land
+between Loire and Seine, reaching from Brittany in the west to
+Lyons in the south-east; and <i>Belgica</i> in the north. The
+boundaries, it will be observed, were wholly artificial. Here also
+it was found possible to dispense with garrisons, not because
+the provinces were as peaceful as Narbonensis, but because the
+Rhine army was close at hand. As befitted an unromanized
+region, the local government was unlike that of Italy or Narbonensis.
+Roman municipalities were not indeed unknown, but
+very few: the local authorities were the magistrates of the old
+tribal districts. Local autonomy was here carried to an extreme.
+But the policy succeeded. The Gauls of the Three Provinces, or
+some of them, revolted in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 21 under Florus and Sacrovir, in
+68 under Vindex, and in 70 under Classicus and Tutor (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Civilis,
+Claudius</a></span>). But all five leaders were romanized nobles, with
+Roman names and Roman citizenship, and their risings were
+directed rather against the Roman government than the Roman
+empire. In general, the Gauls of these provinces accepted
+Roman civilization more or less rapidly, and in due course became
+hardly distinguishable from the Italian. In particular, they
+eagerly accepted the worship of &ldquo;Augustus and Rome,&rdquo; devised
+by the first emperor as a bond of state religion connecting
+the provinces with Rome. Each August, despite the heat,
+representatives from the 60 (or 64) tribes of Gallia Comata met
+at Lyons, elected a priest, &ldquo;sacerdos ad aram Augusti et Romae,&rdquo;
+and held games. The post of representative, and still more that
+of priest, was eagerly coveted and provided a scope for the
+ambitions which despotism usually crushes. It agrees with the
+vigorous development of this worship that the Three Provinces,
+though romanized, retained their own local feeling. Even in the
+3rd century the cult of Celtic deities (Hercules Magusanus,
+Deusoniensis, &amp;c.) were revived, the Celtic <i>leuga</i> reintroduced
+instead of the Roman mile on official milestones, and a brief
+effort made to establish an independent, though romanized, Gaul
+under Postumus and his short-lived successors (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 250-273).
+Not only was the area too large and strong to lose its individuality:
+it was also too rural and too far from the Mediterranean
+to be romanized as fully and quickly as Narbonensis. It is even
+probable that Celtic was spoken in forest districts into the 4th
+century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Town life, however, grew. The <i>chefs-lieux</i> of the
+tribes became practically, though not officially, municipalities,
+and many of these towns reached considerable size and magnificence
+of public buildings. But they attest their tribal relations
+by their appellations, which are commonly drawn from the name
+of the tribe and not of the town itself. Thus the capitals of the
+Remi and Parisii were actually Durocortorum and Lutetia: the
+appellations in use were Remis or Remus, Parisiis or Parisius&mdash;these
+forms being indeclinable nouns formed from a sort of
+locative of the tribe names. Literature also flourished. In the
+latest empire Ausonius, Symmachus, Apollinaris, Sidonius and
+other Gaulish writers, chiefly of Gallia Comata, kept alive the
+classical literary tradition, not only for Gaul but for the world.</p>
+
+<p>(v.) The fifth division of Gaul was the Rhenish military
+frontier. Augustus had planned the conquest of Germany up to
+the Elbe. His plans were foiled by the courage of Arminius and
+the inability of the Roman exchequer to pay a larger army.
+Instead, his successor Tiberius organized the Rhine frontier in
+two military districts. The northern one was the valley of the
+Meuse and that of the Rhine to a point just south of Bonn: the
+southern was the rest of the Rhine valley to Switzerland. Each
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page534" id="page534"></a>534</span>
+district was garrisoned at first by four, later by fewer legions,
+which were disposed at various times in some of the following
+fortresses: Vetera (Xanten), Novaesium (Neuss), Bonne (Bonn),
+Moguntiacum (Mainz), Argentorate (Strassburg) and Vindonissa
+(Windisch in Switzerland). At first the districts were purely
+military, were called, after the garrisons, &ldquo;exercitus Germanicus
+superior&rdquo; (south) and &ldquo;inferior&rdquo; (north). Later one or two
+municipalities were founded&mdash;Colonia Agrippinensis at Cologne
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 51), Colonia Augusta Treverorum at Trier (date uncertain),
+Colonia Ulpia Traiana outside Vetera&mdash;and about 80-90 <span class="scs">A.D.</span> the
+two &ldquo;Exercitus&rdquo; were turned into the two provinces of Upper
+and Lower Germany. The armies in these districts formed the
+defence of Gaul against German invaders. They also helped to
+keep Gaul itself in order and their presence explains why the four
+provinces of Gaul proper contained no troops.</p>
+
+<p>These provincial divisions were modified by Diocletian but
+without seriously affecting the life of Gaul. The whole country,
+indeed, continued Roman and fairly safe from barbarian invasions
+till after 400. In 407 a multitude of Franks, Vandals, &amp;c., burst
+over Gaul: Roman rule practically ceased and the three kingdoms
+of the Visigoths, Burgundians and Franks began to form. There
+were still a Roman general and Roman troops when Attila was
+defeated in the <i>campi Catalaunici</i> in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 451, but the general,
+Aetius, was &ldquo;the last of the Romans,&rdquo; and in 486 Clovis the
+Frank ended the last vestige of Roman rule in Gaul.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For Roman antiquities in Gaul see, beside articles on the modern
+towns (<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arles</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nîmes</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Orange</a></span> &amp;c.), <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bibracte</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alesia</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Itius
+Portus</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aqueduct</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Amphitheatre</a></span>, &amp;c.; for
+religion see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Druidism</a></span>; for the famous schools of Autun, Lyons,
+Toulouse, Nîmes, Vienne, Marseilles and Narbonne, see J.E. Sandys,
+<i>History of Classical Scholarship</i> (ed. 1906-1908), i. pp. 247-250;
+for the Roman provinces, Th. Mommsen, <i>Provinces of the Roman
+Empire</i> (trans. 1886), vol. i. chap. iii. See also Desjardins, <i>Géographie
+historique et administrative de la Gaule romaine</i> (Paris, 1877);
+Fustel de Coulanges, <i>Histoire des institutions politiques de l&rsquo;ancienne
+France</i> (Paris, 1877); for Caesar&rsquo;s campaigns, article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caesar,
+Julius</a></span>, and works quoted; for coins, art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span> and articles
+in the <i>Numismatische Zeitschrift</i> and <i>Revue numismatique</i> (<i>e.g.</i>
+Blanchet, 1907, pp. 461 foll.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. J. H.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> When Cisalpine Gaul became completely Romanized, it was
+often known as &ldquo;Gallia Togata,&rdquo; while the Province was distinguished
+as &ldquo;Gallia Bracata&rdquo; (<i>bracae</i>, incorrectly <i>braccae</i>,
+&ldquo;trousers&rdquo;), from the long trousers worn by the inhabitants, and
+the rest of Gaul as &ldquo;Gallia Comata,&rdquo; from the inhabitants wearing
+their hair long.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAULT<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span>, in geology, one of the members of the Lower Cretaceous
+System. The name is still employed provincially in parts
+of England for a stiff blue clay of any kind; by the earlier
+writers it was sometimes spelt &ldquo;Galt&rdquo; or &ldquo;Golt.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The formation now known as Gault in England has been
+variously designated &ldquo;Blue Marle,&rdquo; &ldquo;Brick Earth,&rdquo; &ldquo;Golt
+Brick Earth&rdquo; and &ldquo;Oak-tree-soil.&rdquo; In certain parts of the
+south of England the Gault appears as a well-marked deposit of
+clay, lying between two sandy formations; the one above came
+to be known as the &ldquo;Upper Greensand,&rdquo; the one below being
+the &ldquo;Lower Greensand&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greensand</a></span>). Since the typical
+clayey Gault is continually taking on a sandy facies as it is traced
+both horizontally and vertically; and since the fossils of the
+Upper Greensand and Gault are inseparably related, it has been
+proposed by A.J. Jukes-Browne that these two series of beds
+should be regarded as the arenaceous and argillaceous phases of a
+single formation, to which he has given the name &ldquo;Selbornian&rdquo;
+(from the village of Selborne where the beds are well developed).
+Lithologically, then, the Selbornian includes the blue and grey
+clays and marls of the Gault proper; the glauconitic sands of the
+Upper Greensand, and their local equivalent, the &ldquo;malm,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;malm rock&rdquo; or &ldquo;firestone,&rdquo; which in places passes into the
+micaceous sandstone containing sponge spicules and globules of
+silica, the counterpart of the rock called &ldquo;gaize&rdquo; on the same
+horizon in northern France. In Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and parts
+of Norfolk the Selbornian is represented by the Red Chalk. The
+malm is a ferruginous siliceous rock, the silica being mainly in the
+colloidal condition in the form of globules and sponge spicules;
+some quartz grains, mica and glauconite are usually present
+along with from 2 to 25% of calcareous matter. Chert-bands and
+nodules are common in the Upper Greensand of certain districts;
+and calcareous concretions, locally recognized as cowstones
+(Lyme Regis), doggers or buhrstones, are not infrequent.</p>
+
+<p>The principal divisions of the Selbornian stage with their
+characteristic zonal fossils are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Warminster Beds</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Pecten asper</i> and <i>Cardiaster fossarius</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Upper Gault</td> <td class="tcl">Devizes Beds or Merstham Beds with <i>Schloenbachia rostralus</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm cl" rowspan ="3">Lower Gault</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Hoplites lautus.</i></td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tcl"><i>H. interruptus.</i></td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tcl"><i>Acanthoceras mammillatum.</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Gault (with Upper Greensand) crops out all round the Wealden
+area; it extends beneath the London basin and reappears from
+beneath the northern scarp of the Chalk along the foot of the Chiltern
+Hills to near Tring. In the south of England the Gault clay is
+fairly constant in the lower part, with the Greensand above; the
+clay, however, passes into sand as it is followed westward and, as
+already pointed out, the clay and sand appear to pass into a red
+chalk towards the north-east. The Gault overlaps the Lower Greensand
+towards the east, where it rests upon the old Paleozoic axis;
+it also overlaps the same formation towards the west about Frome,
+and thence passes unconformably across the Portlandian beds, Kimeridge
+Clay, Corallian beds and Oxford Clay; in south Dorsetshire
+it rests upon the Wealden Series. The Gault (with Upper Greensand)
+passes on to the Jurassic and Rhaetic rocks near Axmouth, and oversteps
+farther westward, in the Haldon Hills, on to the Permian. A
+large outlier occurs on the Blackdown Hills of Devonshire. Good
+localities for fossils are Folkestone&mdash;where many of the shells are
+preserved with their original pearly nacre,&mdash;Burnham, Merstham,
+Isle of Wight, the Blackdown and Haldon Hills, Warminster,
+Hunstanton and Speeton, Black Venn near Lyme Regis, and Devizes
+(malmstone and gaize). The beds are well developed in the vale of
+Wardour, and in the Isle of Wight; the Gault forms the so-called
+&ldquo;blue slipper&rdquo; at Ventnor which has been the cause of the landslip
+or undercliff.</p>
+
+<p>The Gault of north France is very similar to that in the south
+of England, but the French term <i>Albien</i> includes only a portion of
+the Selbornian formation. The Gault of north-west Germany
+embraces beds that would be classed as <i>Albien</i> and <i>Aptien</i> by French
+authors; it comprises the &ldquo;Flammenmergel&rdquo;&mdash;a pale siliceous
+marl shot with flame-shaped darker patches&mdash;a clay with <i>Belemnites
+minimus</i>, and the &ldquo;Gargasmergel&rdquo; (Aptian). In the Diester and
+Teutoberger Wald, and in the region of Halberstadt, the clays and
+marls are replaced by sandstones, the so-called <i>Gault-Quader</i>.
+Continental writers usually place the Gault or Albian at the summit
+of the Lower Cretaceous; while with English geologists the practice
+is to commence the Upper Cretaceous with this formation. In
+addition to the fossils already noticed, the following may be mentioned:
+<i>Acanthoceras Desmoceras Beaudanti</i>, <i>Hoplites splendens</i>,
+<i>Hamites</i>, <i>Scaphites</i>, <i>Turrilites</i>, <i>Aporrhais retusa</i>, <i>Trigonia aliforme</i>,
+also <i>Ichthyosaurus</i> and <i>Ornithocheirus</i> (Pterodactyl). From the clays,
+bricks and tiles are made at Burham, Barnwell, Dunton Green,
+Arlesey, Hitchin, &amp;c. The cherts in the Greensand portion are used
+for road metal, and in the Blackdown Hills, for scythe stones;
+hearthstone is obtained about Merstham; phosphatic nodules occur
+at several horizons.</p>
+
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cretaceous System</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Albian</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aptian</a></span>; also A.J. Jukes-Browne,
+&ldquo;The Gault and Upper Greensand of England.&rdquo; vol. i.,
+<i>Cretaceous Rocks of Britain</i>; <i>Mem. Geol. Survey</i>, 1900.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAUNTLET<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (a diminutive of the Fr. <i>gant</i>, glove), a large
+form of glove, and especially the steel-plated glove of medieval
+armour. To &ldquo;run the gauntlet,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> to run between two rows
+of men who, armed with sticks, rope-ends or other weapons,
+beat and strike at the person so running, was formerly a punishment
+for military and naval offences. It was abolished in the
+Prussian army by Scharnhorst. As a method of torturing
+prisoners, it was employed among the North American Indians.
+&ldquo;Gauntlet&rdquo; (earlier &ldquo;gantlet&rdquo;) in this expression is a corruption
+of &ldquo;gantlope,&rdquo; from a Swedish <i>gatlope</i>, from <i>gata</i>, lane, and <i>lopp</i>,
+a course (cf. Ger. <i>gassenlaufen</i>, to run the gauntlet). According
+to the <i>New English Dictionary</i> the word became familiar in
+England at the time of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAUR<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Lakhnauti</span>, a ruined city of British India, in Malda
+district of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The ruins are situated
+about 8 m. to the south of English Bazar, the civil station of
+the district of Malda, and on the eastern bank of the Bhagirathi,
+an old channel of the Ganges. It is said to have been founded
+by Lakshman, and its most ancient name was Lakshmanavati,
+corrupted into Lakhnauti. Its known history begins with its
+conquest in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1198 by the Mahommedans, who retained it
+as the chief seat of their power in Bengal for more than three
+centuries. When the Afghan kings of Bengal established their
+independence, they transferred their seat of government (about
+1350) to Pandua (<i>q.v.</i>), also in Malda district, and to build
+their new capital they plundered Gaur of every monument that
+could be removed. When Pandua was in its turn deserted
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1453), Gaur once more became the capital under the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535"></a>535</span>
+name of Jannatabad; it remained so as long as the Mahommedan
+kings retained their independence. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1564 Sulaiman
+Kirani, a Pathan adventurer, abandoned it for Tanda, a place
+somewhat nearer the Ganges. Gaur was sacked by Sher Shah
+in 1539, and was occupied by Akbar&rsquo;s general in 1575, when
+Daud Shah, the last of the Afghan dynasty, refused to pay
+homage to the Mogul emperor. This occupation was followed
+by an outbreak of the plague, which completed the downfall of
+the city, and since then it has been little better than a heap of
+ruins, almost overgrown with jungle.</p>
+
+<p>The city in its prime measured 7½ m. from north to south,
+with a breadth of 1 to 2 m. With suburbs it covered an area
+of 20 to 30 sq. m., and in the 16th century the Portuguese
+historian Faria y Sousa described it as containing 1,200,000
+inhabitants. The ramparts of this walled city, which was
+surrounded by extensive suburbs, still exist; they were works
+of vast labour, and were on the average about 40 ft. high, and
+180 to 200 ft. thick at the base. The facing of masonry and the
+buildings with which they were covered have now disappeared,
+and the embankments themselves are overgrown with dense
+jungle. The western side of the city was washed by the Ganges,
+and within the space enclosed by these embankments and the
+river stood the city of Gaur proper, with the fort containing
+the palace in its south-west corner. Radiating north, south and
+east from the city, other embankments are to be traced running
+through the suburbs and extending in certain directions for 30
+or 40 m. Surrounding the palace is an inner embankment of
+similar construction to that which surrounds the city, and even
+more overgrown with jungle. A deep moat protects it on the
+outside. To the north of the outer enbankment lies the Sagar
+Dighi, a great reservoir, 1600 yds. by 800 yds., dating from
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1126.</p>
+
+<p>Fergusson in his <i>History of Eastern Architecture</i> thus describes
+the general architectural style of Gaur:&mdash;&ldquo;It is neither like that
+of Delhi nor Jaunpore, nor any other style, but one purely local
+and not without considerable merit in itself; its principal
+characteristic being heavy short pillars of stone supporting
+pointed arches and vaults in brick&mdash;whereas at Jaunpore, for
+instance, light pillars carried horizontal architraves and flat
+ceilings.&rdquo; Owing to the lightness of the small, thin bricks, which
+were chiefly used in the making of Gaur, its buildings have not
+well withstood the ravages of time and the weather; while
+much of its enamelled work has been removed for the ornamentation
+of the surrounding cities of more modern origin. Moreover,
+the ruins long served as a quarry for the builders of neighbouring
+towns and villages, till in 1900 steps were taken for their preservation
+by the government. The finest ruin in Gaur is that of the
+Great Golden Mosque, also called Bara Darwaza, or twelve-doored
+(1526). An arched corridor running along the whole front
+of the original building is the principal portion now standing.
+There are eleven arches on either side of the corridor and one at
+each end of it, from which the mosque probably obtained its
+name. These arches are surmounted by eleven domes in fair
+preservation; the mosque had originally thirty-three.</p>
+
+<p>The Small Golden or Eunuch&rsquo;s mosque, in the ancient suburb
+of Firozpur, has fine carving, and is faced with stone fairly well
+preserved. The Tantipara mosque (1475-1480) has beautiful
+moulding in brick, and the Lotan mosque of the same period
+is unique in retaining its glazed tiles. The citadel, of the
+Mahommedan period, was strongly fortified with a rampart
+and entered through a magnificent gateway called the Dakhil
+Darwaza (? 1459-1474). At the south-east corner was a palace,
+surrounded by a wall of brick 66 ft. high, of which a part is
+standing. Near by were the royal tombs. Within the citadel
+is the Kadam Rasul mosque (1530), which is still used, and close
+outside is a tall tower called the Firoz Minar (perhaps signifying
+&ldquo;tower of victory&rdquo;). There are a number of Mahommedan
+buildings on the banks of the Sagar Dighi, including, notably,
+the tomb of the saint Makhdum Shaikh Akhi Siraj (d. 1357),
+and in the neighbourhood is a burning ghat, traditionally the
+only one allowed to the use of the Hindus by their Mahommedan
+conquerors, and still greatly venerated and frequented by them.
+Many inscriptions of historical importance have been found in the
+ruins.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See M. Martin (Buchanan Hamilton), <i>Eastern India</i>, vol. iii. (1831);
+G.H. Ravenshaw, <i>Gaur</i> (1878); James Fergusson, <i>History of Indian
+and Eastern Architecture</i> (1876); <i>Reports of the Archaeological
+Surveyor, Bengal Circle</i> (1900-1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAUR<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span>, the native name of the wild ox, <i>Bos</i> (<i>Bibos</i>) <i>gaurus</i>,
+of India, miscalled bison by sportsmen. The gaur, which extends
+into Burma and the Malay Peninsula, where it is known as
+seladang, is the typical representative of an Indo-Malay group
+of wild cattle characterized by the presence of a ridge on the
+withers, the compressed horns, and the white legs. The gaur,
+which reaches a height of nearly 6 ft. at the shoulder, is specially
+characterized by the forward curve and great elevation of the
+ridge between the horns. The general colour is blackish-grey.
+Hill-forests are the resort of this species.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAUSS, KARL FRIEDRICH<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1777-1855), German mathematician,
+was born of humble parents at Brunswick on the 30th
+of April 1777, and was indebted for a liberal education to the
+notice which his talents procured him from the reigning duke.
+His name became widely known by the publication, in his
+twenty-fifth year (1801), of the <i>Disquisitiones arithmeticae</i>.
+In 1807 he was appointed director of the Göttingen observatory,
+an office which he retained to his death: it is said that he never
+slept away from under the roof of his observatory, except on
+one occasion, when he accepted an invitation from Baron von
+Humboldt to attend a meeting of natural philosophers at Berlin.
+In 1809 he published at Hamburg his <i>Theoria motus corporum
+coelestium</i>, a work which gave a powerful impulse to the true
+methods of astronomical observation; and his astronomical
+workings, observations, calculations of orbits of planets and
+comets, &amp;c., are very numerous and valuable. He continued
+his labours in the theory of numbers and other analytical subjects,
+and communicated a long series of memoirs to the Royal Society
+of Sciences (<i>Königliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften</i>) at
+Göttingen. His first memoir on the theory of magnetism,
+<i>Intensitas vis magneticae terrestris ad mensuram absolutam
+revocata</i>, was published in 1833, and he shortly afterwards
+proceeded, in conjunction with Wilhelm Weber, to invent new
+apparatus for observing the earth&rsquo;s magnetism and its changes;
+the instruments devised by them were the declination instrument
+and the bifilar magnetometer. With Weber&rsquo;s assistance he
+erected in 1833 at Göttingen a magnetic observatory free from
+iron (as Humboldt and F.J.D. Arago had previously done on a
+smaller scale), where he made magnetic observations, and from
+this same observatory he sent telegraphic signals to the neighbouring
+town, thus showing the practicability of an electromagnetic
+telegraph. He further instituted an association (<i>Magnetischer
+Verein</i>), composed at first almost entirely of Germans, whose
+continuous observations on fixed term-days extended from
+Holland to Sicily. The volumes of their publication, <i>Resultate
+am den Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins</i>, extend from
+1836 to 1839; and in those for 1838 and 1839 are contained the
+two important memoirs by Gauss, <i>Allgemeine Theorie des Erdmagnetismus,
+and the Allgemeine Lehrsätze</i>&mdash;on the theory of
+forces attracting according to the inverse square of the distance.
+The instruments and methods thus due to him are substantially
+those employed in the magnetic observatories throughout the
+world. He co-operated in the Danish and Hanoverian measurements
+of an arc and trigonometrical operations (1821-1848),
+and wrote (1843, 1846) the two memoirs <i>Über Gegenstände der
+höheren Geodäsie</i>. Connected with observations in general
+we have (1812-1826) the memoir <i>Theoria combinationis observationum
+erroribus minimis obnoxia</i>, with a second part and a
+supplement. Another memoir of applied mathematics is the
+<i>Dioptrische Untersuchungen</i> (1840). Gauss was well versed in
+general literature and the chief languages of modern Europe,
+and was a member of nearly all the leading scientific societies
+in Europe. He died at Göttingen on the 23rd of February 1855.
+The centenary of his birth was celebrated (1877) at his native
+place, Brunswick.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gauss&rsquo;s collected works were published by the Royal Society of
+Göttingen, in 7 vols. 4to (Gött., 1863-1871), edited by E.J. Schering&mdash;(1)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page536" id="page536"></a>536</span>
+the <i>Disquisitiones arithmeticae</i>, (2) <i>Theory of Numbers</i>, (3)
+<i>Analysis</i>, (4) <i>Geometry and Method of Least Squares</i>, (5) <i>Mathematical
+Physics</i>, (6) <i>Astronomy</i>, and (7) the <i>Theoria motus corporum
+coelestium</i>. Additional volumes have since been published, <i>Fundamente
+der Geometrie usw</i>. (1900), and <i>Geodatische Nachträge zu
+Band iv</i>. (1903). They include, besides his various works and
+memoirs, notices by him of many of these, and of works of other
+authors in the <i>Göttingen gelehrte Anzeigen</i>, and a considerable amount
+of previously unpublished matter, <i>Nachlass</i>. Of the memoirs in pure
+mathematics, comprised for the most part in vols, ii., iii. and iv.
+(but to these must be added those on <i>Attractions</i> in vol. v.), it may
+be safely said there is not one which has not signally contributed
+to the progress of the branch of mathematics to which it belongs,
+or which would not require to be carefully analysed in a history of
+the subject. Running through these volumes in order, we have in
+the second the memoir, <i>Summatio quarundam serierum singularium</i>,
+the memoirs on the theory of biquadratic residues, in which the notion
+of complex numbers of the form <i>a</i> + <i>bi</i> was first introduced into the
+theory of numbers; and included in the <i>Nachlass</i> are some valuable
+tables. That for the conversion of a fraction into decimals (giving
+the complete period for all the prime numbers up to 997) is a specimen
+of the extraordinary love which Gauss had for long arithmetical
+calculations; and the amount of work gone through in the construction
+of the table of the number of the classes of binary quadratic
+forms must also have been tremendous. In vol. iii. we have memoirs
+relating to the proof of the theorem that every numerical equation
+has a real or imaginary root, the memoir on the <i>Hypergeometric
+Series</i>, that on <i>Interpolation</i>, and the memoir <i>Determinatio attractionis</i>&mdash;in
+which a planetary mass is considered as distributed over
+its orbit according to the time in which each portion of the orbit is
+described, and the question (having an implied reference to the theory
+of secular perturbations) is to find the attraction of such a ring. In
+the solution the value of an elliptic function is found by means of
+the <i>arithmetico-geometrical mean</i>. The <i>Nachlass</i> contains further researches
+on this subject, and also researches (unfortunately very
+fragmentary) on the lemniscate-function, &amp;., showing that Gauss
+was, even before 1800, in possession of many of the discoveries which
+have made the names of N.H. Abel and K.G.J. Jacobi illustrious.
+In vol. iv. we have the memoir <i>Allgemeine Auflösung</i>, on the graphical
+representation of one surface upon another, and the <i>Disquisitiones
+generales circa superficies curvas</i>. (An account of the treatment of
+surfaces which he originated in this paper will be found in the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Surface</a></span>.) And in vol. v. we have a memoir <i>On the Attraction of
+Homogeneous Ellipsoids</i>, and the already mentioned memoir <i>Allgemeine
+Lehrsätze</i>, on the theory of forces attracting according to the
+inverse square of the distance.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Ca.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAUSSEN, FRANÇOIS SAMUEL ROBERT LOUIS<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1790-1863),
+Swiss Protestant divine, was born at Geneva on the 25th of
+August 1790. His father, Georg Markus Gaussen, a member of
+the council of two hundred, was descended from an old Languedoc
+family which had been scattered at the time of the religious
+persecutions in France. At the close of his university career at
+Geneva, Louis was in 1816 appointed pastor of the Swiss Reformed
+Church at Satigny near Geneva, where he formed intimate relations
+with J.E. Cellérier, who had preceded him in the pastorate,
+and also with the members of the dissenting congregation at
+Bourg-de-Four, which, together with the Église du témoignage,
+had been formed under the influence of the preaching of James
+and Robert Haldane in 1817. The Swiss revival was distasteful
+to the pastors of Geneva (<i>Vénérable Compagnie des Pasteurs</i>), and
+on the 7th of May 1817 they passed an ordinance hostile to it.
+As a protest against this ordinance, in 1819 Gaussen published in
+conjunction with Cellérier a French translation of the Second
+Helvetic Confession, with a preface expounding the views he had
+reached upon the nature, use and necessity of confessions of
+faith; and in 1830, for having discarded the official catechism of
+his church as being insufficiently explicit on the divinity of
+Christ, original sin and the doctrines of grace, he was censured
+and suspended by his ecclesiastical superiors. In the following
+year he took part in the formation of a <i>Société Évangélique</i>
+(<i>Evangelische Gesellschaft</i>). When this society contemplated,
+among other objects, the establishment of a new theological
+college, he was finally deprived of his charge. After some time
+devoted to travel in Italy and England, he returned to Geneva
+and ministered to an independent congregation until 1834, when
+he joined Merle d&rsquo;Aubigné as professor of systematic theology in
+the college which he had helped to found. This post he continued
+to occupy until 1857, when he retired from the active duties of
+the chair. He died at Les Grottes, Geneva, on the 18th of June
+1863.</p>
+
+<p>His best-known work, entitled <i>La Théopneustie ou pleine
+inspiration des saintes écritures</i>, an elaborate defence of the
+doctrine of &ldquo;plenary inspiration,&rdquo; was originally published in
+Paris in 1840, and rapidly gained a wide popularity in France, as
+also, through translations, in England and America. It was
+followed in 1860 by a supplementary treatise on the canon
+(<i>Le Canon des saintes écritures au double point de vue de la science
+et de la foi</i>), which, though also popular, has hardly been so widely
+read.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAUTIER, ÉMILE THÉODORE LÉON<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1832-1897), French
+literary historian, was born at Hâvre on the 8th of August 1832.
+He was educated at the École des Chartes, and became successively
+keeper of the archives of the department of Haute-Marne
+and of the imperial archives at Paris under the empire. In 1871
+he became professor of palaeography at the École des Chartes.
+He was elected member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1887,
+and became chief of the historical section of the national archives
+in 1893. Léon Gautier rendered great services to the study of
+early French literature, the most important of his numerous
+works on medieval subjects being a critical text (Tours, 1872)
+with translation and introduction of the <i>Chanson de Roland</i>, and
+<i>Les Épopées françaises</i> (3 vols., 1866-1867; 2nd ed., 5 vols., 1878-1897,
+including a <i>Bibliographie des chansons de geste</i>). He died in
+Paris on the 25th of August 1897.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAUTIER, THÉOPHILE<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1811-1872), French poet and
+miscellaneous writer, was born at Tarbes on the 31st of August
+1811. He was educated at the grammar school of that town, and
+afterwards at the Collège Charlemagne in Paris, but was almost as
+much in the studios. He very early devoted himself to the study
+of the older French literature, especially that of the 16th and the
+early part of the 17th century. This study qualified him well to
+take part in the Romantic movement, and enabled him to
+astonish Sainte-Beuve by the phraseology and style of some
+literary essays which, when barely eighteen years old, he put into
+the critic&rsquo;s hands. In consequence of this introduction he at
+once came under the influence of the great Romantic <i>cénacle</i>, to
+which, as to Victor Hugo in particular, he was also introduced by
+his gifted but ill-starred schoolmate Gérard de Nerval. With
+Gérard, Petrus Borel, Corot, and many other less known painters
+and poets whose personalities he has delightfully sketched in the
+articles collected under the titles of <i>Histoire du Romantisme</i>, &amp;c.,
+he formed a minor romantic clique who were distinguished for a
+time by the most extravagant eccentricity. A flaming crimson
+waistcoat and a great mass of waving hair were the outward
+signs which qualified Gautier for a chief rank among the enthusiastic
+devotees who attended the rehearsals of <i>Hernani</i> with red
+tickets marked &ldquo;Hierro,&rdquo; performed mocking dances round the
+bust of Racine, and were at all times ready to exchange word or
+blow with the <i>perruques</i> and <i>grisâtres</i> of the classical party. In
+Gautier&rsquo;s case these freaks were not inconsistent with real genius
+and real devotion to sound ideals of literature. He began (like
+Thackeray, to whom he presents in other ways some striking
+points of resemblance) as an artist, but soon found that his true
+powers lay in another direction.</p>
+
+<p>His first considerable poem, <i>Albertus</i> (1830), displayed a good
+deal of the extravagant character which accompanied rather than
+marked the movement, but also gave evidence of uncommon
+command both of language and imagery, and in particular of a
+descriptive power hardly to be excelled. The promise thus
+given was more than fulfilled in his subsequent poetry, which, in
+consequence of its small bulk, may well be noticed at once and by
+anticipation. The <i>Comédie de la mort</i>, which appeared soon after
+(1832), is one of the most remarkable of French poems, and
+though never widely read has received the suffrage of every
+competent reader. Minor poems of various dates, published in
+1840, display an almost unequalled command over poetical form,
+an advance even over <i>Albertus</i> in vigour, wealth and appropriateness
+of diction, and abundance of the special poetical essence.
+All these good gifts reached their climax in the <i>Émaux et camées</i>,
+first published in 1856, and again, with additions, just before the
+poet&rsquo;s death in 1872. These poems are in their own way such as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page537" id="page537"></a>537</span>
+cannot be surpassed. Gautier&rsquo;s poetical work contains in little
+an expression of his literary peculiarities. There are, in addition
+to the peculiarities of style and diction already noticed, an extraordinary
+feeling and affection for beauty in art and nature, and a
+strange indifference to anything beyond this range, which has
+doubtless injured the popularity of his work.</p>
+
+<p>But it was not, after all, as a poet that Gautier was to achieve
+either profit or fame. For the theatre, he had but little gift, and
+his dramatic efforts (if we except certain masques or ballets in
+which his exuberant and graceful fancy came into play) are by
+far his weakest. It was otherwise with his prose fiction. His
+first novel of any size, and in many respects his most remarkable
+work, was <i>Mademoiselle de Maupin</i> (1835). Unfortunately this
+book, while it establishes his literary reputation on an imperishable
+basis, was unfitted by its subject, and in parts by its treatment,
+for general perusal, and created, even in France, a prejudice
+against its author which he was very far from really deserving.
+During the years from 1833 onwards, his fertility in novels and
+tales was very great. <i>Les Jeunes-France</i> (1833), which may rank
+as a sort of prose <i>Albertus</i> in some ways, displays the follies of the
+youthful Romantics in a vein of humorous and at the same time
+half-pathetic satire. <i>Fortunio</i> (1838) perhaps belongs to the same
+class. <i>Jettatura</i>, written somewhat later, is less extravagant and
+more pathetic. A crowd of minor tales display the highest
+literary qualities, and rank with Mérimée&rsquo;s at the head of all
+contemporary works of the class. First of all must be mentioned
+the ghost-story of <i>La Morte amoureuse</i>, a gem of the most perfect
+workmanship. For many years Gautier continued to write
+novels. <i>La Belle Jenny</i> (1864) is a not very successful attempt to
+draw on his English experience, but the earlier <i>Militona</i> (1847) is
+a most charming picture of Spanish life. In <i>Spirite</i> (1866) he
+endeavoured to enlist the fancy of the day for supernatural
+manifestations, and a <i>Roman de la momie</i> (1856) is a learned study
+of ancient Egyptian ways. His most remarkable effort in this
+kind, towards the end of his life, was <i>Le Capitaine Fracasse</i> (1863),
+a novel, partly of the picaresque school, partly of that which
+Dumas was to make popular, projected nearly thirty years earlier,
+and before Dumas himself had taken to the style. This book
+contains some of the finest instances of his literary power.</p>
+
+<p>Yet neither in poems nor in novels did the main occupation
+of Gautier as a literary man consist. He was early drawn to
+the more lucrative task of feuilleton-writing, and for more than
+thirty years he was among the most expert and successful
+practitioners of this art. Soon after the publication of <i>Mademoiselle
+de Maupin</i>, in which he had not been too polite to
+journalism, he became irrevocably a journalist. He was actually
+the editor of <i>L&rsquo;Artiste</i> for a time: but his chief newspaper
+connexions were with <i>La Presse</i> from 1836 to 1854 and with the
+<i>Moniteur</i> later. His work was mainly theatrical and art criticism.
+The rest of his life was spent either at Paris or in travels of
+considerable extent to Spain, the Netherlands, Italy, Turkey,
+England, Algeria and Russia, all undertaken with a more or less
+definite purpose of book-making. Having absolutely no political
+opinions, he had no difficulty in accepting the Second Empire,
+and received from it considerable favours, in return for which,
+however, he in no way prostituted his pen, but remained a
+literary man pure and simple. He died on the 23rd of December
+1872.</p>
+
+<p>Accounts of his travels, criticisms of the theatrical and literary
+works of the day, obituary notices of his contemporaries and,
+above all, art criticism occupied him in turn. It has sometimes
+been deplored that this engagement in journalism should have
+diverted Gautier from the performance of more capital work in
+literature. Perhaps, however, this regret springs from a certain
+misconception. Gautier&rsquo;s power was literary power pure and
+simple, and it is as evident in his slightest sketches and criticisms
+as in <i>Émaux et camées or La Morte amoureuse</i>. On the other hand,
+his weakness, if he had a weakness, lay in his almost total indifference
+to the matters which usually supply subjects for art
+and therefore for literature. He has thus been accused of &ldquo;lack
+of ideas&rdquo; by those who have not cleared their own minds of cant;
+and in the recent set-back of the critical current against form and
+in favour of &ldquo;philosophic&rdquo; treatment, comment upon him has
+sometimes been unfavourable. But this injustice will, beyond
+all question, be redressed again. He was neither immoral,
+irreligious nor unduly subservient to despotism, but morals,
+religion and politics (to which we may add science and material
+progress) were matters of no interest to him. He was to all
+intents a humanist, as the word was understood in the 15th
+century. But he was a humorist as well, and this combination,
+joined to his singularly kindly and genial nature, saved him
+from some dangers and depravations as well as some absurdities
+to which the humanist temper is exposed. As time goes on it
+may be predicted that, though Gautier may not be widely read,
+yet his writings will never cease to be full of indescribable charm
+and of very definite instruction to men of letters. Besides those
+of his works which have been already cited, we may notice <i>Une
+Larme du diable</i> (1839), a charming mixture of humour and tenderness;
+<i>Les Grotesques</i> (1844), a volume of early criticisms on some
+oddities of 17th-century literature; <i>Caprices et zigzags</i> (1845),
+miscellanies dealing in part with English life; <i>Voyage en Espagne</i>
+(1845), <i>Constantinople</i> (1854), <i>Voyage en Russie</i> (1866), brilliant
+volumes of travel; <i>Ménagerie intime</i> (1869) and <i>Tableaux de
+siège</i> (1872), his two latest works, which display his incomparable
+style in its quietest but not least happy form.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There is no complete edition of Gautier&rsquo;s works, and the vicomte
+Spoelberch de Lovenjoul&rsquo;s <i>Histoire des &oelig;uvres de Théophile Gautier</i>
+(1887) shows how formidable such an undertaking would be. But
+since his death numerous further collections of articles have been
+made: <i>Fusains et eaux-fortes</i> and <i>Tableaux à la plume</i> (1880);
+<i>L&rsquo;Orient</i> (2 vols., 1881); <i>Les Vacances du lundi</i> (new ed., 1888);
+<i>La Nature chez elle</i> (new ed., 1891). In 1879 his son-in-law, E.
+Bergerat, who had married his younger daughter Estelle (the elder,
+Mme Judith Gautier&mdash;herself a writer of distinction&mdash;was at one
+time Mme Catulle Mendès), issued a biography, <i>Théophile Gautier</i>,
+which has been often reprinted. With it should be compared Maxime
+du Camp&rsquo;s volume in the <i>Grands Écrivains français</i> (1890) and the
+numerous references in the <i>Journal des Goncourt</i>. Critical eulogies,
+from Sainte-Beuve (repeatedly in the <i>Causeries</i>) and Baudelaire (two
+articles in <i>L&rsquo;Art romantique</i>) downwards, are numerous. The chief
+of the decriers is Émile Faguet in his <i>Études littéraires sur le XIX<span class="sp">e</span>
+siècle</i>. In 1902 and 1903 there appeared two respectable academic
+<i>éloges</i> by H. Menai and H. Potez.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. Sa.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAUTIER D&rsquo;ARRAS<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span>, French <i>trouvère</i>, flourished in the second
+half of the 12th century. Nothing is known of his biography
+except what may be gleaned from his works. He dedicated his
+romance of <i>Éracle</i> to Theobald V., count of Blois (d. 1191);
+among his other patrons were Marie, countess of Champagne,
+daughter of Louis VII. and Eleanor of Guienne and Baldwin IV.,
+count of Hainaut. <i>Éracle</i>, the hero of which becomes emperor
+of Constantinople as Heraclius, is purely a <i>roman d&rsquo;aventures</i>
+and enjoyed great popularity. His second romance, <i>Ille et
+Galeron</i>, dedicated to Beatrix, the second wife of Frederick
+Barbarossa, treats of a similar situation to that outlined in the
+lay of &ldquo;<i>Eliduc</i>&rdquo; by Marie de France.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>&OElig;uvres de Gautier d&rsquo;Arras</i>, ed. E. Löseth (2 vols., Paris,
+1890); <i>Hist. litt. de la France</i>, vol. xxii. (1852); A. Dinaux, <i>Les
+Trouvères</i> (1833-1843), vol. iii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAUZE<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span>, a light, transparent fabric, originally of silk, and
+now sometimes made of linen or cotton, woven in an open manner
+with very fine yarn. It is said to have been originally made at
+Gaza in Palestine, whence the name. Some of the gauzes from
+eastern Asia were brocaded with flowers of gold or silver. In
+the weaving of gauze the warp threads, in addition to being
+crossed as in plain weaving, are twisted in pairs from left to
+right and from right to left alternately, after each shot of weft,
+thereby keeping the weft threads at equal distances apart, and
+retaining them in their parallel position. The textures are
+woven either plain, striped or figured; and the material receives
+many designations, according to its appearance and the purposes
+to which it is devoted. A thin cotton fabric, woven in the same
+way, is known as leno, to distinguish it from muslin made by
+plain weaving. Silk gauze was a prominent and extensive
+industry in the west of Scotland during the second half of the
+18th century, but on the introduction of cotton-weaving it
+greatly declined. In addition to its use for dress purposes silk
+gauze is much employed for bolting or sifting flour and other
+finely ground substances. The term gauze is applied generally
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538"></a>538</span>
+to transparent fabrics of whatever fibre made, and to the fine-woven
+wire-cloth used in safety-lamps, sieves, window-blinds, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAVARNI<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span>, the name by which <span class="sc">Sulpice Guillaume Chevalier</span>
+(1801-1866), French caricaturist, is known. He is said to have
+taken the <i>nom de plume</i> from the place where he made his first
+published sketch. He was born in Paris of poor parents, and
+started in life as a workman in an engine-building factory. At
+the same time he attended the free school of drawing. In his
+first attempts to turn his abilities to some account he met with
+many disappointments, but was at last entrusted with the
+drawing of some illustrations for a journal of fashion. Gavarni
+was then thirty-four years of age. His sharp and witty pencil
+gave to these generally commonplace and unartistic figures a
+life-likeness and an expression which soon won for him a name
+in fashionable circles. Gradually he gave greater attention to
+this more congenial work, and finally ceased working as an
+engineer to become the director of the journal <i>Les Gens du monde</i>.
+His ambition rising in proportion to his success, Gavarni from
+this time followed the real bent of his inclination, and began a
+series of lithographed sketches, in which he portrayed the most
+striking characteristics, foibles and vices of the various classes
+of French society. The letterpress explanations attached to his
+drawings were always short, but were forcible and highly
+humorous, if sometimes trivial, and were admirably adapted
+to the particular subjects. The different stages through which
+Gavarni&rsquo;s talent passed, always elevating and refining itself,
+are well worth being noted. At first he confined himself to the
+study of Parisian manners, more especially those of the Parisian
+youth. To this vein belong <i>Les Lorettes</i>, <i>Les Actrices</i>, <i>Les Coulisses</i>,
+<i>Les Fashionables</i>, <i>Les Gentilshommes bourgeois</i>, <i>Les Artistes</i>, <i>Les
+Débardeurs</i>, <i>Clichy</i>, <i>Les Étudiants de Paris</i>, <i>Les Baliverneries
+parisiennes</i>, <i>Les Plaisirs champêtres</i>, <i>Les Bals masqués</i>, <i>Le Carnaval</i>,
+<i>Les Souvenirs du carnaval</i>, <i>Les Souvenirs du bal Chicard</i>, <i>La Vie
+des jeunes hommes</i>, <i>Les Patois de Paris</i>. He had now ceased to
+be director of <i>Les Gens du monde</i>; but he was engaged as ordinary
+caricaturist of <i>Le Charivari</i>, and, whilst making the fortune
+of the paper, he made his own. His name was exceedingly
+popular, and his illustrations for books were eagerly sought for
+by publishers. <i>Le Juif errant</i>, by Eugène Sue (1843, 4 vols.
+8vo), the French translation of Hoffman&rsquo;s tales (1843, 8vo), the
+first collective edition of Balzac&rsquo;s works (Paris, Houssiaux, 1850,
+20 vols. 8vo), <i>Le Diable à Paris</i> (1844-1846, 2 vols. 4to), <i>Les
+Français peints par eux-mêmes</i> (1840-1843, 9 vols. 8vo), the
+collection of <i>Physiologies</i> published by Aubert in 38 vols. 18mo
+(1840-1842),&mdash;all owed a great part of their success at the time,
+and are still sought for, on account of the clever and telling
+sketches contributed by Gavarni. A single frontispiece or
+vignette was sometimes enough to secure the sale of a new book.
+Always desiring to enlarge the field of his observations, Gavarni
+soon abandoned his once favourite topics. He no longer limited
+himself to such types as the <i>lorette</i> and the Parisian student,
+or to the description of the noisy and popular pleasures of the
+capital, but turned his mirror to the grotesque sides of family
+life and of humanity at large. <i>Les Enfants terribles</i>, <i>Les Parents
+terribles</i>, <i>Les Fourberies des femmes</i>, <i>La Politique des femmes</i>, <i>Les
+Maris vengés</i>, <i>Les Nuances du sentiment</i>, <i>Les Rêves</i>, <i>Les Petits Jeux
+de société</i>, <i>Les Petits Malheurs du bonheur</i>, <i>Les Impressions de
+menage</i>, <i>Les Interjections</i>, <i>Les Traductions en langue vulgaire</i>, <i>Les
+Propos de Thomas Vireloque</i>, &amp;c., were composed at this time,
+and are his most elevated productions. But whilst showing the
+same power of irony as his former works, enhanced by a deeper
+insight into human nature, they generally bear the stamp of a
+bitter and even sometimes gloomy philosophy. This tendency
+was still more strengthened by a visit to England in 1849. He
+returned from London deeply impressed with the scenes of misery
+and degradation which he had observed among the lower classes
+of that city. In the midst of the cheerful atmosphere of Paris he
+had been struck chiefly by the ridiculous aspects of vulgarity
+and vice, and he had laughed at them. But the debasement of
+human nature which he saw in London appears to have affected
+him so forcibly that from that time the cheerful caricaturist
+never laughed or made others laugh again. What he had
+witnessed there became the almost exclusive subject of his
+drawings, as powerful, as impressive as ever, but better calculated
+to be appreciated by cultivated minds than by the public, which
+had in former years granted him so wide a popularity. Most of
+these last compositions appeared in the weekly paper <i>L&rsquo;Illustration</i>.
+In 1857 he published in one volume the series entitled
+<i>Masques et visages</i> (1 vol. 12mo), and in 1869, about two years
+after his death, his last artistic work, <i>Les Douze Mois</i> (1 vol. fol.),
+was given to the world. Gavarni was much engaged, during the
+last period of his life, in scientific pursuits, and this fact must
+perhaps be connected with the great change which then took
+place in his manner as an artist. He sent several communications
+to the Académie des Sciences, and till his death on the 23rd of
+November 1866 he was eagerly interested in the question of
+aerial navigation. It is said that he made experiments on a large
+scale with a view to find the means of directing balloons; but
+it seems that he was not so successful in this line as his fellow-artist,
+the caricaturist and photographer, Nadar.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gavarni&rsquo;s <i>&OElig;uvres choisies</i> were edited in 1845 (4 vols. 4to) with
+letterpress by J. Janin, Th. Gautier and Balzac, followed in 1850
+by two other volumes named <i>Perles et parures</i>; and some essays in
+prose and in verse written by him were collected by one of his biographers,
+Ch. Yriarte, and published in 1869. See also E. and J. de
+Goncourt, <i>Gavarni, l&rsquo;homme et l&rsquo;&oelig;uvre</i> (1873, 8vo). J. Claretie has
+also devoted to the great French caricaturist a curious and interesting
+essay. A catalogue <i>raisonné</i> of Gavarni&rsquo;s works was published
+by J. Armelhault and E. Bocher (Paris, 1873, 8vo).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAVAZZI, ALESSANDRO<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1809-1889), Italian preacher and
+patriot, was born at Bologna on the 21st of March 1809. He
+at first became a monk (1825), and attached himself to the
+Barnabites at Naples, where he afterwards (1829) acted as
+professor of rhetoric. In 1840, having already expressed liberal
+views, he was removed to Rome to fill a subordinate position.
+Leaving his own country after the capture of Rome by the
+French, he carried on a vigorous campaign against priests and
+Jesuits in England, Scotland and North America, partly by
+means of a periodical, the <i>Gavazzi Free Word</i>. While in England
+he gradually went over (1855) to the Evangelical church, and
+became head and organizer of the Italian Protestants in London.
+Returning to Italy in 1860, he served as army-chaplain with
+Garibaldi. In 1870 he became head of the Free Church (<i>Chiesa
+libera</i>) of Italy, united the scattered Congregations into the
+&ldquo;Unione delle Chiese libere in Italia,&rdquo; and in 1875 founded in
+Rome the theological college of the Free Church, in which he
+himself taught dogmatics, apologetics and polemics. He died
+in Rome on the 9th of January 1889.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Amongst his publications are <i>No Union with Rome</i> (1871); <i>The
+Priest in Absolution</i> (1877); <i>My Recollections of the Last Four Popes</i>,
+&amp;c., in answer to Cardinal Wiseman (1858); <i>Orations</i>, 2 decades
+(1851).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAVELKIND<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span>,<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a peculiar system of tenure associated chiefly
+with the county of Kent, but found also in other parts of England.
+In Kent all land is presumed to be holden by this tenure until
+the contrary is proved, but some lands have been disgavelled
+by particular statutes. It is more correctly described as socage
+tenure, subject to the custom of gavelkind. The chief peculiarities
+of the custom are the following. (1) A tenant can alienate
+his lands by feoffment at fifteen years of age. (2) There is no
+escheat on attainder for felony, or as it is expressed in the old
+rhyme&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;The father to the bough,</p>
+<p class="i05">The son to the plough.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">(3) Generally the tenant could always dispose of his lands by
+will. (4) In case of intestacy the estate descends not to the eldest
+son but to all the sons (or, in the case of deceased sons, their
+representatives) in equal shares. &ldquo;Every son is as great a
+gentleman as the eldest son is.&rdquo; It is to this remarkable peculiarity
+that gavelkind no doubt owes its local popularity. Though
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page539" id="page539"></a>539</span>
+females claiming in their own right are postponed to males,
+yet by representation they may inherit together with them.
+(5) A wife is dowable of one-half, instead of one-third of the land.
+(6) A widower may be tenant by courtesy, without having had
+any issue, of one-half, but only so long as he remains unmarried.
+An act of 1841, for commuting manorial rights in respect of lands
+of copyhold and customary tenure, contained a clause specially
+exempting from the operation of the act &ldquo;the custom of gavelkind
+as the same now exists and prevails in the county of Kent.&rdquo;
+Gavelkind is one of the most interesting examples of the
+customary law of England; it was, previous to the Conquest,
+the general custom of the realm, but was then superseded by
+the feudal law of primogeniture. Its survival in this instance in
+one part of the country is regarded as a concession extorted
+from the Conqueror by the superior bravery of the men of Kent.
+<i>Irish gavelkind</i> was a species of tribal succession, by which the
+land, instead of being divided at the death of the holder amongst
+his sons, was thrown again into the common stock, and redivided
+among the surviving members of the sept. The equal division
+amongst children of an inheritance in land is of common occurrence
+outside the United Kingdom and is discussed under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Succession</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inheritance</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tenure</a></span>. Also Robinson, <i>On Gavelkind</i>; Digby,
+<i>History of the Law of Real Property</i>; Pollock and Maitland, <i>History
+of English Law</i>; Challis, <i>Real Property</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This word is generally taken to represent in O. Eng. <i>gafolgecynd</i>,
+from <i>gafol</i>, payment, tribute, and <i>gecynd</i>, species, kind, and originally
+to have meant tenure by payment of rent or non-military services,
+cf. gafol-land, and thence to have been applied to the particular
+custom attached to such tenure in Kent. <i>Gafol</i> apparently is
+derived from the Teutonic root seen in &ldquo;to give&rdquo;; the Med.
+Lat. <i>gabulum, gablum</i> gives the Fr. <i>gabelle</i>, tax.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAVESTON, PIERS<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (d. 1312), earl of Cornwall, favourite of
+the English king Edward II., was the son of a Gascon knight,
+and was brought up at the court of Edward I. as companion
+to his son, the future king. Strong, talented and ambitious,
+Gaveston gained great influence over young Edward, and early
+in 1307 he was banished from England by the king; but he
+returned after the death of Edward I. a few months later, and
+at once became the chief adviser of Edward II. Made earl of
+Cornwall, he received both lands and money from the king, and
+added to his wealth and position by marrying Edward&rsquo;s niece,
+Margaret, daughter of Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester (d.
+1295). He was regent of the kingdom during the king&rsquo;s short
+absence in France in 1308, and took a very prominent part at
+Edward&rsquo;s coronation in February of this year. These proceedings
+aroused the anger and jealousy of the barons, and their wrath
+was diminished neither by Gaveston&rsquo;s superior skill at the
+tournament, nor by his haughty and arrogant behaviour to
+themselves. They demanded his banishment; and the king,
+forced to assent, sent his favourite to Ireland as lieutenant,
+where he remained for about a year. Returning to England in
+July 1309, Edward persuaded some of the barons to sanction this
+proceeding; but as Gaveston was more insolent than ever the
+old jealousies soon broke out afresh. In 1311 the king was
+forced to agree to the election of the &ldquo;ordainers,&rdquo; and the
+ordinances they drew up provided <i>inter alia</i> for the perpetual
+banishment of his favourite. Gaveston then retired to Flanders,
+but returned secretly to England at the end of 1311. Soon he
+was publicly restored by Edward, and the barons had taken up
+arms. Deserted by the king he surrendered to Aymer de Valence,
+earl of Pembroke (d. 1324), at Scarborough in May 1312, and was
+taken to Deddington in Oxfordshire, where he was seized by Guy
+de Beauchamp, earl of Warwick (d. 1315). Conveyed to Warwick
+castle he was beheaded on Blacklow Hill near Warwick on the
+19th of June 1312. Gaveston, whose body was buried in 1315
+at King&rsquo;s Langley, left an only daughter.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1896); and
+<i>Chronicles of the Reigns of Edward I. and Edward II.</i>, edited by W.
+Stubbs. Rolls series (London, 1882-1883).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAVOTTE<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (a French word adopted from the Provençal <i>gavoto</i>),
+properly the dance of the Gavots or natives of Gap, a district
+in the Upper Alps, in the old province of Dauphiné. It is a
+dance of a brisk and lively character, somewhat resembling
+the minuet, but quicker and less stately (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dance</a></span>); hence
+also the use of this name for a corresponding form of musical
+composition.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAWAIN<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Walwain</i> (<i>Brut</i>), <i>Gauvain, Gaugain</i>; Lat.
+<i>Walganus</i>, <i>Walwanus</i>; Dutch, <i>Walwein</i>, Welsh, <i>Gwalchmei</i>),
+son of King Loth of Orkney, and nephew to Arthur on his
+mother&rsquo;s side, the most famous hero of Arthurian romance.
+The first mention of his name is in a passage of William of Malmesbury,
+recording the discovery of his tomb in the province of Ros
+in Wales. He is there described as &ldquo;<i>Walwen qui fuit haud
+degener Arturis ex sorore nepos</i>.&rdquo; Here he is said to have reigned
+over Galloway; and there is certainly some connexion, the
+character of which is now not easy to determine, between the
+two. In the later <i>Historia</i> of <span class="correction" title="amended from Goeffrey">Geoffrey</span> of Monmouth, and its
+French translation by Wace, Gawain plays an important and
+&ldquo;pseudo-historic&rdquo; rôle. On the receipt by Arthur of the
+insulting message of the Roman emperor, demanding tribute,
+it is he who is despatched as ambassador to the enemy&rsquo;s camp,
+where his arrogant and insulting behaviour brings about the
+outbreak of hostilities. On receipt of the tidings of Mordred&rsquo;s
+treachery, Gawain accompanies Arthur to England, and is slain
+in the battle which ensues on their landing. Wace, however,
+evidently knew more of Gawain than he has included in his
+translation, for he speaks of him as</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>Li quens Walwains</p>
+<p>Qui tant fu preudom de ses mains (11. 9057-58).</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and later on says</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>Prous fu et de mult grant mesure,</p>
+<p>D&rsquo;orgoil et de forfait n&rsquo;ot qure</p>
+<p>Plus vaut faire qu&rsquo;il ne dist</p>
+<p>Et plus doner qu&rsquo;il ne pramist (10. 106-109).</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">The English Arthurian poems regard him as the type and model of
+chivalrous courtesy, &ldquo;the fine father of nurture,&rdquo; and as Professor
+Maynadier has well remarked, &ldquo;previous to the appearance
+of Malory&rsquo;s compilation it was Gawain rather than Arthur, who
+was the typical English hero.&rdquo; It is thus rather surprising to
+find that in the earliest preserved MSS. of Arthurian romance, <i>i.e.</i>
+in the poems of Chrétien de Troyes, Gawain, though generally
+placed first in the list of knights, is by no means the hero <i>par
+excellence</i>. The latter part of the <i>Perceval</i> is indeed devoted to the
+recital of his adventures at the <i>Chastel Merveilleus</i>, but of none of
+Chrétien&rsquo;s poems is he the protagonist. The anonymous author
+of the <i>Chevalier à l&rsquo;epée</i> indeed makes this apparent neglect of
+Gawain a ground of reproach against Chrétien. At the same time
+the majority of the short episodic poems connected with the cycle
+have Gawain for their hero. In the earlier form of the prose
+romances, <i>e.g.</i> in the <i>Merlin</i> proper, Gawain is a dominant
+personality, his feats rivalling in importance those ascribed to
+Arthur, but in the later forms such as the <i>Merlin</i> continuations,
+the <i>Tristan</i>, and the final <i>Lancelot</i> compilation, his character and
+position have undergone a complete change, he is represented as
+cruel, cowardly and treacherous, and of indifferent moral
+character. Most unfortunately our English version of the
+romances, Malory&rsquo;s <i>Morte Arthur</i>, being derived from these later
+forms (though his treatment of Gawain is by no means uniformly
+consistent), this unfavourable aspect is that under which the hero
+has become known to the modern reader. Tennyson, who only
+knew the Arthurian story through the medium of Malory, has,
+by exaggeration, largely contributed to this misunderstanding.
+Morris, in <i>The Defence of Guinevere</i>, speaks of &ldquo;gloomy Gawain&rdquo;;
+perhaps the most absurdly misleading epithet which could possibly
+have been applied to the &ldquo;gay, gratious, and gude&rdquo; knight of
+early English tradition.</p>
+
+<p>The truth appears to be that Gawain, the Celtic and mythic
+origin of whose character was frankly admitted by the late M.
+Gaston Paris, belongs to the very earliest stage of Arthurian
+tradition, long antedating the crystallization of such tradition into
+literary form. He was certainly known in Italy at a very early
+date; Professor Rajna has found the names of Arthur and
+Gawain in charters of the early 12th century, the bearers of those
+names being then grown to manhood; and Gawain is figured in
+the architrave of the north doorway of Modena cathedral, a 12th-century
+building. Recent discoveries have made it practically
+certain that there existed, prior to the extant romances, a collection
+of short episodic poems, devoted to the glorification of
+Arthur&rsquo;s famous nephew and his immediate kin (his brother
+Ghaeris, or Gareth, and his son Guinglain), the authorship of
+which was attributed to a Welshman, Bleheris; fragments of this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page540" id="page540"></a>540</span>
+collection have been preserved to us alike in the first continuation
+of Chrétien de Troyes <i>Perceval</i>, due to Wauchier de Denain,
+and in our vernacular <i>Gawain</i> poems. Among these &ldquo;Bleheris&rdquo;
+poems was one dealing with Gawain&rsquo;s adventures at the Grail
+castle, where the Grail is represented as non-Christian, and presents
+features strongly reminiscent of the ancient Nature mysteries.
+There is good ground for believing that as Grail quester and
+winner, Gawain preceded alike Perceval and Galahad, and that
+the solution of the mysterious Grail problem is to be sought
+rather in the tales connected with the older hero than in those
+devoted to the glorification of the younger knights. The explanation
+of the very perplexing changes which the character of Gawain
+has undergone appears to lie in a misunderstanding of the original
+sources of that character. Whether or no Gawain was a sun-hero,
+and he certainly possessed some of the features&mdash;we are
+constantly told how his strength waxed with the waxing of the sun
+till noontide, and then gradually decreased; he owned a steed
+known by a definite name le Gringalet; and a light-giving sword,
+Escalibur (which, as a rule, is represented as belonging to Gawain,
+not to Arthur)&mdash;all traits of a sun-hero&mdash;he certainly has much in
+common with the primitive Irish hero Cuchullin. The famous
+head-cutting challenge, so admirably told in <i>Syr Gawayne and the
+Grene Knighte</i>, was originally connected with the Irish champion.
+Nor was the lady of Gawain&rsquo;s love a mortal maiden, but the
+queen of the other-world. In Irish tradition the other-world is
+often represented as an island, inhabited by women only; and
+it is this &ldquo;Isle of Maidens&rdquo; that Gawain visits in <i>Diu Crone</i>;
+returning therefrom dowered with the gift of eternal youth.
+The Chastel Merveilleus adventure, related at length by Chrétien
+and Wolfram is undoubtedly such an &ldquo;other-world&rdquo; story. It
+seems probable that it was this connexion which won for Gawain
+the title of the &ldquo;Maidens&rsquo; Knight,&rdquo; a title for which no satisfactory
+explanation is ever given. When the source of the name
+was forgotten its meaning was not unnaturally misinterpreted,
+and gained for Gawain the reputation of a facile morality,
+which was exaggerated by the pious compilers of the later Grail
+romances into persistent and aggravated wrong-doing; at the
+same time it is to be noted that Gawain is never like Tristan and
+Lancelot, the hero of an illicit connexion maintained under
+circumstances of falsehood and treachery. Gawain, however,
+belonged to the pre-Christian stage of Grail tradition, and it is not
+surprising that writers, bent on spiritual edification, found him
+somewhat of a stumbling-block. Chaucer, when he spoke of
+Gawain coming &ldquo;again out of faërie,&rdquo; spoke better than he knew;
+the home of that very gallant and courteous knight is indeed
+Fairy-land, and the true Gawain-tradition is informed with
+fairy glamour and grace.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Syr Gawayne</i>, the English poems relative to that hero, edited
+by Sir Frederick Madden for the Bannatyne Club, 1839 (out of print
+and difficult to procure); <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i>, vol. xxx.;
+introduction and summary of episodic &ldquo;Gawain&rdquo; poems by Gaston
+Paris; <i>The Legend of Sir Gawain</i>, by Jessie L. Weston, Grimm
+Library, vol. vii.; <i>The Legend of Sir Perceval</i>, by Jessie L. Weston,
+Grimm Library, vol. xvii.; &ldquo;Sir Gawain and the Green Knight,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Sir Gawain at the Grail Castle&rdquo; and &ldquo;Sir Gawain and the Lady of
+Lys,&rdquo; vols. i., vi and vii. of <i>Arthurian Romances</i> (Nutt).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAWLER<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span>, a town of Gawler county, South Australia, on the
+Para river, 24¾ m. by rail N.E. of Adelaide. It is one of the most
+thriving places in the colony, being the centre of a large wheat-growing
+district; it has also engineering works, foundries, flour-mills,
+breweries and saw-mills, while gold, silver, copper and
+lead are found in the neighbouring hills. The inhabitants of the
+town and its extensive suburbs number about 7000; though the
+population of the town itself in 1901 was 1996.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAY, JOHN<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1685-1732), English poet, was baptized on the
+16th of September 1685 at Barnstaple, where his family had
+long been settled. He was educated at the grammar school of the
+town under Robert Luck, who had published some Latin and
+English poems. On leaving school he was apprenticed to a silk
+mercer in London, but being weary, according to Dr Johnson,
+&ldquo;of either the restraint or the servility of his occupation,&rdquo; he
+soon returned to Barnstaple, where he spent some time with his
+uncle, the Rev. John Hanmer, the Nonconformist minister of the
+town. He then returned to London, and though no details are
+available for his biography until the publication of <i>Wine</i> in 1708,
+the account he gives in <i>Rural Sports</i> (1713), of years wasted in
+attending on courtiers who were profuse in promises never
+kept, may account for his occupations. Among his early literary
+friends were Aaron Hill and Eustace Budgell. In <i>The Present
+State of Wit</i> (1711) Gay attempted to give an account of &ldquo;all our
+periodical papers, whether monthly, weekly or diurnal.&rdquo; He
+especially praised the <i>Tatler</i> and the <i>Spectator</i>, and Swift, who
+knew nothing of the authorship of the pamphlet, suspected it
+to be inspired by Steele and Addison. To Lintot&rsquo;s <i>Miscellany</i>
+(1712) Gay contributed &ldquo;An Epistle to Bernard Lintot,&rdquo; containing
+some lines in praise of Pope, and a version of the story of
+Arachne from the sixth book of the <i>Metamorphoses</i> of Ovid. In
+the same year he was received into the household of the duchess
+of Monmouth as secretary, a connexion which was, however,
+broken before June 1714.</p>
+
+<p>The dedication of his <i>Rural Sports</i> (1713) to Pope was
+the beginning of a lasting friendship. Gay could have no
+pretensions to rivalry with Pope, who seems never to have
+tired of helping his friend. In 1713 he produced a comedy,
+<i>The Wife of Bath</i>, which was acted only three nights, and <i>The
+Fan</i>, one of his least successful poems; and in 1714 <i>The Shepherd&rsquo;s
+Week</i>, a series of six pastorals drawn from English rustic life.
+Pope had urged him to undertake this last task in order to
+ridicule the Arcadian pastorals of Ambrose Philips, who had been
+praised by the <i>Guardian</i>, to the neglect of Pope&rsquo;s claims as the
+first pastoral writer of the age and the true English Theocritus.
+Gay&rsquo;s pastorals completely achieved this object, but his ludicrous
+pictures of the English swains and their loves were found to be
+abundantly entertaining on their own account. Gay had just
+been appointed secretary to the British ambassador to the court
+of Hanover through the influence of Jonathan Swift, when the
+death of Queen Anne three months later put an end to all his
+hopes of official employment. In 1715, probably with some help
+from Pope, he produced <i>What d&rsquo;ye call it?</i> a dramatic skit on
+contemporary tragedy, with special reference to Otway&rsquo;s <i>Venice
+Preserved</i>. It left the public so ignorant of its real meaning that
+Lewis Theobald and Benjamin Griffin (1680-1740) published a
+<i>Complete Key to what d&rsquo;ye call it</i> by way of explanation. In 1716
+appeared his <i>Trivia, or the Art of Walking the Streets of London</i>, a
+poem in three books, for which he acknowledged having received
+several hints from Swift. It contains graphic and humorous
+descriptions of the London of that period. In January 1717 he
+produced the comedy of <i>Three Hours after Marriage</i>, which was
+grossly indecent without being amusing, and was a complete
+failure. There is no doubt that in this piece he had assistance
+from Pope and Arbuthnot, but they were glad enough to have it
+assumed that Gay was the sole author.</p>
+
+<p>Gay had numerous patrons, and in 1720 he published <i>Poems
+on Several Occasions</i> by subscription, realizing £1000 or more.
+In that year James Craggs, the secretary of state, presented
+him with some South Sea stock. Gay, disregarding the prudent
+advice of Pope and other of his friends, invested his all in South
+Sea stock, and, holding on to the end, he lost everything. The
+shock is said to have made him dangerously ill. As a matter of
+fact Gay had always been a spoilt child, who expected everything
+to be done for him. His friends did not fail him at this juncture.
+He had patrons in William Pulteney, afterwards earl of Bath,
+in the third earl of Burlington, who constantly entertained him
+at Chiswick or at Burlington House, and in the third earl of
+Queensberry. He was a frequent visitor with Pope, and received
+unvarying kindness from Congreve and Arbuthnot. In 1724
+he produced a tragedy called <i>The Captives</i>. In 1727 he wrote
+for Prince William, afterwards duke of Cumberland, his famous
+<i>Fifty-one Fables in Verse</i>, for which he naturally hoped to gain
+some preferment, although he has much to say in them of the
+servility of courtiers and the vanity of court honours. He was
+offered the situation of gentleman-usher to the Princess Louisa,
+who was still a child. He refused this offer, which all his friends
+seem to have regarded, for no very obvious reason, as an indignity.
+As the <i>Fables</i> were written for the amusement of one royal child,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page541" id="page541"></a>541</span>
+there would appear to have been a measure of reason in giving
+him a sinecure in the service of another. His friends thought
+him unjustly neglected by the court, but he had already received
+(1722) a sinecure as lottery commissioner with a salary of £150
+a year, and from 1722 to 1729 he had lodgings in the palace at
+Whitehall. He had never rendered any special services to the
+court.</p>
+
+<p>He certainly did nothing to conciliate the favour of the government
+by his next production, the <i>Beggars&rsquo; Opera</i>, a lyrical
+drama produced on the 29th of January 1728 by Rich, in which
+Sir Robert Walpole was caricatured. This famous piece, which
+was said to have made &ldquo;Rich gay and Gay rich,&rdquo; was an innovation
+in many respects, and for a time it drove Italian opera off
+the English stage. Under cover of the thieves and highwaymen
+who figured in it was disguised a satire on society, for Gay made
+it plain that in describing the moral code of his characters he had
+in mind the corruptions of the governing class. Part of the
+success of the <i>Beggars&rsquo; Opera</i> may have been due to the acting
+of Lavinia Fenton, afterwards duchess of Bolton, in the part of
+Polly Peachum. The play ran for sixty-two nights, though the
+representations, four of which were &ldquo;benefits&rdquo; of the author,
+were not, as has sometimes been stated, consecutive. Swift is
+said to have suggested the subject, and Pope and Arbuthnot
+were constantly consulted while the work was in progress, but
+Gay must be regarded as the sole author. He wrote a sequel,
+<i>Polly</i>, the representation of which was forbidden by the lord
+chamberlain, no doubt through the influence of Walpole. This
+act of &ldquo;oppression&rdquo; caused no loss to Gay. It proved an
+excellent advertisement for <i>Polly</i>, which was published by subscription
+in 1729, and brought its author more than £1000. The
+duchess of Queensberry was dismissed from court for enlisting
+subscribers in the palace. The duke of Queensberry gave him a
+home, and the duchess continued her affectionate patronage
+until Gay&rsquo;s death, which took place on the 4th of December
+1732. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. The epitaph
+on his tomb is by Pope, and is followed by Gay&rsquo;s own mocking
+couplet:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Life is a jest, and all things show it,</p>
+<p class="i05">I thought so once, and now I know it.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind"><i>Acis and Galatea</i>, an English pastoral opera, the music of which
+was written by Handel, was produced at the Haymarket in
+1732. The profits of his posthumous opera of <i>Achilles</i> (1733), and
+a new volume of <i>Fables</i> (1738) went to his two sisters, who
+inherited from him a fortune of £6000. He left two other pieces,
+<i>The Distressed Wife</i> (1743), a comedy, and <i>The Rehearsal at
+Goatham</i> (1754), a farce. The <i>Fables</i>, slight as they may appear,
+cost him more labour than any of his other works. The narratives
+are in nearly every case original, and are told in clear and lively
+verse. The moral which rounds off each little story is never
+strained. They are masterpieces in their kind, and the very
+numerous editions of them prove their popularity. They have
+been translated into Latin, French and Italian, Urdu and
+Bengali.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See his <i>Poetical Works</i> (1893) in the Muses&rsquo; Library, with an introduction
+by Mr John Underhill; also Samuel Johnson&rsquo;s <i>Lives of the
+Poets</i>, John Gay&rsquo;s <i>Singspiele</i> (1898), edited by G. Sarrazin (<i>Englische
+Textbibliothek II.</i>); and an article by Austin Dobson in vol. 21 of
+the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>; <i>Gay&rsquo;s Chair</i> (1820), edited
+by Henry Lee, a fellow-townsman, contained a biographical sketch
+by his nephew, the Rev. Joseph Baller.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAY, MARIE FRANÇOISE SOPHIE<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1776-1852), French
+author, was born in Paris on the 1st of July 1776. Madame
+Gay was the daughter of M. Nichault de la Valette and of
+Francesca Peretti, an Italian lady. In 1793 she was married
+to M. Liottier, an exchange broker, but she was divorced from
+him in 1799, and shortly afterwards was married to M. Gay,
+receiver-general of the department of the Roër or Ruhr. This
+union brought her into intimate relations with many distinguished
+personages; and her salon came to be frequented by all the
+distinguished littérateurs, musicians, actors and painters of the
+time, whom she attracted by her beauty, her vivacity and her
+many amiable qualities. Her first literary production was a
+letter written in 1802 to the <i>Journal de Paris</i>, in defence of
+Madame de Staël&rsquo;s novel, <i>Delphine</i>; and in the same year she
+published anonymously her first novel <i>Laure d&rsquo;Estell</i>. <i>Léonie
+de Montbreuse</i>, which appeared in 1813, is considered by Sainte-Beuve
+her best work; but <i>Anatole</i> (1815), the romance of a
+deaf-mute, has perhaps a higher reputation. Among her other
+works, <i>Salons célèbres</i> (2 vols., 1837) may be especially mentioned.
+Madame Gay wrote several comedies and opera libretti which
+met with considerable success. She was also an accomplished
+musician, and composed both the words and music of a number
+of songs. She died in Paris on the 5th of March 1852. For an
+account of her daughter, Delphine Gay, Madame de Girardin,
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Girardin</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See her own <i>Souvenirs d&rsquo;une vieille femme</i> (1834); also Théophile
+Gautier, <i>Portraits contemporains</i>; and Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du
+lundi</i>, vol. vi.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAY, WALTER<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1856-&emsp;&emsp;), American artist, was born at
+Hingham, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of January 1856. In
+1876 he became a pupil of Léon Bonnat in Paris. He received
+an honourable mention in the Salon of 1885; a gold medal in
+1888, and similar awards at Vienna (1894), Antwerp (1895),
+Berlin (1896) and Munich (1897). He became an officer of the
+Legion of Honour and a member of the Society of Secession,
+Munich. Works by him are in the Luxembourg, the Tate
+Gallery (London), and the Boston and Metropolitan (New York)
+Museums of Art. His compositions are mainly figure subjects
+portraying French peasant life.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAYA<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span>, a city and district of British India, in the Patna
+division of Bengal. The city is situated 85 m. S. of Patna by
+rail. Pop. (1901) 71,288. It consists of two distinct parts,
+adjoining each other; the part containing the residences of the
+priests is Gaya proper; and the other, which is the business
+quarter, is called Sahibganj. The civil offices and residences of
+the European inhabitants are situated here. Gaya derives its
+sanctity from incidents in the life of Buddha. But a local
+legend also exists concerning a pagan monster of great sanctity,
+named Gaya, who by long penance had become holy, so that all
+who saw or touched him were saved from perdition. Yama, the
+lord of hell, appealed to the gods, who induced Gaya to lie down
+in order that his body might be a place of sacrifice; and once
+down, Yama placed a large stone on him to keep him there. The
+tricked demon struggled violently, and, in order to pacify him,
+Vishnu promised that the gods should take up their permanent
+residence in him, and that any one who made a pilgrimage to the
+spot where he lay should be delivered from the terrors of the
+Hindu place of torment. This may possibly be a Brahmanic
+rendering of Buddha&rsquo;s life and work. There are forty-five sacred
+spots (of which the temple of Vishnupada is the chief) in and
+around the city, and these are visited by thousands of pilgrims
+annually. During the Mutiny the large store of treasure here was
+conveyed safely to Calcutta by Mr A. Money. The city contains
+a government high school and an hospital, with a Lady Elgin
+branch for women.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District of Gaya</span> comprises an area of 4712 sq. m.
+Generally speaking, it consists of a level plain, with a ridge of
+prettily wooded hills along the southern boundary, whence the
+country falls with a gentle slope towards the Ganges. Rocky
+hills occasionally occur, either detached or in groups, the loftiest
+being Maher hill about 12 m. S.E. of Gaya city, with an elevation
+of 1620 ft. above sea-level. The eastern part of the district is
+highly cultivated; the portions to the north and west are less
+fertile; while in the south the country is thinly peopled and
+consists of hills, the jungles on which are full of wild animals.
+The principal river is the Son, which marks the boundary between
+Gaya and Shahabad, navigable by small boats throughout the
+year, and by craft of 20-tons burden in the rainy season. Other
+rivers are the Punpun, Phalgu and Jamuna. Two branches of
+the Son canal system, the eastern main canal and the Patna
+canal, intersect the district. In 1901 the population was
+2,059,933, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. Among the
+higher castes there is an unusually large proportion of Brahmans,
+a circumstance due to the number of sacred places which the
+district contains. The Gayawals, or priests in charge of the holy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page542" id="page542"></a>542</span>
+places, are held in high esteem by the pilgrims; but they are not
+pure Brahmans, and are looked down upon by those who are.
+They live an idle and dissolute life, but are very wealthy, from
+contributions extorted from the pilgrims. Buddh Gaya, about
+6 m. S. of Gaya city, is one of the holiest sites of Buddhism, as
+containing the tree under which Sakyamuni attained enlightenment.
+In addition to many ruins and sculptures, there is a
+temple restored by the government in 1881. Another place of
+religious interest is a temple of great antiquity, which crowns the
+highest peak of the Barabar hills, and at which a religious fair is
+held each September, attended by 10,000 to <span class="correction" title="amended from 20,0000">20,000</span> pilgrims.
+At the foot of the hill are numerous rock caves excavated about
+200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The opium poppy is largely cultivated. There are a
+number of lac factories. Manufactures consist of common brass
+utensils, black stone ornaments, pottery, tussur-silk and cotton
+cloth. Formerly paper-making was an important manufacture
+in the district, but it has entirely died out. The chief
+exports are food grains, oil seeds, indigo, crude opium (sent to
+Patna for manufacture), saltpetre, sugar, blankets, brass utensils,
+&amp;c. The imports are salt, piece goods, cotton, timber, bamboos,
+tobacco, lac, iron, spices and fruits. The district is traversed by
+four branches of the East Indian railway. In 1901 it suffered
+severely from the plague.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>District Gazetteer</i> (1906); Sir A. Cunningham, <i>Mahabodhi</i>
+(1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAYAL<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span>, a domesticated ox allied to the Gaur, but distinguished,
+among other features, by the more conical and
+straighter horns, and the straight line between them. Gayal
+are kept by the natives of the hill-districts of Assam and parts
+of Tenasserim and Upper Burma. Although it has received
+a distinct name, <i>Bos</i> (<i>Bibos</i>) <i>frontalis</i>, there can be little doubt
+that the gayal is merely a domesticated breed of the gaur, many
+gayal-skulls showing characters approximating to those of the
+gaur.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAYANGOS Y ARCE, PASCUAL DE<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1809-1897), Spanish
+scholar and Orientalist, was born at Seville on the 21st of June
+1809. At the age of thirteen he was sent to be educated at
+Pont-le-Voy near Blois, and in 1828 began the study of Arabic
+under Silvestre de Sacy. After a visit to England, where he
+married, he obtained a post in the Spanish treasury, and was
+transferred to the foreign office as translator in 1833. In 1836 he
+returned to England, wrote extensively in English periodicals, and
+translated Almakkari&rsquo;s <i>History of the Mahommedan Dynasties in
+Spain</i> (1840-1843) for the Royal Asiatic Society. In England he
+also made the acquaintance of Ticknor, to whom he was very
+serviceable. In 1843 he returned to Spain as professor of Arabic
+at the university of Madrid, which post he held until 1881, when
+he was made director of public instruction. This office he resigned
+upon being elected senator for the district of Huelva.
+His latter years were spent in cataloguing the Spanish manuscripts
+in the British Museum; he had previously continued
+Bergenroth&rsquo;s catalogue of the manuscripts relating to England
+in the Simancas archives. His best-known original work is his
+dissertation on Spanish romances of chivalry in Rivadeneyra&rsquo;s
+<i>Biblioteca de autores españoles</i>. He died in London on the 4th
+of October 1897.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAYARRÉ, CHARLES ÉTIENNE ARTHUR<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1805-1895),
+American historian, was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, on the
+9th of January 1805. After studying at the Collège d&rsquo;Orléans he
+began, in 1826, to study law in Philadelphia, and three years later
+was admitted to the bar. In 1830 he was elected a member of the
+House of Representatives of Louisiana, in 1831 was appointed
+deputy attorney-general of his state, in 1833 became presiding
+judge of the city court of New Orleans, and in 1834 was elected
+as a Jackson Democrat to the United States Senate. On account
+of ill-health, however, he immediately resigned without taking his
+seat, and for the next eight years travelled in Europe and collected
+historical material from the French and the Spanish archives.
+In 1844-1845 and in 1856-1857 he was again a member of the
+state House of Representatives, and from 1845 to 1853 was
+secretary of state of Louisiana. He supported the Southern
+Confederacy during the Civil War, in which he lost a large fortune,
+and after its close lived chiefly by his pen. He died in New
+Orleans on the 11th of February 1895. He is best known as the
+historian of Louisiana. He wrote <i>Histoire de la Louisiane</i> (1847);
+<i>Romance of the History of Louisiana</i> (1848); <i>Louisiana: its
+Colonial History and Romance</i> (1851), reprinted in <i>A History of
+Louisiana</i>; <i>History of Louisiana: the Spanish Domination</i>
+(1854); <i>Philip II. of Spain</i> (1866); and <i>A History of Louisiana</i>
+(4 vols., 1866), the last being a republication and continuation
+of his earlier works in this field, the whole comprehending the
+history of Louisiana from its earliest discovery to 1861. He
+wrote also several dramas and romances, the best of the latter
+being <i>Fernando de Lemos</i> (1872).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAY-LUSSAC, JOSEPH LOUIS<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1778-1850), French chemist
+and physicist, was born at St Léonard, in the department of
+Haute Vienne, on the 6th of December 1778. He was the elder
+son of Antoine Gay, <i>procureur du roi</i> and judge at Pont-de-Noblac,
+who assumed the name Lussac from a small property he
+had in the neighbourhood of St Léonard. Young Gay-Lussac
+received his early education at home under the direction of the
+abbé Bourdieux and other masters, and in 1794 was sent to Paris to
+prepare for the École Polytechnique, into which he was admitted
+at the end of 1797 after a brilliant examination. Three years later
+he was transferred to the École des Ponts et Chaussées, and
+shortly afterwards was assigned to C.L. Berthollet, who wanted
+an able student to help in his researches. The new assistant
+scarcely came up to expectations in respect of confirming certain
+theoretical views of his master&rsquo;s by the experiments set him to
+that end, and appears to have stated the discrepancy without
+reserve; but Berthollet nevertheless quickly recognized the
+ability displayed, and showed his appreciation not only by desiring
+to be Gay-Lussac&rsquo;s &ldquo;father in science,&rdquo; but also by making him in
+1807 an original member of the Société d&rsquo;Arcueil. In 1802 he was
+appointed demonstrator to A.F. Fourcroy at the École Polytechnique,
+where subsequently (1809) he became professor of
+chemistry, and from 1808 to 1832 he was professor of physics at
+the Sorbonne, a post which he only resigned for the chair of
+chemistry at the Jardin des Plantes. In 1831 he was elected to
+represent Haute Vienne in the chamber of deputies, and in 1839
+he entered the chamber of peers. He died in Paris on the 9th of
+May 1850.</p>
+
+<p>Gay-Lussac&rsquo;s earlier researches were mostly physical in
+character and referred mainly to the properties of gases, vapour-tensions,
+hygrometry, capillarity, &amp;c. In his first memoir (<i>Ann.
+de Chimie</i>, 1802) he showed that different gases are dilated in
+the same proportion when heated from 0° to 100° C. Apparently
+he did not know of Dalton&rsquo;s experiments on the same point,
+which indeed were far from accurate; but in a note he explained
+that &ldquo;le cit. Charles avait remarqué depuis 15 ans la même
+propriété dans ces gaz; mais n&rsquo;ayant jamais publié ses résultats,
+c&rsquo;est par le plus grand hasard que je les ai connus.&rdquo; In consequence
+of his candour in thus rescuing from oblivion the
+observation which his fellow-citizen did not think worth publishing,
+his name is sometimes dissociated from this law, which instead
+is known as that of Charles. In 1804 he had an opportunity
+of prosecuting his researches on air in somewhat unusual conditions,
+for the French Academy, desirous of securing some observations
+on the force of terrestrial magnetism at great elevations
+above the earth, through Berthollet and J.E. Chaptal obtained
+the use of the balloon which had been employed in Egypt, and
+entrusted the task to him and J.B. Biot. In their first ascent
+from the garden of the Conservatoire des Arts on the 24th of
+August 1804 an altitude of 4000 metres (about 13,000 ft.) was
+attained. But this elevation was not considered sufficient
+by Gay-Lussac, who therefore made a second ascent by himself
+oh the 16th of September, when the balloon rose 7016 metres
+(about 23,000 ft.) above sea-level. At this height, with the
+thermometer marking 9½ degrees below freezing, he remained
+for a considerable time, making observations not only on
+magnetism, but also on the temperature and humidity of the air,
+and collecting several samples of air at different heights. The
+magnetic observations, though imperfect, led him to the conclusion
+that the magnetic effect at all attainable elevations above
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543"></a>543</span>
+the earth&rsquo;s surface remains constant; and on analysing the
+samples of air he could find no difference of composition at
+different heights. (For an account of both ascents see <i>Journ.
+de phys.</i> for 1804.) On the 1st of October in the same year, in
+conjunction with Alexander von Humboldt, he read a paper on
+eudiometric analysis (<i>Ann. de Chim.</i>, 1805), which contained the
+germ of his most important generalization, the authors noting
+that when oxygen and hydrogen combine together by volume,
+it is in the proportion of one volume of the former to two volumes
+of the latter. But his law of combination by volumes was not
+enunciated in its general form until after his return from a scientific
+journey through Switzerland, Italy and Germany, on which with
+Humboldt he started from Paris in March 1805. This journey
+was interrupted in the spring of 1806 by the news of the death
+of M.J. Brisson, and Gay-Lussac hurried back to Paris in the
+hope, which was gratified, that he would be elected to the seat
+thus vacated in the Academy. In 1807 an account of the
+magnetic observations made during the tour with Humboldt
+was published in the first volume of the <i>Mémoires d&rsquo;Arcueil</i>, and
+the second volume, published in 1809, contained the important
+memoir on gaseous combination (read to the Société Philomathique
+on the last day of 1808), in which he pointed out that
+gases combining with each other in volume do so in the simplest
+proportions&mdash;1 to 1, 1 to 2, 1 to 3&mdash;and that the volume of the
+compound formed bears a simple ratio to that of the constituents.</p>
+
+<p>About this time Gay-Lussac&rsquo;s work, although he by no means
+entirely abandoned physical questions, became of a more chemical
+character; and in three instances it brought him into direct
+rivalry with Sir Humphry Davy. In the first case Davy&rsquo;s
+preparation of potassium and sodium by the electric current
+spurred on Gay-Lussac and his collaborator L.J. Thénard, who
+had no battery at their disposal, to search for a chemical method
+of obtaining those metals, and by the action of red-hot iron on
+fused potash&mdash;a method of which Davy admitted the advantages&mdash;they
+succeeded in 1808 in preparing potassium, going on to
+make a full study of its properties and to use it, as Davy also
+did, for the reduction of boron from boracic acid in 1809. The
+second concerned the nature of &ldquo;oxymuriatic acid&rdquo; (chlorine).
+While admitting the possibility that it was an elementary body,
+after many experiments they finally declared it to be a compound
+(<i>Mém. d&rsquo;Arcueil</i>, 1809). Davy, on the other hand, could see no
+reason to suppose it contained oxygen, as they surmised, and
+ultimately they had to accept his view of its elementary character.
+The third case roused most feeling of all. Davy, passing through
+Paris on his way to Italy at the end of 1813, obtained a few
+fragments of iodine, which had been discovered by Bernard
+Courtois (1777-1838) in 1811, and after a brief examination by
+the aid of his limited portable laboratory perceived its analogy
+to chlorine and inferred it to be an element. Gay-Lussac, it is
+said, was nettled at the idea of a foreigner making such a discovery
+in Paris, and vigorously took up the study of the new
+substance, the result being the &ldquo;Mémoire sur l&rsquo;iode,&rdquo;
+which appeared in the <i>Ann. de chim.</i> in 1814. He too saw its
+resemblance to chlorine, and was obliged to agree with Davy&rsquo;s
+opinion as to its simple nature, though not without some hesitation,
+due doubtless to his previous declaration about chlorine.
+Davy on his side seems to have felt that the French chemist was
+competing with him, not altogether fairly, in trying to appropriate
+the honour of discovering the character of the substance and of
+its compound, hydriodic acid.</p>
+
+<p>In 1810 he published a paper which contains some classic
+experiments on fermentation, a subject to which he returned
+in a second paper published in 1815. At the same time he was
+working with Thénard at the improvement of the methods of
+organic analysis, and by combustion with oxidizing agents,
+first potassium chlorate and subsequently copper oxide, he
+determined the composition of a number of organic substances.
+But his last great piece of pure research was on prussic acid.
+In a note published in 1811 he described the physical properties
+of this acid, but he said nothing about its chemical composition
+till 1815, when he described cyanogen as a compound radicle,
+prussic acid as a compound of that radicle with hydrogen alone,
+and the prussiates (cyanides) as compounds of the radicle with
+metals. The proof that prussic acid contains hydrogen but no
+oxygen was a most important support to the hydrogen-acid
+theory, and completed the downfall of Lavoisier&rsquo;s oxygen theory;
+while the isolation of cyanogen was of equal importance for the
+subsequent era of compound radicles in organic chemistry.</p>
+
+<p>After this research Gay-Lussac&rsquo;s attention began to be distracted
+from purely scientific investigation. He had now secured
+a leading if not the foremost place among the chemists of the
+French capital, and the demand for his services as adviser in
+technical problems and matters of practical interest made great
+inroads on his available time. He had been a member of the
+consultative committee on arts and manufactures since 1805;
+he was attached to the &ldquo;administration des poudres et salpêtres&rdquo;
+in 1818, and in 1829 he received the lucrative post of assayer to
+the mint. In these new fields he displayed the powers so conspicuous
+in his scientific inquiries, and he was now to introduce
+and establish scientific accuracy where previously there had been
+merely practical approximations. His services to industry included
+his improvements in the processes for the manufacture
+of sulphuric acid (1818) and oxalic acid (1829); methods of
+estimating the amount of real alkali in potash and soda by the
+volume of standard acid required for neutralization, and for
+estimating the available chlorine in bleaching powder by a solution
+of arsenious acid; directions for the use of the centesimal
+alcoholometer published in 1824 and specially commended by
+the Institute; and the elaboration of a method of assaying
+silver by a standard solution of common salt, a volume on which
+was published in 1833. Among his research work of this period
+may be mentioned the improvements in organic analysis and the
+investigation of fulminic acid made with the help of Liebig, who
+gained the privilege of admission to his private laboratory in
+1823-1824.</p>
+
+<p>Gay-Lussac was patient, persevering, accurate to punctiliousness,
+perhaps a little cold and reserved, and not unaware of his
+great ability. But he was also bold and energetic, not only in
+his work but also in support and defence of his friends. His
+early childish adventures, as told by Arago, herald the fearless
+aeronaut and the undaunted investigator of volcanic eruptions
+(Vesuvius was in full eruption when he visited it during his
+tour in 1805); and the endurance he exhibited under the laboratory
+accidents that befell him shows the power of will with which
+he would face the prospect of becoming blind and useless for the
+prosecution of the science which was his very life, and of which he
+was one of the most distinguished ornaments. Only at the very
+end, when the disease from which he was suffering left him no hope,
+did he complain with some bitterness of the hardship of leaving
+this world where the many discoveries being made pointed to
+yet greater discoveries to come.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The most complete list of Gay-Lussac&rsquo;s papers is contained in
+the Royal Society&rsquo;s <i>Catalogue of Scientific Papers</i>, which enumerates
+148, exclusive of others written jointly with Humboldt, Thénard,
+Welter and Liebig. Many of them were published in the <i>Annales de
+chimie</i>, which after it changed its title to <i>Annales de chimie et
+physique</i> he edited, with Arago, up to nearly the end of his life; but
+some are to be found in the <i>Mémoires d&rsquo;Arcueil</i> and the <i>Comptes
+rendus</i>, and in the <i>Recherches physiques et chimiques</i>, published
+with Thénard in 1811.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAZA, THEODORUS<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1400-1475), one of the Greek scholars
+who were the leaders of the revival of learning in the 15th century,
+was born at Thessalonica. On the capture of his native city by
+the Turks in 1430 he fled to Italy. During a three years&rsquo; residence
+in Mantua he rapidly acquired a competent knowledge of Latin
+under the teaching of Vittorino da Feltre, supporting himself
+meanwhile by giving lessons in Greek, and by copying manuscripts
+of the ancient classics.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In 1447 he became professor of Greek
+in the newly founded university of Ferrara, to which students
+in great numbers from all parts of Italy were soon attracted
+by his fame as a teacher. He had taken some part in the councils
+which were held in Siena (1423), Ferrara (1438), and Florence
+(1439), with the object of bringing about a reconciliation between
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page544" id="page544"></a>544</span>
+the Greek and Latin Churches; and in 1450, at the invitation of
+Pope Nicholas V., he went to Rome, where he was for some years
+employed by his patron in making Latin translations from
+Aristotle and other Greek authors. After the death of Nicholas
+(1455), being unable to make a living at Rome, Gaza removed
+to Naples, where he enjoyed the patronage of Alphonso the
+Magnanimous for two years (1456-1458). Shortly afterwards he
+was appointed by Cardinal Bessarion to a benefice in Calabria,
+where the later years of his life were spent, and where he died
+about 1475. Gaza stood high in the opinion of most of his
+learned contemporaries, but still higher in that of the scholars
+of the succeeding generation. His Greek grammar (in four
+books), written in Greek, first printed at Venice in 1495, and
+afterwards partially translated by Erasmus in 1521, although
+in many respects defective, especially in its syntax, was for a
+long time the leading text-book. His translations into Latin
+were very numerous, including the <i>Problemata</i>, <i>De partibus
+animalium</i> and <i>De generatione animalium</i> of Aristotle; the
+<i>Historia plantarum</i> of Theophrastus; the <i>Problemata</i> of Alexander
+Aphrodisias; the <i>De instruendis aciebus</i> of Aelian; the <i>De
+compositione verborum</i> of Dionysius of Halicarnassus; and some
+of the <i>Homilies</i> of John Chrysostom. He also turned into Greek
+Cicero&rsquo;s <i>De senectute</i> and <i>Somnium Scipionis</i>&mdash;with much success,
+in the opinion of Erasmus; with more elegance than exactitude,
+according to the colder judgment of modern scholars. He was
+the author also of two small treatises entitled <i>De mensibus</i> and
+<i>De origine Turcarum</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. Voigt, <i>Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums</i>
+(1893), and article by C.F. Bähr in Ersch and Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Allgemeine
+Encyklopädie</i>. For a complete list of his works, see Fabricius,
+<i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i> (ed. Harles), x.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> According to Voigt, Gaza came to Italy some ten years later from
+Constantinople, where he had been a teacher or held some clerical
+office.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAZA<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (or &lsquo;<span class="sc">Azzah</span>, mod. <i>Ghuzzeh</i>), the most southerly of the
+five princely Philistine cities, situated near the sea, at the point
+where the old trade routes from Egypt, Arabia and Petra to
+Syria met. It was always a strong border fortress and a place
+of commercial importance, in many respects the southern
+counterpart of Damascus. The earliest notice of it is in the
+Tell el-Amarna tablets, in a letter from the local governor, who
+then held it for Egypt, with which country it always stood in
+close connexion. It never passed for long into Israelite hands,
+though subject for a while to Hezekiah of Judah; from him it
+passed to Assyria. In Amos i. 6 the city is denounced for giving
+up Hebrew slaves to Edom. To Herodotus (iii. 5) the place
+seemed as important as Sardis. The city withstood Alexander
+the Great for five months (332 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and in 96 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was razed to
+the ground by Alexander Jannaeus. It was rebuilt by Aulus
+Gabinius, 57 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but on a new site; the old site was remembered
+and spoken of as &ldquo;Old&rdquo; or &ldquo;Desert Gaza&rdquo;: compare Acts
+viii. 26. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries Gaza was a thriving
+Greek city, with good schools and famous temples, especially
+one to the local god Marna (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;Lord&rdquo; or &ldquo;Our Lord&rdquo;). A
+statue of this god has been found near Gaza; it much resembles
+the Greek representation of Zeus. The struggle with Christianity
+here was long and intense. Egyptian monks gradually won over
+the country folk, and in 402, under the influence of Theodosius
+and Porphyry the local bishop, the Marneion was destroyed
+and the cross made politically supreme. In the 5th and 6th
+centuries Gaza was held in high repute as a place of learning.
+But after it passed into Moslem hands (635) it gradually lost
+all save commercial importance, and even the Crusaders did
+little to revive its old military glory. It finally was captured
+by the Moslems in 1244. Napoleon captured it in 1799.</p>
+
+<p>The modern town (pop. 16,000) is divided into four quarters,
+one of which is built on a low hill. A magnificent grove of very
+ancient olives forms an avenue 4 m. long to the north. There
+are many lofty minarets in various parts of the town, and a
+fine mosque built of ancient materials. A 12th century church
+towards the south side of the hill has also been converted into
+a mosque. On the east is shown the tomb of Samson (an
+erroneous tradition dating back to the middle ages). The ancient
+walls are now covered up beneath green mounds of rubbish.
+The water-supply is from wells sunk through the sandy soil to
+the rock; of these there are more than twenty&mdash;an unusual
+number for a Syrian town. The land for the 3 m. between
+Gaza and the sea consists principally of sand dunes. There is
+no natural harbour, but traces of ruins near the shore mark the
+site of the old Maiuma Gazae or Port of Gaza, now called el
+Mineh, which in the 5th century was a separate town and episcopal
+see, under the title Constantia or Limena Gaza. H&#257;shem, an
+ancestor of Mahomet, lies buried in the town. On the east are
+remains of a race-course, the corners marked by granite shafts
+with Greek inscriptions on them. To the south is a remarkable
+hill, quite isolated and bare, with a small mosque and a graveyard.
+It is called el Munt&#257;r, &ldquo;the watch tower,&rdquo; and is supposed
+to be the mountain &ldquo;before (or facing) Hebron,&rdquo; to which
+Samson carried the gates of Gaza (Judg. xvi. 3). The bazaars
+of Gaza are considered good. An extensive pottery exists in
+the town, and black earthenware peculiar to the place is manufactured
+there. The climate is dry and comparatively healthy,
+but the summer temperature often exceeds 110° Fahr. The
+surrounding country is partly cornland, partly waste, and is
+inhabited by wandering Arabs. The prosperity of Ghuzzeh
+has partially revived through the growing trade in barley, of
+which the average annual export to Great Britain for 1897-1899
+was over 30,000 tons. The dress of the people is Egyptian
+rather than Syrian. Gaza is an episcopal see both of the Greek
+and the Armenian church. The Church Missionary Society
+maintains a mission, with schools for both sexes, and a hospital.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAZALAND<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span>, a district of Portuguese East Africa, extending
+north from the Komati or Manhissa river, Delagoa Bay, to the
+Pungwe river. It is a well-watered, fertile country. Gazaland
+is one of the chief recruiting grounds for negro labour in the
+Transvaal gold mines. The country derives its name from a
+Swazi chief named Gaza, a contemporary of Chaka, the Zulu
+king. Refugees from various clans oppressed by Dingaan
+(Chaka&rsquo;s successor) were welded into one tribe by Gaza&rsquo;s son
+Manikusa, who took the name of Sotshangana, his followers
+being known generally as Matshangana. A section of them was
+called Maviti or Landeens (<i>i.e.</i> couriers), a designation which
+persists as a tribal name. Between 1833 and 1836 Manikusa
+made himself master of the country as far north as the Zambezi
+and captured the Portuguese posts at Delagoa Bay, Inhambane,
+Sofala and Sena, killing nearly all the inhabitants. The Portuguese
+reoccupied their posts, but held them with great difficulty,
+while in the interior the Matshangana continued their ravages
+unchecked, depopulating large regions. Manikusa died about
+1860, and his son Umzila, receiving some help from the Portuguese
+at Delagoa Bay in a struggle against a brother for the chieftainship,
+ceded to them the territory south of the Manhissa river.
+North of that stream as far as the Zambezi and inland to the
+continental plateau Umzila established himself in independence,
+a position he maintained till his death (<i>c.</i> 1884). His chief
+rival was a Goanese named Gouveia, who came to Africa about
+1850. Having obtained possession of a <i>prazo</i> in the Gorongoza
+district, he ruled there as a feudal lord while acknowledging
+himself a Portuguese subject. Gouveia recovered from the Matshangana
+and other troublers of the peace much of the country
+in the Zambezi valley, and was appointed by the Portuguese
+captain-general of a large region. From 1868 onward the country
+began to be better known. Probably the first European to
+penetrate any distance inland from the Sofala coast since the
+Portuguese gold-seekers of the 16th century was St Vincent W.
+Erskine, who explored the region between the Limpopo and
+Pungwe (1868-1875). Portugal&rsquo;s hold on the coast had been
+more firmly established at the time of Umzila&rsquo;s death, and
+Gungunyana, his successor, was claimed as a vassal, while efforts
+were made to open up the interior. This led in 1890-1891 to
+collisions on the borderland of the plateau with the newly
+established British South Africa Company, and to the arrest
+by the company&rsquo;s agents of Gouveia, who was, however, set at
+liberty and returned to Mozambique via Cape Town. An offer
+made by Gungunyana (1891) to come under British protection
+was not accepted. In 1892 Gouveia was killed in a war with a
+native chief. Gungunyana maintained his independence until
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page545" id="page545"></a>545</span>
+1895, when he was captured by a Portuguese force and exiled,
+first to Lisbon and afterwards to Angola, where he died in 1906.
+With the capture of Gungunyana opposition to Portuguese rule
+largely ceased.</p>
+
+<p>In flora, fauna and commerce Gazaland resembles the neighbouring
+regions of Portuguese East Africa. (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. McCall Theal, <i>History of South Africa since 1795</i>, vol. v.
+(London, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAZEBO<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (usually explained as a comic Latinism, for &ldquo;I will
+gaze&rdquo;; the <i>New English Dictionary</i> suggests a possible oriental
+origin now lost), a term used in the 18th century for a structure
+on the outer wall of a garden, having an upper storey with
+windows on each side so as to overlook the road. Similar buildings
+are found in Holland on the borders of the canals, which in
+some cases form very picturesque features.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAZETTE<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span>, a name given to news-sheets or newspapers having
+an abstract of current events (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Newspapers</a></span>). The <i>London
+Gazette</i> is the title of the English official organ for announcements
+by the government, and is published every Tuesday and Friday.
+It contains all proclamations, orders of council, promotions and
+appointments to commissions in the army and navy, all appointments
+to offices of state, and such other orders, rules and regulations
+as are directed by act of parliament to be published therein.
+It also contains notices of proceedings in bankruptcy, dissolutions
+of partnership, &amp;c. By the Documentary Evidence Act 1868 the
+production of a copy of the <i>Gazette</i> is prima facie evidence of royal
+proclamations and government orders and regulations. Similar
+gazettes are also published in Edinburgh and Dublin. Most
+countries (the United States excepted) have official journals
+containing information more or less similar to that of the <i>London
+Gazette</i>, as the French <i>Journal officiel</i>, the German <i>Deutscher
+Reichs-und Kgl. Preuss. Staats-Anzeiger</i>, &amp;c. The word &ldquo;gazetteer&rdquo;
+was originally applied to one who wrote for &ldquo;gazettes,&rdquo;
+but is now only used for a geographical dictionary arranged on
+an alphabetical plan.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEAR<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (connected with &ldquo;garb,&rdquo; properly elegance, fashion,
+especially of dress, and with &ldquo;gar,&rdquo; to cause to do, only found in
+Scottish and northern dialects; the root of the word is seen in the
+Old Teut. <i>garwjan</i>, to make ready), an outfit, applied to the
+wearing apparel of a person, or to the harness and trappings of a
+horse or any draft animal, as riding-gear, hunting-gear, &amp;c.;
+also to household goods or stuff. The phrase &ldquo;out of gear,&rdquo;
+though now connected with the mechanical application of the
+word, was originally used to signify &ldquo;out of harness&rdquo; or condition,
+not ready to work, not fit. The word is also used of
+apparatus generally, and especially of the parts collectively in a
+machine by which motion is transmitted from one part to another
+by a series of cog-wheels, continuous bands, &amp;c. It is used in a
+special sense in reference to a bicycle, meaning the diameter of an
+imaginary wheel, the circumference of which is equal to the
+distance accomplished by one revolution of the pedals (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bicycle</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEBER.<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> The name Geber has long been used to designate the
+author of a number of Latin treatises on alchemy, entitled <i>Summa
+perfectionis magisterii, De investigatione perfectionis, De inventione
+veritatis, Liber fornacum, Testamentum Geberi Regis Indiae and
+Alchemia Geberi</i>, and these writings were generally regarded as
+translations from the Arabic originals of Abu Abdallah Jaber
+ben Hayyam (Haiyan) ben Abdallah al-Kufi, who is supposed to
+have lived in the 8th or 9th century of the Christian era. About
+him, however, there is considerable uncertainty. According to the
+<i>Kit&#257;b-al-Fihrist</i> (10th century), which gives his name as above,
+the authorities disagree, some asserting him to have been a writer
+on philosophy and rhetoric, and others claiming for him the first
+place among the adepts of his time in the art of making gold and
+silver. The writer of the <i>Kit&#257;b-al-Fihrist</i> says he had been
+assured that Jaber only wrote one book and even that he never
+existed at all, but these statements he scouts as ridiculous, and
+expressing the conviction that Jaber really did exist, and that his
+works were numerous and important, goes on to quote the titles
+of some 500 treatises attributed to him. He is said to have resided
+most frequently at Kufa, where he prepared the &ldquo;elixir,&rdquo; but,
+according to others, he never spent long in one place, having
+reason to keep his whereabouts unknown. His patron or master
+is variously given as Ja&rsquo;far ben Yahya, and as Ja&rsquo;far es-Sadiq;
+in the Arabic <i>Book of Royalty</i>, professedly written by him, he
+addresses the last-named as his master. In addition to these
+details the Fihrist mentions a tradition that he originally came
+from Khorasan. Another story given by d&rsquo;Herbelot (<i>Bibliothèque
+orientale</i>, s.v. &ldquo;Giaber&rdquo;) makes him a native of Harran
+in Mesopotamia and a Sabaean. Leo Africanus, who in 1526
+gave an account of the Alchemists of Fez in Africa (see the
+English translation of his <i>Africae descriptio</i> by John Pory, <i>A
+Geographical History of Africa</i>, London, 1600, p. 155), states that
+their principal authority was Geber, a Greek who had apostatized
+to Mahommedanism and lived a century after Mahomet. In
+Albertus Magnus the name Geber occurs only once and then with
+the epithet &ldquo;of Seville&rdquo;; doubtless the reference is to the
+Arabian Jabir ben Aflah, who lived in that city in the 11th
+century, and wrote an astronomy in 9 books which is of importance
+in the history of trigonometry.</p>
+
+<p>The great puzzle connected with the name Geber lies in the
+character of the writings attributed to him, their style and matter
+differentiating them strongly from those of even the best authors
+of the later alchemical period, and making it difficult to account
+for their existence at all. The researches of M.P.E. Berthelot
+threw a great deal of light on this question. Taking the six
+treatises enumerated above he concluded, after critical examination,
+that the two last may be disregarded as of later date than the
+others, and that the <i>De investigatione perfectionis</i>, the <i>De inventione</i>
+and the <i>Liber fornacum</i> are merely extracts from or
+summaries of the <i>Summa perfectionis</i> with later additions. The
+<i>Summa</i> he therefore regarded as representative of the work of the
+Latin Geber, and study of it convinced him that it contains no
+indication of an Arabic origin, either in its method, which is
+conspicuous for clearness of reasoning and logical co-ordination of
+material, or in its facts, or in the words and persons quoted.
+Without going so far as to deny that some words and phrases may
+be taken from the writings of the Arabian Jaber, he was disposed
+to hold that it is the original work of some unknown Latin
+author, who wrote it in the second half of the 13th century and
+put it under the patronage of the venerated name of Geber. The
+MS. of this work in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris dates from
+about the year 1300. Berthelot further investigated Arabic
+MSS. existing in the Paris library and in the university of Leiden,
+and containing works attributed to Jaber, and had translations
+made of six treatises&mdash;two, of which he gives the titles as <i>Livre
+de la royauté</i> and <i>Petit Livre de la miséricorde</i>,&mdash;from Paris, and
+four&mdash;<i>Livre des balances, Livre de la miséricorde, Livre de la
+concentration</i> and <i>Livre de la mercure orientale</i>&mdash;from Leiden.
+Berthelot was not prepared to assert that these treatises were
+actually written by Jaber, but he held it certain that they are
+works written in Arabic between the 9th and 12th centuries, at a
+period anterior to the relations of the Latins with the Arabs. In
+style these treatises are entirely different from the <i>Summa</i> of
+Geber. Their language is vague and allegorical, full of allusions
+and pious Mussulman invocations; the author continually
+announces that he is about to speak without mystery or reserve,
+but all the same never gives any precise details of the secrets
+he professes to reveal. He holds the doctrine that everything
+endowed with an apparent quality possesses an opposite occult
+quality in much the same terms as it is found in Latin writers of
+the middle ages, but he makes no allusion to the theory of the
+generation of the metals by sulphur and mercury, a theory
+generally attributed to Geber, who also added arsenic to the list.
+Again he fully accepts the influence of the stars on the production
+of the metals, whereas the Latin Geber disputes it, and in general
+the chemical knowledge of the two is on a different plane. Here
+again the inference is that the Latin treatises printed from the
+15th century onwards as the work of Geber are not authentic,
+regarded as translations of the Arabic author Jaber, always
+supposing that the Arabic MSS. transcribed and translated for
+Berthelot are really, as they profess to be, the work of Jaber, and
+as representative of his opinions and attainments.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page546" id="page546"></a>546</span></p>
+
+<p>But while Berthelot thus deprived the world of what were long
+regarded as genuine Latin versions of Jaber&rsquo;s works, he also gave
+it something in their place, for among the Paris MSS. he found a
+mutilated treatise, hitherto unpublished, entitled <i>Liber de
+Septuaginta (Johannis), translatus a Magistro Renaldo Cremonensi</i>,
+which he considered the only known Latin work that can be
+regarded as a translation from the Arabic Jaber. The latter
+states in the Arabic works referred to above that under that title
+he collected 70 of the 500 little treatises or tracts of which he was
+the author, and the titles of those tracts enumerated in the
+<i>Kit&#257;b-al-Fihrist</i> as forming the chapters of the <i>Liber de Septuaginta</i>
+correspond in general with those of the Latin work, which
+further is written in a style similar to that of the Arabic Jaber
+and contains the same doctrines. Hence Berthelot felt justified
+in assigning it to Jaber, although no Arabic original is known.</p>
+
+<p>The evidence collected by Berthelot has an important bearing on
+the history of chemistry. Most of the chemical knowledge attributed
+to the Arabs has been attributed to them on the strength
+of the reputed Latin writings of Geber. If, therefore, these are
+original works rather than translations, and contain facts and
+doctrines which are not to be found in the Arabian Jaber, it
+follows that, on the one hand, the chemical knowledge of the Arabs
+has been overestimated and, on the other, that more progress was
+made in the middle ages than has generally been supposed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See M.P.E. Berthelot&rsquo;s works on the history of alchemy and
+especially his <i>Chimie au moyen âge</i> (3 vols., Paris, 1893), the third
+volume of which contains a French translation of Jaber&rsquo;s works
+together with the Arabic text.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEBHARD TRUCHSESS VON WALDBURG<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1547-1601),
+elector and archbishop of Cologne, was the second son of William,
+count of Waldburg, and nephew of Otto, cardinal bishop of
+Augsburg (1514-1573). Belonging thus to an old and distinguished
+Swabian family, he was born on the 10th of November
+1547, and after studying at the universities of Ingolstadt, Perugia,
+Louvain and elsewhere began his ecclesiastical career at Augsburg.
+Subsequently he held other positions at Strassburg,
+Cologne and Augsburg, and in December 1577 was chosen elector
+of Cologne after a spirited contest. Gebhard is chiefly noted for
+his conversion to the reformed doctrines, and for his marriage
+with Agnes, countess of Mansfeld, which was connected with this
+step. After living in concubinage with Agnes he decided, perhaps
+under compulsion, to marry her, doubtless intending at the same
+time to resign his see. Other counsels, however, prevailed.
+Instigated by some Protestant supporters he declared he would
+retain the electorate, and in December 1582 he formally announced
+his conversion to the reformed faith. The marriage with Agnes
+was celebrated in the following February, and Gebhard remained
+in possession of the see. This affair created a great stir in
+Germany, and the clause concerning ecclesiastical reservation in
+the religious peace of Augsburg was interpreted in one way by
+his friends, and in another way by his foes; the former holding
+that he could retain his office, the latter that he must resign.
+Anticipating events Gebhard had collected some troops, and had
+taken measures to convert his subjects to Protestantism. In
+April 1583 he was deposed and excommunicated by Pope Gregory
+XIII.; a Bavarian prince, Ernest, bishop of Liége, Freising and
+Hildesheim, was chosen elector, and war broke out between the
+rivals. The cautious Lutheran princes of Germany, especially
+Augustus I., elector of Saxony, were not enthusiastic in support of
+Gebhard, whose friendly relations with the Calvinists were not to
+their liking; and although Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry
+IV. of France, tried to form a coalition to aid the deposed elector,
+the only assistance which he obtained came from John Casimir,
+administrator of the Palatinate of the Rhine. The inhabitants of
+the electorate were about equally divided on the question, and
+Ernest, supported by Spanish troops, was too strong for Gebhard.
+John Casimir, who acted as commander-in-chief, returned to the
+Palatinate in October 1583, and early in the following year
+Gebhard was driven from Bonn and took refuge in the Netherlands.
+The electorate was soon completely in the possession of
+Ernest, and the defeat of Gebhard was a serious blow to Protestantism,
+and marks a stage in the history of the Reformation.
+Living in the Netherlands he became very intimate with Elizabeth&rsquo;s
+envoy, Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, but he failed to
+get assistance for renewing the war either from the English queen
+or in any other quarter. In 1589 Gebhard took up his residence at
+Strassburg, where he had held the office of dean of the cathedral
+since 1574. Before his arrival some trouble had arisen in the
+chapter owing to the fact that three excommunicated canons
+persisted in retaining their offices. He joined this party, which
+was strongly supported in the city, took part in a double election
+to the bishopric in 1592, and in spite of some opposition retained
+his office until his death at Strassburg on the 31st of May 1601.
+Gebhard was a drunken and licentious man, who owes his prominence
+rather to his surroundings than to his abilities.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See M. Lossen, <i>Der kölnische Krieg</i> (Gotha, 1882), and the article
+on Gebhard in band viii. of the <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>
+(Leipzig, 1878); J.H. Hennes, <i>Der Kampf um das Erzstift Köln</i>
+(Cologne, 1878); L. Ennen, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Köln</i> (Cologne, 1863-1880);
+and <i>Nuntiaturberichte aus Deutschland</i>. <i>Der Kampf um
+Köln</i>, edited by J. Hansen (Berlin, 1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEBWEILER<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Guebwiller</i>), a town of Germany in the
+imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, at the foot of the Vosges,
+on the Lauch, 13 m. S. of Colmar, on the railway
+Bollweiler-Lautenbach.
+Pop. (1905) 13,259. Among the principal buildings
+are the Roman Catholic church of St Leodgar, dating from the
+12th century, the Evangelical church, the synagogue, the town-house,
+and the old Dominican convent now used as a market and
+concert hall. The chief industries are spinning and dyeing, and
+the manufacture of cloth and of machinery; quarrying is carried
+on and the town is celebrated for its white wines.</p>
+
+<p>Gebweiler is mentioned as early as 774. It belonged to the
+religious foundation of Murbach, and in 1759 the abbots chose it
+for their residence. In 1789, at the outbreak of the Revolution,
+the monastic buildings were laid in ruins, and, though the archives
+were rescued and removed to Colmar, the library perished.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GECKO<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span>,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the common name applied to all the species of the
+<i>Geckones</i>, one of the three sub-orders of the <i>Lacertilia</i>. The
+geckoes are small creatures, seldom exceeding 8 in. in length
+including the tail. With the head considerably flattened, the
+body short and thick, the legs not high enough to prevent the
+body dragging somewhat on the ground, the eyes large and almost
+destitute of eyelids, and the tail short and in some cases nearly as
+thick as the body, the geckoes altogether lack the litheness and
+grace characteristic of most lizards. Their colours also are dull,
+and to the weird and forbidding aspect thus produced the general
+prejudice against those creatures in the countries where they
+occur, which has led to their being classed with toads and
+snakes, is no doubt to be attributed. Their bite was supposed
+to be venomous, and their saliva to produce painful cutaneous
+eruptions; even their touch was thought sufficient to convey a
+dangerous taint. It is needless to say that in this instance the
+popular mind was misled by appearances. The geckoes are not
+only harmless, but are exceedingly useful creatures, feeding on
+insects, which, owing to the great width of their oesophagus, they
+are enabled to swallow whole, and in pursuit of which they do not
+hesitate to enter human dwellings, where they are often killed on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page547" id="page547"></a>547</span>
+suspicion. The structure of the toes in these lizards forms one of
+their most characteristic anatomical features.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:369px; height:270px" src="images/img546.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Leaf-tailed Gecko (<i>Gymnodactylus platurus</i>) of Australia.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:239px; height:213px" src="images/img547.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Lower Surface of the Toe of
+(<i>a</i>) <i>Gecko</i>, (<i>b</i>) <i>Hemidactylus</i>&mdash;enlarged.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Most geckoes have adhesive digits and toes, by means of which
+they are enabled not only to climb absolutely smooth and vertical
+surfaces, for instance a window-pane, but to run along a white-washed
+ceiling, back downwards. The adhesion is not produced
+by sticky matter but by numerous transverse lamellae, each
+of which is further beset with tiny hair-like excrescences. The
+arrangement of the lamellae and pads differs much in the various
+genera and is used for <span class="correction" title="amended from classificactory">classificatory</span> purposes. Those which
+live on sandy ground have narrow digits without the adhesive
+apparatus. Most species have sharp, curved claws, often
+retractile between some of the
+lamellae or into a special
+sheath. The tail is very brittle
+and can be quickly regenerated;
+it varies much in size
+and shape; the most extraordinary
+is that of the leaf-tailed
+gecko. <i>Ptychozoon
+homalocephalon</i> of the Malay
+countries has membranous expansions
+on the sides of the
+head, body, limbs and tail, which
+look like parachutes, but more
+probably they aid in concealing
+the creature when it is
+closely pressed to the similarly coloured bark of a tree. Most
+geckoes are dull coloured, yellow to brown, and they soon change
+colour from lighter to dark tints. They are insectivorous and
+chiefly nocturnal, but are fond of basking in the sun, motionless
+on the bark of a tree, or on a rock the colour of which is then
+imitated to a nicety. Some species are more or less transparent.</p>
+
+<p>Geckoes, of which about 270 species are known, subdivided into
+about 50 genera, are cosmopolitan within the warmer zones,
+including New Zealand, and even the remotest volcanic islands.
+This wide distribution is due partly to the great age of the
+suborder (although fossils are unknown), partly to their being
+able to exist for several months without food so that, concealed
+in hollow trunks of trees, they may float about for a very long
+time. Ships, also, act as distributors. In south Europe occur
+only <i>Hemidactylus turcicus</i>, <i>Tarentola mauritanica (Platydactylus
+facetanus)</i> and <i>Phyllodactylus europaeus</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The Malay name <i>g&#275;-koq</i> imitates the animal&rsquo;s cry.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GED, WILLIAM<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1690-1749), the inventor of stereotyping,
+was born at Edinburgh in 1690. In 1725 he patented his invention,
+developed from the simple process of soldering together
+loose types of Van der Mey. Ged, although he succeeded in
+obtaining a cast in similar metal, of a type page, could not
+persuade Edinburgh printers to take up his invention, and
+finally entered into partnership with a London stationer named
+Jenner and Thomas James, a typefounder. The partnership,
+however, turned out very ill; and Ged, broken-hearted at his
+want of success due to trade jealousy and the compositors&rsquo;
+dislike of the innovation, died in poverty on the 19th of October
+1749. Two prayer-books for the university of Cambridge and
+an edition of Sallust were printed from his stereotype plates.
+In his time the best type was imported from Holland, and Ged&rsquo;s
+daughter reports that he had repeated offers from the Dutch
+which, from patriotic motives, he refused. His sons tried to
+carry out his patent, and it was eventually perfected by Andrew
+Wilson.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEDDES, ALEXANDER<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1737-1802), Scottish Roman Catholic
+theologian, was born in Rathven, Banffshire, on the 14th of
+September 1737. He was trained at the Roman Catholic
+seminary at Scalan and at the Scottish College in Paris, where
+he studied biblical philology, school divinity and modern
+languages. In 1764 he officiated as a priest in Dundee, but in
+May 1765 accepted an invitation to live with the earl of Traquair;
+where, with abundance of leisure and the free use of an adequate
+library, he made further progress in his favourite biblical studies.
+After a second visit to Paris, which was employed by him in
+reading and making extracts from rare books and manuscripts,
+he was appointed in 1769 priest of Auchinhalrig and Preshome
+in his native county. The freedom with which he fraternized
+with his Protestant neighbours called forth the rebuke of his
+bishop (George Hay), and ultimately, for hunting and for
+occasionally attending the parish church of Cullen, where one
+of his friends was minister, he was deprived of his charge and
+forbidden the exercise of ecclesiastical functions within the
+diocese. This happened in 1779; and in 1780 he went with his
+friend Lord Traquair to London, where he spent the rest of his
+life. Before leaving Scotland he had received the honorary
+degree of LL.D. from the university of Aberdeen, and had been
+made an honorary member of the Society of Antiquaries, in the
+institution of which he had taken a very active part. In London
+Geddes soon received an appointment in connexion with the
+chapel of the imperial ambassador, and was also helped by Lord
+Petre in his scheme for a new Catholic version of the Bible.
+In 1786, supported also by such scholars as Benjamin Kennicott
+and Robert Lowth, Geddes published a <i>Prospectus of a new
+Translation of the Holy Bible</i>, a considerable quarto volume, in
+which the defects of previous translations were fully pointed
+out, and the means indicated by which these might be removed.
+It was well received, and led to the publication in 1788 of <i>Proposals
+for Printing</i>, with a specimen, and in 1790 of a <i>General
+Answer to Queries, Counsels and Criticisms</i>. The first volume
+of the translation itself, which was entitled <i>The Holy Bible ...
+faithfully translated from corrected Texts of the Originals, with
+various Readings, explanatory Notes and critical Remarks</i>,
+appeared in 1792, and was the signal for a storm of hostility on
+the part of both Catholics and Protestants. It was obvious
+enough&mdash;no small offence in the eyes of some&mdash;that as a critic
+Geddes had identified himself with C.F. Houbigant (1686-1783),
+Kennicott and J.D. Michaelis, but others did not hesitate to
+stigmatize him as the would-be &ldquo;corrector of the Holy Ghost.&rdquo;
+Three of the vicars-apostolic almost immediately warned all the
+faithful against the &ldquo;use and reception&rdquo; of his translation, on
+the ostensible ground that it had not been examined and approved
+by due ecclesiastical authority; and by his own bishop
+(Douglas) he was in 1793 suspended from the exercise of his
+orders in the London district. The second volume of the translation,
+completing the historical books, published in 1797, found
+no more friendly reception; but this circumstance did not discourage
+him from giving forth in 1800 the volume of <i>Critical
+Remarks on the Hebrew Scriptures</i>, which presented in a somewhat
+brusque manner the then novel and startling views of
+Eichhorn and his school on the primitive history and early
+records of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>Geddes was engaged on a critical translation of the Psalms
+(published in 1807) when he was seized with an illness of which
+he died on the 26th of February 1802. <span class="correction" title="amended from Athough">Although</span> under ecclesiastical
+censures, he had never swerved from a consistent profession
+of faith as a Catholic; and on his death-bed he duly
+received the last rites of his communion.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides pamphlets on the Catholic and slavery questions, as well
+as several fugitive <i>jeux d&rsquo;esprit</i>, and a number of unsigned articles
+in the <i>Analytical Review</i>, Geddes also published a free metrical
+version of <i>Select Satires of Horace</i> (1779), and a verbal rendering of
+the <i>First Book of the Iliad of Homer</i> (1792). The <i>Memoirs</i> of his life
+and writings by his friend John Mason Good appeared in 1803.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEDDES, ANDREW<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1783-1844), British painter, was born
+at Edinburgh. After receiving a good education in the high
+school and in the university of that city, he was for five years in
+the excise office, in which his father held the post of deputy
+auditor. After the death of his father, who had opposed his
+desire to become an artist, he came to London and entered the
+Royal Academy schools. His first contribution to the exhibitions
+of the Royal Academy, a &ldquo;St John in the Wilderness,&rdquo; appeared
+at Somerset House in 1806, and from that year onwards Geddes
+was a fairly constant exhibitor of figure-subjects and portraits.
+His well-known portrait of Wilkie, with whom he was on terms
+of intimacy, was at the Royal Academy in 1816. He alternated
+for some years between London and Edinburgh, with some
+excursions on the Continent, but in 1831 settled in London, and
+was elected associate of the Royal Academy in 1832; and he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page548" id="page548"></a>548</span>
+died in London of consumption in 1844. A very able executant,
+a good colourist, and a close student of character, he made his
+chief success as a portrait-painter, but he produced occasional
+figure subjects and landscapes, and executed some admirable
+copies of the old masters as well. He was also a good etcher.
+His portrait of his mother, and a portrait study, called &ldquo;Summer,&rdquo;
+are in the National Gallery of Scotland, and his portrait of Sir
+Walter Scott is in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Art in Scotland: its Origin and Progress</i>, by Robert Brydall
+(1889); <i>The Scottish School of Painting</i>, by William D. McKay,
+R.S.A. (1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEDDES, JAMES LORRAINE<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1827-1887), American soldier
+and writer, was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on the 19th of
+March 1827. In his boyhood he was taken to Canada, but in
+1843 he returned to Scotland; then studied at Calcutta in the
+military academy, entered the army, and after distinguishing
+himself in the Punjab campaign, returned to Canada, whence
+in 1857 he removed to Vinton, Iowa. In the American Civil
+War he served in the Federal army first as lieutenant-colonel
+and after February 1862 as colonel of volunteers, taking part
+in the fighting at Shiloh, Vicksburg and Corinth. He was
+captured at Shiloh and was imprisoned for a time at Madison,
+Ga., and in Libby prison, Richmond, Va., and in 1865 was
+brevetted brigadier-general of volunteers. He was principal
+of the College for the Blind at Vinton after the war, and until
+his death was connected with the Iowa College of Agriculture
+at Ames, being military instructor and cashier in 1870-1882,
+acting president in 1876-1877, librarian in 1877-1875, vice-president
+and professor of military tactics in 1880-1882, and
+treasurer in 1884-1887. He died at Ames on the 21st of
+February 1887. He wrote a number of war songs, including
+&ldquo;The Soldiers&rsquo; Battle Prayer&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Stars and Stripes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEDDES, SIR WILLIAM DUGUID<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1828-1900), Scottish
+scholar and educationist, was born in Aberdeenshire. He was
+educated at Elgin academy and university and King&rsquo;s College,
+Aberdeen, and after having held various scholastic posts he was
+appointed in 1860 professor of Greek and in 1885 principal of
+the (united) university of Aberdeen. He was knighted in 1892.
+He died in Aberdeen on the 9th of February 1900. It is chiefly
+as a teacher that Geddes will be remembered, and in his enthusiastic
+and successful efforts to raise the standard of Greek at the
+Scottish universities he has been compared with the humanists
+of the Renaissance. Amongst other works he was the author
+of <i>A Greek Grammar</i> (1855; 17th edition, 1883; new and revised
+edition, 1893); a meritorious edition of the <i>Phaedo</i> of Plato
+(2nd ed., 1885); and <i>The Problem of the Homeric Poems</i> (1878),
+in which, while supporting Grote&rsquo;s view that the <i>Iliad</i> consisted
+of an original Achilleïs with insertions or additions by later
+hands, he maintains that these insertions are due to the author
+of the <i>Odyssey</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEDYMIN<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (d. 1342), grand-duke of Lithuania, was supposed
+by the earlier chroniclers to have been the servant of Witen,
+prince of Lithuania, but more probably he was Witen&rsquo;s younger
+brother and the son of Lutuwer, another Lithuanian prince.
+Gedymin inherited a vast domain, comprising Lithuania proper,
+Samogitia, Red Russia, Polotsk and Minsk; but these possessions
+were environed by powerful and greedy foes, the most dangerous
+of them being the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian knights of
+the Sword. The systematic raiding of Lithuania by the knights
+under the pretext of converting it had long since united all the
+Lithuanian tribes against the common enemy; but Gedymin
+aimed at establishing a dynasty which should make Lithuania
+not merely secure but mighty, and for this purpose he entered
+into direct diplomatic negotiations with the Holy See. At the
+end of 1322 he sent letters to Pope John XXII. soliciting his
+protection against the persecution of the knights, informing him
+of the privileges already granted to the Dominicans and the
+Franciscans in Lithuania for the preaching of God&rsquo;s Word, and
+desiring that legates should be sent to receive him also into the
+bosom of the church. On receiving a favourable reply from the
+Holy See, Gedymin issued circular letters, dated 25th of January
+1325, to the principal Hanse towns, offering a free access into his
+domains to men of every order and profession from nobles and
+knights to tillers of the soil. The immigrants were to choose their
+own settlements and be governed by their own laws. Priests
+and monks were also invited to come and build churches at
+Vilna and Novogrodek. Similar letters were sent to the Wendish
+or Baltic cities, and to the bishops and landowners of Livonia
+and Esthonia. In short Gedymin, recognizing the superiority
+of western civilization, anticipated Ivan the Terrible and Peter
+the Great by throwing open the semi-savage Russian lands to
+influences of culture.</p>
+
+<p>In October 1323 representatives of the archbishop of Riga,
+the bishop of Dorpat, the king of Denmark, the Dominican and
+Franciscan orders, and the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order
+assembled at Vilna, when Gedymin confirmed his promises and
+undertook to be baptized as soon as the papal legates arrived.
+A compact was then signed at Vilna, &ldquo;in the name of the whole
+Christian World,&rdquo; between Gedymin and the delegates, confirming
+the promised privileges. But the christianizing of Lithuania
+was by no means to the liking of the Teutonic Knights, and they
+used every effort to nullify Gedymin&rsquo;s far-reaching design. This,
+unfortunately, it was easy to do. Gedymin&rsquo;s chief object was to
+save Lithuania from destruction at the hands of the Germans.
+But he was still a pagan reigning over semi-pagan lands; he
+was equally bound to his pagan kinsmen in Samogitia, to his
+orthodox subjects in Red Russia, and to his Catholic allies in
+Masovia. His policy, therefore, was necessarily tentative and
+ambiguous, and might very readily be misinterpreted. Thus
+his raid upon Dobrzyn, the latest acquisition of the knights on
+Polish soil, speedily gave them a ready weapon against him.
+The Prussian bishops, who were devoted to the knights, at a synod
+at Elbing questioned the authority of Gedymin&rsquo;s letters and
+denounced him as an enemy of the faith; his orthodox subjects
+reproached him with leaning towards the Latin heresy; while
+the pagan Lithuanians accused him of abandoning the ancient
+gods. Gedymin disentangled himself from his difficulties by
+repudiating his former promises; by refusing to receive the papal
+legates who arrived at Riga in September 1323; and by dismissing
+the Franciscans from his territories. These apparently retrogressive
+measures simply amounted to a statesmanlike recognition
+of the fact that the pagan element was still the strongest force
+in Lithuania, and could not yet be dispensed with in the coming
+struggle for nationality. At the same time Gedymin through his
+ambassadors privately informed the papal legates at Riga that
+his difficult position compelled him for a time to postpone his
+steadfast resolve of being baptized, and the legates showed
+their confidence in him by forbidding the neighbouring states
+to war against Lithuania for the next four years, besides ratifying
+the treaty made between Gedymin and the archbishop of Riga.
+Nevertheless in 1325 the Order, disregarding the censures of the
+church, resumed the war with Gedymin, who had in the meantime
+improved his position by an alliance with Wladislaus Lokietek,
+king of Poland, whose son Casimir now married Gedymin&rsquo;s
+daughter Aldona.</p>
+
+<p>While on his guard against his northern foes, Gedymin from
+1316 to 1340 was aggrandizing himself at the expense of the
+numerous Russian principalities in the south and east, whose
+incessant conflicts with each other wrought the ruin of them all.
+Here Gedymin&rsquo;s triumphal progress was irresistible; but the
+various stages of it are impossible to follow, the sources of its
+history being few and conflicting, and the date of every salient
+event exceedingly doubtful. One of his most important
+territorial accretions, the principality of Halicz-Vladimir, was
+obtained by the marriage of his son Lubart with the daughter
+of the Haliczian prince; the other, Kiev, apparently by conquest.
+Gedymin also secured an alliance with the grand-duchy of
+Muscovy by marrying his daughter, Anastasia, to the grand-duke
+Simeon. But he was strong enough to counterpoise the
+influence of Muscovy in northern Russia, and assisted the republic
+of Pskov, which acknowledged his overlordship, to break
+away from Great Novgorod. His internal administration bears
+all the marks of a wise ruler. He protected the Catholic as well
+as the orthodox clergy, encouraging them both to civilize his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page549" id="page549"></a>549</span>
+subjects; he raised the Lithuanian army to the highest state
+of efficiency then attainable; defended his borders with a chain
+of strong fortresses; and built numerous towns including Vilna,
+the capital (<i>c.</i> 1321). Gedymin died in the winter of 1342 of
+a wound received at the siege of Wielowa. He was married
+three times, and left seven sons and six daughters.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Teodor Narbutt, <i>History of the Lithuanian nation</i> (Pol.)
+(Vilna, 1835); Antoni Prochaska, <i>On the Genuineness of the Letters
+of Gedymin</i> (Pol.) (Cracow, 1895); Vladimir Bonifatovich Antonovich,
+<i>Monograph concerning the History of Western and South-western
+Russia</i> (Rus.) (Kiev, 1885).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEE, THOMAS<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1815-1898), Welsh Nonconformist preacher
+and journalist, was born at Denbigh on the 24th of January 1815.
+At the age of fourteen he went into his father&rsquo;s printing office, but
+continued to attend the grammar school in the afternoons. In
+1837 he went to London to improve his knowledge of printing,
+and on his return to Wales in the following year ardently threw
+himself into literary, educational and religious work. Among his
+publications were the well-known quarterly magazine <i>Y Traethodydd</i>
+(&ldquo;The Essayist&rdquo;), <i>Gwyddoniadur Cymreig</i> (&ldquo;Encyclopaedia
+Cambrensis&rdquo;), and Dr Silvan Evans&rsquo;s <i>English-Welsh
+Dictionary</i> (1868), but his greatest achievement in this field was
+the newspaper <i>Baner Cymru</i> (&ldquo;The Banner of Wales&rdquo;), founded
+in 1857 and amalgamated with <i>Yr Amserau</i> (&ldquo;The Times&rdquo;)
+two years later. This paper soon became an oracle in Wales,
+and played a great part in stirring up the nationalist movement in
+the principality. In educational matters he waged a long and
+successful struggle on behalf of undenominational schools and for
+the establishment of the intermediate school system. He was an
+enthusiastic advocate of church disestablishment, and had a
+historic newspaper duel with Dr John Owen (afterwards bishop
+of St David&rsquo;s) on this question. The Eisteddfod found in him
+a thorough friend and a wise counsellor. His commanding
+presence, mastery of diction, and resonant voice made him an
+effective platform speaker. He was ordained to the Calvinistic
+Methodist ministry at Bala in 1847, and gave his time and talents
+ungrudgingly to Sunday school and temperance work. Throughout
+his life he believed in the itinerant unpaid ministry rather
+than in the settled pastorate. He died on the 28th of September
+1898, and his funeral was the most imposing ever seen in North
+Wales.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEEL, JACOB<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1789-1862), Dutch scholar and critic, was born
+at Amsterdam on the 12th of November 1789. In 1823 he was
+appointed sub-librarian, and in 1833 chief librarian and honorary
+professor at Leiden, where he died on the 11th of November 1862.
+Geel materially contributed to the development of classical
+studies in Holland. He was the author of editions of Theocritus
+(1820), of the Vatican fragments of Polybius (1829), of the
+<span class="grk" title="&rsquo;Olumpiakos">&#8008;&#955;&#965;&#956;&#960;&#953;&#945;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span> of Dio Chrysostom (1840) and of numerous essays in
+the <i>Rheinisches Museum</i> and <i>Bibliotheca critica nova</i>, of which he
+was one of the founders. He also compiled a valuable catalogue
+of the MSS. in the Leiden library, wrote a history of the Greek
+sophists, and translated various German works into Dutch.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEELONG,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a seaport of Grant county, Victoria, Australia,
+situated on an extensive land-locked arm of Port Phillip known
+as Corio Bay, 45 m. by rail S.W. of Melbourne. Pop. of the city
+proper (1901) 12,399; with the adjacent boroughs of Geelong
+West, and Newton-and-Chilwell, 23,311. Geelong slopes to the
+bay on the north and to the Barwon river on the south, and its
+position in this respect, as well as the shelter it obtains from the
+Bellarine hills, renders it one of the healthiest towns in Victoria.
+As a manufacturing centre it is of considerable importance.
+The first woollen mill in the colony was established here, and the
+tweeds, cloths and other woollen fabrics of the town are noted
+throughout Australia. There are extensive tanneries, flour-mills
+and salt works, while at Fyansford, 3 m. distant, there are
+important cement works and paper-mills. The extensive vineyards
+in the neighbourhood of the town were destroyed under
+the Phylloxera Act, but replanting subsequently revived this
+industry. Corio Bay, a safe and commodious harbour, is entered
+by two channels across its bar, one of which has a depth of 23½ ft.
+There is extensive quayage, and the largest wool ships are able
+to load alongside the wharves, which are connected by rail with
+all parts of the colony. The facilities given for shipping wool
+direct to England from this port have caused a very extensive
+wool-broking trade to grow up in the town. The country
+surrounding Geelong is agricultural, but there are large limestone
+quarries east of the town, and in the Otway Forest, 23 m. distant,
+coal is worked. Geelong was incorporated in 1849.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEESTEMÜNDE,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a seaport town of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Hanover, on the right bank of the Weser, at the
+mouth of the Geeste, which separates it from Bremerhaven, 32 m.
+N. from Bremen by rail. Pop. (1905) 23,625. The interest of the
+place is purely naval and commercial, its origin dating no farther
+back than 1857, when the construction of the harbour was begun.
+The great basin, which can accommodate large sea-going vessels,
+was completed in 1863, the petroleum basin was opened in 1874,
+and additional wharves have been constructed for the reception
+of vessels engaged in the fishing industry. The fish market of
+Geestemünde is the most important in Germany, and the auction
+hall practically determines the price of fish throughout the empire.
+The whole port is protected by powerful fortifications. Among
+the industrial establishments of the town are shipbuilding yards,
+foundries, engineering works and saw-mills.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEFFCKEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1830-1896), German
+diplomatist and jurist, was born on the 9th of December 1830 at
+Hamburg, of which city his father was senator. After studying
+law at Bonn, Göttingen and Berlin, he was attached in 1854 to
+the Prussian legation at Paris. For ten years (1856-1866) he
+was the diplomatic representative of Hamburg in Berlin, first
+as chargé d&rsquo;affaires, and afterwards as minister-resident, being
+afterwards transferred in a like capacity to London. Appointed
+in 1872 professor of constitutional history and public law in the
+reorganized university of Strassburg, Geffcken became in 1880 a
+member of the council of state of Alsace-Lorraine. Of too nervous
+a temperament to withstand the strain of the responsibilities of
+his position, he retired from public service in 1882, and lived
+henceforth mostly at Munich, where he died, suffocated by an
+accidental escape of gas into his bedchamber, on the 1st of May
+1896. Geffcken was a man of great erudition and wide knowledge
+and of remarkable legal acumen, and from these qualities proceeded
+the personal influence he possessed. He was moreover a
+clear writer and made his mark as an essayist. He was one of the
+most trusted advisers of the Prussian crown prince, Frederick
+William (afterwards the emperor Frederick), and it was he (it is
+said, at Bismarck&rsquo;s suggestion) who drew up the draft of the New
+German federal constitution, which was submitted to the crown
+prince&rsquo;s headquarters at Versailles during the war of 1870-71.
+It was also Geffcken who assisted in framing the famous document
+which the emperor Frederick, on his accession to the
+throne in 1888, addressed to the chancellor. This memorandum
+gave umbrage, and on the publication by Geffcken in the
+<i>Deutsche Rundschau</i> (Oct. 1888) of extracts from the emperor
+Frederick&rsquo;s private diary during the war of 1870-71, he was, at
+Bismarck&rsquo;s instance, prosecuted for high treason. The Reichsgericht
+(supreme court), however, quashed the indictment, and
+Geffcken was liberated after being under arrest for three months.
+Publications of various kinds proceeded from his pen. Among
+these are <i>Zur Geschichte des orientalischen Krieges 1853-1856</i>
+(Berlin, 1881); <i>Frankreich, Russland und der Dreibund</i> (Berlin,
+1894); and <i>Staat und Kirche</i> (1875), English translation by
+E.F. Fairfax (1877). His writings on English history have been
+translated by S.J. Macmullan and published as <i>The British
+Empire, with essays on Prince Albert, Palmerston, Beaconsfield,
+Gladstone, and reform of the House of Lords</i> (1889).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEFFROY, MATHIEU AUGUSTE<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1820-1895), French
+historian, was born in Paris. After studying at the École
+Normale Supérieure he held history professorships at various
+lycées. His French thesis for the doctorate of letters, <i>Étude sur
+les pamphlets politiques et religieux de Milton</i> (1848), showed
+that he was attracted towards foreign history, a study for which
+he soon qualified himself by mastering the Germanic and
+Scandinavian languages. In 1851 he published a <i>Histoire des
+états scandinaves</i>, which is especially valuable for clear arrangement
+and for the trustworthiness of its facts. Later, a long
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550"></a>550</span>
+stay in Sweden furnished him with valuable documents for a
+political and social history of Sweden and France at the end of
+the 18th century. In 1864 and 1865 he published in the <i>Revue
+des deux mondes</i> a series of articles on Gustavus III. and the
+French court, which were republished in book form in 1867.
+To the second volume he appended a critical study on <i>Marie
+Antoinette et Louis XVI apocryphes</i>, in which he proved, by
+evidence drawn from documents in the private archives of the
+emperor of Austria, that the letters published by Feuillet de
+Conches (<i>Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette et Madame Elisabeth</i>,
+1864-1873) and Hunolstein (<i>Corresp. inédite de Marie Antoinette</i>,
+1864) are forgeries. With the collaboration of Alfred von
+Arneth, director of the imperial archives at Vienna, he edited
+the <i>Correspondance secrète entre Marie-Thérèse et le comte de
+Mercy-Argenteau</i> (3 vols., 1874), the first account based on trustworthy
+documents of Marie Antoinette&rsquo;s character, private
+conduct and policy. The Franco-German War drew Geffroy&rsquo;s
+attention to the origins of Germany, and his <i>Rome et les Barbares:
+étude sur la Germanie de Tacite</i> (1874) set forth some of the results
+of German scholarship. He was then appointed to superintend
+the opening of the French school of archaeology at Rome, and
+drew up two useful reports (1877 and 1884) on its origin and early
+work. But his personal tastes always led him back to the study
+of modern history. When the Paris archives of foreign affairs
+were thrown open to students, it was decided to publish a collection
+of the instructions given to French ambassadors since 1648
+(<i>Recueil des instructions données aux ambassadeurs et ministres
+de France depuis le traité de Westphalie</i>), and Geffroy was commissioned
+to edit the volumes dealing with Sweden (vol. ii., 1885)
+and Denmark (vol. xiii., 1895). In the interval he wrote <i>Madame
+de Maintenon d&rsquo;après sa correspondance authentique</i> (2 vols.,
+1887), in which he displayed his penetrating critical faculty in
+discriminating between authentic documents and the additions
+and corrections of arrangers like La Beaumelle and Lavallée.
+His last works were an <i>Essai sur la formation des collections
+d&rsquo;antiques de la Suède</i> and <i>Des institutions et des m&oelig;urs du
+paganisme scandinave: l&rsquo;Islande avant le Christianisme</i>, both
+published posthumously. He died at Bièvre on the 16th of
+August 1895.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEFLE,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a seaport of Sweden on an inlet of the Gulf of Bothnia,
+chief town of the district (<i>län</i>) of Gefleborg, 112 m. N.N.W. of
+Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900) 29,522. It is the chief port of
+the district of Kopparberg, with its iron and other mines and
+forests. The exports consist principally of timber and wood-pulp,
+iron and steel. The harbour, which has two entrances
+about 20 ft. deep, is usually ice-bound in mid-winter. Large
+vessels generally load in the roads at Gråberg, 6 m. distant.
+There are slips and shipbuilding yards, and a manufacture of
+sail-cloth. The town is an important industrial centre, having
+tobacco and leather factories, electrical and other mechanical
+works, and breweries. At Skutskär at the mouth of the Dal
+river are wood-pulp and saw mills, dealing with the large
+quantities of timber floated down the river; and there are large
+wood-yards in the suburb of Bomhus. Gefle was almost destroyed
+by fire in 1869, but was rebuilt in good style, and has the advantage
+of a beautiful situation. The principal buildings are a
+castle, founded by King John III. (1568-1592), but rebuilt later,
+a council-house erected by Gustavus III., who held a diet here in
+1792, an exchange, and schools of commerce and navigation.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEGENBAUR, CARL<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1826-1903), German anatomist, was
+born on the 21st of August 1826 at Würzburg, the university of
+which he entered as a student in 1845. After taking his degree
+in 1851 he spent some time in travelling in Italy and Sicily,
+before returning to Würzburg as <i>Privatdocent</i> in 1854. In 1855
+he was appointed extraordinary professor of anatomy at Jena,
+where after 1865 his fellow-worker, Ernst Haeckel, was professor
+of zoology, and in 1858 he became the ordinary professor. In
+1873 he was appointed to Heidelberg, where he was professor
+of anatomy and director of the Anatomical Institute until his
+retirement in 1901. He died at Heidelberg on the 14th of June
+1903. The work by which perhaps he is best known is his
+<i>Grundriss der vergleichenden Anatomie</i> (Leipzig, 1874; 2nd
+edition, 1878). This was translated into English by W.F.
+Jeffrey Bell (<i>Elements of Comparative Anatomy</i>, 1878), with
+additions by E. Ray Lankester. While recognizing the importance
+of comparative embryology in the study of descent, Gegenbaur
+laid stress on the higher value of comparative anatomy
+as the basis of the study of homologies, <i>i.e.</i> of the relations
+between corresponding parts in different animals, as, for example,
+the arm of man, the foreleg of the horse and the wing of a fowl.
+A distinctive piece of work was effected by him in 1871 in supplementing
+the evidence adduced by Huxley in refutation of the
+theory of the origin of the skull from expanded vertebrae, which,
+formulated independently by Goethe and Oken, had been
+championed by Owen. Huxley demonstrated that the skull
+is built up of cartilaginous pieces; Gegenbaur showed that &ldquo;in
+the lowest (gristly) fishes, where hints of the original vertebrae
+might be most expected, the skull is an unsegmented gristly
+brain-box, and that in higher forms the vertebral nature of the
+skull cannot be maintained, since many of the bones, notably
+those along the top of the skull, arise in the skin.&rdquo; Other publications
+by Gegenbaur include a <i>Text-book of Human Anatomy</i>
+(Leipzig, 1883, new ed. 1903), the <i>Epiglottis</i> (1892) and <i>Comparative
+Anatomy of the Vertebrates in relation to the Invertebrates</i>
+(Leipzig, 2 vols., 1898-1901). In 1875 he founded the <i>Morphologisches
+Jahrbuch</i>, which he edited for many years. In 1901
+he published a short autobiography under the title <i>Erlebtes und
+Erstrebtes</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Fürbringer in <i>Heidelberger Professoren aus dem 19ten Jahrhundert</i>
+(Heidelberg, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEGENSCHEIN<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (Ger. <i>gegen</i>, opposite, and <i>schein</i>, shine), an
+extremely faint luminescence of the sky, seen opposite the direction
+of the sun. Germany was the country in which it was first
+discovered and described. The English rendering &ldquo;counterglow&rdquo;
+is also given to it. Its faintness is such that it can be
+seen only by a practised eye under favourable conditions. It
+is invisible during the greater part of June, July, December
+and January, owing to its being then blotted out by the superior
+light of the Milky Way. It is also invisible during moonlight
+and near the horizon, and the neighbourhood of a bright star
+or planet may interfere with its recognition. When none of
+these unfavourable conditions supervene it may be seen at nearly
+any time when the air is clear and the depression of the sun
+below the horizon more than 20°. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zodiacal Light</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEIBEL, EMANUEL<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1815-1884), German poet, was born
+at Lübeck on the 17th of October 1815, the son of a pastor in
+the city. He was originally intended for his father&rsquo;s profession,
+and studied at Bonn and Berlin, but his real interests lay not in
+theology but in classical and romance philology. In 1838 he
+accepted a tutorship at Athens, where he remained until 1840.
+In the same year he brought out, in conjunction with his friend
+Ernst Curtius, a volume of translations from the Greek. His
+first poems, <i>Zeitstimmen</i>, appeared in 1841; a tragedy, <i>König
+Roderich</i>, followed in 1843. In the same year he received a
+pension from the king of Prussia, which he retained until his
+invitation to Munich by the king of Bavaria in 1851 as honorary
+professor at the university. In the interim he had produced
+<i>König Sigurds Brautfahrt</i> (1846), an epic, and <i>Juniuslieder</i>
+(1848, 33rd ed. 1901), lyrics in a more spirited and manlier style
+than his early poems. A volume of <i>Neue Gedichte</i>, published at
+Munich in 1857, and principally consisting of poems on classical
+subjects, denoted a further considerable advance in objectivity,
+and the series was worthily closed by the <i>Spätherbstblätter</i>, published
+in 1877. He had quitted Munich in 1869 and returned
+to Lübeck, where he died on the 6th of April 1884. His works
+further include two tragedies, <i>Brunhild</i> (1858, 5th ed. 1890), and
+<i>Sophonisbe</i> (1869), and translations of French and Spanish
+popular poetry. Beginning as a member of the group of political
+poets who heralded the revolution of 1848, Geibel was also the
+chief poet to welcome the establishment of the Empire in 1871.
+His strength lay not, however, in his political songs but in his
+purely lyric poetry, such as the fine cycle <i>Ada</i> and his still popular
+love-songs. He may be regarded as the leading representative
+of German lyric poetry between 1848 and 1870.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551"></a>551</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Geibel&rsquo;s <i>Gesammelte Werke</i> were published in 8 vols. (1883, 4th ed.
+1906); his <i>Gedichte</i> have gone through about 130 editions. An excellent
+selection in one volume appeared in 1904. For biography and
+criticism, see K. Goedeke, <i>E. Geibel</i> (1869); W. Scherer&rsquo;s address on
+Geibel (1884); K.T. Gaedertz, <i>Geibel-Denkwurdigkeiten</i> (1886);
+C.C.T. Litzmann, <i>E. Geibel, aus Erinnerungen, Briefen und Tagebüchern</i>
+(1887), and biographies by C. Leimbach (2nd ed., 1894), and
+K.T. Gaedertz (1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEIGE<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>gigue</i>, <i>gige</i>; O. Ital. and Span. <i>giga</i>; Prov.
+<i>gigua</i>; O. Dutch <i>gighe</i>), in modern German the violin; in medieval
+German the name applied to the first stringed instruments
+played with a bow, in contradistinction to those whose strings
+were plucked by fingers or plectrum such as the cithara, rotta and
+fidula, the first of these terms having been very generally used
+to designate various instruments whose strings were plucked.
+The name <i>gîge</i> in Germany, of which the origin is uncertain,<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and
+its derivatives in other languages, were in the middle ages applied
+to rebecs having fingerboards. As the first bowed instruments
+in Europe were, as far as we know, those of the rebab type, both
+boat-shaped and pear-shaped, it seems probable that the name
+clung to them long after the bow had been applied to other
+stringed instruments derived from the cithara, such as the fiddle
+(videl) or vielle. In the romances of the 12th and 13th centuries
+the <i>gîge</i> is frequently mentioned, and generally associated with
+the rotta. Early in the 16th century we find definite information
+concerning the Geige in the works of Sebastian Virdung (1511),
+Hans Judenkünig (1523), Martin Agricola (1532), Hans Gerle
+(1533); and from the instruments depicted, of two distinct types
+and many varieties, it would appear that the principal idea
+attached to the name was still that of the bow used to vibrate the
+strings. Virdung qualifies the word <i>Geige</i> with <i>Klein</i> (small) and
+<i>Gross</i> (large), which do not represent two sizes of the same
+instrument but widely different types, also recognized by
+Agricola, who names three or four sizes of each, discant, alto,
+tenor and bass. Virdung&rsquo;s <i>Klein Geige</i> is none other than the
+rebec with two C-shaped soundholes and a raised fingerboard cut
+in one piece with the vaulted back and having a separate flat
+soundboard glued over it, a change rendered necessary by the
+arched bridge. Agricola&rsquo;s <i>Klein Geige</i> with three strings was of a
+totally different construction, having ribs and wide incurvations
+but no bridge; there was a rose soundhole near the tailpiece
+and two C-shaped holes in the shoulders. Agricola (<i>Musica
+instrumentalis</i>) distinctly mentions three kinds of <i>Geigen</i> with
+three, four and five strings. From him we learn that only one
+position was as yet used on these instruments, one or two higher
+notes being occasionally obtained by sliding the little finger
+along. A century later Agricola&rsquo;s <i>Geige</i> was regarded as antiquated
+by Praetorius, who reproduces one of the bridgeless ones
+with five strings, a rose and two C-shaped soundholes, and calls
+it an old fiddle; under <i>Geige</i> he gives the violins.</p>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The words <i>gîge</i>, <i>gîgen</i>, <i>geic</i> appear suddenly in the M. H. German
+of the 12th century, and thence passed apparently into the Romance
+languages, though some would reverse the process (<i>e.g.</i> Weigand,
+<i>Deutsches Wörterbuch</i>). An elaborate argument in the <i>Deutsches
+Wörterbuch</i> of J. and W. Grimm (Leipzig, 1897) connects the word
+with an ancient common Teut. root <i>gag</i>&mdash;meaning to sway to and
+fro, as preserved in numerous forms: <i>e.g.</i> M.H.G <i>gagen</i>, <i>gugen</i>,
+&ldquo;to sway to and fro&rdquo; (<i>gugen</i>, <i>gagen</i>, the rocking of a cradle), the
+Swabian <i>gigen</i>, <i>gagen</i>, in the same sense, the Tirolese <i>gaiggern</i>, to
+sway, doubt, or the old Norse <i>geiga</i>, to go astray or crooked. The
+reference is to the swaying motion of the violin bow. The English
+&ldquo;jig&rdquo; is derived from <i>gîge</i> through the O. Fr. <i>gigue</i> (in the sense
+of a stringed instrument); the modern French gigue (a dance) is
+the English &ldquo;jig&rdquo; re-imported (Hatzfeld and Darmesteter, <i>Dictionnaire</i>).
+This opens up another possibility, of the origin of the name
+of the instrument in the dance which it accompanied.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEIGER, ABRAHAM<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1810-1874), Jewish theologian and
+orientalist, was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 24th of May
+1810, and educated at the universities of Heidelberg and Bonn.
+As a student he distinguished himself in philosophy and in philology,
+and at the close of his course wrote on the relations of
+Judaism and Mahommedanism a prize essay which was afterwards
+published in 1833 under the title <i>Was hat Mohammed aus
+dem Judentum aufgenommen?</i> (English trans. <i>Judaism and
+Islam</i>, Madras, 1898). In November 1832 he went to Wiesbaden
+as rabbi of the synagogue, and became in 1835 one of the most
+active promoters of the <i>Zeitschrift für jüdische Theologie</i> (1835-1839
+and 1842-1847). From 1838 to 1863 he lived in Breslau,
+where he organized the reform movement in Judaism and wrote
+some of his most important works, including <i>Lehr- und Lesebuch
+zur Sprache der Mischna</i> (1845), <i>Studien</i> from Maimonides (1850),
+translation into German of the poems of Juda ha-Levi (1851),
+and <i>Urschrift und Übersetzungen der Bibel in ihrer Abhängigkeit
+von der innern Entwickelung des Judentums</i> (1857). The last-named
+work attracted little attention at the time, but now
+enjoys a great reputation as a new departure in the methods of
+studying the records of Judaism. The <i>Urschrift</i> has moreover
+been recognized as one of the most original contributions to
+biblical science. In 1863 Geiger became head of the synagogue of
+his native town, and in 1870 he removed to Berlin, where, in
+addition to his duties as chief rabbi, he took the principal charge
+of the newly established seminary for Jewish science. The
+<i>Urschrift</i> was followed by a more exhaustive handling of one of
+its topics in <i>Die Sadducäer und Pharisäer</i> (1863), and by a more
+thorough application of its leading principles in an elaborate
+history of Judaism (<i>Das Judentum und seine Geschichte</i>) in 1865-1871.
+Geiger also contributed frequently on Hebrew, Samaritan
+and Syriac subjects to the <i>Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen
+Gesellschaft</i>, and from 1862 until his death (on the 23rd of October
+1874) he was editor of a periodical entitled <i>Jüdische Zeitschrift
+für Wissenschaft und Leben</i>. He also published a Jewish prayerbook
+(<i>Israëlitisches Gebetbuch</i>) and a variety of minor monographs
+on historical and literary subjects connected with the fortunes of
+his people.</p>
+<div class="author">(I. A.)</div>
+
+<p>An <i>Allgemeine Einleitung</i> and five volumes of <i>Nachgelassene
+Schriften</i> were edited in 1875 by his son <span class="sc">Ludwig Geiger</span> (b. 1848),
+who in 1880 became extraordinary professor in the university of
+Berlin. Ludwig Geiger published a large number of biographical
+and literary works and made a special study of German humanism.
+He edited the <i>Goethe-Jahrbuch</i> from 1880, <i>Vierteljahrsschrift für
+Kultur und Litteratur der Renaissance</i> (1885-1886), <i>Zeitschr. für
+die Gesch. der Juden im Deutschland</i> (1886-1891), <i>Zeitschr. für
+vergleichende Litteraturgeschichte und Renaissance-Litteratur</i>
+(1887-1891). Among his works are <i>Johann Reuchlin, sein Leben
+und seine Werke</i> (Leipzig, 1871); and <i>Johann Reuchlin&rsquo;s Briefwechsel</i>
+(Tübingen, 1875); <i>Renaissance und Humanismus in
+Italien und Deutschland</i> (1882, 2nd ed. 1901); <i>Gesch. des geistigen
+Lebens der preussischen Hauptstadt</i> (1892-1894); <i>Berlin&rsquo;s geistiges
+Leben</i> (1894-1896).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also J. Derenbourg in <i>Jüd. Zeitschrift</i>, xi. 299-308; E.
+Schrieber, <i>Abraham Geiger als Reformator des Judentums</i> (1880),
+art. (with portrait) in <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Abraham Geiger&rsquo;s nephew <span class="sc">Lazarus Geiger</span> (1829-1870),
+philosopher and philologist, born at Frankfort-on-Main, was
+destined to commerce, but soon gave himself up to scholarship
+and studied at Marburg, Bonn and Heidelberg. From 1861 till
+his sudden death in 1870 he was professor in the Jewish high
+school at Frankfort. His chief aim was to prove that the
+evolution of human reason is closely bound up with that of
+language. He further maintained that the origin of the Indo-Germanic
+language is to be sought not in Asia but in central
+Germany. He was a convinced opponent of rationalism in religion.
+His chief work was his <i>Ursprung und Entwickelung der menschlichen
+Sprache und Vernunft</i> (vol. i., Stuttgart, 1868), the principal
+results of which appeared in a more popular form as <i>Der Ursprung
+der Sprache</i> (Stuttgart, 1869 and 1878). The second volume of the
+former was published in an incomplete form (1872, 2nd ed. 1899)
+after his death by his brother Alfred Geiger, who also published a
+number of his scattered papers as <i>Zur Entwickelung der Menschheit</i>
+(1871, 2nd ed. 1878; Eng. trans. D. Asher, <i>Hist. of the
+Development of the Human Race</i>, Lond., 1880).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L.A. Rosenthal, <i>Laz. Geiger: seine Lehre vom Ursprung d.
+Sprache und Vernunft und sein Leben</i> (Stuttgart, 1883); E. Peschier,
+<i>L. Geiger, sein Leben und Denken</i> (1871); J. Keller, <i>L. Geiger und
+d. Kritik d. Vernunft</i> (Wertheim, 1883) and <i>Der Ursprung d. Vernunft</i>
+(Heidelberg, 1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEIJER, ERIK GUSTAF<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1783-1847), Swedish historian, was
+born at Ransäter in Värmland, on the 12th of January 1783, of a
+family that had immigrated from Austria in the 17th century.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page552" id="page552"></a>552</span>
+He was educated at the university of Upsala, where in 1803 he
+carried off the Swedish Academy&rsquo;s great prize for his <i>Äreminne
+öfver Sten Sture den äldre</i>. He graduated in 1806, and in 1810
+returned from a year&rsquo;s residence in England to become <i>docent</i> in
+his university. Soon afterwards he accepted a post in the public
+record office at Stockholm, where, with some friends, he founded
+the &ldquo;Gothic Society,&rdquo; to whose organ <i>Iduna</i> he contributed a
+number of prose essays and the songs <i>Manhem</i>, <i>Vikingen</i>, <i>Den
+siste kämpen</i>, <i>Den siste skalden</i>, <i>Odalbonden</i>, <i>Kolargossen</i>, which he
+set to music. About the same time he issued a volume of hymns,
+of which several are inserted in the Swedish Psalter.</p>
+
+<p>Geijer&rsquo;s lyric muse was soon after silenced by his call to be
+assistant to Erik Michael Fant, professor of history at Upsala,
+whom he succeeded in 1817. In 1824 he was elected a member of
+the Swedish Academy. A single volume of a great projected
+work, <i>Svea Rikes Häfder</i>, itself a masterly critical examination of
+the sources of Sweden&rsquo;s legendary history, appeared in 1825.
+Geijer&rsquo;s researches in its preparation had severely strained his
+health, and he went the same year on a tour through Denmark
+and part of Germany, his impressions from which are recorded in
+his <i>Minnen</i>. In 1832-1836 he published three volumes of his
+<i>Svenska folkets historia</i> (Eng. trans. by J.H. Turner, 1845), a
+clear view of the political and social development of Sweden
+down to 1654. The acute critical insight, just thought, and
+finished historical art of these incomplete works of Geijer entitle
+him to the first place among Swedish historians. His chief other
+historical and political writings are his <i>Teckning af Sveriges
+tillsånd</i> 1718-1772 (Stockholm, 1838), and <i>Feodalism och
+republikanism, ett bidrag till Samhällsförfattningens historia</i> (1844),
+which led to a controversy with the historian Anders Fryxell
+regarding the part played in history by the Swedish aristocracy.
+Geijer also edited, with the aid of J.H. Schröder, a continuation
+of Fant&rsquo;s <i>Scriptores rerum svecicarum medii aevi</i> (1818-1828), and,
+by himself, Thomas Thorild&rsquo;s <i>Samlade skrifter</i> (1819-1825), and
+<i>Konung Gustaf III</i>.&rsquo;s <i>efterlemnade Papper</i> (4 vols., 1843-1846).
+Geijer&rsquo;s academic lectures, of which the last three, published in
+1845 under the title <i>Om vår tids inre samhällsforhållanden, i
+synnerhet med afseende på Fäderneslandet</i>, involved him in another
+controversy with Fryxell, but exercised a great influence over his
+students, who especially testified to their attachment after the
+failure of a prosecution against him for heresy. A number of his
+extempore lectures, recovered from notes, were published in 1856.
+He also wrote a life of Charles XIV. (Stockholm, 1844). Failing
+health forced Geijer to resign his chair in 1846, after which he
+removed to Stockholm for the purpose of completing his <i>Svenska
+folkets historia</i>, and died there on the 23rd of April 1847. His
+<i>Samlade skrifter</i> (13 vols., 1840-1855; new ed., 1873-1877) include
+a large number of philosophical and political essays contributed
+to reviews, particularly to <i>Litteraturbladet</i> (1838-1839), a periodical
+edited by himself, which attracted great attention in its day
+by its pronounced liberal views on public questions, a striking
+contrast to those he had defended in 1828-1830, when, as again
+in 1840-1841, he represented Upsala University in the Swedish
+diet. His poems were collected and published as <i>Skaldestycken</i>
+(Upsala, 1835 and 1878).</p>
+
+<p>Geijer&rsquo;s style is strong and manly. His genius bursts out in
+sudden flashes that light up the dark corners of history. A few
+strokes, and a personality stands before us instinct with life.
+His language is at once the scholar&rsquo;s and the poet&rsquo;s; with his
+profoundest thought there beats in unison the warmest, the
+noblest, the most patriotic heart. Geijer came to the writing of
+history fresh from researches in the whole field of Scandinavian
+antiquity, researches whose first-fruits are garnered in numerous
+articles in <i>Iduna</i>, and his masterly treatise <i>Om den gamla nordiska
+folkvisan</i>, prefixed to the collection of Svenska folkvisor which he
+edited with A.A. Afzelius (3 vols., 1814-1816). The development
+of freedom is the idea that gives unity to all his historical
+writings.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For Geijer&rsquo;s biography, see his own <i>Minnen</i> (1834), which contains
+copious extracts from his letters and diaries; B.E. Malmström,
+<i>Minnestal öfver E.G. Geijer</i>, addressed to the Upsala students
+(June 6, 1848), and printed among his <i>Tal och esthetiska afhandlingar</i>
+(1868), and <i>Grunddragen af Svenska vitterhetens häfder</i> (1866-1868);
+and S.A. Hollander, <i>Minne af E.G. Geijer</i> (Örebro, 1869). See also
+lives of Geijer by J. Hellstenius (Stockholm, 1876) and J. Niekson
+(Odense, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1835-&emsp;&emsp;), Scottish geologist,
+was born at Edinburgh on the 28th of December 1835. He was
+educated at the high school and university of Edinburgh, and
+in 1855 was appointed an assistant on the Geological Survey.
+Wielding the pen with no less facility than the hammer, he
+inaugurated his long list of works with <i>The Story of a Boulder;
+or, Gleanings from the Note-Book of a Geologist</i> (1858). His ability
+at once attracted the notice of his chief, Sir Roderick Murchison,
+with whom he formed a lifelong friendship, and whose biographer
+he subsequently became. With Murchison some of his earliest
+work was done on the complicated regions of the Highland
+schists; and the small geological map of Scotland published in
+1862 was their joint work: a larger map was issued by Geikie in
+1892. In 1863 he published an important essay &ldquo;On the Phenomena
+of the Glacial Drift of Scotland,&rdquo; <i>Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow</i>,
+in which the effects of ice action in that country were for the first
+time clearly and connectedly delineated. In 1865 appeared
+Geikie&rsquo;s <i>Scenery of Scotland</i> (3rd edition, 1901), which was, he
+claimed, &ldquo;the first attempt to elucidate in some detail the history
+of the topography of a country.&rdquo; In the same year he was
+elected F.R.S. At this time the Edinburgh school of geologists&mdash;prominent
+among them Sir Andrew Ramsay, with his <i>Physical
+Geology and Geography of Great Britain</i>&mdash;were maintaining the
+supreme importance of denudation in the configuration of land-surfaces,
+and particularly the erosion of valleys by the action of
+running water. Geikie&rsquo;s book, based on extensive personal
+knowledge of the country, was an able contribution to the
+doctrines of the Edinburgh school, of which he himself soon
+began to rank as one of the leaders.</p>
+
+<p>In 1867, when a separate branch of the Geological Survey
+was established for Scotland, he was appointed director. On
+the foundation of the Murchison professorship of geology and
+mineralogy at the university of Edinburgh in 1871, he became
+the first occupant of the chair. These two appointments he
+continued to hold till 1881, when he succeeded Sir Andrew
+Ramsay in the joint offices of director-general of the Geological
+Survey of the United Kingdom and director of the museum of
+practical geology, London, from which he retired in February
+1901. A feature of his tenure of office was the impetus given to
+microscopic petrography, a branch of geology to which he had
+devoted special study, by a splendid collection of sections of
+British rocks. Later he wrote two important and interesting
+Survey Memoirs, <i>The Geology of Central and Western Fife and
+Kinross</i> (1900), and <i>The Geology of Eastern Fife</i> (1902).</p>
+
+<p>From the outset of his career, when he started to investigate the
+geology of Skye and other of the Western Isles, he took a keen
+interest in volcanic geology, and in 1871 he brought before the
+Geological Society of London an outline of the Tertiary volcanic
+history of Britain. Many difficult problems, however, remained
+to be solved. Here he was greatly aided by his extensive travels,
+not only throughout Europe, but in western America. While the
+canyons of the Colorado confirmed his long-standing views on
+erosion, the eruptive regions of Wyoming, Montana and Utah
+supplied him with valuable data in explanation of volcanic
+phenomena. The results of his further researches were given in an
+elaborate and charmingly written essay on &ldquo;The History of Volcanic
+Action during the Tertiary Period in the British Isles,&rdquo;
+<i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i>, (1888). His mature views on volcanic
+geology were given to the world in his presidential addresses
+to the Geological Society in 1891 and 1892, and afterwards
+embodied in his great work on <i>The Ancient Volcanoes of Great
+Britain</i> (1897). Other results of his travels are collected in his
+<i>Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad</i> (1882).</p>
+
+<p>His experience as a field geologist resulted in an admirable
+text-book, <i>Outlines of Field Geology</i> (5th edition, 1900). After
+editing and practically re-writing Jukes&rsquo;s <i>Student&rsquo;s Manual of
+Geology</i> in 1872, he published in 1882 a <i>Text-Book</i> and in 1886 a
+<i>Class-Book</i> of geology, which have taken rank as standard works
+of their kind. A fourth edition of his <i>Text-Book</i>, in two vols., was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page553" id="page553"></a>553</span>
+issued in 1903. His writings are marked in a high degree by charm
+of style and power of vivid description. His literary ability has
+given him peculiar qualifications as a writer of scientific biography,
+and the <i>Memoir of Edward Forbes</i> (with G. Wilson), and
+those of his old chiefs, Sir R.I. Murchison (2 vols., 1875) and Sir
+Andrew Crombie Ramsay (1895), are models of what such works
+should be. His <i>Founders of Geology</i> consists of the inaugural
+course of Lectures (founded by Mrs G.H. Williams) at Johns
+Hopkins University, Baltimore, delivered in 1897. In 1897 he
+issued an admirable <i>Geological Map of England and Wales, with
+Descriptive Notes</i>. In 1898 he delivered the Romanes Lectures,
+and his address was published under the title of <i>Types of Scenery
+and their Influence on Literature</i>. The study of geography owes
+its improved position in Great Britain largely to his efforts.
+Among his works on this subject is <i>The Teaching of Geography</i>
+(1887). His <i>Scottish Reminiscences</i> (1904) and <i>Landscape in
+History and other Essays</i> (1905) are charmingly written and full
+of instruction. He was foreign secretary of the Royal Society
+from 1890 to 1894, joint secretary from 1903 to 1908, president
+in 1909, president of the Geological Society in 1891 and 1892,
+and president of the British Association, 1892. He received the
+honour of knighthood in 1891.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEIKIE, JAMES<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1839-&emsp;&emsp;), Scottish geologist, younger
+brother of Sir Archibald Geikie, was born at Edinburgh on the
+23rd of August 1839. He was educated at the high school and
+university of Edinburgh. He served on the Geological Survey
+from 1861 until 1882, when he succeeded his brother as Murchison
+professor of geology and mineralogy at the university of
+Edinburgh. He took as his special subject of investigation the
+origin of surface-features, and the part played in their formation
+by glacial action. His views are embodied in his chief work, <i>The
+Great Ice Age and its Relation to the Antiquity of Man</i> (1874;
+3rd ed., 1894). He was elected F.R.S. in 1875. James
+Geikie became the leader of the school that upholds the all-important
+action of land-ice, as against those geologists who
+assign chief importance to the work of pack-ice and icebergs.
+Continuing this line of investigation in his <i>Prehistoric Europe</i>
+(1881), he maintained the hypothesis of five inter-Glacial periods
+in Great Britain, and argued that the palaeolithic deposits of
+the Pleistocene period were not post- but inter- or pre-Glacial.
+His <i>Fragments of Earth Lore: Sketches and Addresses, Geological
+and Geographical</i> (1893) and <i>Earth Sculpture</i> (1898) are mainly
+concerned with the same subject. His <i>Outlines of Geology</i> (1886),
+a standard text-book of its subject, reached its third edition
+in 1896; and in 1905 he published an important manual on
+<i>Structural and Field Geology</i>. In 1887 he displayed another side
+of his activity in a volume of <i>Songs and Lyrics by H. Heine and
+other German Poets, done into English Verse</i>. From 1888 he was
+honorary editor of the <i>Scottish Geographical Magazine</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEIKIE, WALTER<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1795-1837), Scottish painter, was born at
+Edinburgh on the 9th of November 1795. In his second year
+he was attacked by a nervous fever by which he permanently lost
+the faculty of hearing, but through the careful attention of his
+father he was enabled to obtain a good education. Before he had
+the advantage of the instruction of a master he had attained considerable
+proficiency in sketching both figures and landscapes from
+nature, and in 1812 he was admitted into the drawing academy
+of the board of Scottish manufactures. He first exhibited
+in 1815, and was elected an associate of the Royal Scottish
+Academy in 1831, and a fellow in 1834. He died on the 1st of
+August 1837, and was interred in the Greyfriars churchyard,
+Edinburgh. Owing to his want of feeling for colour, Geikie was
+not a successful painter in oils, but he sketched in India ink with
+great truth and humour the scenes and characters of Scottish
+lower-class life in his native city. A series of etchings which
+exhibit very high excellence were published by him in 1829-1831,
+and a collection of eighty-one of these was republished posthumously
+in 1841, with a biographical introduction by Sir Thomas
+Dick Lauder, Bart.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEILER<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Geyler</span>) <b>VON KAISERSBERG, JOHANN</b> (1445-1510),
+&ldquo;the German Savonarola,&rdquo; one of the greatest of the
+popular preachers of the 15th century, was born at Schaffhausen
+on the 16th of March 1445, but from 1448 passed his childhood
+and youth at Kaisersberg in Upper Alsace, from which place his
+current designation is derived. In 1460 he entered the university
+of Freiburg in Baden, where, after graduation, he lectured for
+some time on the <i>Sententiae</i> of Peter Lombard, the commentaries
+of Alexander of Hales, and several of the works of Aristotle. A
+living interest in theological subjects, awakened by the study of
+John Gerson, led him in 1471 to the university of Basel, a centre
+of attraction to some of the most earnest spirits of the time.
+Made a doctor of theology in 1475, he received a professorship
+at Freiburg in the following year; but his tastes, no less than the
+spirit of the age, began to incline him more strongly to the vocation
+of a preacher, while his fervour and eloquence soon led to his
+receiving numerous invitations to the larger towns. Ultimately
+he accepted in 1478 a call to the cathedral of Strassburg, where
+he continued to work with few interruptions until within a short
+time of his death on the 10th of March 1510. The beautiful
+pulpit erected for him in 1481 in the nave of the cathedral, when
+the chapel of St Lawrence had proved too small, still bears
+witness to the popularity he enjoyed as a preacher in the immediate
+sphere of his labours, and the testimonies of Sebastian
+Brant, Beatus Rhenanus, Johann Reuchlin, Melanchthon and
+others show how great had been the influence of his personal
+character. His sermons&mdash;bold, incisive, denunciatory, abounding
+in quaint illustrations and based on texts by no means confined
+to the Bible,&mdash;taken down as he spoke them, and circulated
+(sometimes without his knowledge or consent) by his friends,
+told perceptibly on the German thought as well as on the German
+speech of his time.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among the many volumes published under his name only two
+appear to have had the benefit of his revision, namely, <i>Der Seelen
+Paradies von waren und volkomnen Tugenden</i>, and that entitled <i>Das
+irrig Schaf</i>. Of the rest, probably the best-known is a series of
+lectures on his friend Seb. Brant&rsquo;s work, <i>Das Narrenschiff</i> or the
+<i>Navicula</i> or <i>Speculum fatuorum</i>, of which an edition was published
+at Strassburg in 1511 under the following title:&mdash;<i>Navicula sive
+speculum fatuorum praestantissimi sacrarum literarum doctoris Joannis
+Geiler Keysersbergii</i>.</p>
+
+<p>See F.W. von Ammon, <i>Geyler&rsquo;s Leben, Lehren und Predigten</i>
+(1826); L. Dacheux, <i>Un Réformateur catholique à la fin du XV<span class="sp">e</span>
+siècle</i>, J.G. de K. (Paris, 1876); R. Cruel, <i>Gesch. der deutschen
+Predigt</i>, pp. 538-576 (1879); P. de Lorenzi, <i>Geiler&rsquo;s ausgewählte
+Schriften</i> (4. vols., 1881); T.M. Lindsay, <i>History of the Reformation</i>,
+i. 118 (1906); and G. Kawerau in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>,
+vi. 427.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEINITZ, HANS BRUNO<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1814-1900), German geologist, was
+born at Altenburg, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Altenburg,
+on the 16th of October 1814. He was educated at the universities
+of Berlin and Jena, and gained the foundations of his
+geological knowledge under F.A. Quenstedt. In 1837 he took
+the degree of Ph.D. with a thesis on the Muschelkalk of Thuringia.
+In 1850 he became professor of geology and mineralogy in the
+Royal Polytechnic School at Dresden, and in 1857 he was made
+director of the Royal Mineralogical and Geological Museum;
+he held these posts until 1894. He was distinguished for his
+researches on the Carboniferous and Cretaceous rocks and fossils
+of Saxony, and in particular for those relating to the fauna and
+flora of the Permian or Dyas formation. He described also the
+graptolites of the local Silurian strata; and the flora of the
+Coal-formation of Altai and Nebraska. From 1863 to 1878 he
+was one of the editors of the <i>Neues Jahrbuch</i>. He was awarded
+the Murchison medal by the Geological Society of London in 1878.
+He died at Dresden on the 28th of January 1900. His son
+<span class="sc">Franz Eugene Geinitz</span> (b. 1854), professor of geology in the
+university of Rostock, became distinguished for researches on
+the geology of Saxony, Mecklenburg, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>H.B. Geinitz&rsquo;s publications were <i>Das Quadersandsteingebirge oder
+Kreidegebirge in Deutschland</i> (1849-1850); <i>Die Versteinerungen der
+Steinkohlenformation in Sachsen</i> (1855); <i>Dyas, oder die Zechsteinformation
+und das Rothliegende</i> (1861-1862); <i>Das Elbthalgebirge in
+Sachsen</i> (1871-1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEISHA<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (a Chino-Japanese word meaning &ldquo;person of pleasing
+accomplishments&rdquo;), strictly the name of the professional dancing
+and singing girls of Japan. The word is, however, often loosely
+used for the girls and women inhabiting Shin Yoshiwara, the
+prostitutes&rsquo; quarter of Tokyo. The training of the true Geisha
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page554" id="page554"></a>554</span>
+or singing girl, which includes lessons in dancing, begins often
+as early as her seventh year. Her apprenticeship over, she
+contracts with her employer for a number of years, and is seldom
+able to reach independence except by marriage. There is a
+capitation fee of two <i>yen</i> per month on the actual singing girls,
+and of one <i>yen</i> on the apprentices.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Jukichi Inouye, <i>Sketches of Tokyo Life</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEISLINGEN<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span>, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Württemberg,
+on the Thierbach, 38 m. by rail E.S.E. of Stuttgart. Pop.
+(1905) 7050. It has shops for the carving and turning of bone,
+ivory, wood and horn, besides iron-works, machinery factories,
+glass-works, brewing and bleaching works, &amp;c. The church of
+St Mary contains wood-carving by Jörg Syrlin the Younger.
+Above the town lie the ruins of the castle of Helfenstein, which
+was destroyed in 1552. Having been for a few years in the
+possession of Bavaria, the town passed to Württemberg in 1810.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Weitbrecht, <i>Wanderungen durch Geislingen und seine Umgebung</i>
+(Stuttgart, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEISSLER, HEINRICH<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1814-1879), German physicist, was
+born at the village of Igelshieb in Saxe-Meiningen on the 26th
+of May 1814 and was educated as a glass-blower. In 1854 he
+settled at Bonn, where he speedily gained a high reputation for
+his skill and ingenuity of conception in the fabrication of chemical
+and physical apparatus. With Julius Plücker, in 1852, he ascertained
+the maximum density of water to be at 3.8° C. He
+also determined the coefficient of expansion for ice between
+&minus;24° and &minus;7°, and for water freezing at 0°. In 1869, in conjunction
+with H.P.J. Vogelsang, he proved the existence of
+liquid carbon dioxide in cavities in quartz and topaz, and later
+he obtained amorphous from ordinary phosphorus by means of
+the electric current. He is best known as the inventor of the
+sealed glass tubes which bear his name, by means of which are
+exhibited the phenomena accompanying the discharge of electricity
+through highly rarefied vapours and gases. Among other
+apparatus contrived by him were a vaporimeter, mercury air-pump,
+balances, normal thermometer, and areometer. From
+the university of Bonn, on the occasion of its jubilee in 1868, he
+received the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. He died
+at Bonn on the 24th of January 1879.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A.W. Hofmann, <i>Ber. d. deut. chem. Ges.</i> p. 148 (1879).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GELA<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span>, a city of Sicily, generally and almost certainly identified
+with the modern Terranova (<i>q.v.</i>). It was founded by Cretan
+and Rhodian colonists in 688 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and itself founded Acragas
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agrigentum</a></span>) in 582 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It also had a treasure-house at
+Olympia. The town took its name from the river to the east
+(Thucydides vi. 2), which in turn was so called from its winter
+frost (<span class="grk" title="gela">&#947;&#941;&#955;&#945;</span> in the Sicel dialect; cf. Lat. <i>gelidus</i>). The Rhodian
+settlers called it Lindioi (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lindus</a></span>). Gela enjoyed its greatest
+prosperity under Hippocrates (498-491 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), whose dominion
+extended over a considerable part of the island. Gelon, who
+seized the tyranny on his death, became master of Syracuse in
+485 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and transferred his capital thither with half the inhabitants
+of Gela, leaving his brother Hiero to rule over the rest.
+Its prosperity returned, however, after the expulsion of Thrasybulus
+in 466 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> but in 405 it was besieged by the Carthaginians
+and abandoned by Dionysius&rsquo; order, after his failure (perhaps
+due to treachery) to drive the besiegers away (E.A. Freeman,
+<i>Hist. of Sic.</i> iii. 562 seq.). The inhabitants later returned and
+rebuilt the town, but it never regained its position. In 311 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+Agathocles put to death 5000 of its inhabitants; and finally,
+after its destruction by the Mamertines about 281 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Phintias
+of Agrigentum transferred the remainder to the new town of
+Phintias (now Licata, <i>q.v.</i>). It seems that in Roman times they
+still kept the name of Gelenses or Geloi in their new abode (Th.
+Mommsen in <i>C.I.L.</i> x., Berlin, 1883, p. 737).</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Aeschylus died there in 456 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GELADA<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span>, the Abyssinian name of a large species of baboon,
+differing from the members of the genus <i>Papio</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baboon</a></span>)
+by the nostrils being situated some distance above the extremity
+of the muzzle, and hence made the type of a separate genus,
+under the name of <i>Theropithecus gelada</i>. In the heavy mantle
+of long brown hair covering the fore-quarters of the old males,
+with the exception of the bare chest, which is reddish flesh-colour,
+the gelada recalls the Arabian baboon (<i>Papio hamadryas</i>), and
+from this common feature it has been proposed to place the two
+species in the same genus. The gelada inhabits the mountains of
+Abyssinia, where, like other baboons, it descends in droves to
+pillage cultivated lands. A second species, or race, <i>Theropithecus
+obscurus</i>, distinguished by its darker hairs and the presence of
+a bare flesh-coloured ring round each eye, inhabits the eastern
+confines of Abyssinia.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GELASIUS<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span>, the name of two popes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gelasius I</span>., pope from 492 to 496, was the successor of Felix
+III. He confirmed the estrangement between the Eastern and
+Western churches by insisting on the removal of the name of
+Acacius, bishop of Constantinople, from the diptychs. He is the
+author of <i>De duabus in Christo naturis adversus Eutychen et
+Nestorium</i>. A great number of his letters has also come down
+to us. His name has been attached to a <i>Liber Sacramentorum</i>
+anterior to that of St Gregory, but he can have composed only
+certain parts of it. As to the so-called <i>Decretum Gelasii de libris
+recipiendis et non recipiendis</i>, it also is a compilation of documents
+anterior to Gelasius, and it is difficult to determine Gelasius&rsquo;s
+contributions to it. At all events, as we know it, it is of Roman
+origin, and 6th-century or later.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. D.*)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gelasius II</span>. (Giovanni Coniulo), pope from the 24th of
+January 1118 to the 29th of January 1119, was born at Gaeta
+of an illustrious family. He became a monk of Monte Cassino,
+was taken to Rome by Urban II., and made chancellor and
+cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria in Cosmedin. Shortly after his
+unanimous election to succeed Paschal II. he was seized by
+Cencius Frangipane, a partisan of the emperor Henry V., but freed
+by a general uprising of the Romans in his behalf. The emperor
+drove Gelasius from Rome in March, pronounced his election
+null and void, and set up Burdinus, archbishop of Braga, as
+antipope under the name of Gregory VIII. Gelasius fled to
+Gaeta, where he was ordained priest on the 9th of March and on
+the following day received episcopal consecration. He at once
+excommunicated Henry and the antipope and, under Norman
+protection, was able to return to Rome in July; but the disturbances
+of the imperialist party, especially of the Frangipani,
+who attacked the pope while celebrating mass in the church
+of St Prassede, compelled Gelasius to go once more into exile.
+He set out for France, consecrating the cathedral of Pisa on the
+way, and arrived at Marseilles in October. He was received
+with great enthusiasm at Avignon, Montpellier and other cities,
+held a synod at Vienne in January 1119, and was planning to
+hold a general council to settle the investiture contest when he
+died at Cluny. His successor was Calixtus II.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His letters are in J.P. Migne, <i>Patrol. Lat.</i> vol. 163. The original
+life by Pandulf is in J.M. Watterich, <i>Pontif. Roman. vitae</i> (Leipzig,
+1862), and there is an important digest of his bulls and official acts
+in Jaffé-Wattenbach, <i>Regesta pontif. Roman.</i> (1885-1888).</p>
+
+<p>See J. Langen, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis
+Innocenz III.</i> (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle
+Ages</i>, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G.W. Hamilton (London, 1896); A.
+Wagner, <i>Die unteritalischen Normannen und das Papsttum, 1086-1150</i>
+(Breslau, 1885); W. von Giesebrecht, <i>Geschichte der deutschen
+Kaiserzeit</i>, Bd. iii. (Brunswick, 1890); G. Richter, <i>Annalen der
+deutschen Geschichte im Mittelalter</i>, iii. (Halle, 1898); H.H. Milman,
+<i>Latin Christianity</i>, vol. 4 (London, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. H. Ha.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GELATI<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span>, a Georgian monastery in Russian Transcaucasia,
+in the government of Kutais, 11 m. E. of the town of Kutais,
+standing on a rocky spur (705 ft. above sea-level) in the valley of
+the Rion. It was founded in 1109 by the Georgian king David
+the Renovator. The principal church, a sandstone cathedral,
+dates from the end of the preceding century, and contains the
+royal crown of the former Georgian kingdom of Imeretia, besides
+ancient MSS., ecclesiological furniture, and fresco portraits of
+the kings of Imeretia. Here also, in a separate chapel, is the
+tomb of David the Renovator (1089-1125) and part of the iron
+gate of the town of Ganja (now Elisavetpol), which that monarch
+brought away as a trophy of his capture of the place.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GELATIN<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Gelatine</span>, the substance which passes into
+solution when &ldquo;collagen,&rdquo; the ground substance of bone,
+cartilage and white fibrous tissue, is treated with boiling water
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page555" id="page555"></a>555</span>
+or dilute acids. It is especially characterized by its property of
+forming a jelly at ordinary temperature, becoming liquid when
+heated, and resolidifying to a jelly on cooling. The word is
+derived from the Fr. <i>gélatine</i>, and Ital. <i>gelatina</i>, from the Lat.
+<i>gelata</i>, that which is frozen, congealed or stiff. It is, therefore, in
+origin cognate with &ldquo;jelly,&rdquo; which came through the Fr. <i>gélee</i>
+from the same Latin original.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;collagen,&rdquo; obtained from tendons and connective
+tissues, also occurs in the cornea and sclerotic coat of the eye,
+and in fish scales. Cartilage was considered to be composed of a
+substance chondrigen, which gave chondrin or cartilage-glue on
+boiling with water. Recent researches make it probable that
+cartilage contains (1) chondromucoid, (2) chondroitin-sulphuric
+acid, (3) collagen, (4) an albumoid present in old but not in
+young cartilage; whilst chondrin is a mixture of gelatin and
+mucin. &ldquo;Bone collagen,&rdquo; or &ldquo;ossein,&rdquo; constitutes, with calcium
+salts, the ground substance of bones. Gelatin consists of two
+substances, glutin and chondrin; the former is the main constituent
+of skin-gelatin, the latter of bone-gelatin.</p>
+
+<p>True gelatigenous tissue occurs in all mature vertebrates, with
+the single exception, according to E.F.I. Hoppe-Seyler, of the
+<i>Amphioxus lanceolatus</i>. Gelatigenous tissue was discovered by
+Hoppe-Seyler in the cephalopods <i>Octopus</i> and <i>Sepiola</i>, but in an
+extension of his experiments to other invertebrates, as cockchafers
+and <i>Anodon</i> and <i>Unio</i>, no such tissue could be detected.
+Neither glutin nor chondrin occurs ready formed in the animal
+kingdom, but they separate when the tissues are boiled with
+water. A similar substance, vegetable gelatin, is obtained from
+certain mosses.</p>
+
+<p>Pure gelatin is an amorphous, brittle, nearly transparent
+substance, faintly yellow, tasteless and inodorous, neutral in
+reaction and unaltered by exposure to dry air. Its composition
+is in round numbers C = 50, H = 7, N = 18, O = 25%;
+sulphur is also present in an amount varying from 0.25 to
+0.7%.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Nothing is known with any certainty as to its chemical constitution,
+or of the mode in which it is formed from albuminoids.
+It exhibits in a general way a connexion with that large and important
+class of animal substances called <i>proteids</i>, being, like them,
+amorphous, soluble in acids and alkalis, and giving in solution a
+left-handed rotation of the plane of polarization. Nevertheless, the
+ordinary well-recognized reactions for proteids are but faintly
+observed in the case of gelatin, and the only substances which at
+once and freely precipitate it from solution are mercuric chloride,
+strong alcohol and tannic acid.</p>
+
+<p>Although gelatin in a dry state is unalterable by exposure to air,
+its solution exhibits, like all the proteids, a remarkable tendency
+to putrefaction; but a characteristic feature of this process in the
+case of gelatin is that the solution assumes a transient acid reaction.
+The ultimate products of this decomposition are the same as are
+produced by prolonged boiling with acid. It has been found that
+oxalic acid, over and above the action common to all dilute acids
+of preventing the solidification of gelatin solutions, has the further
+property of preventing in a large measure this tendency to putrefy
+when the gelatin is treated with hot solutions of this acid, and then
+freed from adhering acid by means of calcium carbonate. Gelatin
+so treated has been called <i>metagelatin</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the marked tendency of gelatin solutions to develop
+ferment-organisms and undergo putrefaction, the stability of the
+substance in the dry state is such that it has even been used, and
+with some success, as a means of preserving perishable foods. The
+process, invented by Dr Campbell Morfit, consists in impregnating
+the foods with gelatin, and then drying them till about 10% or
+less of water is present. Milk gelatinized in this way is superior in
+several respects to the products of the ordinary condensation process,
+more especially in the retention of a much larger proportion of
+albuminoids.</p>
+
+<p>Gelatin has a marked affinity for water, abstracting it from admixture
+with alcohol, for example. Solid gelatin steeped for some
+hours in water absorbs a certain amount and swells up, in which
+condition a gentle heat serves to convert it into a liquid; or this
+may be readily produced by the addition of a trace of alkali or
+mineral acid, or by strong acetic acid. In the last case, however,
+or if we use the mineral acids in a more concentrated form, the
+solution obtained has lost its power of solidifying, though not that
+of acting as a glue. This property is utilized in the preparation
+of liquid glue (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glue</a></span>). By prolonged boiling of strong aqueous
+solutions at a high, or of weak solutions at a lower temperature, the
+characteristic properties of gelatin are impaired and ultimately
+destroyed. After this treatment it acts less powerfully as a glue,
+loses its tendency to solidify, and becomes increasingly soluble in
+cold water; nevertheless the solutions yield on precipitation with
+alcohol a substance identical in composition with gelatin.</p>
+
+<p>By prolonged boiling in contact with hydrolytic agents, such as
+sulphuric acid or caustic alkali, it yields quantities of leucin and
+glycocoll (so-called &ldquo;sugar of gelatin,&rdquo; this being the method by
+which glycocoll was first prepared), but no tyrosin. In this last
+respect it differs from the great body of proteids, the characteristic
+solid products of the decomposition of which are leucin and tyrosin.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Gelatin occurs in commerce in varying degrees of purity; the
+purer form obtained from skins and bones (to which this article
+is restricted) is named gelatin; a preparation of great purity is
+&ldquo;patent isinglass,&rdquo; while isinglass (<i>q.v.</i>) itself is a fish-gelatin;
+less pure forms constitute glue (<i>q.v.</i>), while a dilute aqueous
+solution appears in commerce as size (<i>q.v.</i>). The manufacture
+follows much the same lines as that of glue; but it is essential
+that the raw materials must be carefully selected, and in view of
+the consumption of most of the gelatin in the kitchen&mdash;for soups,
+jellies, &amp;c.&mdash;great care must be taken to ensure purity and
+cleanliness.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the manufacture of bone-gelatin the sorted bones are degreased
+as in the case of glue manufacture, and then transferred
+to vats containing a dilute hydrochloric acid, by which means most
+of the mineral matter is dissolved out, and the bones become flexible.
+Instead of hydrochloric acid some French makers use phosphoric
+acid. After being well washed with water to remove all traces of
+hydrochloric acid, the bones are bleached by leading in sulphur
+dioxide. They are now transferred to the extractors, and heated
+by steam, care being taken that the temperature does not exceed
+85° C. The digestion is repeated, and the runnings are clarified,
+concentrated, re-bleached and jellied as with glue. Skin-gelatin
+is manufactured in the same way as skin-glue. After steeping in
+lime pits the selected skins are digested three times; the first and
+second runnings are worked up for gelatin, while the third are
+filtered for &ldquo;size.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Vegetable gelatin is manufactured from a seaweed, genus <i>Laminaria</i>;
+from the tengusa, an American seaweed, and from Irish moss.
+The <i>Laminaria</i> is first extracted with water, and the residue with
+sodium carbonate; the filtrate is acidified with hydrochloric acid
+and the precipitated alginic acid washed and bleached. It is then
+dissolved in an alkali, the solution concentrated, and cooled down
+by running over horizontal glass plates. Flexible colourless sheets
+resembling animal gelatin are thus obtained. In America the weed
+is simply boiled with water, the solution filtered, and cooled to a
+thick jelly. Irish moss is treated in the same way. Both tengusa
+and Irish moss yield a gelatin suitable for most purposes; tengusa
+gelatin clarifies liquids in the same way as isinglass, and forms a
+harder and firmer jelly than ordinary gelatin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Applications of Gelatin.</i>&mdash;First and foremost is the use of gelatin
+as a food-stuff&mdash;in jellies, soups, &amp;c. Referring to the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glue</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Isinglass</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Size</a></span> for the special applications of these forms of
+gelatin, we here enumerate the more important uses of ordinary
+gelatin. In photography it is employed in carbon-processes, its
+use depending on the fact that when treated with potassium bichromate
+and exposed to light, it is oxidized to insoluble compounds;
+it plays a part in many other processes. A solution of
+gelatin containing readily crystallized salts&mdash;alum, nitre, &amp;c.&mdash;solidifies
+with the formation of pretty designs; this is the basis of
+the so-called &ldquo;crystalline glass&rdquo; used for purposes of ornamentation.
+It is also used for coating pills to prevent them adhering
+together and to make them tasteless. Compounded with various
+mineral salts, the carbonates and phosphates of calcium, magnesium
+and aluminium, it yields a valuable ivory substitute. It also plays
+a part in the manufacture of artificial leather, of India inks, and of
+artificial silk (the Vanduara Company processes).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GELDERLAND<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Gelders</span>, or <span class="sc">Guelders</span>, formerly a duchy of
+the Empire, on the lower Rhine and the Yssel, bounded by
+Friesland, Westphalia, Brabant, Holland and the Zuider Zee;
+part of which has become the province of Holland, dealt with
+separately below. The territory of the later duchy of Gelderland
+was inhabited at the beginning of the Christian era by the Teutonic
+tribes of the Sicambri and the Batavi, and later, during the
+period of the decline of the Roman empire, by the Chamavi and
+other Frank peoples. It formed part of the Caroling kingdom of
+Austrasia, and was divided into <i>pagi</i> or <i>gauen</i>, ruled by official
+counts (<i>comites-graven</i>). In 843, by the treaty of Verdun, it
+became part of Lotharingia (Lorraine), and in 879 was annexed
+to the kingdom of East Francia (Germany) by the treaty of
+Meerssen. The nucleus of the later county and duchy was the
+<i>gau</i> or district surrounding the town of Gelder or Gelre, lying
+between the Meuse and the Niers, and since 1715 included in
+Rhenish Prussia.</p>
+
+<p>The early history is involved in much obscurity. There were in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page556" id="page556"></a>556</span>
+the 11th century a number of counts ruling in various parts of
+what was afterwards known as Gelderland. Towards the close
+of that century Gerard of Wassenburg, who besides the county of
+Gelre ruled over portions of Hamalant and Teisterbant, acquired
+a dominant position amongst his neighbours. He is generally
+reckoned as the first hereditary count of Gelderland (d. 1117/8).
+His son, Gerard II.&mdash;the Long&mdash;(d. 1131), married Irmingardis,
+daughter and heiress of Otto, count of Zutphen, and
+their son, Henry I. (d. 1182), inherited both countships. His
+successors Otto I. (1182-1207) and Gerard III. (1207-1229)
+were lovers of peace and strong supporters of the Hohenstaufen
+emperors, through whose favour they were able to increase their
+territories by acquisitions in the districts of Veluwe and Betuwe.
+He acted as guardian to his nephew Floris IV. of Holland during
+his minority. Otto II., the Lame (1220-1271), fortified several
+towns and bestowed privileges upon them for the purpose of
+encouraging trade. He became a person of so much importance
+that he was urged to be a candidate for the dignity of emperor.
+He preferred to support the claims of his cousin, William II. of
+Holland. In return for the loan of a considerable sum of money
+William gave to him the city of Nijmwegen in pledge. His son
+Reinald I. (d. 1326) married Irmingardis, heiress of Limburg,
+and in right of his wife laid claim to the duchy against Adolf of
+Berg, who had sold his rights to John I. of Brabant. War
+followed, and on the 5th of June 1288 Reinald, who meantime
+had also sold his rights to the count of Luxemburg, was defeated
+and taken prisoner at the battle of Woeringen. In this battle the
+count of Luxemburg was slain, and Reinald had to surrender his
+claims as the price of his defeat to John of Brabant. In 1310, in
+return for his support, Reinald received from the emperor Henry
+VII. for all his territories <i>privilegium de non evocando</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the
+exemption of his subjects from the liability to be sued before any
+court outside his jurisdiction. In 1317 he was made a prince of
+the Empire. A wound received at the battle of Woeringen had
+affected his brain, and an insurrection against him was in 1316
+headed by his son Reinald, who assumed the government under
+the title of &ldquo;Son of the Count.&rdquo; Reinald I. was finally in 1320
+immured in prison, where he died in 1326.</p>
+
+<p>Reinald II., the Black (1326-1343), was one of the foremost
+princes in the Netherlands of his day. He married (1) Sophia,
+heiress of Mechlin, and (2) in 1331 Eleanor, sister of Edward III.
+of England. By purchase or conquest he added considerably to
+his territories. He did much to improve the condition of the
+country, to foster trade, to promote the prosperity of the towns,
+and to maintain order and security in his lands by wise laws and
+firm administration. In 1338 the title of duke was bestowed
+upon him by the emperor Louis the Bavarian, who at the same
+time granted to him the fief of East Friesland. He died in 1343,
+leaving three daughters by his first marriage, and two sons,
+Reinald and Edward, both minors, by Eleanor of England. His
+elder son was ten years of age, and succeeded to the duchy under
+the guardianship of his mother Eleanor. Declared of age two
+years later, the youthful Reinald III. found himself involved in
+many difficulties through the struggles between the rival factions
+named after the two noble families of Bronkhorst and Hekeren.
+What was the quarrel between them, and what the causes they
+represented, cannot now be ascertained with certainty. There is
+good reason, however, to believe that they were the counterparts
+of the contemporary Cod and Hook parties in Holland, and of
+the Schieringers and Vetkoopers in Friesland. In Gelderland the
+quarrel between them was converted into a dynastic struggle,
+the Hekeren recognizing Duke Reinald, while the Bronkhorsten
+set up his younger brother Edward. At the battle of Tiel (1361)
+Reinald was defeated and taken prisoner, and Edward held the
+duchy till 1371. He was a good and successful ruler, and his
+death by an arrow wound, after a brilliant victory over the duke
+of Brabant near Baesweller (August 1371), was a loss to his
+country. He was in his thirty-fifth year and left no heirs.
+Reinald was now taken from the prison in which he had been
+confined to reign once more, but his health was broken and he
+died childless three years afterwards. The war of factions again
+broke out, the half-sisters of Reinald III. and Edward both
+claiming the inheritance; the elder, Matilda (Machteld), in her
+own right, the younger Maria on behalf of her seven-year-old boy
+William of Jülich, as the only male representative of the family.
+The Hekeren supported Matilda, the Bronkhorsten William of
+Jülich. The war of succession lasted till 1379, and ended in
+William&rsquo;s favour, the emperor Wenceslas (Wenzel) recognizing
+him as duke four years later.</p>
+
+<p>Duke William was able, restless and adventurous, an ideal
+knight of the palmy days of chivalry. He took part in no less
+than five crusades with the Teutonic order against the heathen
+Lithuanians and Prussians. In 1393 he inherited the duchy of
+Jülich, and died in 1402. He was succeeded by his brother,
+Reinald IV. (d. 1423), in the united sovereignty of Gelderland,
+Zutphen and Jülich, who, in accordance with a promise made
+before his accession, ceded the town of Emmerich to Duke Adolf
+of Cleves. He took the part of his brother-in-law, John of Arkel,
+against William VI. of Holland, and in a war of several years&rsquo;
+duration was not successful in preventing the Arkel territory
+being incorporated in Holland. On his death without legitimate
+issue, Gelderland passed to the young Arnold of Egmont, grandson
+of his sister Johanna, who had married John, lord of Arkel,
+their daughter Maria (d. 1415) being the wife of John, count of
+Egmont (d. 1451). Arnold was recognized as duke in 1424 by
+the emperor Sigismund, but in the following year the emperor
+revoked his decision and bestowed the duchy upon Adolf of Berg.
+Arnold in retaliation laid claim to the duchy of Jülich, which had
+likewise been granted to Adolf by Sigismund, and a war followed
+in which the cities and nobles of Gelderland stood by Arnold; it
+ended in Arnold retaining Gelderland and Zutphen, and Gerard,
+the son of Adolf (d. 1437), being acknowledged as duke of Jülich.
+To gain the support of the estates of Gelderland in this war of
+succession, Arnold had been compelled to make many concessions
+limiting the ducal prerogatives, and granting large powers to a
+council consisting of representatives of the nobles and the four
+chief cities, and his extravagance and exactions led to continual
+conflicts, in which the prince was compelled to yield to the demands
+of his subjects. In his later years a conspiracy was formed
+against him, headed by his wife, the violent and ambitious
+Catherine of Cleves, and his son Adolf. Arnold was at first
+successful and Adolf had to go into exile; but he returned, and in
+1465, having taken his father prisoner by treachery, interned him
+in the castle of Buren. Charles the Bold of Burgundy now seized
+the opportunity to intervene. In 1471 he forced Adolf to release
+his father, who sold the reversion of the duchy to the duke of
+Burgundy for 92,000 golden gulden. On the 23rd of February
+1473 Arnold died, and Charles of Burgundy became duke of
+Gelderland. His succession was not unopposed. Nijmwegen
+offered an heroic resistance and only fell after a long siege. After
+Charles&rsquo;s death in 1477 Adolf was released from the captivity in
+which he had been held, and placed himself at the head of a party
+in the powerful city of Ghent, which sought to settle the disputed
+succession by forcing a match between him and Mary, the heiress
+of Burgundy. On the 29th of June 1477, however, he was killed
+at the siege of Tournai; and Mary gave her hand to Maximilian
+of Austria, afterwards emperor. Catherine, Adolf&rsquo;s sister, made
+an attempt to assert the rights of his son Charles to the duchy,
+but by 1483 Maximilian had crushed all opposition and established
+himself as duke of Gelderland.</p>
+
+<p>Charles of Egmont, however, did not surrender his claims, but
+with the aid of the French collected an army, and in the course
+of 1492 and 1493 succeeded in reconquering his inheritance. The
+efforts of Maximilian to recover the country were vain, and the
+successive governors of the Netherlands, Philip the Fair and his
+sister Margaret, fared no better. In 1507 Charles of Egmont
+invaded Holland and Brabant, captured Harderwijk and Bommel
+in 1511, threatened Amsterdam in 1512, and took Groningen.
+It was, undoubtedly, a great and heroic achievement for the ruler
+of a petty state like Gelderland thus to assert and maintain his
+independence for a long period against the overwhelming power
+of the house of Austria. It was not till 1528 that the emperor
+Charles V. could force him to accept the compromise of the treaty
+of Gorichen, by which he received Gelderland and Zutphen for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page557" id="page557"></a>557</span>
+life as fiefs of the Empire. In 1534 the duke, who was childless,
+attempted to transfer the reversion of Gelderland to France, but
+this project was violently resisted by the estates of the duchy, and
+Charles was compelled by them in 1538 to appoint as his successor
+William V.&mdash;the Rich&mdash;of Cleves (d. 1592). Charles died the
+same year, and William, with the aid of the French, succeeded in
+maintaining his position in Gelderland for several years. The
+Habsburg power was, however, in the end too great for him, and
+he was forced to cede the duchy to Charles V. by the treaty of
+Venloo, signed on the 7th of September 1543.</p>
+
+<p>Gelderland was now definitely amalgamated with the Habsburg
+dominions in the Netherlands, until the revolt of the Low
+Countries led to its partition. In 1579 the northern and greater
+part, comprising the three &ldquo;quarters&rdquo; of Nijmwegen, Arnhem
+and Zutphen, joined the Union of Utrecht and became the
+province of Gelderland in the Dutch republic. Only the quarter
+of Roermonde remained subject to the crown of Spain, and was
+called Spanish Gelderland. By the treaty of Utrecht (1715) this
+was ceded to Prussia with the exception of Venloo, which fell to
+the United Provinces, and Roermonde, which, with the remaining
+Spanish Netherlands, passed to Austria. Of this, part was ceded
+to France at the peace of Basel in 1795, and the whole by the
+treaty of Lunéville in 1801, when it received the name of the
+department of the Roer. By the peace of Paris of 1814 the bulk
+of Gelderland was incorporated in the United Netherlands, the
+remainder falling to Prussia, where it forms the circle of
+Düsseldorf.</p>
+
+<p>The rise of the towns in Gelderland began in the 13th century,
+river commerce and markets being the chief cause of their
+prosperity, but they never attained to the importance of the
+larger cities in Holland and Utrecht, much less to that of the
+great Flemish municipalities. They differed also from the Flemish
+cities in the nature of their privileges and immunities, as they did
+not possess the rights of communes, but only those of &ldquo;free
+cities&rdquo; of the Rhenish type. The power of the feudal lord over
+them was much greater. The states of Gelderland first became a
+considerable power in the land during the reign of Arnold of
+Egmont (1423-1473). Their claim to large privileges and a
+considerable share in the government of the county were formulated
+in a document drawn up at Nijmwegen in April 1436.
+These the duke had to concede, and to agree further to the appointment
+of a council to assist him in his administration. From this
+time the absolute authority of the sovereign in Gelderland was
+broken. The states consisted of two members&mdash;the nobility and
+the towns. The towns were divided into four separate districts
+or &ldquo;quarters&rdquo; named after the chief town in each&mdash;Nijmwegen,
+Arnhem, Zutphen and Roermonde. In the time of the republic,
+as has been stated above, the province of Gelderland comprised
+the three first-named &ldquo;quarters&rdquo; only. The three quarters had
+each of them peculiar rights and customs, and their representatives
+met together in a separate assembly before taking part in
+the diet (<i>landdag</i>) of the states. The nobility possessed great
+influence in Gelderland and retained it in the time of the
+republic.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. E.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GELDERLAND<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (<i>Guelders</i>), a province of Holland, bounded S.
+by Rhenish Prussia and North Brabant, W. by Utrecht and
+South Holland, N. by the Zuider Zee, N.E. by Overysel, and S.E.
+by the Prussian province of Westphalia. It has an area of 1906
+sq. m. and a pop. (1900) of 566,549. Historically it was part of
+the duchy of Gelderland, which is treated separately above.</p>
+
+<p>The main portion of Gelderland north of the Rhine and the
+Old Ysel forms as it were an extension of the province of Overysel,
+being composed of diluvial sand and gravel, covered with sombre
+heaths and patches of fen. South of this line, however, the soil
+consists of fertile river-clay. The northern portion is divided by
+the New (or Gelders) Ysel into two distinct regions, namely, the
+Veluwe (&ldquo;bad land&rdquo;) on the west, and the former countship of
+Zutphen on the east. In this last division the ground slopes
+downwards from south-east to north-west (131 to 26 ft.) and is
+intersected by several fertilizing streams which flow in the same
+direction to join the Ysel. The extreme eastern corner is occupied
+by older Tertiary loam, which is used for making bricks, and
+upon this and the river-banks are the most fertile spots, woods,
+cultivated land, pastures, towns and villages. The highlands of
+the Veluwe lying west of the Ysel really extend as far as the
+Crooked Rhine and the Vecht in the province of Utrecht, but are
+slightly detached from the Utrecht hills by the so-called Gelders
+valley, which forms the boundary between the two provinces.
+This valley extends from the Rhine along the Grift, the Luntersche
+Beek, and the Eem to the Zuider Zee, and would still offer an
+outlet in this direction to the Rhine at high water if it were not for
+the river dikes. The two main ridges of the Veluwe hills (164 and
+360 ft.) extend from the neighbourhood of Arnhem north to
+Harderwyk and north-east to Hattem. In the south they stretch
+themselves along the banks of the Rhine, forming a strip of
+picturesque river scenery made up of the varied elements of
+sandhills and trees, clay-lands and pastures. A large number of
+country-houses and villas are to be found here, and the riverside
+villages of Dieren, Velp and Renkum. All over the Veluwe are
+heaths, scantily cultivated, with fields of rye and buckwheat,
+cattle of inferior quality, and sheep, and a sparse population.
+There is also a considerable cultivation of wood, especially of fir
+and copse, while tobacco plantations are found at Nykerk and
+Wageningen.</p>
+
+<p>The southern division of the province presents a very different
+aspect, and contains many old towns and villages. It is watered
+by the three large rivers, the Rhine, the Waal and the Maas, and
+has a level clay soil, varied only by isolated hills and a sandy,
+wooded stretch between Nijmwegen and the southern border.
+The region enclosed between the Rhine and the Waal and
+watered by the Linge is called the Betuwe (&ldquo;good land&rdquo;), and
+gave its name to the Germanic tribe of Batavians, who are sometimes
+wrongly regarded as the parent stock of the Dutch people.
+There is here a denser population, occupied in the cultivation
+of wheat, beetroot and fruit, the breeding of excellent cattle,
+shipping and industrial pursuits. The principal centres of
+population, such as Zutphen, Arnhem (the chief town of the
+province), Nijmwegen and Tiel, lie along the large rivers. Smaller,
+but of equal antiquity, are the riverside towns of Doesburg,
+which is strongly fortified; Wageningen, with the State agricultural
+schools; Doetinchem, with a bridge over the Old Ysel
+which is mentioned as early as the 14th century; Zalt-Bommel,
+with an old church (1304), and a railway bridge over the Waal;
+and Kuilenburg, with a fine railway bridge (1863-1868) over the
+Rhine. Five m. S. of Zalt-Bommel, on the Maas, is the medieval
+castle of Ammerzode or Ammersooi, also called Amelroy during
+the French occupation in 1674. It is in an excellent state of
+preservation and has been restored in modern times. The first
+authentic record of the castle is its possession by John de Herlar
+of the noble family of Loo at the end of the 13th century. In
+1480 it passed by marriage to the powerful lords van Arkel, and
+was partly destroyed by fire at the end of the 16th century.
+The chapel dates from the 15th century, and the keep from
+1564. Among the family portraits are works by Albert Dürer.
+Zetten, on the railway between Nijmwegen and Tiel, is famous
+for the charitable institutions founded here by the preacher
+Otto Gerhard Heldring (d. 1876). They comprise a penitentiary
+(1849) for women; an educational home (1858) for girls; a
+theological training college (1864); and a Magdalen hospital.
+Nykerk, Harderwyk and Elburg are fishing towns on the Zuider
+Zee. Apeldoorn is situated on the edge of the sand-grounds.
+Heerenberg on the south-eastern border is remarkable for its
+ancient castle near the seat of the powerful lords van den Bergh.
+Other ancient and historical towns bordering on the Prussian
+frontier are Zevenaar, which was for long the cause of dispute
+between the houses of Cleves and Gelder and was finally attached
+to the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1816; Breedevoort, once
+the seat of a lordship of the same name belonging to the counts
+van Loon or Lohn, who built a castle here in the beginning of
+the 13th century which was destroyed in 1646&mdash;the lordship
+was presented to Prince William III. in 1697; Winterswyk, now
+an important railway junction, and of growing industrial importance;
+and Borkeloo, or Borkulo, the seat of an ancient
+lordship dating from the first half of the 12th century, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page558" id="page558"></a>558</span>
+finally came into the possession of Prince William V. of Orange
+Nassau in 1777. The castle was formerly of importance.</p>
+
+<p>Gelderland is intersected by the main railway lines, which
+are largely supplemented by steam-tram railways. Steam-tramways
+connect Arnhem and Zutphen, Wageningen, Nijmwegen,
+Velp, Doetinchem (by way of Dieren and Doesburg), whence
+there are various lines to Emmerich and Gendringen on the
+Prussian borders. Groenlo and Lichtenvorde, Borkulo and
+Deventer are also connected.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GELDERN<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span>, a town of Germany, in Rhenish Prussia, on the
+Niers, 28 m. N. W. of Düsseldorf, at the junction of railways to
+Wesel and Cologne. Pop. (1905) 6551. It has an Evangelical
+and two Roman Catholic churches and a town hall with a fine
+council chamber. Its industries include the manufacture of
+buttons, shoes, cigars and soap. The town dates from about
+1100 and was early an important fortified place; until 1371 it
+was the residence of the counts and dukes of Gelderland. Having
+passed to Spain, its fortifications were strengthened by Philip
+II., but they were razed by Frederick the Great, the town having
+been in the possession of Prussia since 1703.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Nettesheim, <i>Geschichte der Stadt und des Amtes Geldern</i>
+(Crefeld, 1863); Henrichs, <i>Beiträge zur innern Geschichte der Stadt
+Geldern</i> (Geldern, 1893); and Real, <i>Chronik der Stadt und Umgegend
+von Geldern</i> (Geldern, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GELL, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1777-1836), English classical archaeologist,
+was born at Hopton in Derbyshire. He was educated at
+Jesus College, Cambridge, and subsequently elected a fellow of
+Emmanuel College (B.A. 1798, M.A. 1804). About 1800 he was
+sent on a diplomatic mission to the Ionian islands, and on his
+return in 1803 he was knighted. He went with Princess (afterwards
+Queen) Caroline to Italy in 1814 as one of her chamberlains,
+and gave evidence in her favour at the trial in 1820 (see
+G.P. Clerici, <i>A Queen of Indiscretions</i>, Eng. trans., London,
+1907). He died at Naples on the 4th of February 1836. His
+numerous drawings of classical ruins and localities, executed
+with great detail and exactness, are preserved in the British
+Museum. Gell was a thorough dilettante, fond of society and
+possessed of little real scholarship. None the less his topographical
+works became recognized text-books at a time when
+Greece and even Italy were but superficially known to English
+travellers. He was a fellow of the Royal Society and the Society
+of Antiquaries, and a member of the Institute of France and the
+Berlin Academy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His best-known work is <i>Pompeiana; the Topography, Edifices and
+Ornaments of Pompeii</i> (1817-1832), in the first part of which he was
+assisted by J.P. Gandy. It was followed in 1834 by the <i>Topography
+of Rome and its Vicinity</i> (new ed. by E.H. Bunbury, 1896). He
+wrote also <i>Topography of Troy and its Vicinity</i> (1804); <i>Geography
+and Antiquities of Ithaca</i> (1807); <i>Itinerary of Greece, with a Commentary
+on Pausanias and Strabo</i> (1810, enlarged ed. 1827); <i>Itinerary
+of the Morea</i> (1816; republished as <i>Narrative of a Journey in
+the Morea</i>, 1823). All these works have been superseded by later
+publications.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GELLERT, CHRISTIAN FÜRCHTEGOTT<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1715-1769), German
+poet, was born at Hainichen in the Saxon Erzgebirge on the 4th
+of July 1715. After attending the famous school of St Afra in
+Meissen, he entered Leipzig University in 1734 as a student of
+theology, and on completing his studies in 1739 was for two years
+a private tutor. Returning to Leipzig in 1741 he contributed
+to the <i>Bremer Beiträge</i>, a periodical founded by former disciples
+of Johann Christoph Gottsched, who had revolted from the
+pedantry of his school. Owing to shyness and weak health
+Gellert gave up all idea of entering the ministry, and, establishing
+himself in 1745 as <i>privatdocent</i> in philosophy at the university
+of Leipzig, lectured on poetry, rhetoric and literary style with
+much success. In 1751 he was appointed extraordinary professor
+of philosophy, a post which he held until his death at Leipzig
+on the 13th of December 1769.</p>
+
+<p>The esteem and veneration in which Gellert was held by the
+students, and indeed by persons in all classes of society, was
+unbounded, and yet due perhaps less to his unrivalled popularity
+as a lecturer and writer than to his personal character. He was
+the noblest and most amiable of men, generous, tender-hearted
+and of unaffected piety and humility. He wrote in order to
+raise the religious and moral character of the people, and to this
+end employed language which, though at times prolix, was always
+correct and clear. He thus became one of the most popular
+German authors, and some of his poems enjoyed a celebrity out
+of proportion to their literary value. This is more particularly
+true of his <i>Fabeln und Erzählungen</i> (1746-1748) and of his
+<i>Geistliche Oden und Lieder</i> (1757). The fables, for which he took
+La Fontaine as his model, are simple and didactic. The
+&ldquo;spiritual songs,&rdquo; though in force and dignity they cannot
+compare with the older church hymns, were received by Catholics
+and Protestants with equal favour. Some of them were set to
+music by Beethoven. Gellert wrote a few comedies: <i>Die
+Betschwester</i> (1745), <i>Die kranke Frau</i> (1748), <i>Das Los in der
+Lotterie</i> (1748), and <i>Die zärtlichen Schwestern</i> (1748), the last of
+which was much admired. His novel <i>Die schwedische Gräfin
+von G.</i> (1746), a weak imitation of Richardson&rsquo;s <i>Pamela</i>, is
+remarkable as being the first German attempt at a psychological
+novel. Gellert&rsquo;s <i>Briefe</i> (letters) were regarded at the time as
+models of good style.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Gellert&rsquo;s <i>Sämtliche Schriften</i> (first edition, 10 vols., Leipzig,
+1769-1774; last edition, Berlin, 1867). <i>Sämtliche Fabeln und Erzählungen</i>
+have been often published separately, the latest edition in
+1896. A selection of Gellert&rsquo;s poetry (with an excellent introduction)
+will be found in F. Muncker, <i>Die Bremer Beiträge</i> (Stuttgart, 1899).
+A translation by J.A. Murke, <i>Gellert&rsquo;s Fables and other Poems</i>
+(London, 1851). For a further account of Gellert&rsquo;s life and work
+see lives by J.A. Cramer (Leipzig, 1774), H. Döring (Greiz, 1833),
+and H.O. Nietschmann (2nd ed., Halle, 1901); also <i>Gellerts
+Tagebuch aus dem Jahre 1761</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1863) and <i>Gellerts
+Briefwechsel mit Demoiselle Lucius</i> (Leipzig, 1823).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GELLERT<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Killhart</span>, in Welsh traditional history, the dog
+of Llewellyn, prince of Wales. The dog, a greyhound, was
+left to guard the cradle in which the infant heir slept. A wolf
+enters, and is about to attack the child, when Gellert flies at him.
+In the struggle the cradle is upset and the infant falls underneath.
+Gellert kills the wolf, but when Prince Llewellyn arrives and
+sees the empty cradle and blood all around, he does not for the
+moment notice the wolf, but thinks Gellert has killed the baby.
+He at once stabs him, but almost instantly finds his son safe
+under the cradle and realizes the dog&rsquo;s bravery. Gellert is
+supposed to have been buried near the village of Beddgelert
+(&ldquo;grave of Gellert&rdquo;), Snowdon, where his tomb is still pointed
+out to visitors. The date of the incident is traditionally given
+as 1205. The incident has given rise to a Welsh proverb, &ldquo;I
+repent as much as the man who slew his greyhound.&rdquo; The whole
+story is, however, only the Welsh version of a tale long before
+current in Europe, which is traced to the Indian Panchatantra
+and perhaps as far back as 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W.A. Clouston, <i>Popular Tales and Fictions</i> (1887); D.E.
+Jenkins, <i>Beddgelert, its Facts, Fairies and Folklore</i> (Portmadoc,
+1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GELLIUS, AULUS<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (<i>c</i>. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 130-180), Latin author and grammarian,
+probably born at Rome. He studied grammar and
+rhetoric at Rome and philosophy at Athens, after which he
+returned to Rome, where he held a judicial office. His teachers
+and friends included many distinguished men&mdash;Sulpicius
+Apollinaris, Herodes Atticus and Fronto. His only work, the
+<i>Noctes Atticae</i>, takes its name from having been begun during
+the long nights of a winter which he spent in Attica. He afterwards
+continued it at Rome. It is compiled out of an Adversaria,
+or commonplace book, in which he had jotted down everything
+of unusual interest that he heard in conversation or read in
+books, and it comprises notes on grammar, geometry, philosophy,
+history and almost every other branch of knowledge. The work,
+which is utterly devoid of sequence or arrangement, is divided
+into twenty books. All these have come down to us except
+the eighth, of which nothing remains but the index. The
+<i>Noctes Atticae</i> is valuable for the insight it affords into the nature
+of the society and pursuits of those times, and for the numerous
+excerpts it contains from the works of lost ancient authors.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editio princeps (Rome, 1469); the best editions are those of
+Gronovius (1706) and M. Hertz (1883-1885; editio minor, 1886,
+revised by C. Hosius, 1903, with bibliography). There is a translation
+in English by W. Beloe (1795), and in French by various
+hands (1896). See Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i> i. (1906), 210.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page559" id="page559"></a>559</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GELLIVARA<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Gellivare</span>], a mining town of Sweden in the
+district (<i>län</i>) of Norrbotten, 815 m. N. by E. of Stockholm by
+rail. It lies in the well-nigh uninhabited region of Swedish
+Lapland, 43 m. N. of the Arctic Circle. It owes its importance
+to the iron mines in the mountain Malmberget 4½ m. to the north,
+rising to 2024 ft. above sea-level (830 ft. above Gellivara town).
+During the dark winter months work proceeds by the aid of
+electric light. In 1864 the mines were acquired by an English
+company, but abandoned in 1867. In 1884 another English
+company took them up and completed a provisional railway
+from Malmberget to Luleå at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia
+(127 m. S.S.E.), besides executing a considerable portion of the
+preliminary works for the continuation of the line on the
+Norwegian side from Ofoten Fjord upwards (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Narvik</a></span>). But
+this company, after extracting some 150,000 tons of ore in 1888-1889,
+went into liquidation in the latter year. Two years later
+the mines passed into the hands of a Swedish company, and the
+railway was acquired by the Swedish Government. The output
+of ore was insignificant until 1892, when it stood at 178,000 tons;
+but in 1902 it amounted to 1,074,000 tons. Three miles S.W.
+rises the hill Gellivara Dundret (2700 ft.), from which the sun is
+visible at midnight from June 5 to July 11. The population
+of the parish (about 6500 sq. m.) in 1900 was 11,745; the greater
+part of the population being congregated at the town of Gellivara
+and at Malmberget.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GELNHAUSEN<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span>, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Hesse-Nassau, on the Kinzig, 27 m. E.N.E. of Frankfort-on-Main,
+on the railway to Bebra. Pop. 4500. It is romantically
+situated on the slope of a vine-clad hill, and is still surrounded
+by ancient walls and towers. On an island in the river are the
+ivy-covered ruins of the imperial palace which Frederick I.
+(Barbarossa) built before 1170, and which was destroyed by the
+Swedes during the Thirty Years&rsquo; War. It has an interesting
+and beautiful church (the Marien Kirche), with four spires (of
+which that on the transept is curiously crooked), built in the
+13th century, and restored in 1876-1879; also several other
+ancient buildings, notably the town-hall, the Fürstenhof (now
+administrative offices), and the Hexenthurm. India-rubber
+goods are manufactured, and wine is made. Gelnhausen became
+an imperial town in 1169, and diets of the Empire were frequently
+held within its walls. In 1634 and 1635 it suffered severely from
+the Swedes. In 1803 the town became the property of Hesse-Cassel,
+and in 1866 passed to Prussia.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GELO<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span>, son of Deinomenes, tyrant of Gela and Syracuse. On
+the death of Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela (491 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Gelo, who
+had been his commander of cavalry, succeeded him; and in 485,
+his aid having been invoked by the Gamori (the oligarchical
+landed proprietors) of Syracuse who had been driven out by
+the populace, he seized the opportunity of making himself despot.
+From this time Gelo paid little attention to Gela, and devoted
+himself to the aggrandizement of Syracuse, which attained
+extraordinary wealth and influence. When the Greeks solicited
+his aid against Xerxes, he refused it, since they would not give
+him command of the allied forces (Herodotus vii. 171). In the
+same year the Carthaginians invaded Sicily, but were totally
+defeated at Himera, the result of the victory being that Gelo
+became lord of all Sicily. After he had thus established his
+power, he made a show of resigning it; but his proposal was
+rejected by the multitude, and he reigned without opposition
+till his death (478). He was honoured as a hero, and his memory
+was held in such respect that when all the brazen statues of
+tyrants were condemned to be sold in the time of Timoleon
+(150 years later) an exemption was made in favour of the statue
+of Gelo.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Herodotus vii.; Diod. Sic. xi. 20-38; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sicily</a></span>: <i>History</i>,
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syracuse</a></span>; for his coins see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>: <i>Sicily</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GELSEMIUM<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span>, a drug consisting of the root of <i>Gelsemium
+nitidum</i>, a clinging shrub of the natural order Loganiaceae, having
+a milky juice, opposite, lanceolate shining leaves, and axillary
+clusters of from one to five large, funnel-shaped, very fragrant
+yellow flowers, whose perfume has been compared with that of
+the wallflower. The fruit is composed of two separable jointed
+pods, containing numerous flat-winged seeds. The stem often
+runs underground for a considerable distance, and indiscriminately
+with the root it is used in medicine. The plant is a native of
+the United States, growing on rich clay soil by the side of streams
+near the coast, from Virginia to the south of Florida. In the
+United States it is commonly known as the wild, yellow or
+Carolina jessamine, although in no way related to the true
+jessamines, which belong to the order Oleaceae. It was first
+described in 1640 by John Parkinson, who grew it in his garden
+from seed sent by Tradescant from Virginia; at the present time
+it is but rarely seen, even in botanical gardens, in Great <span class="correction" title="amended from Britian">Britain</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The drug contains a volatile oil and two potent alkaloids,
+gelseminine and gelsemine. Gelseminine is a yellowish, bitter
+substance, readily soluble in ether and alcohol. It is not employed
+therapeutically. Gelsemine has the formula C<span class="su">11</span>H<span class="su">19</span>NO<span class="su">2</span>,
+and is a colourless, odourless, intensely bitter solid, which is
+insoluble in water, but readily forms a soluble hydrochloride.</p>
+<p>The dose of this salt is from <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">60</span>th to <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">20</span>th of a grain. The British
+Pharmacopoeia contains a tincture of gelsemium, the dose of
+which is from five to fifteen minims.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:337px; height:461px" src="images/img559.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><i>Gelsemium nitidum</i>, half natural size; flower, nat. size.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The drug is essentially a nerve poison. It has no action on
+the skin and no marked action on the alimentary or circulatory
+systems. Its action on the cerebrum is slight, consciousness
+being retained even after toxic doses, but there may be headache
+and giddiness. The drug rapidly causes failure of vision, diplopia,
+ptosis or falling of the upper eyelid, dilatation of the pupil, and
+a lowering of the intra-ocular tension. This last action is
+doubtful. The symptoms appear to be due to a paralysis of
+the motor cells that control the internal and external ocular
+muscles. The most marked action of the drug is upon the anterior
+cornua of grey matter in the spinal cord. It can be shown by a
+process of experimental exclusion that to an arrest of function
+of these cells is due the paralysis of all the voluntary muscles of
+the body that follows the administration of gelsemium or gelsemine.
+Just before death the sensory part of the spinal cord
+is also paralysed, general anaesthesia resulting. The drug kills
+by its action on the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata.
+Shortly after the administration of even a moderate dose the
+respiration is slowed and is ultimately arrested, this being the
+cause of death. In cases of poisoning the essential treatment is
+artificial respiration, which may be aided by the subcutaneous
+exhibition of strychnine.</p>
+
+<p>Though the drug is still widely used, the rational indications
+for its employment are singularly rare and uncertain. The conditions
+in which it is most frequently employed are convulsions,
+bronchitis, severe and purposeless coughing, myalgia or muscular
+pain, neuralgia and various vague forms of pain.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page560" id="page560"></a>560</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GELSENKIRCHEN<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span>, a town of Germany in the Prussian
+province of Westphalia, 27 m. W. of Dortmund on the railway
+Duisburg-Hamm. Pop. (1905) 147,037. It has coal mines, iron
+furnaces, steel and boiler works, and soap, glass and chemical
+factories. In 1903 various neighbouring industrial townships
+were incorporated with the town.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEM<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (Lat. <i>gemma</i>, a bud,&mdash;from the root <i>gen</i>, meaning
+&ldquo;to produce,&rdquo;&mdash;or precious stone; in the latter sense the Greek
+term is <span class="grk" title="psêphos">&#968;&#8134;&#966;&#959;&#962;</span>), a word applied in a wide sense to certain minerals
+which, by reason of their brilliancy, hardness and rarity, are valued
+for personal decoration; it is extended to include pearl. In a
+restricted sense the term is applied only to precious stones after
+they have been cut and polished as jewels, whilst in their raw
+state the minerals are conveniently called &ldquo;gem-stones.&rdquo; Sometimes,
+again, the term &ldquo;gem&rdquo; is used in a yet narrower sense,
+being restricted to engraved stones, like seals and cameos.</p>
+
+<p>The subject is treated here in two sections: (1) Mineralogy
+and general properties; (2) Gems in Art, <i>i.e.</i> engraved gems, such
+as seals and cameos. The artificial products which simulate
+natural gem-stones in properties and chemical composition are
+treated in the separate article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gem, Artificial</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">1. Mineralogy and General Properties</p>
+
+<p>The gem-stones form a small conventional group of minerals,
+including principally the diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald and
+opal. Other stones of less value&mdash;such as topaz, spinel, chrysoberyl,
+chrysolite, zircon and tourmaline&mdash;are sometimes called
+&ldquo;fancy stones.&rdquo; Many minerals still less prized, yet often used
+as ornamental stones,&mdash;like moonstone, rock-crystal and agate,&mdash;occasionally
+pass under the name of &ldquo;semi-precious stones,&rdquo;
+but this is rather a vague term and may include the stones of the
+preceding group. The classification of gem-stones is, indeed, to
+some extent a matter of fashion.</p>
+
+<p>Descriptions of the several gem-stones will be found under
+their respective headings, and the present article gives only a
+brief review of the general characters of the group.</p>
+
+<p>A high degree of hardness is an essential property of a gem-stone,
+for however beautiful and brilliant a mineral may be it is
+useless to the jeweller if it lack sufficient hardness to
+withstand the abrasion to which articles of personal
+<span class="sidenote">Hardness.</span>
+decoration are necessarily subjected. Even if not definitely
+scratched, the polished stone becomes dull by wear. Imitations
+in paste may be extremely brilliant, but being comparatively
+soft they soon lose lustre when rubbed. In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mineralogy</a></span>
+it is explained that the varying degrees of hardness are
+registered on a definite scale. The exceptional hardness of the
+diamond gives it a supreme position in this scale, and to it the
+arbitrary value of 10 has been assigned. The corundum gem-stones
+(ruby and sapphire), though greatly inferior in hardness
+to the diamond, come next, with the value of 9; and it is notable
+that the sapphire is usually rather harder than ruby. Then
+follows the topaz, which, with spinel and chrysoberyl, has a
+hardness of 8; whilst quartz falls a degree lower. Most gem-stones
+are harder than quartz, though precious opal, turquoise,
+moonstone and sphene are inferior to it in hardness. Those
+stones which are softer than quartz have been called by jewellers
+<i>demi-dures</i>. To test the hardness of a cut stone, one of its sharp
+edges may be drawn, with firm pressure, across the smooth
+surface of a piece of quartz; if it leave a scratch its hardness must
+be above 7. The stone is then applied in like manner to a
+fragment of topaz, preferably a cleavage-piece, and if it fail to
+leave a distinct scratch its hardness is between 7 and 8, whereas
+if the topaz be scratched it is above 8. An expert may obtain a
+fair idea of hardness by gently passing the stone over a fine
+steel file, and observing the feel of the stone and the grating
+sound which it emits. If a stone be scratched by a steel knife its
+hardness is below 6. The degree of hardness of a precious stone
+is soon ascertained by the lapidary when cutting it.</p>
+
+<p>Gem-stones differ markedly among themselves in density or
+specific weight; and although this is a character which does not
+directly affect their value for ornamental purposes, it furnishes
+by its constancy an important means of distinguishing one stone
+<span class="sidenote">Specific gravity.</span>
+from another. Moreover, it is a character very easily determined
+and can be applied to cut stones without injury. The relative
+weightiness of a stone is called its specific gravity, and
+is often abbreviated as S.G. The number given in
+the description of a mineral as S.G. shows how many
+times the stone is heavier than an equal bulk of the standard
+with which it is compared, the standard being distilled water at
+4° C. If, for example, the S.G. of diamond is said to be 3.5 it
+means that a diamond weighs 3½ times as much as a mass of water
+of the same bulk. The various methods of determining specific
+gravity are described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Density</a></span>. The readiest method of
+testing precious stones, especially when cut, is to use dense
+liquids. Suppose it be required to determine whether a yellow
+stone be true topaz or false topaz (quartz), it is merely necessary
+to drop the stone into a liquid made up to the specific gravity of
+about 3; and since topaz has S.G. of 3.5 it sinks in this medium,
+but as quartz has S.G. of only 2.65 it floats. The densest gem-stone
+is zircon, which may have S.G. as high as 4.7, whilst the
+lowest is opal with S.G. 2.2. Amber, it is true, is lighter still,
+being scarcely denser than water, but this substance can hardly
+be called a gem.</p>
+
+<p>Although the great majority of precious stones occur crystallized,
+the characteristic form is destroyed in cutting. The
+crystal-forms of the several stones are noticed under
+their respective headings, and the subject is discussed
+<span class="sidenote">Crystalline form and cleavage.</span>
+fully under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crystallography</a></span>. A few substances
+used as ornamental stones&mdash;like opal, turquoise,
+obsidian and amber&mdash;are amorphous or without crystalline
+form; whilst others, like the various stones of the chalcedony-group,
+display no obvious crystal-characters, but are seen under
+the microscope to possess a crystalline structure. Gem-stones
+are frequently found in gravels or other detrital deposits, where
+they occur as rolled crystals or fragments of crystals, and in
+many cases have been reduced to the form of pebbles. By the
+disintegration of the rock which formed the original matrix, its
+constituent minerals were set free, and whilst many of them
+were worn away by long-continued attrition, the gem-stones
+survived by virtue of their superior hardness.</p>
+
+<p>Many crystallized gem-stones exhibit cleavage, or a tendency
+to split in definite directions. The lapidary recognizes a &ldquo;grain&rdquo;
+in the stone. When the cleavage is perfect, as in topaz, it may
+render the working of the stone difficult, and produce incipient
+cracks in the cut gem. Flaws due to the cleavage planes are
+called &ldquo;feathers.&rdquo; The octahedral cleavage of the diamond is
+taken advantage of in dressing the stone before cutting it. The
+cutting of gem-stones is explained under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lapidary</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The beauty and consequent value of gems depend mainly
+on their colour. Some stones, it is true, are valued for entire
+absence of colour, as diamonds of pure &ldquo;water.&rdquo;
+Certain kinds of sapphire and topaz, too, are &ldquo;water
+<span class="sidenote">Colour.</span>
+clear,&rdquo; as also is pure rock-crystal; but in most stones colour is a
+prime element of attraction. The colour, however, is not generally
+an essential property of the mineral, but is due to the presence of
+foreign pigmentary matter, often in very small proportion and in
+some cases eluding determination. Thus, corundum when pure
+is colourless, but the presence of traces of certain mineral substances
+imparts to it not only the red of ruby and the blue of
+sapphire, but almost every other colour. The tinctorial matter
+may be distributed either uniformly throughout the stone or in
+regular zones, or in quite irregular patches. A tourmaline, for
+instance, may be red at one end of a prismatic crystal and green
+at the other extremity, or the colour may be so disposed that in
+transverse section the centre will be red and the outer zone
+green. A beryl may be yellow and green in the same crystal.
+Sapphire, again, is often parti-coloured, one portion of the stone
+being blue and other portions white or yellow; and the skilful
+lapidary, in cutting the stone, will take advantage of the blue
+portion. The character of the pigment is in many cases not
+definitely known. It by no means follows that the material
+capable of imparting a certain tint to glass is identical with that
+which naturally colours a stone of the same tint; thus a glass of
+sapphire-blue may be obtained by the use of cobalt, yet cobalt
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page561" id="page561"></a>561</span>
+has not been detected in the sapphire. Probably the most common
+mineral pigments are compounds of iron, manganese, copper and
+chromium. If the colour of the stone be discharged by heat, an
+organic pigment is presumably present. Some ornamental stones
+change their colour, or even lose it, on exposure to sunlight and
+air: such is the case with rose-quartz, chrysoprase and certain
+kinds of topaz and turquoise. Exposure to heat alters the colour
+of some stones so readily that the change is taken advantage
+of commercially; thus, sherry-yellow topaz may be rendered
+pink, smoky and amethystine quartz may become yellow, and
+coloured zircons may be decolorized, so as to resemble diamonds.</p>
+
+<p>The colours of some gem-stones are greatly affected by radioactivity,
+and Prof. F. Bordas has found this to be particularly
+the case with sapphire. From his experiments he believes that
+yellow corundum, or oriental topaz, may have been formed from
+blue corundum under the influence of radioactive substances
+present in the soil in which the sapphire was embedded. Different
+shades of colour may be presented by different stones of the same
+species; and it was formerly the custom of lapidaries to regard
+the darker stones as masculine and the paler as feminine, a full
+blue sapphire, for instance, being called a &ldquo;male sapphire&rdquo;
+and a delicate blue stone a &ldquo;female sapphire.&rdquo; It is notable
+that some stones appear to change colour by candle-light and
+by most other artificial means of illumination; some amethysts
+thus become inky, and certain sapphires acquire a murky tint,
+whilst others become amethystine. For an example of a remarkable
+change of this character, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexandrite</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>As the optical properties of minerals are fully explained under
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crystallography</a></span>, little need be said here on this subject.
+The brilliancy of a cut stone depends on the amount
+of light reflected from its faces; and in the form
+<span class="sidenote">Refraction.</span>
+known as the &ldquo;brilliant&rdquo; the gem is so cut that much
+of the incident light, after entering the stone and suffering
+refraction, is totally reflected from the facets at the back. The
+amount of light which is thus returned to the eye of the observer
+will be greater as the angle of total reflection, or critical angle, is
+smaller, but this angle will be small if the refractive power of the
+stone is great, so that the brilliancy directly depends on the refractivity.
+The diamond has the highest refractive index of any
+gem-stone (2.42). Jargoon, or zircon, has also a high index
+(mean 1.95), and sphene, which is occasionally cut as a gem, is
+likewise very notable in this respect. The index of refraction
+generally bears a relation to the specific gravity of the stone,
+the heaviest gems having the highest indices, though a few
+minerals offer exceptions. The refractive index, which is thus
+a very important character in the scientific discrimination of
+gem-stones, may be conveniently determined, within certain
+limits, by means of the refractometer devised by Dr G.F.
+Herbert Smith. This instrument is an improved form of the
+total reflectometer, in which the refractive power of a given
+substance is determined by the method of total reflection. It
+may be used for indices ranging from 1.300 to 1.775, and may
+be applied to faceted stones without removal from their settings.</p>
+
+<p>The play of prismatic colours exhibited by a cut stone, often
+known as its &ldquo;fire,&rdquo; is due to the decomposition of the white
+light which enters the stone, and is returned, by internal
+reflection, after resolution in to its coloured components.
+<span class="sidenote">Dispersion.</span>
+This decomposition depends on the dispersive power
+of the substance. The exceptional beauty of the fiery flashes
+in the diamond is due to its high dispersion, in other words, to
+the difference between the refractive indices for the red rays and
+the violet rays at the extremities of the spectrum. The peculiar
+lustre exhibited by the diamond is called adamantine, and is
+shared to some extent by certain other stones which have a
+high refractive index and high dispersion, such as zircon.</p>
+
+<p>The use of the spectroscope may be valuable in discriminating
+between certain precious stones. It was shown by Sir A.H.
+Church that almandine garnet and zircon when simply
+<span class="sidenote">Spectroscopic characters.</span>
+viewed through this instrument give, under proper
+conditions, characteristic absorption spectra, due to
+the light reflected from the stone having penetrated
+to some extent into the substance of the mineral and suffered
+absorption. It is sometimes useful to examine the behaviour
+of a stone under the action of the Röntgen rays.</p>
+
+<p>A very useful means of discriminating between certain stones
+is found in their dichroism, or, to use a more general term,
+pleochroism. Neither amorphous minerals, like opal,
+nor minerals crystallizing in the cubic system, like
+<span class="sidenote">Dichroism.</span>
+spinel and garnet, possess this property; but coloured
+minerals which are doubly refracting may show different colours,
+when properly examined, in different directions. Occasionally
+this is so marked as to be detected by the naked eye, as in iolite
+or dichroite, but usually the stone needs to be examined with such
+an instrument as Haidinger&rsquo;s dichroscope (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crystallography</a></span>).
+It must be remembered that in the direction of an
+optic axis the two images will be of the same colour in all positions
+of the instrument, and it is therefore necessary before reaching
+a definite conclusion to turn the stone about and examine
+it in various directions. The use of the dichroscope is so
+simple that it can be applied by any one to the examination
+of a cut stone, but there are other means of determining the nature
+of a stone by its optical properties available to the mineralogist
+and more suitably discussed under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crystallography</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>In chemical composition the gem-stones present great variety.
+Diamond is composed of only a single element; ruby, sapphire
+and the quartz-group are oxides; spinel and chrysoberyl
+may be regarded as aluminates; turquoise and
+<span class="sidenote">Chemical composition.</span>
+beryllonite are phosphates; and a great number of
+ornamental stones are silicates of greater or less
+complexity, such as emerald, topaz, chrysolite, garnet, zircon,
+tourmaline, kunzite, sphene and benitoite. In the examination
+of a cut stone chemical tests are not available, since they usually
+involve the partial destruction of the mineral. The artificial
+production of certain gems by chemical processes which yield
+products identical in composition and physical properties with
+the natural stones, is described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#ar106">Gem, Artificial</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>Doublets and triplets are composite stone, sometimes prepared
+for fraudulent purposes. In a doublet a slab of real gem-stone
+covers the face of a paste, whilst in a triplet the paste is both
+faced and backed by a slice of genuine stone. By the action of
+a suitable solvent, such as chloroform or in some cases even hot
+water, the cement uniting the pieces gives way and the compound
+character of the structure is detected.</p>
+
+<p>Before the chemical composition of gem-stones was understood,
+their classification remained vague and unscientific. As the
+ancients depended almost entirely on the eye, the colour of the
+stone naturally became the chief factor in classification. A
+variety of stones agreeing roughly in colour would be grouped
+together under a common name, widely as they might differ in
+other respects. Thus the emerald, the peridot, green fluorspar,
+malachite, and certain kinds of quartz and jade seem to have been
+united under the general name of <span class="grk" title="smaragdos">&#963;&#956;&#940;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span> whilst the ruby,
+red spinel and garnet were probably grouped together as <i>carbunculus</i>.
+In this way minerals radically different were associated
+on the ground of what is generally a superficial and accidental
+character, and rarely of any classificatory value. On the other
+hand, a grouping based only on colour led to several names being
+in some cases applied to the same mineral species. Thus the
+ruby and sapphire are essentially identical in chemical composition
+and in all physical characters, save colour.</p>
+
+<p>Descriptions of precious stones by ancient writers generally are
+too vague for exact diagnosis. The principal classical authorities
+are Theophrastus and the elder Pliny. Stones were
+formerly held in esteem not only for their beauty and
+<span class="sidenote">Superstitions.</span>
+rarity but for the medicinal and magical powers with
+which they were reputed to be endowed. Up to comparatively
+recent years the toadstone, for example, was worn not for beauty
+but for sake of occult virtue; and even at the present day
+certain stones, like jade, are valued for a similar reason. Prof.
+W. Ridgeway has suggested that jewelry took its origin not, as
+often supposed, in an innate love of personal decoration, but
+rather in the belief that the objects used possessed magical virtue.
+Small stones peculiar in colour or shape, especially those with
+natural perforations, are usually valued by uncivilized peoples
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page562" id="page562"></a>562</span>
+as amulets. The Orphic poem <span class="grk" title="Lithika">&#923;&#953;&#952;&#953;&#954;&#940;</span>, reputed to be of very early
+though unknown date, is rich in allusions to the virtues of many
+of the gem-stones. Many of the medical and other virtues of
+precious stones were evidently attributed to them on the well-known
+doctrine of signatures. Thus, the blood-red colour of a
+fine jasper suggested that the stone would be useful in haemorrhage;
+a green jasper would bring fertility to the soil; and the
+purple wine-colour of amethyst pointed to its value as a preventive
+of intoxication. Many of the superstitions came down
+to modern times, and even at the present day the belief in &ldquo;lucky
+stones&rdquo; is by no means extinct.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The most comprehensive work on gem-stones is
+Professor Max Bauer&rsquo;s <i>Edelsteinkunde</i> (1896), translated, with
+additions, by L.J. Spencer under the title <i>Precious Stones</i> (1904).
+Less detailed are Professor P. Groth&rsquo;s <i>Grundriss der Edelsteinkunde</i>
+(1887) and Professor C. Doelter&rsquo;s <i>Edelsteinkunde</i> (1893). Sir A.
+H. Church&rsquo;s <i>Precious Stones</i> (1905), intended as a guide to the
+collections in the Victoria and Albert Museum, is a convenient
+introduction: and Professor H.A. Miers&rsquo;s Cantor Lectures at the
+Society of Arts on <i>Precious Stones</i> (1896) may be studied with
+advantage. For American stones, the valuable work of Dr G.F.
+Kunz, <i>The Gems and Precious Stones of N. America</i>, is a standard
+authority; and the Annual Reports of this writer and others,
+published by the Geological Survey of the United States in the
+<i>Mineral Resources</i>, form a repertory of valuable information on
+precious stones in general. The articles in <i>The Mineral Industry</i>
+(founded by R.P. Rothwell) should also be consulted. See likewise
+O.C. Farrington, <i>Gems and Gem Minerals</i> (Chicago, 1903). For
+optical characters reference should be made to G.F.H. Smith, <i>The
+Herbert Smith Refractometer</i> (London, 1907); L. Claremont, <i>The Gem-Cutter&rsquo;s
+Craft</i> (London, 1906); W. Goodchild, <i>Precious Stones</i>
+(London, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">2. Gems in Art</p>
+
+<p>In art, the word Gem is the general term for precious stones
+when engraved with designs, whether adapted for sealing (<span class="grk" title="sphragis">&#963;&#966;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#943;&#962;</span>,
+<i>sigillum</i>, <i>intaglio</i>), or mainly for artistic effect (<i>imagines ectypae</i>,
+<i>cameo</i>). They exist in a very large number of undoubtedly
+genuine old examples, extending from the mists of Babylonian
+antiquity to the decline of Roman civilization, and again starting
+with a new, but less original impulse on the revival of art. Apart
+from workmanship they possess the charms of colour deep, rich,
+and varied, of material unequalled for its endurance, and of
+scarcity, which in many instances has been enhanced by the
+remoteness of the lands whence they came or the fortuity of their
+occurrence. These qualities united within the small compass of
+a gem were precisely such as were required in a seal as a thing
+of constant use, so inalienable in its possession as to become
+naturally a personal ornament and an attractive medium of
+artistic skill, no less than the centre of traditions or of religious
+and legendary associations. As regards the nations of classical
+antiquity, all seals are classed as gems, though in many cases the
+material is not such as would strictly come under that heading,
+and precious stones in the modern sense are hardly known to
+occur. On the other hand it must not be supposed that gems
+engraved in intaglio were necessarily employed as seals. At all
+periods many intaglios are found which could not have been so
+employed without great difficulty. In Greece and Rome, within
+historic times, gems were worn engraved with designs to show
+that the bearer was an adherent of a particular worship, the
+follower of a certain philosopher, or the attached subject of an
+emperor. However, speaking generally, the intaglio engraving is
+a means to an end, namely, a seal-impression, while an engraving
+in relief is complete in itself.</p>
+
+<p><i>Methods of Engraving</i> (see also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lapidary</a></span>).&mdash;In gem-engraving
+the principal modern implement is a wheel or minute
+copper disk, driven in the manner of a lathe, and moistened with
+olive oil mixed with emery or diamond dust. There is no clear
+proof of the use among the ancients of a wheel mounted lathewise,
+but we have abundant indications of drilling with a revolving
+tool, which might be either a tubular drill making a ring-like
+depression, a pointed tool making a cup-like sinking, or a small
+wheel with a cutting edge, making a boat-shaped depression.</p>
+
+<p>We have one sepulchral monument from Philadelphia showing
+the tool of an intaglio engraver (<span class="grk" title="daktylokoilogyphos">&#948;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#965;&#955;&#959;&#954;&#959;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#973;&#966;&#959;&#962;</span>; see
+<i>Athenische Mitteilungen des Arch. Inst.</i> xv. p. 333). Unfortunately
+the relief is incomplete, and the published illustration
+inadequate. It would seem, however, that a revolving tool
+was supported by a kind of mandrel, and actuated in primitive
+fashion by a bow. An alternative plan of working was to use a
+splinter of diamond set in a handle and applied like a graver.
+Both systems are clearly indicated by Pliny, who in one passage
+(<i>H.N.</i> xxxvii. 60) states that diamond splinters are sought out by
+gem engravers and set in iron, and so easily hollow out stones of
+any degree of hardness; while elsewhere (<i>H.N.</i> xxxvii. 200) he
+speaks of the special efficacy of the <i>fervor terebrarum</i>, the vehement
+action of drills. A third method is also indicated by Pliny (<i>ibid.</i>)
+when he speaks of the use of a blunted tool, which must have been
+moistened and supplied with emery of Naxos.</p>
+
+<p>A four-sided pendant of the Hellenistic period published by
+Furtwängler (<i>Antike Gemmen, Gesch.</i> p. 400) shows clearly the
+successive stages of the operation. On side <i>a</i> the subject is
+slightly sketched in with the diamond point. On side <i>b</i> the
+deepest parts of the figure have also been roughly scooped out
+with the wheel. On sides <i>c</i> and <i>d</i> the wheel work is fairly complete,
+but the finer internal work has not been begun.</p>
+
+<p>After the design had been completed the stone must have
+received a final polish on its surface, to obliterate any erroneous
+strokes of the first sketch; but this process was not carried as far
+as in modern work. It is a popular error to suppose that a high
+degree of internal polish is a proof of antiquity. If the interior of
+the design has a high degree of polish it may be either ancient or
+modern, or it may be an ancient stone repolished in modern times.
+If it has a matt surface uniformly produced by intention, it is
+probably modern. If the design is slightly dimmed and worn or
+scratched the stone may be antique, but is not necessarily so,
+since modern engravers have observed this peculiarity, and have
+imitated it with a success which, were there no other grounds of
+suspicion, might escape detection.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;It has been a subject of controversy whether the
+first infancy of the art was passed in Egypt or in Babylonia, but
+it seems highly probable that it was developed in Babylonia,
+whence at any rate the oldest examples of engraved gems at
+present known are obtained. It does not necessarily follow,
+however, that Egypt was therefore a pupil. It may well be that
+the art was developed independently in the two countries, although
+certain points of possible contact in respect of the forms employed
+will be described below in the section dealing with primitive
+Egypt.</p>
+
+<p><i>Babylonia.</i>&mdash;At a very remote period the cylindrical form of
+stone was introduced and became the approved shape, while the
+technical skill of the artist was still slight, and the traces of the
+tools employed (drill and pencil point) were still unconcealed.</p>
+
+<p>The cylinder was suspended by a string and used as a seal.
+Impressions of cylinders are frequent on contract tablets. If one
+of the parties cannot use a seal he makes a nail-mark in lieu
+thereof, as is recorded in the document.</p>
+
+<p>But from a time that was still comparatively early the engravers
+could work with considerable skill in the hard stone. In
+particular a cylinder may be quoted in the de Clercq Collection
+bearing the name of Sargon I. of Agade, who is placed about
+3500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The cylinder is engraved with the king&rsquo;s name and
+titles and two symmetrically disposed renderings of Izdubar, with
+a vase of flowing water giving drink to a bull. The whole is
+treated in a conventionalized style that indicates long traditions.
+An important early cylinder in the British Museum is inscribed
+with the name of a viceroy of Ur-Gur, king of Ur (about 2500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).
+The engraving shows Ur-Gur being led into the presence of Sin,
+the moon-god.</p>
+
+<p>The cylinder seal was adopted by the Assyrians, and so was
+carried on continuously till the time of the Persian conquest of
+Babylon (538 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Meanwhile, as an alternative form the
+conoidal seal, rounded at the top and having a flat base for the
+intaglio, came into use beside the cylinder.</p>
+
+<p>In style the Assyrians carried on the Babylonian tradition, but
+with no freedom of design. Subjects and treatment became
+rigidly conventional.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind sc">Plate I.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:798px; height:893px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img562a.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1-5.&mdash;ORIENTAL.</p>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>1. Babylonian (late Sumerian) Cylinder of a Viceroy of Ur-Gur (or Ur-Engur), 2500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+<p>2. Assyrian Cylinder. Woman adoring Goddess.</p>
+<p>3. Assyrian Cylinder. Assur worshipped by two Assyrian kings, and divine Attendants.</p>
+<p>4. Persian Seal of Darius (500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Lion Hunt.</p>
+<p>5. Graeco-Persian Scarabaeoid. Boar Hunt.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>6-15.&mdash;CRETAN AND MYCENAEAN INTAGLIOS.</p>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>6. Cretan Symbols.</p>
+<p>7. Man and Bull. Crete.</p>
+<p>8. Lions and Column. Ialysus.</p>
+<p>9. Daemon. Crete.</p>
+<p>10. Lioness and Deer.</p>
+<p>11-13. Three-sided Stone. Peloponnesus.</p>
+<p>14. Man and Bull. Crete.</p>
+<p>15. Bull and Palm. Ialysus.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>16-18.&mdash;GEMS OF THE ISLANDS.</p>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>16. Goddess on Waves. Birds.</p>
+<p>17. Lion and Goat.</p>
+<p>18. Heracles and Nereus.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>19.&mdash;PHOENICIAN SEAL, inscribed.</p>
+
+<p>20-26.&mdash;GRAECO-PHOENICIAN SCARABS FROM THARROS.</p>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>20. King, enthroned.</p>
+<p>21. Bes with Antelope and Hound.</p>
+<p>22. Bes with Lions.</p>
+<p>23. Warrior.</p>
+<p>24. Egyptian Device.</p>
+<p>25. Bes and Goats.</p>
+<p>26. Hawk of Horus.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">All the above are in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind sc">Plate II.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:837px; height:841px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img562b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents"><tr><td class="tcl">
+<p><br />27-34.&mdash;EARLY GREEK SCARABS AND SCARABAEOIDS.</p>
+
+<div class="list1">
+      <p>27. Pluto and Persephone. (New York.)</p>
+      <p>28. Boreas and Oreithyia. (New York.)</p>
+      <p>29. Youth and Dog.</p>
+      <p>30. Archer feeling Arrow Tip. (Lord Southesk.)</p>
+      <p>31. Satyr and Wine Cup.</p>
+      <p>32. Archer and Dog.</p>
+      <p>33. Satyr with Wineskin.</p>
+      <p>34. Athena with Gorgon Spoils.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><br />35-44.&mdash;FINEST GREEK SCARABS AND SCARABAEOIDS.</p>
+
+<div class="list1">
+      <p>35. Head of Young Warrior.</p>
+      <p>36. Lyre Player. (Cockerell Coll.)</p>
+      <p>37. Crane, with Deer&rsquo;s Antler.</p>
+      <p>38. Head of Eos.</p>
+      <p>39. Lyre Player. (Woodhouse Coll. and B.M.)</p>
+      <p>40. Lyre Player, signed by Syries.</p>
+      <p>41. Stork and Grasshopper, signed by Dexamenos. (St. Petersburg.)</p>
+      <p>42. Flying Crane, signed by Dexamenos. (St. Petersburg.)</p>
+      <p>43. Flying Goose.</p>
+      <p>44. Lion and Stag.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><br />45-54.&mdash;ETRUSCAN SCARABS.</p>
+
+<div class="list1">
+      <p>45. Achilles in Retirement.</p>
+      <p>46. Victory.</p>
+      <p>47. Capaneus struck by the Bolt.</p>
+      <p>48. Heracles.</p>
+      <p>49. Capaneus struck by the Bolt.</p>
+      <p>50. Achilles.</p>
+      <p>51. Heracles and Cycnus.</p>
+      <p>52. Heracles.</p>
+      <p>53. Heracles and the Lion.</p>
+      <p>54. Machaon bandaging Philoctetes.</p>
+</div></td><td class="tcl">
+
+<p><br />55-57&mdash;GREEK GEMS.</p>
+
+<div class="list1">
+      <p>55. Girl with Scroll and Lyre.</p>
+      <p>56. Girl with Water-Jar.</p>
+      <p>57. Head of Aristippus&mdash;Deities.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><br />58-61.&mdash;SIGNED GEMS.</p>
+
+<div class="list1">
+      <p>58. Asclepius of Aulos.</p>
+      <p>59. Citharist of Allion.</p>
+      <p>60. Medusa of Solon.</p>
+      <p>61. Heracles of Gnaios.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><br />62-70.&mdash;ROMAN GEMS.</p>
+
+<div class="list1">
+      <p>62. Portrait.</p>
+      <p>63. Head of Trajan Decius.</p>
+      <p>64. Ares and Aphrodite.</p>
+      <p>65. Jupiter of Heliopolis.</p>
+      <p>66. Artemis of Ephesus.</p>
+      <p>67. So-called Psyche.</p>
+      <p>68. So-called Psyche.</p>
+      <p>69. Minerva with Mask, Stamp for the Eye Balsam of Herophilus.</p>
+      <p>70. Helios.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><br />71-72.&mdash;CHRISTIAN GEMS.</p>
+
+<div class="list1">
+      <p>71. Crucifixion.</p>
+      <p>72. Good Shepherd. Jonah.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><br />73-76.&mdash;EIGHTEENTH CENTURY GEMS.</p>
+
+<div class="list1">
+      <p>73. Achilles of Pamphilus, copied from the antique.</p>
+      <p>74. Eros and Psyche, by Pichler.</p>
+      <p>75. Head of Athena.</p>
+      <p>76. Athena, from Townley Bust by Marchant.</p>
+</div></td></tr></table>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the Persian conquest the victors adopted the cylinder
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page563" id="page563"></a>563</span>
+form of the conquered, and continued to use it. A Persian
+cylinder seal of Darius (probably about 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) in the British
+Museum shows the king in his chariot, transfixing a lion with his
+arrows, in a palm wood. Above is the winged emblem of the
+Persian deity Ahuramazda. The inscription gives the name and
+titles of Darius in the Persian, Scythic and Babylonian languages.
+The style is accurate and minute. The idea of the lion hunt is
+borrowed from the Assyrian monuments, but the engraver has
+been careful to make the necessary changes of costume and
+treatment. The cylinder was, as might be anticipated, imitated
+to a certain extent by peoples of the Eastern world in touch with
+Babylonia. It occurs in Armenia, Media and Elam. It has been
+found in Crete (<i>British School Annual</i>, viii. p. 77) and is frequent
+in the early Cypriote deposits. In some instances it has been
+found unfinished and therefore must be supposed to be of local
+manufacture. Sometimes a direct imitation of cuneiform
+characters occurs on the Cypriote cylinders. The same form was
+also employed by the Phoenicians (about the 8th century-7th
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). By the Greeks and Etruscans it was used,
+but only rarely, and by way of exception.</p>
+
+<p><i>Egypt.</i>&mdash;We must go back to the remotest periods for the
+origin of intaglio engraving in Egypt. Recent discoveries of
+tombs of the earliest dynasties at Abydos and Nagada have
+thrown much light on the early stages of Egyptian art, and have
+revealed the remarkable fact that in Egypt (as in Babylonia) the
+cylinder was the earliest form used for the purpose of a seal.
+The cylinders that have been found are comparatively few in
+number; but a large number of jar-stoppings of clay are preserved
+on which cylinder designs have been rolled off while the
+clay was still soft. Such early incised cylinders as are extant are
+made either of hard wood or (as in an instance in the British
+Museum) of stone. The identity of form has been thought to
+indicate a connexion with Babylonia, but none can be traced in
+the designs of the respective cylinders.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptians of the earliest dynasties had an admirable
+command of hard stones, as shown by their beads and stone
+vases, but with the exception of the cylinders quoted they are
+not known to have applied their skill to the production of
+intaglios. At this early period the scarab (or beetle) was still
+unknown as a gem-form. It was only about the time of the
+4th dynasty that the scarab (<i>q.v.</i>) was first introduced, and
+gradually took the place of the cylinder as the prevailing shape.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Scarabaeus sacer</i> (Egyptian, <i>Kheperer</i>), rolling its eggs in
+a ball of mud, became the accepted emblem of the sun-god, and
+so the form had an amuletic value. Scarabs of obsidian and
+crystal date back to the 4th dynasty. Others, coarse and
+uninscribed, belong to the beginning of the first Theban empire.
+After the 18th dynasty they are counted by thousands. While
+the beetle form was naturalistically treated, the flat surface
+underneath was well adapted to receive a hieroglyphic sign.
+The scarabs, however, are by no means the only product of the
+art. We have also figures of all kinds in the round and in
+intaglio&mdash;statuettes, figures of animals and of deities, and sacred
+emblems such as the ankh (or <i>crux ansata</i>) and the eye. Among
+interesting variations from the scarab form is the oblong intaglio
+of green jasper in the Louvre (<i>Gazette arch.</i>, 1878, p. 41) with a
+design on both sides. It represents on the obverse Tethmosis
+(Thothmes) II. (1800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) slaying a lion, and identified by his
+cartouche. On the reverse we have the same king drawing his
+bow against his enemies from a war chariot. The scarabs of
+Egypt though uninteresting in themselves, considered as examples
+of engraving, have this accidental importance in the history of
+art, that they furnished the Phoenicians with a model which
+they were able to improve as regards the intaglio by a more
+free spirit of design, gathered partly from Egypt and partly
+from Assyria. The scarab thus improved exercised a lasting
+influence on the later history, since, as will be seen below, it was
+adopted and modified both by Greeks and Etruscans.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:468px; height:464px" src="images/img563.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Jewish High Priest&rsquo;s Breastplate.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Engraved Gems in the Bible.</i>&mdash;While the Phoenicians have left
+actual specimens to show with what skill they could adopt the
+systems of gem-engraving prevailing at their time in Egypt and
+Assyria, the Israelites, on the other hand, have left records to
+prove, if not their skill, at least the estimation in which they held
+engraved gems. &ldquo;The sin of Judah is written with a pen of
+iron and with the point of a diamond&rdquo; (Jerem. xvii. 1). To
+pledge his word Judah gave Tamar his signet, with its cord for
+suspension, and staff (Gen. xxxviii. 18); whence if this passage
+be compared with the frequent use of &ldquo;seal&rdquo; in a metaphorical
+sense in the Bible, and with the usage of the Babylonians of
+carrying a seal with an emblem engraved on it recorded by
+Herodotus, it may be concluded that among the Israelites also
+every man of mark at least wore a signet. Their acquaintance
+with the use of seals in Egypt and Assyria is seen in the statement
+that Pharaoh gave Joseph his signet ring as a badge of investiture
+(Gen. xli. 42), and that the stone which closed the den of lions
+was sealed by Darius with his own signet and with the signet of
+his lords (Daniel vi. 17). Then as to the stones which were most
+prized, Ezekiel (xxviii. 13), speaking of the prince of Tyre,
+mentions &ldquo;the sardius, the topaz and the diamond, the beryl,
+the onyx, and the jasper, the sapphire, the emerald and the
+carbuncle,&rdquo; stones which again occur in that most memorable
+of records, the description of the breastplate of the high priest
+(Exodus xxviii. 16-21, and xxxix. 8-14). Twelve stones
+grouped in four rows, each with three specimens, may be
+arranged on a square, so as to have the rows placed either vertically
+or horizontally. If they are to cover the whole square, then,
+unless the gold mounts supplied the necessary compensation,
+they must be cut in an oblong form, and if the names engraved
+on them are to run lengthwise, as is the manner of Assyrian
+cylinders, then the stones, to be legible, must be grouped in four
+horizontal rows of three each. There is in fact no reason to
+suppose that the gems of the breastplate were in any other form
+than that of cylinders such as abounded to the knowledge of
+the Israelites, with this possibility, however, that they may
+have been cut lengthways into half-cylinders like a fragmentary
+one of sard in the British Museum, which has been mounted in
+bronze, and, as a remarkable exception, has been set with three
+small precious stones now missing. It could not have been a
+seal, because of this setting, and because the inscription is not
+reversed. The names of the twelve tribes, not their standards,
+as has been thought, may have been engraved in this fashion,
+just as on the two onyx stones in the preceding verses (Exodus
+xxviii. 9-11), where there can be no question but that actual
+names were incised. On these two stones the order of the names
+was according to primogeniture, and this, it is likely, would
+apply to the breastplate also. The accompanying diagram will
+show how the stones, supposing them to have been cylinders or
+half-cylinders, may have been arranged consistently with the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page564" id="page564"></a>564</span>
+descriptions of the Septuagint. In the arrangement of Josephus
+(iii. 7. 5) the jasper is made to change places with the sapphire,
+the amethyst with the agate, and the onyx with the beryl, while
+our version differs partly in the order and partly in the names
+of the stones; but probably in all these accounts the names had
+in some cases other meanings than those which they now carry.
+It must be remembered that we have two series of equivalents,
+namely, the Hebrew compared with the Septuagint, and the
+Greek words of the Septuagint compared with the modern
+names, which in many cases, though derived from the Greek,
+have changed their applications. From the fact that to each
+tribe was assigned a stone of different colour, it may be taken
+that in each case the colour was one which belonged prescriptively
+to the tribe and was symbolic, as in Assyria, where the seven
+planets appropriated each a special colour [see Brandis in
+<i>Hermes</i>, 1867, p. 259 seq., and de Saulcy, <i>Revue archéologique</i>,
+1869, ii. p. 91; and compare Revelation xxi. 12, 13, where the
+twelve gates, which have the names of the twelve tribes written
+upon them, are grouped in four threes, and 19, 20, where the
+twelve precious stones of the walls are given]. The precious
+stones which occur among the cylinders of the British Museum
+are sard, emerald, lapis lazuli (sapphire of the ancients), agate,
+onyx, jasper and rock crystal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gem-Engraving in Greek Lands.</i>&mdash;We must now turn to the history
+of gem-engraving in Greek lands. The excavations in Crete in
+the first years of the 20th century revealed a previously unknown
+culture, which lasted on the lowest computation for more than
+two thousand years, and was only interrupted by the national
+upheavals which preceded the opening of Greek history proper.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>; <i>Archaeology</i>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean Civilization</a></span>.) Throughout
+the whole period the products of the gem-engraver occupy
+an important place among the surviving remains. It must suffice,
+however, in this place to indicate the chief groups of stones.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest engraved stones of Minoan Crete are three-sided
+prism seals, made of a soft steatite, native in S.E. Crete (<i>Journ.
+of Hellenic Studies</i>, xvii. p. 328). These are incised with pictorial
+signs evidently belonging to a rudimentary hieroglyphic system,
+and are dated before 3000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> At a period placed by A.J.
+Evans between 2800 and 2200 the method was fully systematized
+and employed on the signets, as well as on tablets and other
+materials. This development of the hieroglyphic system was
+accompanied by an increasing power of working in hard material,
+and cornelian and chalcedony superseded soft steatite (<i>Journ.
+of Hell. Studies</i>, xvii. p. 334).</p>
+
+<p>Towards 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a highly developed linear form began to
+supersede the pictorial signs. It is abundant on the tablets,
+but the gems thus inscribed are comparatively rare. The linear
+form in turn died out some six hundred years later.</p>
+
+<p>The signs of the pictorial script incised on the gems are representations
+of objects, expressed with precision, but giving
+little scope for the higher side of the gem-engraver&rsquo;s art.
+Simultaneously, however, with the use of the script, a high
+degree of skill was acquired by the engravers in rendering animal
+and human forms. Scenes occur of ritual observance, hunting,
+animal life, and strange compounded forms of demons. The
+excavations did not yield a large number of original gems of this
+class, but a great number of clay sealings from such signets were
+discovered. That they were synchronous with the use of the
+forms of script described above is proved by the fact that in the
+palace at Cnossus deposits were found, both in the linear and
+the hieroglyphic script, sealed with these signets, the seal
+impressions being again endorsed in the script (<i>Brit. School
+Annual</i>, xi. pp. 56, 62). For a remarkable group of sealings
+found at Zakro see <i>Journ. of Hell. Studies</i>, xxii. pll. 6-10. The
+finest naturalistic engravings are placed towards the close of the
+&ldquo;Mid-Minoan&rdquo; and beginning of the &ldquo;Late-Minoan&rdquo; periods
+(about 2200-1800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). During the progress of the &ldquo;Late-Minoan&rdquo;
+period the subjects tended to assume a more formal
+and heraldic character. The forms of stones in favour were the
+disk convex on each side (lenticular or lentoid stones), and during
+the &ldquo;Mid-Minoan&rdquo; period, elaborate signets in the form of
+modern fob-seals. Apart from the use of intaglios for sealing,
+the excavations have shown that the Cretan lapidaries were
+largely employed in the working of gems for purposes of decoration.
+Fragments of lapis lazuli and crystal for inlaying (the
+crystals having coloured designs on their lower surfaces) were
+found in the throne room at Cnossus; the royal gaming-board,
+also from the palace at Cnossus, had inlaid crystal disks and
+plaques. The workshop of a lapidary, with unfinished works in
+marble, steatite, jasper and beryl, was also found within the
+precincts of the palace (<i>Brit. School Annual</i>, vii. pp. 20, 77).
+Examples were also found of work in relief, substantially anticipating
+the art of cameo-cutting.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:202px; height:203px" src="images/img564a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"> <span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Lenticular Rock-Crystal
+from Ialysus. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:125px; height:130px" src="images/img564b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Lenticular
+Sard from Ialysus. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The area over which the Cretan influence extended was wide.
+Its manifestations in Greek lands proper, first revealed by
+Schliemann&rsquo;s excavation of the royal tombs of Mycenae, ran
+parallel with and outlasted the later
+periods of the Cretan culture to which
+it stood in close relation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean
+Civilization</a></span>). Its gems and intaglio
+works in gold are known to us from the
+finds at Mycenae, and at analogous
+sites, such as Menidi, Vaphio and
+Ialysus. They have much in common
+with the finer class of Cretan
+stones already described. The engraved
+gems fall principally into
+two groups in respect of form,
+namely, the lenticular (or lentoid)
+stones already mentioned, and (more
+rarely) glandular stones, so called from their resemblance to a
+<i>glans</i> or sling bolt. A Cretan fresco shows a figure wearing an
+agate lenticular stone suspended from the left wrist. The finer
+specimens of the Aegean gems are engraved with the wheel and
+the point in hard stones, such as chalcedony, amethyst, sard,
+rock-crystal and haematite. A lapidary&rsquo;s workshop similar
+to that at Cnossus has been found at Mycenae, with a store of
+unused gems, and an unfinished lenticular stone (<i>Ephemeris
+Archaiologikè</i>, 1897, p. 121). The characteristic of the Aegean
+engraver is the free expression of living forms. His subjects are
+figures of animals, men and demons in combat, and heraldic
+compositions recalling the Gate of Lions at Mycenae. It was
+almost inevitable that the scarab should be found in the Cretan
+and Aegean deposits, but in such cases we have the Egyptian
+scarab directly imported, and not, as at a later period, non-Egyptian
+adaptations of the form. The
+cylinder also (except in Cyprus, the borderland
+between east and west) only occurs as
+an importation, and not as a currently
+manufactured shape.</p>
+
+<p><i>The &ldquo;Island Gems.&rdquo;</i>&mdash;The Aegean culture
+was swept away probably by that dimly
+seen upheaval which separated Mycenaean
+from historical Greece, and which is commonly
+known as the Dorian invasion. One
+of the few facts which indicate a certain
+continuity of tradition in later Greece is this, that we again find
+the same characteristic forms, the glandular and lenticular
+stones, in the cemeteries, of Melos and elsewhere. It is only
+recently that archaeologists have learnt to distinguish between
+the later lenticular and glandular stones &ldquo;of the Greek Islands,&rdquo;
+as they are commonly called, and those of the Aegean age.
+Engravings of the later class are worked in soft materials only,
+such as steatite. They have not the power of expressing action
+peculiar to the Aegean artist. In general, the continuity of
+tradition between the gems of the Mycenaean and the historical
+periods is in respect of shape rather than of art. The subjects are
+for the most part decorative forms (the Gryphon, the winged
+Sphinx, the winged horse, &amp;c.) in course of development into
+characters of Greek myth.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Phoenicians and the Greeks.</i>&mdash;About the end of the 8th
+and beginning of the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Phoenicians began to
+exercise a powerful influence as intermediaries between Egypt
+and Assyria and the Mediterranean. Porcelain and other
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page565" id="page565"></a>565</span>
+imitations of Egyptian ornaments, and especially of Egyptian
+scarabs, are found in great numbers on such sites as Amathus in
+Cyprus, Camirus in Rhodes, in Etruria, and at Tharros in Sardinia.
+The Egyptian hieroglyphics are imitated with mistakes, the
+figures introduced are stiff and formal, the animals as a rule
+heraldic. The scarab form, which in Egypt had had its sacred
+significance, was now become nothing more than a convenient
+shape for an object of jewelry or for the reverse side of a stone.
+It was adopted from the Phoenicians both by Greeks and
+Etruscans. By the Greeks, with whom we are at present concerned,
+its use was occasional, and about 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it was superseded
+by the scarabaeoid. Under this name two forms, somewhat
+similar but independent in origin, are usually grouped
+without sufficient discrimination. The scarabaeoid proper is a
+simplification of the scarab, effected by the omission of all details
+of the beetle. But many of the stones known as scarabaeoids,
+with a flat and oval base and a convex back, are in respect of
+their form probably of North Syrian origin (so Furtwängler).
+The earliest examples of archaic Greek gem-engraving (other
+than the later &ldquo;Island gems&rdquo; already described) are works of
+Ionian art. They show a desire, only limited by imperfect
+power of expression, to represent the human figure, though the
+particular theme may be a god or other mythical personages.
+By the beginning of the 5th century the engravers had reached the
+point of full development, and the scarabaeoids of the time
+embody its results. As an example of fine scarabaeoids the
+Woodhouse intaglio of a seated citharist (fig. 5; <i>Cat. of Gems in
+Brit. Mus.</i> No. 555) may be quoted as perhaps the very finest
+example of Greek gem-engraving that has come down to us. It
+would stand early in the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, a date which would
+also suit the head of Eos from Ithome in Messenia (fig. 6). The
+number, however, of fine scarabaeoids known to us has been
+considerably increased in recent years. They are marked by a
+broad and simple treatment, which attains a large effect without
+excessive minuteness or laboured detail. In these respects the
+style has something in common with the reliefs of the 5th century.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:463px; height:203px" src="images/img565a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Victory.<br />Early Greek Scarab.<br />(Brit. Mus.)</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Citharist.<br />Early Greek Scarabaeoid.<br />(Brit. Mus.)</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Head<br />of Eos. (Brit.<br />Mus.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Literary History.</i>&mdash;The literary references to the early gem-engravers
+are no longer of the same importance as before in view
+of the fuller knowledge we possess as to the quality of early gem-engraving,
+but it is necessary that they should be taken into
+account.</p>
+
+<p>The records of gem-engravers in Greece begin in the island of
+Samos, where Mnesarchus, the father of the philosopher Pythagoras,
+earned by his art more of praise than of wealth. &ldquo;Not to
+carry the image of a god on your seal,&rdquo; was a saying of Pythagoras;
+and, whatever his reason for it may have been, it is
+interesting to observe him founding a maxim on his father&rsquo;s
+profession of gem-engraving (Diogenes Laërt. viii. 1, 17). From
+Samos also came Theodorus, who made for Polycrates the seal of
+emerald (Herodotus iii. 41), which, according to the curious
+story, was cast in vain into the deep sea on purpose to be lost.
+That the design on it was a lyre, as is stated in one authority, is
+unlikely, at least if we accept Benndorf&rsquo;s ingenious interpretation
+of Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxxiv. 83). He has suggested that the
+portrait statue of Theodorus made by himself was in all probability
+a figure holding in one hand a graving tool, and in the other,
+not, as previously supposed, a quadriga so diminutive that a
+fly could cover it with its wings, but a scarab with the engraving
+of a quadriga on its face (<i>Zeitschrift für die österreich. Gymnasien</i>,
+1873, pp. 401-411), whence it is not unreasonable to conclude
+that this scarab in fact represented the famous seal of Polycrates.
+Shortly after 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> there was a law of Solon&rsquo;s forbidding engravers
+to retain impressions of the seals they made, and this date
+would fall in roundly with that of Theodorus and Mnesarchus,
+as if there had in fact been at that time a special activity and
+unusual skill. That the use of seals had been general long before,
+in Cretan and Mycenaean times, we have seen above, and it is
+singular to find, as Pliny points out (xxxiii. 4), no direct mention
+of seals in Homer, not even in the passage (<i>Iliad</i>, vi. 168) where
+Bellerophon himself carries the tablets on which were written the
+orders against his life. From the time of Theodorus to that of
+Pyrgoteles in the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> is a long blank as to names, but
+not altogether as to gems, the production of which may be
+judged to have been carried on assiduously from the constant
+necessity of seals for every variety of purpose. The references to
+them in Aristophanes, for example, and the lists of them in the
+ancient inventories of treasures in the Parthenon and the
+Asclepieion at Athens confirm this frequent usage during the
+period in question. The mention of a public seal for authenticating
+state documents also becomes frequent in the inscriptions.
+In the reign of Alexander the Great we meet the name of Pyrgoteles,
+of whom Pliny records that he was no doubt the most
+famous engraver of his time, and that Alexander decreed that
+Pyrgoteles alone should engrave his portrait. Nothing else is
+known of Pyrgoteles. A portrait of Alexander in the British
+Museum (No. 2307), purporting to be signed by him, is palpably
+modern.</p>
+
+<p>From literary sources we also learn the names of the engravers
+Apollonides, Chronius and Dioscorides, but the date of the last-mentioned
+only is certain. He is said to have made an excellent
+portrait of Augustus, which was used as a seal by that emperor
+in the latter part of his reign and also by his successors. Inscriptions
+on extant gems make it probable that Dioscorides was
+a native of Aegeae in Cilicia, and that three sons, Hyllos, Herophilus
+and Eutyches, followed their father&rsquo;s occupation. We
+have also a few scattered notices of amateurs and collectors of
+gems, but it will be seen that for the whole period of classical
+antiquity the literary notices give little aid, and we must return
+to the gems.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:137px; height:219px" src="images/img565b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 7</span>&mdash;Scarabaeioid
+by Syries. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Early Inscribed Gems.</i>&mdash;Various early gems are inscribed with
+proper names, which may be supposed to indicate either the
+artist or the owner of the gem. In some cases there is no
+ambiguity, <i>e.g.</i> on a scarab is inscribed, &ldquo;I am the seal of Thersis.
+Do not open me&rdquo;; and a scarabaeoid (fig. 7) is inscribed, &ldquo;Syries
+made me.&rdquo; But when we have the name alone, the general
+principle on which we must distinguish between
+owner and artist is that the name of
+the owner is naturally meant to be conspicuous
+(as in a gem in the British Museum
+inscribed in large letters with the name of
+Isagor[as]), while the name of an artist is
+naturally inconspicuous and subordinate to
+the design.</p>
+
+<p>The early engravers known to us by their
+signatures are: Syries, who was author of
+the modified scarab in the British Museum,
+mentioned above, with a satyr&rsquo;s head in place
+of the beetle, and a citharist on the base&mdash;a
+work of the middle of the 6th century; Semon,
+who engraved a black jasper scarab now at
+Berlin, with a nude woman kneeling at a fountain filling her
+pitcher, of the close of the 6th century; Epimenes, who was the
+author of an admirable chalcedony scarabaeoid of a nude youth
+restraining a spirited horse&mdash;formerly in the Tyszkiewicz
+Collection, and of about the beginning of the 5th century. But
+better known to us than any of these artists is the 5th-century
+engraver, Dexamenus of Chios, of whose work four examples<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+survive, viz.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page566" id="page566"></a>566</span></p>
+
+<p>1. A chalcedony scarabaeoid from Greece, in the Fitzwilliam
+Museum at Cambridge, with a lady at her toilet, attended by
+her maid. Inscribed <span class="grk" title="DEXAMENOS">&#916;&#917;&#926;&#913;&#924;&#917;&#925;&#927;&#931;</span>, and with the name of the
+lady, <span class="grk" title="MIKÊS">&#924;&#921;&#922;&#919;&#931;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>2. An agate with a stork standing on one leg, inscribed
+<span class="grk" title="DEXAMENOS">&#916;&#917;&#926;&#913;&#924;&#917;&#925;&#927;&#931;</span> simply.</p>
+
+<p>3. A chalcedony with the figure of a stork flying, and inscribed
+in two lines, the letters carefully disposed above each other,
+<span class="grk" title="DEXAMENOS EPOIE CHIOS">&#916;&#917;&#926;&#913;&#924;&#917;&#925;&#927;&#931; &#917;&#928;&#927;&#921;&#917; &#935;&#921;&#927;&#931;</span>.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:130px; height:239px" src="images/img566a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Greek
+Sard. 5th Cent. <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>4. A gem, apparently by the same Dexamenus, is a cornelian
+formerly belonging to Admiral Soteriades in Athens, and subsequently
+in the collection of Dr Arthur Evans.
+It has a portrait head, bearded and inscribed
+<span class="grk" title="DEXAMENOS EPOIE">&#916;&#917;&#926;&#913;&#924;&#917;&#925;&#927;&#931; &#917;&#928;&#927;&#921;&#917;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The design of a stork flying occurs on an
+agate scarab in the British Museum, from the
+old Cracherode Collection, and therefore beyond
+all suspicion of having been copied from the
+more recently discovered Kertch gem.</p>
+
+<p>For the period immediately following that
+early prime to which the gems above described
+belong, our materials are less copious.
+Some of the finest examples are derived from
+the Greek tombs in the Crimea and South
+Russia. Reckoned among the best of the
+Crimean gems, and that is equivalent to saying
+among the best of all gems, are the following:
+(1) a burnt scarabaeoid with an eagle carrying off a
+hare; (2) a gem with scarab border and the figure of a
+youth seated playing on the trigonon, very much resembling
+the Woodhouse intaglio (both engraved, <i>Compte rendu</i>, 1871,
+pl. vi. figs. 16, 17). In these, and in almost all Greek
+gems belonging to this period of excellence, the material
+is of indifferent quality, consisting of agate, chalcedony or cornelian,
+just as in the older specimens. Brilliant colour and
+translucency are as yet not a necessary element, and accordingly
+the design is worked out solely with a view to its own artistic
+merit. The scarab tends to die out. The scarabaeoid in its
+turn is abandoned for the simple ring stone. The subjects
+chosen take by degrees a different character. Aphrodite (nude),
+Eros, children and women tend to replace the older and severer
+themes. The motives of 4th-century sculpture appear by degrees
+on the gems.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:415px; height:191px" src="images/img566b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Amethyst Pendant. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Etruscan Gems.</i>&mdash;At this point it is convenient to discuss the
+gem-engraving of the Etruscans, which came into being towards
+the close of the archaic period of Greek art. In the early Etruscan
+deposits, such as that of the Polledrara tomb in the British Museum
+(towards 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), we find nothing except Phoenician imports of
+porcelain or stone scarabs, both strongly Egyptian in character.
+During the 6th century a few of the semi-Egyptian stones of
+Sardinia make their appearance. But in the latter part of the
+century these oriental products tend to die out, and we have in
+their place the native works of Etruscan artists. These engravings
+stand in the closest relation to Greek works of the close of
+the 6th century and many imported Greek scarabs also occur.</p>
+
+<p>The Etruscan scarab has its beetle form more minutely
+engraved than that of the Greeks. It is further distinguished
+in the better examples, alike from the Greek and the Egyptian
+form, by a small border of a sort of petal ornament round the
+lower edge of the beetle. Like the earlier Greek scarabs it has
+the cable border round the design, but the border continued in
+use in Etruria when it had been abandoned in Greece. The
+scarabaeoid form does not occur in Etruscan deposits. Etruscan
+engraving begins when Greek art was approaching maturity,
+with studies, sometimes stiff and cramped, of the heroic nude
+form. Some of the Greek deities such as Athena and Hermes
+occur, together with the winged personages of Greek mythology.
+To the heroic types the names of Greek legend are attached, with
+modifications of form, such as <span class="grk" title="TYTE">&#932;&#933;&#932;&#917;</span> for Tydeus, and <span class="grk" title="KAPNE">&#922;&#913;&#928;&#925;&#917;</span>
+for Capaneus. Sometimes the names are appropriate and sometimes
+they are assigned at random. The subjects include certain
+favourite incidents in the Trojan and Theban cycles (<i>e.g.</i> the
+death of Capaneus); myths of Heracles; athletes, horsemen, a
+few scenes of daily life. Certain schemes of composition are
+frequent. In particular, a figure too large for the field, standing
+and bending over, is made to serve for many types. The engraving
+of the finer Etruscan gems is minute and precise, marked with
+elegance and command of the material. Its fault is its want of
+original inspiration. Special mention must be made of a very
+numerous group of cornelian scarabs, roughly engraved for the
+most part with cup-shaped sinkings (whence they are known as
+gems <i>a globolo tondo</i>) roughly joined together by furrows. Notwithstanding
+their apparent rudeness, these gems are shown,
+by the conditions in which they are found, to be comparatively
+late works of the 4th century. Furtwängler ingeniously suggests
+that the rough execution was intended to emphasize the shining
+surfaces of the cup-sinkings, rather than to produce any particular
+intaglio subject. (For an elaborate classification of the Etruscan
+scarabs see Furtwängler, <i>Geschichte</i>, p. 170.)</p>
+
+<p><i>The Cameos.</i>&mdash;After the beginning of the regal period, in the
+4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the introduction of more splendid materials
+from the East was turned to good account by the development
+of the cameo, <i>i.e.</i> of gem-carving in relief (for the origin of the
+word see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cameo</a></span>). But in its simpler forms the principle of the
+cameo necessarily dates from the beginning of the art. Thus a
+lion in rock-crystal was found in the very early royal tomb of
+Nagada (de Morgan, <i>Recherches, Tombeau de Negadah</i>, p. 193).
+The Egyptian scarab, on its rounded side, had been naturalistically
+carved in relief in beetle form. Steatite engravings in
+relief (notably the harvest festival vase from Hagia Triada)
+were found in the Cretan deposits. Subjects are found carved in
+the round in hard stone in Mycenaean graves. When we come
+to historical Greece and to Etruria the cameo of later times is
+anticipated by various attempts to modify the traditional form
+of the scarab. An example in cornelian was found at Orvieto in
+1874 in a tomb along with vases dating from the beginning of
+the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and it will be seen from the engraving of
+this gem (<i>Arch. Zeit.</i>, 1877, pl. xi. fig. 3) that, while the design
+on the face is in intaglio, the half-length figure of a Gorgon on
+the back is engraved in relief. Compare a cornelian fragment,
+apparently cut from the back of a scarabaeoid, now in the British
+Museum. As further examples of the same rare form of cameo,
+the following gems in the British Museum may be mentioned:&mdash;(1)
+a cornelian cut from back of a scarabaeoid, with head of
+Gorgon surrounded by wings; (2) cornelian scarabaeoid:
+Gorgon running to left; on face of the gem an intaglio of Thetis
+giving armour to Achilles; (3) steatite scarabaeoid, already
+mentioned, signed by Syries, head of a satyr, full face, with
+intaglio of citharist. There is, however, no evidence at present
+available to show that the cameo proper had been introduced
+in Greece before the time of Alexander. The earliest examples
+found in known conditions are derived from Crimean tombs of
+the middle of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p>Among the most splendid of ancient cameos are those at St
+Petersburg and Vienna, each representing a monarch of the
+Diadochi and his consort (Furtwängler, pl. 53). There is much
+controversy as to the persons represented, but the cameos are
+probably works of the 3rd century.</p>
+
+<p>The materials which ancient artists used for cutting into
+cameos were chiefly those siliceous minerals which, under a
+variety of names, present various strata or bands of two or more
+distinct colours. The minerals, under different names, are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567"></a>567</span>
+essentially the chalcedonic variety of quartz, and the differences
+of colour they present are due to the presence of variable proportions
+of iron and other foreign ingredients. These banded
+stones, when cut parallel to the layers of different colours, and
+when only two coloured bands&mdash;white and black, or sometimes
+white and black and brown&mdash;are present, are known as onyxes;
+but when they have with the onyx bands layers of cornelian or
+sard, they are termed sardonyxes. The sardonyx, which was the
+favourite stone of ancient cameo-engravers, and the material in
+which their masterpieces were cut, was procured from India, and
+the increased intercourse with the East after the death of
+Alexander the Great had a marked influence on the development
+of the art.</p>
+
+<p>Akin in their nature to the great regal cameos, which from the
+nature of the case are cut on a nearly plane surface, are the cups
+and vases cut out of a homogeneous stone and therefore capable of
+being worked in the round. A few examples of such works survive.
+The most famous are the Farnese Tazza and the cup of the
+Ptolemies. The Tazza, which is now in the National Museum at
+Naples, was bought by Lorenzo de&rsquo; Medici from Pope Paul II. in
+1471. It is a large shallow bowl of sardonyx, 8 in. in diameter.
+On its exterior surface is a Gorgoneion upon an aegis; in the
+interior is an allegorical design, relating to the Nile flood. The
+cup of the Ptolemies, formerly known as the cup of St Denis, is
+preserved in the Cabinet des Médailles of the French Bibliothèque
+Nationale. It is a cup 4¾ in. high and 5<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. in diameter, carved
+out of oriental sardonyx, and richly decorated with Dionysiac
+emblems and attributes in relief.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:199px; height:177px" src="images/img567.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Actaeon. Fragment of Sardonyx Cameo. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>The Cameo in the Roman Empire.</i>&mdash;During the 1st century of
+the empire the engraver&rsquo;s art alike in cameo and in intaglio was
+at a high degree of excellence. The artist in cameo took full
+advantage of his rich opportunities in the way of sumptuous
+materials, and of the requirements of an imperial court. The two
+most famous examples of this art which have come down to the
+present day are the Great Agate of the Sainte Chapelle in the
+Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, and the Augustus Cameo in the
+Vienna Collection. The former was pledged among other valuables
+in 1244 by Baldwin II. of Constantinople to Saint Louis. It is
+mentioned in 1344 as &ldquo;Le Camahieu,&rdquo;
+having been sent in that year to Rome
+for the inspection of Pope Clement VI.
+It is a sardonyx of five layers of irregular
+shape, like all classical gems,
+measuring 12 in. by 10½ in. It represents
+on its upper part the deified
+members of the Julian house. The
+centre is occupied with the reception
+of Germanicus on his return from his
+great German campaign by the emperor
+Tiberius and his mother Livia.
+The lower division is filled with a
+group of captives in attitudes expressive of woe and deep
+dejection. The Vienna gem (<i>Gemma augustea</i>), an onyx of
+two layers measuring 8<span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. by 7½, is a work of still greater
+artistic interest. The upper portion is occupied with an
+allegorical representation of the coronation of Augustus, the
+emperor being represented as Jupiter with Livia as the goddess
+Roma at his side. In the composition deities of Earth
+and Sea, and several members of the family of Augustus, are
+introduced; on the exergue or lower portion are Roman soldiers
+preparing a trophy, barbarian captives and female figures.
+This gem was in the 15th century at the abbey of St Sernin at
+Toulouse. According to tradition it had been placed there by
+Charlemagne. It came into the possession of the emperor
+Rudolph II. in the 16th century for the enormous sum of 12,000
+gold ducats. The principal cameo in the collection of the British
+Museum was acquired at the final dispersion of the Marlborough
+Collection in 1899. It is a sardonyx measuring 8¾ in. by 6 in.,
+and appears to represent a Roman emperor and empress in the
+forms of Serapis and Isis. Here also, in imperial times as in the
+Hellenistic period, side by side with the great cameos, we meet
+with works carved out in the round. Noted examples of such
+work are the Brunswick vase (at Brunswick), with the subject
+of Triptolemus; the Berlin vase with the lustration of a new-born
+imperial prince; and the Waddesdon vase in the British Museum,
+with a vine in relief set in a rich enamelled Renaissance mount.
+Hardly less precious than the cameos in sardonyx were the
+imitations carved out of coloured glass. The material was not
+costly, but its extreme fragility made the work of extreme
+difficulty. Examples of such work are the Barberini or Portland
+vase, deposited in the British Museum, with scenes supposed to be
+connected with the story of Peleus and Thetis; and the &ldquo;vase of
+blue glass&rdquo; from Pompeii, in the museum at Naples (see Mau and
+Kelsey, p. 408). The world&rsquo;s great cameos, which are hardly
+more than a dozen in number, have not been found by excavation.
+They remained as precious objects in imperial and ecclesiastical
+treasuries and passed thence to the royal and national collections
+of modern Europe.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Intaglio in the Roman Empire.</i>&mdash;The art of engraving in
+intaglio was also at a high level of excellence in the beginning of
+the Roman empire. This is to be inferred alike from the admirable
+portraits of the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, and from the number of
+signed gems bearing Roman artists&rsquo; names, such as Aulus,
+Gnaius and the like, which could hardly belong to any other
+period. It is impossible, however, to found any argument upon
+the artists&rsquo; signatures without taking into account the intricate
+questions of authenticity which are discussed in the following
+section.</p>
+
+<p><i>Signed Gems.</i>&mdash;The number of gems which have, or purport to
+have, the name of the artist inscribed upon them is very large.
+A great many of the supposed signatures are modern forgeries,
+dating from the period between 1724 (when the book of Stosch,
+<i>Gemmae antiquae caelatae, scalptorum nominibus insignitae</i>,
+first drew general attention to the subject) and 1833, when the
+multitude of forged signatures (about 1800 in number) in the collection
+of Prince Poniatowski made the whole pursuit ridiculous.
+It is known, however, that forged signatures were current before
+1724 (see Stosch, p. xxi.), and in the period immediately following
+they were very numerous. Thus Laurence Natter (<i>Méthode de
+graver en pierres fines</i> (1754), p. xxx.) confesses that, whenever
+desired, he made copies. For example, he copied a Venus (Brit.
+Mus. No. 2296), converting the figure into a Danaë and affixing
+the name of Aulos which he found on the Venus. Cf. Mariette,
+<i>Traité</i> (1750), i. p. 101.</p>
+
+<p>The question which of the multitude of supposed signatures
+can be accepted as genuine has been a subject of prolonged and
+intricate controversy. In the period immediately following the
+Poniatowski forgeries the extreme height of scepticism is represented
+by Koehler, who only acknowledged five gems (Koehler,
+iii. p. 206) as having genuine signatures. In recent years the
+subject has been principally dealt with by Furtwängler, whose
+conclusion is to admit a considerable number of gems rejected
+by his predecessors.</p>
+
+<p>It must suffice here to point out a few general principles.
+In the first place a certain number of gems recently discovered
+have inscriptions which are undoubtedly genuine and which
+record the names of the engravers. The form of the signature
+may be a nominative with a verb, a nominative without a verb
+or a genitive. The artists in this class are Syries, Dexamenus,
+Epimenes and Semon, mentioned above, and a few others.
+Another group of gems which must be accepted consists of stones
+whose known history goes back to a period at which a forged
+inscription was impossible. Thus a bust of Athena in the Berlin
+Collection, signed by Eutyches, was seen by Cyriac of Ancona in
+1445. A glass cameo signed by Herophilus, son of Dioscorides,
+now at Vienna, was, in the 17th century, in the monastery of
+Echternach, where it had probably been from old times. The
+portrait of Julia, daughter of Titus, by Euodos (now in the Bibliothèque
+Nationale) was formerly a part of a reliquary presented to
+the abbey of St Denis by Charles the Bold. Another group of
+undoubtedly genuine signatures occurs on cameos (in stone and
+paste) which have the inscriptions in relief, and therefore as part
+of the original design. Such are the works of Athenion, and of
+Quintus, son of Alexas.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page568" id="page568"></a>568</span></p>
+
+<p>For the great majority of signed gems which do not fall into
+these categories the reader must refer to the discussions of
+Furtwängler and others (see <i>Bibliography</i> below). It must
+suffice to say that Furtwängler arrives at the result that we have
+in all genuine signatures of at least fifty ancient gem-engravers.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:488px; height:209px" src="images/img568a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.&mdash;Christian<br />
+Gem. The Good<br />
+Shepherd. (Brit. Mus.)</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.&mdash;Gnostic<br />
+Gem. (Brit. Mus.)</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.&mdash;Sassanian<br />
+Gem. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Gem-Engraving in the Later Empire.</i>&mdash;In the following centuries
+the art of intaglio engraving, which was still at a high degree of
+perfection in the first century of the Roman empire, became
+more mechanical. The designs have a very characteristic appearance,
+due to the method of production with rough and hasty
+strokes of the wheel only. A collection of gems found in England,
+such as that in the possession of the corporation of Bath, shows
+the feeble character in particular of the gems current in the
+provinces. Except in portraiture, and in grylli or conceits, in
+which various things are combined into one, often with much
+skill, the subjects were as a rule only variations or adaptations
+of old types handed down from the Greeks. When new and
+distinctly Roman subjects occur, such as the finding of the head
+on the Capitol, or Faustulus, or the she-wolf with the twins,
+both the stones and the workmanship are poor. In such cases,
+where the design stirs a genuine national interest, it may happen
+that very little of artistic rendering will be acceptable rather than
+otherwise, and much more is this true when the design is a symbol
+of some article of faith, as in the early Christian gems. There
+both the art and the material are at what may be called the lowest
+level. The usual subjects on the early Christian gems are the
+fish, anchor, ship, dove, the good shepherd, and, according to
+Clemens, the lyre. Under the Gnostics, however, with whom
+there was more of speculation than of faith, symbolism was
+developed to an extent which no art could realize without the
+aid of writing. A gem was to them a talisman more or less
+elaborate with long, but for the most part quite unintelligible,
+engraved formulae. The difficulty is to make out how the stones
+were carried; many specimens exist, but none show signs of
+mounting. The materials are usually haematite or jasper. As
+regards the designs, it is clear that Egyptian sources have been
+most drawn upon. But the symbolism is also largely associated
+with Mithraic worship. The name Abraxas, or more correctly
+Abrasax, which, from its frequency on these gems, has led to
+their being called also &ldquo;Abraxas gems,&rdquo; is, when the Greek
+letters of which it is composed are treated as Greek numerals,
+equal to 365, the number of days in a year, and the same is the
+case with <span class="grk" title="MEITHRAS">&#924;&#917;&#921;&#920;&#929;&#913;&#931;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>More interesting, from the occasionally forcible portraiture
+and the splendour of some of the jacinths employed, are the
+Sassanian gems, which as a class may be said to represent the
+last stage of true gem-engraving in ancient times.</p>
+
+<p>The art of cameo-engraving, which, as we have seen, attained
+its greatest splendour at the beginning of the empire, followed on
+the whole a similar course. It waned in the early part of the
+3rd century after the death of the emperor Severus, but under
+the first Christian emperor Constantine it enjoyed a brief period
+of revival. Fine cameo portraits of Constantine are extant;
+and it was during or shortly after his reign that Christian
+Scripture subjects began to appear on cameos. That class of
+subjects constituted the staple of such work&mdash;generally rude
+and artistically debased&mdash;as continued to be cultivated under the
+Byzantine empire down to nearly the epoch of the Renaissance.
+From the Byzantine period downward one <span class="correction" title="amended from peculiarty">peculiarity</span> of gem-engraving
+becomes noticeable. Cameo-work as compared with
+intaglios in classical times was rare and infrequent, but now and
+onwards the opposite is the case, intaglio-sinking having almost
+died out, and cameos being chiefly produced. Commercial
+intercourse with the East still secured for the engravers a supply
+of magnificent sardonyxes, although blood-stone and other
+non-banded stones were very commonly used for works in relief.
+Cameos during the long dark ages were used chiefly for the decoration
+of reliquaries and other altar furniture, and as such their
+designs were purely ecclesiastical or scriptural. To this period
+also belongs the class of complimentary or motto cameos, which,
+containing only inscriptions and an ornamental border, executed
+in nicolo stones, were used as personal gifts and adornments.</p>
+
+<p>In medieval times antique cameos were held in peculiar veneration
+on account of the belief, then universal, in their potency
+as medicinal charms. This power was supposed to be derived
+from their origin, of which two theories, equally satisfactory,
+were current. By the one they were held to be the work of the
+children of Israel during their sojourn in the wilderness (hence
+the name <i>Pierres d&rsquo;Israël</i>), while the other theory held them to
+be direct products of nature, the engraved figures pointing to
+the peculiar virtue lodged in them. Interpreters less mystically
+inclined found Biblical interpretations for the subjects. Thus
+the cameo of the Sainte Chapelle was supposed to represent the
+triumph of Joseph in Egypt. A cameo with Poseidon, Athena
+and her serpent was Adam and Eve.</p>
+
+<p>The revival of the glyptic arts in western Europe dates from
+the pontificate of the Venetian Paul II. (1464-1471), himself
+an ardent lover and collector of gems, to which passion, indeed,
+it is gravely affirmed he was a martyr, having died of a cold
+caught by the multiplicity of gems exposed on his fingers. The
+cameos of the early part of the 16th century rival in beauty of
+execution the finest classical works, and, indeed, many of them
+pass in the cabinets of collectors for genuine antiques, which
+they closely imitated. The Oriental sardonyx was not available
+for the purposes of the Renaissance artists, who were consequently
+obliged to content themselves with the colder German
+agate onyx. The scarcity of worthy materials led them to use
+the backs of ancient cameos, or to improve on classical works of
+inferior value executed on good material, and probably to this
+cause must also be assigned the development of shell cameos,
+which are rarely found, of an older period.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:184px; height:260px" src="images/img568b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14&mdash;Muse, by Pichler. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Among the means of distinguishing antique cameos from
+cinquecento work, the kind of stone is one of the best tests, the
+classical artists having used only rich and warm-tinted Oriental
+stones, which further are frequently drilled through their diameter
+with a minute hole, from having been used by their original
+Oriental possessors in the form of beads. The cinquecento artists
+also, as a rule, worked their subjects in high relief, and resorted
+to undercutting, no case of which is found in the flat low work
+of classical times. The projecting portions of antique work
+exhibit a dull chalky appearance, which,
+however, fabricators learned to imitate
+in various ways, one of which was by
+cramming the gizzards of turkey fowls
+with the gems. Another index of antiquity
+is found in the different methods
+of working adopted in classical and
+Renaissance times. The tools employed
+by the Renaissance engraver were the
+drill and the wheel, while the ancient
+artist also employed the diamond point.</p>
+
+<p>The gem-engraver&rsquo;s art again during
+the 18th century revived under an even
+greater amount of encouragement from
+men of wealth and rank. In this last
+period the names of engravers who
+succeeded best in imitating classical designs were Natter,
+Pichler (fig. 14), and the Englishmen Marchant (fig. 15) and
+Burch. Compared with Greek gems, it will be seen that what
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page569" id="page569"></a>569</span>
+at first sight is attractive as refined and delicate is after all an
+exaggerated minuteness of execution, entirely devoid of the
+ancient spirit. The success with which modern engravers imposed
+on collectors is recorded in many instances, of which one may be
+taken as an instructive
+type. In the Bibliothèque
+Nationale is a
+gem (Chabouillet&rsquo;s catalogue,
+No. 2337), familiarly
+known as the
+signet of Michelangelo,
+the subject being a
+Bacchanalian scene. So
+much did he admire it,
+the story says, that he
+copied from it one of the groups in his paintings in the Sistine
+chapel. The gem, however, is evidently in this part of it a mere
+copy from Michelangelo&rsquo;s group, and therefore a subsequent
+production, probably by da Pescia.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:315px; height:157px" src="images/img569.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.&mdash;Nereid and Sea-bull by Marchant. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In our own day the engraving of cameos has practically ceased
+to be pursued as an art. Roman manufacturers cut stones in
+large quantities to be used as shirt-studs and for setting in finger-rings;
+and in Rome and Paris an extensive trade is carried on in
+the cutting of shell cameos, which are largely imported into
+England and mounted as brooches by Birmingham jewelry
+manufacturers. The principal shell used is the large bull&rsquo;s-mouth
+shell (<i>Cassis rufa</i>), found in East Indian seas, which has
+a sard-like underlayer. The black helmet (<i>Cassis tuberosa</i>) of
+the West Indian seas, the horned helmet (<i>C. cornuta</i>) of Madagascar,
+and the pinky queen&rsquo;s conch (<i>Strombus gigas</i>) of the
+West Indies are also employed. The famous potter Josiah
+Wedgwood introduced a method of making imitations of cameos
+in pottery by producing white figures on a coloured ground,
+this constituting the peculiarity of what is now known as
+Wedgwood ware.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gem Collectors.</i>&mdash;The habit of gem-collecting is recorded first
+in the instance of Ismenias, a musician of Cyprus, who appears
+to have lived in the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> But though individual
+collectors are not again mentioned till the time of Mithradates,
+whose cabinet was carried off to Rome by Pompey, still it is to
+be inferred that they existed, if not pretty generally, yet in such
+places as Cyrene, where the passion for gems was so great that
+the thriftiest person owned one worth 10 minas, and where,
+according to Aelian (<i>Var. hist.</i> xii. 30), the skill in engraving
+was astonishing. The first cabinet (<i>dactyliotheca</i>) in Rome was
+that of Scaurus, a stepson of Sulla. Caesar is said to have formed
+six cabinets for public exhibition, and from the time of Augustus
+all men of refinement were supposed to be judges both of the art
+and of the quality of the stones.</p>
+
+<p>In the middle ages the chief collections were incorporated in
+works of art in the church treasuries. The first collector of
+modern times was, as already mentioned, Pope Paul II., who was
+followed by a long succession of princely and noble collectors such
+as Lorenzo de&rsquo; Medici and the great earl of Arundel. The collection
+of the latter passed into the hands of the dukes of Marlborough
+and thence into the possession of Mr David Bromilow.
+The collection was finally dispersed by auction in June 1899.</p>
+
+<p>In modern times the principal collections are contained in state
+museums. The cabinets of Vienna and of the Bibliothèque
+Nationale are incomparably rich in the historic cameos. Those
+of the British Museum and of Berlin are the strongest in their
+range over the whole field of the gem-engraver&rsquo;s art.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;For the fullest general account of the subject
+(with especial attention to the gems of classical antiquity) see A.
+Furtwängler, <i>Die antiken Gemmen, Geschichte der Steinschneiderkunst
+im klassischen Altertum</i>, in 3 vols (1900). See also E. Babelon, <i>La
+Gravure en pierres fines, camées et intailles</i> (1894); A.H. Smith,
+&ldquo;Gemma&rdquo; and &ldquo;Sculptura,&rdquo; in the 3rd edition of Smith&rsquo;s <i>Dict. of
+Antiquities</i>; J.H. Middleton, <i>The Engraved Gems of Classical Times</i>
+(1891). Much curious information is in the works of C.W. King:
+<i>Handbook of Engraved Gems</i> (1866); <i>Antique Gems</i> (1866); <i>The
+Natural History, Ancient and Modern, of Precious Stones and Gems,
+and of the Precious Metals</i> (1865); <i>Antique Gems and Rings</i> (2 vols.,
+1872).</p>
+
+<p>Special Periods:&mdash;<i>Babylonia, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;Menant, &ldquo;Les Pierres gravées
+de la haute Asie,&rdquo; <i>Recherches sur la glyptique orientale</i> (1883-1886).</p>
+
+<p><i>Egypt.</i>&mdash;For the early cylinder sealings, &amp;c. see Petrie, &ldquo;Royal
+Tombs of the First Dynasty&rdquo; (<i>Egypt Explor. Fund, XVIIIth
+Memoir</i>), p. 24; pls. 12, figs. 3 to 7, and pls. 18-29; Amélineau,
+&ldquo;Nouvelles Fouilles d&rsquo;Abydos, 1897-1898,&rdquo; <i>Compte rendu</i>, pp. 78,
+423; pl. 25, figs. 1-3.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Bible.</i>&mdash;Petrie, &ldquo;Stones (Precious),&rdquo; in Hastings&rsquo; <i>Dict. of the
+Bible</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phoenician.</i>&mdash;See M.A. Levy, <i>Siegel und Gemmen</i>, with three
+plates of gems having Phoenician, Aramaic, old Hebrew and other
+inscriptions (Breslau, 1869); and, on the same subject, De Voguë,
+in the <i>Revue archéologique</i>, 2nd series (1868), xvii. p. 432, pls.
+14-16.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crete.</i>&mdash;Articles by A.J. Evans in <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, xiv.,
+xvii., xxi., and in <i>Annual of British School at Athens</i>, vi. and onwards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Classical Gems.</i>&mdash;See Furtwängler, op. cit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gnostic Gems.</i>&mdash;Cabrol, <i>Dict. d&rsquo;archéologie chrétienne</i>, s.v.
+&ldquo;Abrasax.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>For the controversy as to gems with artists&rsquo; signatures, see
+Koehler, <i>Abhandlung über die geschnittenen Steine, mit den Namen
+der Künstler</i>; Koehler&rsquo;s collected works, ed. Stephani, vol. iii.
+(1851); Stephani, Notes to Koehler as above; also <i>Über einige
+angebliche Steinschneider des Alterthums</i> (St Petersburg, 1851);
+Brunn, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Künstler</i>, ii. (1859), pp. 442-637;
+Furtwängler, <i>Jahrbuch d. k. deutsch. arch. Inst.</i> iii. (1888), pp. 105,
+193, 297; iv. (1889), p. 46, and <i>Geschichte</i>, passim.</p>
+
+<p>For the history of the Poniatowski gems, see Reinach, <i>Pierres
+gravées</i>, p. 151.</p>
+
+<p><i>Catalogues.</i>&mdash;The chief catalogues dealing with modern public
+collections are: Berlin, A. Furtwängler, <i>Beschreibung der geschnittenen
+Steine im Antiquarium</i> (1896); British Museum, A.H.
+Smith, <i>A Catalogue of Engraved Gems in the British Museum</i> (<i>Dept.
+of Greek and Roman Antiquities</i>) (1888); Paris, Bibliothèque
+Nationale, Chabouillet, <i>Catalogue ... des camées et pierres gravées
+de la Bibliothèque Impériale</i> (1858); E. Babelon, <i>Catalogue des
+camées ... de la Bibliothèque Nationale</i> (1897).</p>
+
+<p><i>Modern Engraving.</i>&mdash;Vasari vii. p. 113 (ed. Siena, 1792); continued
+by Mariette, <i>Traité des pierres gravées</i> (1750), i. p. 105. The
+older books on gems are very numerous, but those of present-day
+importance are not many. Faber, <i>Illustrium imagines ... apud
+Fulvium Ursinum</i> (Antwerp, 1606); Stosch, <i>Gemmae antiquae
+caelatae, scalptorum nominibus insignitae</i> (Amsterdam, 1724);
+Winckelmann, <i>Description des pierres gravées du feu Baron de Stosch</i>
+(1760); Krause, <i>Pyrgoteles, oder die edlen Steine der Alten</i> (1856);
+a convenient reissue of Stosch, and seven others of the older works,
+by S. Reinach, <i>Pierres gravées, &amp;c. ... réunies et rééditées, avec
+un texte nouveau</i> (1895).</p>
+
+<p><i>Pastes.</i>&mdash;The principal collection of glass and sulphur pastes from
+gems was that issued by James Tassie of Glasgow, with <i>A Descriptive
+Catalogue of a General Collection of ... Engraved Gems ... arranged
+and described by R.E. Raspe</i> (the author of <i>Baron Munchausen</i>)
+(1791).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. S. M.; A. H. Sm.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For Nos. 1-4 see Furtwängler, pl. 14; for Nos. 2-4 see Evans,
+<i>Rev. archéologique</i>, xxxii. (1898) pl. 8.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEM, ARTIFICIAL.<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> The term &ldquo;Artificial Gems&rdquo; does not
+mean <i>imitations</i> of real gems, but the actual formation by artificial
+means of the real precious stone, so that the product is
+identical, chemically, physically and optically, with the one
+found in nature. For instance, in chemical composition the
+lustrous diamond is nothing but crystallized carbon. Could we
+take black amorphous carbon in the form of charcoal or lampblack
+and dissolve it in a liquid, and by the slow evaporation of
+that liquid allow the dissolved carbon to separate out, it would
+probably crystallize in the transparent form of diamond. This
+would be a true synthesis of diamond, and the product would be
+just as much entitled to the name as the choicest products of
+Kimberley or Golconda. But this is a very different thing from
+the imitation diamond so common in shop windows. Here the
+chemist has only succeeded in making a paste or glass having
+limpidity and a somewhat high refractivity, but wanting the
+hardness and &ldquo;fire&rdquo; of the real stone.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Diamond.</i>&mdash;Within recent years chemists have actually
+succeeded in making the real diamond by artificial means, and
+although the largest yet made is not more than one-fiftieth of
+an inch across, the process itself and the train of reasoning leading
+up to such an achievement are sufficiently interesting to warrant
+a somewhat full description. Attempts to make diamonds
+artificially have been numerous, but, with the sole exception of
+those of Henri Moissan, all have resulted in failure. The nearest
+approach to success was attained by J.B. Hannay in 1880 and
+R.S. Marsden in 1881; but their results have not been verified
+by others who have tried to repeat them, and the probability
+is that what was then thought to be diamond was in reality
+carborundum or carbide of silicon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page570" id="page570"></a>570</span></p>
+
+<p>Attempts have been made by two methods to make carbon
+crystallize in the transparent form. One is to crystallize it slowly
+from a solution in which it has been dissolved. The difficulty is
+to find a solvent. Many organic and some inorganic bodies hold
+carbon so loosely combined that it can be separated out under the
+influence of chemical action, heat or electricity, but invariably
+the carbon assumes the black amorphous form. The other
+method is to try to fuse the carbon by fierce heat, when from
+analogy it is argued that on cooling it will solidify to a clear limpid
+crystal. The progress of science in other directions has now
+made it pretty certain that the true mode of making diamond
+artificially is by a combination of these two methods. Until
+recently it was assumed that carbon was non-volatile at any
+attainable temperature, but it is now known that at a temperature
+of about 3600° C. it volatilizes readily, passing without
+liquefying directly from the solid to the gaseous state. Very few
+bodies act in this manner, the great majority when heated at
+atmospheric pressure to a sufficient temperature passing through
+the intermediate condition of liquidity. Some few, however,
+which when heated at atmospheric pressure do not liquefy, when
+heated at higher pressures in closed vessels obey the common rule
+and first become liquid and then volatilize. Sir James Dewar
+found the critical pressure of carbon to be about 15 tons on the
+sq. in.; that is to say, if heated to its critical temperature (3600°
+C.), and at the same time subjected to a pressure of 15 tons to
+the sq. in., it will assume the liquid form. Enormous as such
+pressures and temperatures may appear to be, they have been
+exceeded in some of Sir Andrew Noble&rsquo;s and Sir F. Abel&rsquo;s researches;
+in their investigations on the gases from gunpowder
+and cordite fired in closed steel chambers, these chemists obtained
+pressures as great as 95 tons to the sq. in., and temperatures
+as high as 4000° C. Here then, if the observations are correct,
+we have sufficient temperature and enough pressure to liquefy
+carbon; and, were there only sufficient time for these to act on
+the carbon, there is little doubt that the artificial formation of
+diamonds would soon pass from the microscopic stage to a scale
+more likely to satisfy the requirements of science, if not those
+of personal adornment.</p>
+
+<p>It has long been known that the metal iron in a molten state
+dissolves carbon and deposits it on cooling as black opaque
+graphite. Moissan carried out a laborious and systematic series
+of experiments on the solubility of carbon in iron and other
+metals, and came to the conclusion that whereas at ordinary
+pressures the carbon separates from the solidifying iron in the
+form of graphite, if the pressure be greatly increased the carbon
+on separation will form liquid drops, which on solidifying will
+assume the crystalline shape and become true diamond. Many
+other metals dissolve carbon, but molten iron has been found to
+be the best solvent. The quantity entering into solution increases
+with the temperature of the metal. But temperature alone is not
+enough; pressure must be superadded. Here Moissan ingeniously
+made use of a property which molten iron possesses in common
+with some few other liquids&mdash;water, for instance&mdash;of increasing
+in volume in the act of passing from the liquid to the solid state.
+Pure iron is mixed with carbon obtained from the calcination of
+sugar, and the whole is rapidly heated in a carbon crucible in an
+electric furnace, using a current of 700 amperes and 40 volts. The
+iron melts like wax and saturates itself with carbon. After a few
+minutes&rsquo; heating to a temperature above 4000° C.&mdash;a temperature
+at which the lime furnace begins to melt and the iron
+volatilizes in clouds&mdash;the dazzling, fiery crucible is lifted out and
+plunged beneath the surface of cold water, where it is held till it
+sinks below a red heat. The sudden cooling solidifies the outer
+skin of molten metal and holds the inner liquid mass in an iron
+grip. The expansion of the inner liquid on solidifying produces
+enormous pressure, and under this stress the dissolved carbon
+separates out in a hard, transparent, dense form&mdash;in fact, as
+diamond. The succeeding operations are long and tedious.
+The metallic ingot is attacked with hot <i>aqua regia</i> till no iron is
+left undissolved. The bulky residue consists chiefly of graphite,
+together with translucent flakes of chestnut-coloured carbon,
+hard black opaque carbon of a density of from 3.0 to 3.5, black
+diamonds&mdash;carbonado, in fact&mdash;and a small quantity of transparent
+colourless diamonds showing crystalline structure.
+Besides these there may be corundum and carbide of silicon,
+arising from impurities in the materials employed. Heating
+with strong sulphuric acid, with hydrofluoric acid, with nitric
+acid and potassium chlorate, and fusing with potassium fluoride&mdash;operations
+repeated over and over again&mdash;at last eliminate the
+graphite and impurities and leave the true diamond untouched.
+The precious residue on microscopic examination shows many
+pieces of black diamond, and other colourless transparent pieces,
+some amorphous, others crystalline. Although many fragments
+of crystals are seen, the writer has scarcely ever met with a
+complete crystal. All appear broken up, as if, on being liberated
+from the intense pressure under which they were formed, they
+burst asunder. Direct evidence of this phenomenon has been
+seen. A very fine piece of diamond, prepared in the way just
+described and carefully mounted on a microscopic slide, exploded
+during the night and covered the slide with fragments. This
+bursting paroxysm is not unknown at the Kimberley mines.</p>
+
+<p>Sir William Crookes in 1906 communicated to the Royal
+Society a paper on a new formation of diamond. Sir Andrew
+Noble has shown that in the explosion of cordite in closed steel
+cylinders pressures of over 50 tons to the sq. in. and a temperature
+probably reaching 5400° were obtained. Here then we have
+conditions favourable for the liquefaction of carbon, and if the
+time of explosion were sufficient to allow the reactions to take
+place we should expect to get liquid carbon solidified in the
+crystalline state. Experiment proved the truth of these anticipations.
+Working with specially prepared explosive containing a
+little excess of carbon Sir Andrew Noble collected the residue
+left in the steel cylinder. This residue was submitted by Sir
+William Crookes to the lengthy operations already described
+in the account of H. Moissan&rsquo;s fused iron experiment. Finally,
+minute crystals were obtained which showed octahedral planes
+with dark boundaries due to high refracting index. The position
+and angles of their faces, and cleavages, the absence of bi-refringence,
+and their high refractive index all showed that the
+crystals were true diamond.</p>
+
+<p>The artificial diamonds, so far, have not been larger than
+microscopic specimens, and none has measured more than about
+half a millimetre across. That, however, is quite enough to show
+the correctness of the train of reasoning leading up to the achievement,
+and there is no reason to doubt that, working on a larger
+scale, larger diamonds will result. Diamonds so made burn in
+the air when heated to a high temperature, with formation of
+carbonic acid; and in lustre, crystalline form, optical properties,
+density and hardness, they are identical with the natural stone.</p>
+
+<p>It having been shown that diamond is formed by the separation
+of carbon from molten iron under pressure, it became of interest
+to see if in some large metallurgical operations similar conditions
+might not prevail. A special form of steel is made at some
+large establishments by cooling the molten metal under intense
+hydraulic pressure. In some samples of the steel so made
+Professor Rosel, of the university of Bern, has found microscopic
+diamonds. The higher the temperature at which the steel has
+been melted the more diamonds it contains, and it has even been
+suggested that the hardness of steel in some measure may be
+due to the carbon distributed throughout its mass being in this
+adamantine form. The largest artificial diamond yet formed
+was found in a block of steel and slag from a furnace in Luxembourg;
+it is clear and crystalline, and measures about one-fiftieth
+of an inch across.</p>
+
+<p>A striking confirmation of the theory that natural diamonds
+have been produced from their solution in masses of molten
+iron, the metal from which has gradually oxidized and been
+washed away under cycles of atmospheric influences, is afforded
+by the occurrence of diamonds in a meteorite. On a broad open
+plain in Arizona, over an area of about 5 m. in diameter, lie
+scattered thousands of masses of metallic iron, the fragments
+varying in weight from half a ton to a fraction of an ounce. There
+is little doubt that these fragments formed part of a meteoric
+shower, although no record exists as to when the fall took place.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page571" id="page571"></a>571</span>
+Near the centre, where most of the fragments have been found,
+is a crater with raised edges, three-quarters of a mile in diameter
+and 600 ft. deep, bearing just the appearance which would be
+produced had a mighty mass of iron&mdash;a falling star&mdash;struck the
+ground, scattered it in all directions, and buried itself deeply
+under the surface, fragments eroded from the surface forming
+the pieces now met with. Altogether ten tons of this iron have
+been collected, and specimens of the Canyon Diablo meteorite
+are in most collectors&rsquo; cabinets. Dr A.E. Foote, a mineralogist,
+when cutting a section of this meteorite, found the tools injured
+by something vastly harder than metallic iron, and an emery
+wheel used for grinding it was ruined. He attacked the specimen
+chemically, and soon afterwards announced to the scientific
+world that the Canyon Diablo meteorite contained diamonds,
+both black and transparent. This startling discovery was
+subsequently verified by Professors C. Friedel and H. Moissan,
+and also by Sir W. Crookes.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Ruby.</i>&mdash;It is evident that of the other precious stones only
+the most prized are worth producing artificially. Apart from
+their inferior hardness and colour, the demand for what are
+known as &ldquo;semi-precious stones&rdquo; would not pay for the
+necessarily great expenses of the factory. Moreover, were it to
+be known that they were being produced artificially the demand&mdash;never
+very great&mdash;would almost cease. The only other gems,
+therefore, which need be mentioned in connexion with their
+artificial formation are those of the corundum or sapphire class,
+which include all the most highly prized gems, rivalling, and
+sometimes exceeding, the diamond in value. Here a remarkable
+and little-known fact deserves notice. Excepting the diamond
+and sapphire, each of the precious stones&mdash;the emerald, the
+topaz and amethyst&mdash;possesses a more noble, a harder, and
+more highly-prized counterpart of itself, alike in colour, but
+superior in brilliancy and hardness; still more strange, the
+precious stone to which its special name is usually attached
+is the variety the least prized. The ruby itself might almost
+be included in the same category. The true ruby consists of
+the earth alumina, in a clear, crystalline form, having a minute
+quantity of the element chromium as the colouring matter. It
+is often called the &ldquo;Oriental Ruby,&rdquo; or red sapphire, and when
+of a paler colour, the &ldquo;Pink Sapphire.&rdquo; But the ruby as met
+with in jewellers&rsquo; shops of inferior standing is usually no true
+ruby, but a &ldquo;spinel ruby&rdquo; or &ldquo;balas ruby,&rdquo; sometimes very
+beautiful in colour, but softer than the Oriental ruby, and
+different in chemical composition, consisting essentially of alumina
+and magnesia and a little silica, with the colouring matter
+chromium. The colourless basis of the true Oriental precious
+stones being taken as crystallized alumina or white sapphire,
+when the colouring matter is red the stone is called ruby, when
+blue sapphire, when green Oriental emerald, when orange-yellow
+Oriental topaz, and when violet Oriental amethyst. Clear,
+colourless crystals are known as white sapphire, and are very
+valuable. It is evident, therefore, that whosoever succeeds in
+making artificially clear crystals of white sapphire has the
+power, by introducing appropriate colouring matter, to make
+the Oriental ruby, sapphire, emerald, topaz and amethyst. All
+of these stones, even when of small size, are costly and readily
+saleable, while when they are of fine quality and large size they
+are highly prized, a ruby of fine colour, and free from flaws, a
+few carats in weight, being of more value than a diamond of
+the same weight.</p>
+
+<p>This being the case, it is not surprising that repeated attempts
+have been made to effect the crystallization of alumina. This
+is not a matter of difficulty, but unfortunately the crystals
+generally form thin plates, of good colour, but too thin to be
+useful as gems. In 1837 M.A.A. Gaudin made true rubies, of
+microscopic size, by fusing alum in a carbon crucible at a very
+high temperature, and adding a little chromium as colouring
+matter. In 1847 J.J. Ebelmen produced the white sapphire
+and rose-coloured spinel by fusing the constituents at a high
+temperature in boracic acid. Shortly afterwards he produced
+the ruby by employing borax as the solvent. The boracic acid
+was found to be too volatile to allow the alumina to crystallize,
+but the use of borax made the necessary difference. But it was
+not till about the year 1877 that E. Frémy and C. Feil first
+published a method whereby it was possible to produce a crystallized
+alumina from which small stones could be cut. They
+first formed lead aluminate by the fusion together of lead oxide
+and alumina. This was kept in a state of fusion in a fireclay
+crucible (in the composition of which silica enters largely).
+Under the influence of the high temperature the silica of the
+crucible gradually decomposes the lead aluminate, forming lead
+silicate, which remains in the liquid state, and alumina, which
+crystallizes as white sapphire. By the admixture of 2 or 3%
+of a chromium compound with original materials the resulting
+white sapphire became ruby. More recently Edmond Frémy
+and A. Verneuil obtained artificial rubies by reacting at a red
+heat with barium fluoride on amorphous alumina containing
+a small quantity of chromium. The rubies obtained in this
+manner are thus described by Frémy and Verneuil: &ldquo;Their
+crystalline form is regular; their lustre is adamantine; they
+present the beautiful colour of the ruby; they are perfectly
+transparent, have the hardness of the ruby, and easily scratch
+topaz. They resemble the natural ruby in becoming dark when
+heated, resuming their rose-colour on cooling.&rdquo; Des Cloizeaux
+says of them that &ldquo;under the microscope some of the crystals
+show bubbles. In converging polarized light the coloured rings
+and the negative black cross are of a remarkable regularity.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Other experimentalists have attacked the problem in other
+directions. Besides those already mentioned, L. Eisner, H.H. De
+Senarmont, Sainte-Claire Deville, and H. Caron and H. Debray
+have succeeded with more or less success in producing rubies.
+The general plan adopted has been to form a mixture of salts
+fusible at a red heat, forming a liquid in which alumina will
+dissolve. Alumina is now added till the fused mass will take up
+no more, and the crucible is left in the furnace for a long time,
+sometimes extending over weeks. The solvent slowly volatilizes,
+and the alumina is deposited in crystals, coloured by whatever
+colouring oxide has been added.</p>
+
+<p>Mention has been made above of a stone frequently substituted
+for the true ruby, called the &ldquo;spinel&rdquo; or &ldquo;balas&rdquo; ruby. The
+spinel and ruby occur together in nature, stones from Burma
+being as often spinel as true Oriental ruby. In the artificial
+production of the ruby it sometimes happens that spinel crystallizes
+out when true Oriental ruby is expected. The fusion bath
+is so arranged that only red-coloured alumina shall crystallize out,
+but it is difficult to have all the materials of such purity as to
+ensure the complete absence of silica and magnesia. In this
+case, when these impurities have accumulated to a certain point
+they unite with the alumina, and spinel then separates, as it
+crystallizes more easily than ruby. When all the magnesia and
+silica have been eliminated in this way the bath resumes its
+deposition of crystalline ruby. Rubies of fine colour and of
+considerable size have been shown in London, made on the
+Continent by a secret process. The writer has seen several cut
+stones so made weighing over a carat each, the uncut crystals
+measuring half an inch along a crystal edge, and weighing over
+70 grains, and a clear plate of ruby cut from a single crystal
+weighing over 10 grains. Ruby has been made by Sir W.
+Roberts-Austen as a by-product in the production of metallic
+chromium. Oxide of chromium and aluminium powder are
+intimately mixed together in a refractory crucible, and the
+mixture is ignited at the upper part. The aluminium and
+chromium oxide react with evolution of so much heat that the
+reduced chromium is melted. Such is the intensity of the reaction
+that the resulting alumina is also completely fused, floating as a
+liquid on the molten chromium. Sometimes the alumina takes
+tip the right amount of chromium to enable it to assume the ruby
+colour. On cooling the melted alumina crystallizes in large
+flakes, which on examination by transmitted light are seen to be
+true ruby. The development of the red colour is said by C.
+Greville-Williams only to take place at a white heat. It is not due
+to the presence of chromic acid, but to a reaction between alumina
+and chromic oxide, which requires an elevated temperature.</p>
+
+<p>Artificially made but real rubies have been put on the market,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page572" id="page572"></a>572</span>
+prepared by a process of fusion by A. Verneuil. He finds that
+certain conditions have to be fulfilled in order to get the alumina in
+a transparent form. The temperature must not be higher than is
+absolutely necessary for fusion. The melted product must always
+be in the same part of the oxyhydrogen flame, and the point of
+contact between the melted product and the support should be
+reduced to as small an area as possible. M. Verneuil uses a
+vertical blowpipe flame directed on a support capable of movement
+up and down by means of a screw, so that the fused product
+may be removed from the zone of fusion as it gets higher by
+addition of fresh material. The material employed is either
+composed of small, valueless rubies, or alumina coloured with the
+right amount of chromium. It is very finely powdered and fed in
+through the blowpipe orifice, whence it is blown in a highly
+heated condition into the zone of fusion. The support is a small
+cylinder of alumina placed in the axis of the blowpipe. As the
+operation proceeds the fine grains of powder driven on to the
+support in the zone of fusion form a cone which gradually rises
+and broadens out until it becomes of sufficient size to be used for
+cutting. Rubies prepared in this way have the same specific
+gravity and hardness as the natural ruby, and they are also
+dichroic, and in the vacuum tube under the influence of the
+cathode stream they phosphoresce with a discontinuous spectrum
+showing the strong alumina line in the red. When properly cut
+and mounted it is almost impossible to distinguish them from
+natural stones.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Sapphire.</i>&mdash;Auguste Daubrée has shown that when a full
+quantity of chromium is added to the bath from which white
+sapphire crystallizes the colour is that of ruby, but when much
+less chromium is added the colour is blue, forming the true
+Oriental sapphire. The real colouring matter of the Oriental
+sapphire is not definitely known, some chemists considering it to
+be chromium and others cobalt. Artificial sapphires have been
+made of a fair size and perfectly transparent by the addition
+of cobalt to the igneous bath of alumina, but the writer does
+not consider them equal in colour to true Oriental sapphire.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Oriental Emerald.</i>&mdash;The stone known as emerald consists
+chemically of silica, alumina and glucina. Like the ruby, it owes
+its colour to chromium, but in a different state of oxidation. As
+already mentioned, there is another stone which consists of
+crystallized alumina coloured with chromium, but holding the
+chromium in a different state of oxidation. This is called the
+Oriental emerald, and, owing to its beauty of colour, its hardness
+and rarity, it is more highly prized than the emerald itself and
+commands higher prices. The Oriental emerald has been
+produced artificially in the same way as the ruby, by adding a
+larger amount of chromium to the alumina bath and regulating
+the temperature.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Oriental Amethyst.</i>&mdash;The amethyst is rock crystal (quartz)
+of a bluish-violet colour. It is one of the least valuable of the
+precious stones. The sapphire, however, is found occasionally of
+a beautiful violet colour; it is then called the Oriental amethyst,
+and, on account of its beauty and rarity, is of great value. It is
+evident that if to the igneous bath of alumina some colouring
+matter, such as manganese, is added capable of communicating
+a violet colour to the crystals of alumina, the Oriental amethyst
+will be the result. Oriental amethyst has been so formed artificially,
+but the stone being known only as a curiosity to mineralogists
+and experts in precious stones, and the public not being able to
+discriminate between the violet sapphire and amethystine quartz,
+there is no demand for the artificial stone.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Oriental Topaz.</i>&mdash;The topaz is what is called a semi-precious
+stone. It occurs of many colours, from clear white to
+pink, orange, yellow and pale green. The usual colour is from
+straw-yellow to sherry colour. The exact composition of the
+colouring matter is not known; it is not entirely of mineral
+origin, as it changes colour and sometimes fades altogether on
+exposure to light. Chemically the topaz consists of alumina,
+silica and fluorine. It is not so hard as the sapphire. There is
+also a yellow variety of quartz, which is sometimes called &ldquo;false
+topaz.&rdquo; The Oriental topaz, on the other hand, is a precious
+stone of great value. It consists of clear crystalline sapphire
+coloured with a small quantity of ferric oxide. It has been
+produced artificially by adding iron instead of chromium to the
+matrix from which the white sapphire crystallizes.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Zircon.</i>&mdash;The zircon is a very beautiful stone, varying in
+colour, like the topaz, from red and yellow to green and blue.
+It is sometimes met with colourless, and such are its refractive
+powers and brilliancy that it has been mistaken for diamond.
+It is a compound of silica and zirconia. H. Sainte-Claire Deville
+formed the zircon artificially by passing silicon fluoride at a red
+heat over the oxide zirconia in a porcelain tube. Octahedral
+crystals of zircon are then produced, which have the same
+crystalline form, appearance and optical qualities as the natural
+zircon.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Sir William Crookes, &ldquo;A New Formation of
+Diamond,&rdquo; <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> vol. lxxvi. p. 458; &ldquo;Diamonds,&rdquo; a
+lecture delivered before the British Association at Kimberley,
+South Africa, 5th September, 1905, <i>Chemical News</i>, vol. xcii. pp.
+135, 147, 159; J.J. Ebelmen, &ldquo;Sur la production artificielle des
+pierres dures,&rdquo; <i>Comptes rendus</i>, vol. xxv. p. 279; &ldquo;Sur une nouvelle
+méthode pour obtenir, par la voie sèche, des combinations crystallisées,
+et sur ses applications à la réproduction de plusieurs espèces
+minérales,&rdquo; <i>Comptes rendus</i>, vol. xxv. p. 661; Edmond Frémy and
+C. Feil, &ldquo;Sur la production artificielle du corindon, du rubis, et de
+différents silicates crystallisées,&rdquo; <i>Comptes rendus</i>, vol. lxxxv. p.
+1029; C. Friedel, &ldquo;Sur l&rsquo;existence du diamant dans le fer météorique
+de Cañon Diablo,&rdquo;  <i>Comptes rendus</i>, vol. cxv. p. 1037, vol. cxvi.
+p. 290; H. Moissan, &ldquo;Étude de la météorite de Cañon Diablo,&rdquo;
+<i>Comptes rendus</i>, vol. cxvi. p. 288; &ldquo;Expériences sur la réproduction
+du diamant,&rdquo; <i>Comptes rendus</i>, vol. cxviii. p. 320; &ldquo;Sur quelques
+expériences relatives à la préparation du diamant,&rdquo; <i>Comptes rendus</i>,
+vol. cxxiii. p. 206; <i>Le Four électrique</i> (Paris, 1897); H. Sainte-Claire
+Deville and H. Caron, &ldquo;Sur un nouveau mode de production à
+l&rsquo;état cristallisé d&rsquo;un certain nombre d&rsquo;espèces chimiques et minéralogiques,&rdquo;
+<i>Comptes rendus</i>, vol. xlvi. p. 764; A. Verneuil, &ldquo;Production
+artificielle des rubis par fusion,&rdquo; ibid. vol. cxxxv. p. 791;
+J. Boyer, <i>La Synthèse des pierres précieuses</i> (Paris, 1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEMBLOUX,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> a town in the province of Namur and on the
+borders of Brabant, Belgium, 25 m. S.E. of Brussels on the main
+line to Namur and Luxemburg. Pop. (1904) 4643. It is a busy
+place with large railway and engine works, and the junction for
+several branch lines. On the 31st of January 1578 Don John
+of Austria gained here a signal victory over the army of the
+provinces led by Antony de Goignies.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEMINI<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (&ldquo;The Twins,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> Castor and Pollux), in astronomy,
+the third sign in the zodiac, denoted by the symbol II. It is
+also a constellation, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+and Aratus (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and catalogued by Ptolemy, 25
+stars, Tycho Brahe 25, and Hevelius 38. By the Egyptians this
+constellation was symbolized as a couple of young kids; the
+Greeks altered this symbol to two children, variously said to be
+Castor and Pollux, Hercules and Apollo, or Triptolemus and
+Iasion; the Arabians used the symbol of a pair of peacocks.
+Interesting objects in this constellation are: &alpha; Geminorum or
+Castor, a very fine double star of magnitudes 2.0 and 2.8, the
+fainter component is a spectroscopic binary; &eta; Geminorum, a
+long period (231 days) variable, the extreme range in magnitude
+being 3.2 to 4; &zeta; Geminorum, a short period variable, 10.15 days,
+the extreme range in magnitude being 3.7 to 4.5; <i>Nova</i>
+Geminorum, a &ldquo;new&rdquo; star discovered in 1903 by H.H. Turner
+of Oxford; and the star cluster M.35 Geminorum, a fine and
+bright, but loose, cluster, with very little central condensation.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEMINIANI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1680-1762), Italian violinist,
+was born at Lucca about 1680. He received lessons in music
+from Alessandro Scarlatti, and studied the violin under Lunati
+(Gobbo) and afterwards under Corelli. In 1714 he arrived in
+London, where he was taken under the special protection of the
+earl of Essex, and made a living by teaching and writing music.
+In 1715 he played his violin concertos with Handel at the English
+court. After visiting Paris and residing there for some time,
+he returned to England in 1755. In 1761 he went to Dublin,
+where a servant robbed him of a musical manuscript on which
+he had bestowed much time and labour. His vexation at this
+loss is said to have hastened his death on the 17th of September
+1762. He appears to have been a first-rate violinist, but most
+of his compositions are dry and deficient in melody. His <i>Art
+of Playing the Violin</i> is a good work of its kind, but his <i>Guida</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page573" id="page573"></a>573</span>
+<i>armonica</i> is an inferior production. He published a number of
+solos for the violin, three sets of violin concertos, twelve violin
+trios, <i>The Art of Accompaniment on the Harpsichord, Organ</i>, &amp;c.,
+<i>Lessons for the Harpsichord</i> and some other works.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEMISTUS PLETHO<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> [or <span class="sc">Plethon</span>], <b>GEORGIUS</b> (<i>c.</i> 1355-1450),
+Greek Platonic philosopher and scholar, one of the chief
+pioneers of the revival of learning in Western Europe, was
+a Byzantine by birth who settled at Mistra in the Peloponnese,
+the site of ancient Sparta. He changed his name from
+Gemistus to the equivalent Pletho (&ldquo;the full&rdquo;), perhaps
+owing to the similarity of sound between that name and
+that of his master Plato. He invented a religious system
+founded on the speculative mysticism of the Neoplatonists, and
+founded a sect, the members of which believed that the new
+creed would supersede all existing forms of belief. But he is
+chiefly memorable for having introduced Plato to the Western
+world. This took place upon his visit to Florence in 1439, as
+one of the deputies from Constantinople on occasion of the general
+council. Cardinal Bessarion became his disciple; he produced
+a great impression upon Cosimo de&rsquo; Medici; and though not
+himself making any very important contribution to the study
+of Plato, he effectually shook the exclusive domination which
+Aristotle had exercised over European thought for eight centuries.
+He promoted the union of the Greek and Latin Churches as far
+as possible, but his efforts in this direction bore no permanent
+fruit. He probably died before the capture of Constantinople.
+The most important of his published works are treatises on the
+distinction between Plato and Aristotle as philosophers (published
+at Venice in 1540); on the religion of Zoroaster (Paris, 1538);
+on the condition of the Peloponnese (ed. A. Ellissen in <i>Analekten
+der mittel- und neugriechischen Literatur</i>, iv.); and the <span class="grk" title="Nomoi">&#925;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#953;</span> (ed.
+C. Alexandre, Paris, 1858). In addition to these he compiled
+several volumes of excerpts from ancient authors, and wrote a
+number of works on geography, music and other subjects, many
+of which still exist in MS. in various European libraries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See especially F. Schultze, <i>Geschichte der Philosophie der Renaissance</i>,
+i. (1874); also J.A. Symonds, <i>The Renaissance in Italy</i>
+(1877), ii. p. 198; H.F. Tozer, &ldquo;A Byzantine Reformer,&rdquo; in <i>Journal
+of Hellenic Studies</i>, vii. (1886), chiefly on Pletho&rsquo;s scheme of political
+and social reform for the Peloponnese, as set forth in the pamphlets
+addressed to Manuel II. Palaeologus and his son Theodore, despot
+of the Morea; W. Gass, <i>Gennadius und Pletho</i> (1844). Most of
+Pletho&rsquo;s works will be found in J.P. Migne, <i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, clx.;
+for a complete list see Fabricius, <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i> (ed. Harles), xii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEMMI PASS<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span>, a pass (7641 ft.) leading from Frutigen in the
+Swiss canton of Bern to Leukerbad in the Swiss canton of the
+Valais. It is much frequented by travellers in summer. From
+Kandersteg (7½ m. by road above Frutigen, which is 12 m. by
+rail from Spiez on the Berne-Interlaken line) a mule path leads
+to the summit of the pass, passing over the Spitalmatte plain,
+where in 1782 and again in 1895 a great avalanche fell from the
+Altels (11,930 ft.) to the S.E., causing on both occasions great
+loss of life and property. The mule path descends on the south
+side of the pass by an extraordinary series of zigzags, made
+accessible for mules (though no rider is now allowed to descend
+on mule-back) by a band of Tirolese workmen in 1740-1741.
+They are cut in a very steep wall of rock, about 1800 ft. in height,
+and lead down to the village of Leukerbad, which is 9½ m. by
+carriage road past Leuk above the Susten station in the Rhône
+valley and on the Simplon line.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENDARMERIE,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> originally a body of troops in France
+composed of <i>gendarmes</i> or men-at-arms. In the days of chivalry
+they were mounted and armed cap-à-pie, exactly as were the
+lords and knights, with whom they constituted the most important
+part of an army. They were attended each by five soldiers of
+inferior rank and more lightly armed. In the later middle ages
+the men-at-arms were furnished by owners of fiefs. But after
+the Hundred Years&rsquo; War this feudal gendarmerie was replaced
+by the <i>compagnies d&rsquo;ordonnance</i> which Charles VII. formed when
+the English were driven out of France, and which were distributed
+throughout the whole extent of the kingdom for preserving order
+and maintaining the king&rsquo;s authority. These companies, fifteen
+in number, were composed of 100 lances or gendarmes fully
+equipped, each of whom was attended by at least three archers,
+one <i>coutillier</i> (soldier armed with a cutlass) and one <i>varlet</i> (soldier&rsquo;s
+servant). The states-general of Orleans (1439) had voted a
+yearly subsidy of 1,200,000 livres in perpetuity to keep up this
+national soldiery, which replaced, and in fact was recruited
+chiefly amongst, the bands of mercenaries who for about a
+century had made France their prey. The number and composition
+of the <i>compagnies d&rsquo;ordonnance</i> were changed more than
+once before the reign of Louis XIV. This sovereign on his
+accession to the throne found only eight companies of gendarmes
+surviving out of an original total of more than one hundred, but
+after the victory of Fleurus (1690), which had been decided by
+their courage, he increased their number to sixteen. The four
+first companies (which were practically guard troops) were
+designated by the names of <i>Gendarmes écossais</i>, <i>Gendarmes
+anglais</i>, <i>Gendarmes bourguignons</i> and <i>Gendarmes flamands</i>, from
+the nationality of the soldiers who had originally composed them;
+but at that time they consisted entirely of French soldiers and
+officers. These four companies had a captain-general, who was
+the king. The fifth company was that of the queen; and the
+others bore the name of the princes who respectively commanded
+them. This organization was dissolved in 1788. The Revolution
+swept away all these institutions of the monarchy, and, with
+the exception of a short revival of the <i>Gendarmes de la garde</i> at
+the Restoration, henceforward the word &ldquo;gendarmerie&rdquo;
+possesses an altogether different significance&mdash;viz. military
+police.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENEALOGY<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="genos">&#947;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>, family, and <span class="grk" title="logos">&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+theory), a pedigree or list of ancestors, or the study of family
+history.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Biblical Genealogies.</i>&mdash;The aims and methods of ancient
+genealogists require to be carefully considered before the value
+of the numerous ancestral lists in the Bible can be properly
+estimated. Many of the old &ldquo;genealogies,&rdquo; like those of Greece,
+have arisen from the desire to explain the origin of the various
+groups which they include. Information relating to the subdivision
+of tribes, their relation to each other, the intermingling
+of populations and the like are thus frequently represented in
+the form of genealogies. The &ldquo;sons&rdquo; of a &ldquo;father&rdquo; often stand
+merely for the branches of a family as they existed at some one
+period, and since in course of time tribal relations would vary,
+lists which have originated at different periods will present
+discrepancies. It is obvious that many of the Biblical names are
+nothing more than personifications of nations, tribes, towns,
+&amp;c., which are grouped together to convey some idea of the bond
+by which they were believed to be connected.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the personification of a people or tribe, cp. Gen. xxxiv. 30
+(&ldquo;Jacob said ... I am a few men&rdquo;), Josh. xvii. 14 (&ldquo;the children
+of Joseph said ... I am a numerous people&rdquo;), Ex. xiv. 25 (&ldquo;Egypt
+said, let me flee&rdquo;), Jos. ix. 7, 1 Sam. v. 10, &amp;c.; see G.B. Gray on
+Numbers, xx. 14 (<i>Internat. Crit. Comm.</i>). Thus we find among the
+&ldquo;sons&rdquo; of Japhet: (the nations) Gomer, Javan, Tubal; Canaan
+&ldquo;begat&rdquo; Sidon and Heth; the &ldquo;sons&rdquo; of Ishmael include the
+well-known tribes Kedar and Jetur; Jacob, or the synonym Israel,
+personifies the &ldquo;children of Israel&rdquo; (cf. use of &ldquo;I,&rdquo; &ldquo;thou&rdquo; of the
+Israelites in Deut., and in poetical passages). The recognition of
+this characteristic usage often furnishes an ethnological interpretation
+to those genealogical stories which obviously do not relate
+to persons, but to tribes or peoples personified. The Edomites and
+Israelites are regarded as &ldquo;brothers&rdquo; (cf. Num. xx. 14, Deut. ii. 4,
+Am. i. 11), and since Esau (Edom) was born before Jacob (Israel)
+it would appear that the Edomites were held to be the older nation.
+The union of two clans is expressed as a marriage, or the wife is the
+territory which is dominated by the husband (tribe); see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caleb</a></span>.
+If the woman is not of noble blood, but is a handmaiden or concubine,
+her children are naturally not upon the same footing as those of the
+wife; consequently the descendants of Ishmael, the son of Hagar
+(Sarah&rsquo;s maid), are inferior to Isaac and his descendants, whilst the
+children of Keturah (&ldquo;incense&rdquo;), Abraham&rsquo;s concubine, are still
+lower&mdash;from the Israelite point of view. This application of the
+terms of relationship is characteristic of the Semites. The &ldquo;father&rdquo;
+of the Rechabites is their head or founder (cf. 1 Sam. x. 12: &ldquo;who
+is their father?&rdquo;), and a common bond, which is not necessarily
+physical, unites all &ldquo;sons,&rdquo; whether they are &ldquo;sons of the prophets&rdquo;
+(members of prophetic guilds) or &ldquo;sons of Belial&rdquo; (worthless men).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The interpretation of ethnological or statistical genealogies
+may easily be pushed too far. Every case has to be judged upon
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page574" id="page574"></a>574</span>
+its own merits, and due allowance must be made both for the
+ambition of the weaker to claim or to strengthen an alliance with
+the stronger, and for the not unnatural desire of clans or individuals
+to magnify the greatness of their ancestry. The first
+step must always be the careful comparison of related lists in
+order to test the consistency of the tradition. Next, these must
+be critically studied in the light of all available historical material,
+though indeed such evidence is not necessarily conclusive.
+Finally, (<i>a</i>) literary criticism must be employed to determine if
+possible the dates of such lists, since obviously a contemporary
+register is more trustworthy than one which is centuries later; (<i>b</i>)
+a critical estimate of the character of the names and of their use
+in various periods of Old Testament history is of importance in
+estimating the antiquity of the list<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a>&mdash;for example, many of the
+names in Chronicles attributed to the time of David are indubitably
+exilic or post-exilic; and (<i>c</i>) principles of ordinary historical
+probability are as necessary here as in dealing with the genealogies
+of other ancient peoples, and attention must be paid to such
+features as fluctuation in the number of links, representation of
+theories inconsistent with the growth of national life, schemes of
+relationship not in accordance with sociological conditions, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The Biblical genealogies commence with &ldquo;the generations of
+the heaven and earth,&rdquo; and by a process of elimination pass from
+Adam and Eve by successive steps to Jacob and to his sons
+(the tribes), and finally to the subdivisions of each tribe (cp.
+1 Chron. i.-ix. 1). According to this theory every Israelite could
+trace back his descent to Jacob, the common father of the whole
+nation (Josh. vii. 17 seq., 1 Sam. x. 21). Such a scheme, however,
+is full of manifest improbabilities. It demands that every tribe
+and every clan should have been a homogeneous group which had
+preserved its unity from the earliest times, that family records
+extending back for several centuries were in existence, and that
+such a tribe as Simeon was able to maintain its independence in
+spite of the tradition that it lost its autonomy in very early
+times (Gen. xlix. 7). The whole conception of the unity of
+the tribes cannot be referred to a date previous to the time
+of David, and in the older writings a David or a Jeroboam
+was sufficiently described as the son of Jesse or of Nebat. The
+genealogical zeal as represented in the Old Testament is chiefly of
+later growth, and the exceptions are due to interpolation (Josh.
+vii. 1 18, contrast v. 24), or to the desire to modify or qualify an
+older notice. This, in the case of Saul (1 Sam. ix. 1), has led to
+textual corruption; a list of such a length as his should have
+reached back to one of the &ldquo;sons&rdquo; of Benjamin (cf. <i>e.g.</i> Gen.
+xlvi. 21), else it were purposeless. The genealogies, too, are often
+inconsistent amongst themselves and in contradiction to their
+object. They show, for example, that the population of southern
+Judah, so far from being &ldquo;Israelite&rdquo; was half-Edomite (see
+Judah), and several of the clans in this district bear names
+which indicate their original affinity with Midian or Edom.
+Moreover, there was a free intermixture of races, and many cities
+had a Canaanite (<i>i.e.</i> pre-Israelite) population which must have
+been gradually absorbed by the Israelites (cf. Judg. 1.). That
+spirit of religious exclusiveness which marked later Judaism did
+not become prominent before the Deuteronomic reformation (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deuteronomy</a></span>), and it is under its influence that the writings
+begin to emphasize the importance of maintaining the purity of
+Israelite blood, although by this time the fusion was complete
+(see Judg. iii. 6) and for practical purposes a distinction between
+Canaanites and Israelites within the borders of Palestine could
+scarcely be discerned.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Many of the genealogical data are intricate. Thus, the interpretation
+of Gen. xxxiv. is particularly obscure (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span> <i>ad fin.</i>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Simeon</a></span>). As regards the sons of Jacob, it is difficult to explain
+their division among the four wives of Jacob; viz. (<i>a</i>) the sons of
+Leah are Reuben, Simeon, Levi and Judah (S. Palestine), Issachar
+and Zebulun (in the north), and Dinah (associated with Shechem);
+(<i>b</i>) of Leah&rsquo;s maid Zilpah, Gad and Asher (E. and N. Palestine);
+(<i>c</i>) of Rachel, Joseph (Manasseh and Ephraim, <i>i.e.</i> central Palestine)
+and Benjamin; (<i>d</i>) of Rachel&rsquo;s maid Bilhah, Dan and Naphtali
+(N. Palestine). It has been urged that (<i>b</i>) and (<i>d</i>) stood upon a lower
+footing than the rest, or were of later origin; or that <span class="correction" title="amended from Bilhah">Bilhan</span> points
+to an old clan associated with Reuben (Gen. xxxv. 22) or Edom
+(Bilhan, Gen. xxxvi. 27), whilst Zilpah represents an Aramaean
+strain. Tradition may have combined distinct schemes, and the
+belief that the wives were Aramaean at least coincides with the
+circumstance that Aramaean elements predominated in certain of
+the twelve tribes. The number &ldquo;twelve&rdquo; is artificial and can be
+obtained only by counting Manasseh and Ephraim as one or by
+omitting Levi, and a careful study of Old Testament history makes it
+extremely difficult to recover the tribes as historical units. See, on
+these points, the articles on the several tribes, B. Luther, <i>Zeit. d.
+alttest. Wissens</i>. (1901), pp. 1 sqq.; G.B. Gray, <i>Expositor</i> (March
+1902), pp. 225-240, and in <i>Ency. Bib.</i>, art. &ldquo;Tribes&rdquo;; and H.W.
+Hogg&rsquo;s thorough treatment of the tribes in the last-mentioned work.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ideal of purity of descent shows itself conspicuously in
+portions of Deuteronomic law (Deut. vii. 1-3, xxiii. 2-8), and in the
+reforms of Nehemiah and Ezra (Ezr. ix. 1-4, 11 sqq.; Neh. xiii.
+1-3). The desire to prove the continuity of the race, enforced
+by the experience of the exile, gave the impetus to genealogical
+zeal, and many of the extant lists proceed from this age when the
+true historical succession of names was a memory of the past.
+This applies with special force to the lists in Chronicles which
+present finished schemes of the Levitical divisions by the side of
+earlier attempts, with consequent confusion and contradiction.
+Thus the immediate ancestors of Ethan appear in the time of
+Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix. 12), but he with Asaiah and Heman are
+contemporaries of David, and their genealogies from Levi downwards
+contain a very unequal number of links (1 Chron. vi.).
+By another application of genealogical method the account of the
+institution of priests and Levites by David (1 Chron. xxiv.)
+presents many names which belong solely to post-exilic days, thus
+suggesting that the scribes desired to show that the honourable
+families of their time were not unknown centuries previously.
+Everywhere we find the results of much skill and labour, often in
+accordance with definite theories, but a thorough investigation
+reveals their weakness and often quite incidentally furnishes
+valuable evidence of another nature.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The intricate Levitical genealogies betray the result of successive
+genealogists who sought to give effect to the development of the
+hierarchal system (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span>). The climax is reached when all
+Levites are traced back to Gershon, Kehath and Merari, to which
+are ascribed respectively Asaph, Heman and Ethan (or Jeduthun).
+The last two were not originally Levites in the later accepted sense
+of the term (see 1 Kings iv. 31). To Kehath is reckoned an important
+subdivision descended from Korah, but in 2 Chron. xx. 19 the two
+are distinct groups, and Korah&rsquo;s name is that of an Edomite clan
+(Gen. xxxvi. 5, 14, 18) related to Caleb, and thus included among the
+descendants of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 43). Cases of adjustment, redistribution
+and &ldquo;Levitizing&rdquo; of individuals are frequent. There
+are traces of varying divisions both of the singers (Neh. xi. 17) and of
+the Levites (Num. xxvi. 58; Ezr. ii. 40, iii. 9; 1 Chron. xv. 5-10,
+xxiii.), and it is noteworthy that in the case of the latter we have
+mention of such families as Hebroni (Hebronite), Libni (from Libnah)&mdash;ethnics
+of South Judaean towns. In fact, a significant number of
+Levitical names find their analogy in the lists of names belonging to
+Judah, Simeon and even Edom, or are closely connected with the
+family of Moses; <i>e.g.</i> Mushi (<i>i.e.</i> Mosaïte), Gershon and Eleazar (cp.
+Gershom and Eliezer, sons of Moses). The Levites bear a class-name,
+and the genealogies show that many of them were connected
+with the minor clans and families of South Palestine which included
+among them Moses and his kin. Hence, it is not unnatural that
+Obed-edom, for example, obviously a southerner, should have been
+reckoned later as a Levite, and the work ascribed by the chronicler&rsquo;s
+history to the closing years of David&rsquo;s life may be influenced by
+the tradition that it was through him these mixed populations first
+attained importance. See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">David</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able
+to prove his descent, and perhaps from the time of Ezra downwards
+lists were carefully kept. But when Anna is called an
+Asherite (Luke ii. 36), or Paul a Benjamite (Rom. xi. 1), family
+tradition was probably the sole support to the claim, although the
+tribal feeling had not become entirely extinct. The genealogies of
+Jesus prefixed to two of the gospels are intended to prove that He
+was a son of David. But not that alone, for in Matt. i. he is
+traced back to Abraham the father of the Jews, whilst in Luke iii.
+He, as the second Adam, is traced back to the first man. The
+two lists are hopelessly inconsistent; not because one of them
+follows the line of Mary, but because they represent independent
+attempts. That in Matthew is characteristically arranged in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page575" id="page575"></a>575</span>
+three series of fourteen generations each through the kings of
+Judah, whilst Luke&rsquo;s passes through an almost unknown son of
+David; in spite of this, however, both converge in the person of
+Zerubbabel.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See further, A.C. Hervey, <i>Genealogies of Our Lord</i>; H. von Soden,
+<i>Ency. Bib.</i> ii. col. 1666 sqq.; B.W. Bacon, Hastings&rsquo; <i>Dict. Bib.</i> ii.
+pp. 138 seq. On the subject generally see J.F. M&lsquo;Lennan&rsquo;s <i>Studies</i>
+(2nd ser., ch. ix., &ldquo;fabricated genealogies&rdquo;); S.A. Cook, <i>Ency.
+Bib.</i> ii. col. 1657 sqq. (with references); W.R. Smith, <i>Kinship and
+Marriage</i> (2nd ed., especially ch. i.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div>
+
+<p>2. <i>Greek and Roman Genealogies.</i>&mdash;A passing reference only is
+needed to the intricate genealogies of gods and sons of gods
+which form so conspicuous a feature in classical literature.<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> In
+every one of the numerous states into which ancient Greece was
+divided there were aristocratic families, whose genealogies as a
+rule went back to prehistoric times, their first ancestor being
+some hero of divine descent, from whom, or from some distinguished
+younger ancestor, they derived their names. Many of
+these families were, as families, undoubtedly of great antiquity
+even at the beginning of the historical period; and in several
+instances they continued to maintain a conspicuous and separate
+existence for centuries. The element of family pride is prominent
+in the poetry of the Megarian Theognis; and in an inscription
+belonging to the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the recipient of certain honours
+from the community of Gythium is represented as the thirty-ninth
+in direct descent from the Dioscuri and the forty-first from
+Heracles. Even in Athens, long after the constitution had
+become thoroughly democratic, some of the clans continued to be
+known as Eupatridae (of noble family); and Alcibiades, for
+example, as a member of the phratria of the Eurysacidae, traced
+his origin through many generations to Eurysaces, who was
+represented as having been the first of the Aeacidae to settle in
+Attica. The Corinthian Bacchiadae traced their descent back to
+Heracles, but took their name from Bacchis, a younger ancestor.
+It is very doubtful, however, whether such pedigrees as this were
+very seriously put forward by those who claimed them; and it is
+certain that, almost along the whole line, they were unsupported
+by evidence.<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> We have the authority of Pollux (viii. 111) for
+stating that the Athenian <span class="grk" title="genê">&#947;&#941;&#957;&#951;</span>, of which there were thirty in each
+<span class="grk" title="phratria">&#966;&#961;&#945;&#964;&#961;&#943;&#945;</span>, were organized without any exclusive regard being
+had to blood-relationship; they were constantly receiving
+accessions from without; and the public written registers of
+births, adoptions and the like do not appear to have been preserved
+with such care as would have made it possible to verify a
+pedigree for any considerable portion even of the strictly historical
+period.<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The great antiquity of the early Roman (patrician) <i>gentes</i>, who
+universally traced themselves back to illustrious ancestors, is
+indisputable; and the rigid exclusiveness with which each preserved
+its <i>hereditates gentiliciae</i> or <i>sacra gentilicia</i> is sufficiently
+illustrated by the fact that towards the close of the republic
+there were not more than fifty patrician families (Dion. Halic. i.
+85). Yet even in these it is obvious that, owing to the frequency
+of resort to the well-recognized practice of adoption, while there
+was every guarantee for the historical identity of the family,
+there was none (documents apart) for the personal genealogy of
+the individual. There is no evidence that sufficient records of
+pedigree were kept during the earlier centuries of the Roman
+commonwealth, although the leading houses drew up genealogical
+tables, and their family pedigree was painted on the walls of the
+entrance hall. In later times, it is true, even plebeian families
+began to establish a prescriptive right (known as the <i>jus imaginum</i>)
+to preserve in small wooden shrines in their halls the busts (or
+rather, wax portrait masks fastened on to busts) of those of their
+members who had attained to curule office, and to exhibit these
+in public on appropriate occasions. Under these <i>imagines
+majorum</i><a name="fa5k" id="fa5k" href="#ft5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a> it became usual to inscribe on the wall their respective
+<i>tituli</i>, the relationship of each to each being indicated by means of
+connecting lines; and thus arose the <i>stemmata gentilicia</i>, which
+at a later time began to be copied into family records. In the
+case of plebeian families (whose stemmata in no case went
+farther back than 366 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) these written genealogies were
+probably trustworthy enough; but in the case of patricians who
+went back to Aeneas,<a name="fa6k" id="fa6k" href="#ft6k"><span class="sp">6</span></a> so much cannot, it is obvious, be said;
+and from a comparatively early period it was clearly recognized
+that such records lent themselves too readily to the devices of the
+falsifier and the forger to deserve confidence or reverence (Pliny,
+<i>H.N.</i> xxxv. 2; Juv. viii. 1).</p>
+
+<p>Thus, parvenus were known to place the busts of fictitious
+ancestors in the shrines and to engage needy literary men to trace
+back their descent even to Aeneas himself.</p>
+
+<p>The many and great social changes which marked the closing
+centuries of the Western empire almost invariably militated
+with great strength against the maintenance of an aristocracy
+of birth; and from the time of Constantine the dignity of patrician
+ceased to be hereditary.<a name="fa7k" id="fa7k" href="#ft7k"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Modern.</i>&mdash;Two forces have combined to give genealogy
+its importance during the period of modern history: the laws
+of inheritance, particularly those which govern the descent of
+real estate, and the desire to assert the privileges of a hereditary
+aristocracy. But it is long before genealogies are found in the
+possession of private families. The succession of kings and princes
+are in the chronicle book; the line of the founders and patrons
+of abbeys are recorded by the monks with curious embellishment
+of legend. But the famous suit of Scrope against Grosvenor
+will illustrate the late appearance of private genealogies in
+England. In 1385 Sir Richard Scrope, lord of Bolton, displaying
+his banner in the host that invaded Scotland, found that his
+arms of a golden bend in a blue field were borne by a knight of
+the Chester palatinate, one Sir Robert Grosvenor. He carried
+the dispute to a court of chivalry, whose decision in his favour
+was confirmed on appeal to the king. Grosvenor asserted that
+he derived his right from an ancestor, Sir Gilbert Grosvenor,
+who had come over with the Conqueror, while an intervening
+claimant, a Cornish squire named Thomas Carminowe, boasted
+that his own ancestors had borne the like arms since the days of
+King Arthur&rsquo;s Round Table. It is remarkable that in support of
+the false statements made by the claimants no written genealogy
+is produced. The evidence of tombs and monuments and the
+reports of ancient men are advanced, but no pedigree is exhibited
+in a case which hangs upon genealogy. It is possible that the art
+of pedigree-making had its first impulse in England from the
+many genealogies constructed to make men familiar with the
+claims of Edward III. to the crown of France, a second crop of
+such royal pedigrees being raised in later generations during
+the contests of York and Lancaster. But it is not until after
+the close of the middle ages that genealogies multiply in men&rsquo;s
+houses and are collected into volumes. The medieval baron,
+knight or squire, although proud of the nobility of his race,
+was content to let it rest upon legend handed down the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page576" id="page576"></a>576</span>
+generations. The exact line of his descent was sought only when
+it was demanded for a plea in the king&rsquo;s courts to support his
+title to his lands.</p>
+
+<p>From the first the work of the genealogist in England had that
+taint of inaccuracy tempered with forgery from which it has
+not yet been cleansed. The medieval kings, like the Welsh
+gentry of later ages, traced their lines to the household of Eden
+garden, while lesser men, even as early as the 14th century,
+eagerly asserted their descent from a companion of the Conqueror.
+Yet beside these false imaginations we find the law courts,
+whose business was often a clash of pedigrees, dealing with
+genealogies centuries long which, constructed as it would seem
+from worthy evidences, will often bear the test of modern
+criticism.</p>
+
+<p>Genealogies in great plenty are found in manuscripts and
+printed volumes from the 16th century onward. Remarkable
+among these are the descents recorded in the Visitation Books
+of the heralds, who, armed with commissions from the crown,
+the first of which was issued in 20 Hen. VIII., perambulated
+the English counties, viewing arms and registering pedigrees.
+The notes in their register books range from the simple registration
+of a man&rsquo;s name and arms to entries of pedigrees many
+generations long. To the heralds these visitations were rare
+opportunities of obtaining fees from the visited, and the value
+of the pedigrees registered is notably unequal. Although it
+has always been the boast of the College of Arms that Visitation
+records may be produced as evidence in the law courts, few of
+these officially recorded genealogies are wholly trustworthy.
+Many of the officers of arms who recorded them were, even by
+the testimony of their comrades, of indifferent character, and
+even when the visiting herald was an honourable man and an
+industrious he had little time to spare for the investigation of
+any single genealogy. Deeds and evidences in private hands
+may have been hastily examined in some instances&mdash;indeed, a
+herald&rsquo;s summons invites their production&mdash;and monuments
+were often viewed in the churches, but for the most part men&rsquo;s
+memories and the hearsay of the country-side made the backbone
+of the pedigree. The further the pedigree is carried beyond the
+memory of living men the less trustworthy does it become. The
+principal visitations took place in the reigns of Elizabeth, James
+I. and Charles II. No commission has been issued since the
+accession of William and Mary, but from that time onwards
+large numbers of genealogies have been recorded in the registers
+of the College of Arms, the modern ones being compiled with a
+care which contrasts remarkably with the unsupported statements
+of the Tudor heralds.</p>
+
+<p>Outside the doors of the College of Arms genealogy has now
+been for some centuries a favourite study of antiquaries, whose
+researches have been of the utmost value to the historian, the
+topographer and the biographer. County histories, following
+the example of Dugdale&rsquo;s Warwickshire folios, have given much
+space to the elucidation of genealogies and to the amassing of
+material from which they may be constructed. Dugdale&rsquo;s
+great work on the English baronage heads another host of works
+occupied with the genealogy of English noble families, and the
+second edition of &ldquo;G.E.C.&rsquo;s&rdquo; <i>Complete Peerage</i> shows the mighty
+advance of the modern critical spirit. Nevertheless, the 20th
+century has not yet seen the abandoning of all the genealogical
+fables nourished by the Elizabethan pedigree-mongers, and the
+ancestry of many noble houses as recorded in popular works of
+reference is still derived from mythical forefathers. Thus the
+dukes of Norfolk, who, by their office of earl marshal are patrons
+of the heralds, are provided with a 10th-century Hereward for an
+ancestor; the dukes of Bedford, descendants of a 15th-century
+burgess of Weymouth, are traced to the knightly house of
+Russell of Kingston Russell, and the dukes of Westminster to
+the mythical Gilbert le Grosvenor who &ldquo;came over in the
+train of the Conqueror.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Genealogical research has, however, made great advance
+during the last generation. The critical spirit shown in such
+works as Round&rsquo;s <i>Studies in Peerage and Family History</i> (1901) has
+assailed with effective ridicule the methods of dishonest pedigree-makers.
+Much raw material of genealogy has been made
+available for all by the publication of parish registers, marriage-licence
+allegations, monumental inscriptions and the like, and
+above all by the mass of evidences contained in the volumes
+issued by the Public Record Office.</p>
+
+<p>Within a small space it is impossible to set forth in detail the
+methods by which an English genealogy may be traced. But
+those who are setting out upon the task may be warned at the
+outset to avoid guesswork based upon the possession of a surname
+which may be shared by a dozen families between whom is no
+tie of kinship. A man whose family name is Howard may be
+presumed to descend from an ancestor for whom Howard was
+a personal name: it may not be presumed that this ancestor
+was he in whom the dukes of Norfolk have their origin. A
+genealogy should not be allowed to stray from facts which can
+be supported by evidence. A man may know that his grandfather
+was John Stiles who died in 1850 at the age of fifty-five.
+It does not follow that this John is identical with the John Stiles
+who is found as baptized in 1795 at Blackacre, the son of William
+Stiles. But if John the grandfather names in his letters a sister
+named Isabel Nokes, while the will of William Stiles gives legacies
+to his son and daughter John Stiles and Isabel Nokes, we may
+agree that reasonable proof has been given of the added generation.
+A new pedigree should begin with the carefully tested
+statements of living members of a family. The next step should
+be to collate such family records as bible entries, letters and
+diaries, and inscriptions on mourning rings, with monumental
+inscriptions of acknowledged members of the family. From
+such beginnings the genealogist will continue his search through
+the registers of parishes with which the family has been connected;
+wills and administrations registered in the various probate courts
+form, with parish registers, the backbone of most middle-class
+family histories. Court rolls of manors in which members of the
+family were tenants give, when existing and accessible, proofs
+which may carry back a line, however obscure, through many
+descents. When these have been exhausted the records of legal
+proceedings, and notably those of the court of chancery, may be
+searched. Few English households have been able in the past
+to avoid an appeal to the chancery court, and the bill and answer
+of a chancery plaintiff and defendant will often tell the story of a
+family quarrel in which a score of kinsfolk are involved, and the
+pleadings may contain the material for a family tree of many
+branching generations. Coram Rege and De Banco rolls may
+even, in the course of a dispute over a knight&rsquo;s fee or a manor
+carry a pedigree to the Conquest of England, although such good
+fortune can hardly be expected by the searcher out of an undistinguished
+line. In proving a genealogy it must be remembered
+that in the descent of an estate in land must be sought the best
+evidence for a pedigree.</p>
+
+<p>At the present time the study of genealogy grows rapidly in
+English estimation. It is no less popular in America, where
+societies and private persons have of late years published a vast
+number of genealogies, many of which combine the results of
+laborious research in American records with extravagant and
+unfounded claims concerning the European origin of the families
+dealt with. A family with the surname of Cuthbert has been
+known to hail St Cuthbert of Lindisfarne as its progenitor, and
+one surnamed Eberhardt has incorporated in its pedigree such
+German princes of old times as were found to have Eberhardt
+for a Christian name.</p>
+
+<p>Genealogy in modern France has, with a few honourable
+exceptions, fallen into the hands of the popular pedigree-makers,
+whose concern is to gratify the vanity of their employers. Italy
+likewise has not yet shaken off the influence of those venal
+genealogists who, three hundred years ago, sold pedigrees cheaply
+to all comers. But much laborious genealogical inquiry had
+been made in Germany since the days of Hübner, and even in
+Russia there has been some attempt to apply modern standards
+of criticism to the chronicles of the swarming descendants of the
+blood of Rurik.</p>
+
+<p>In no way is the gap made by the Dark Ages between ancient
+and modern history more marked than by the fact that no
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page577" id="page577"></a>577</span>
+European family makes a serious claim to bridge it with its
+genealogy. The unsupported claim of the Roman house of
+Massimo to a descent from Fabius Maximus is respectable beside
+such legends as that which made Lévis-Mirepoix head of the
+priestly tribe of Levi, but even the boast of such remote ancestry
+has now become rare. The ancient sovereign houses of Europe
+are, for the most part, content to attach themselves to some
+ancestor who, when the mist that followed the fall of the Western
+empire begins to lift, is seen rallying with his sword some group
+of spearmen.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Genealogical works have been published in such
+abundance that the bibliographies of the subject are already substantial
+volumes. Amongst the earlier books from the press may be
+noted Benvenuto de San Georgio&rsquo;s <i>Montisferrati marchionum
+et principum regiae propagium successionumque series</i> (1515);
+Pingonius&rsquo;s <i>Arbor gentilitiae Sabaudiae Saxoniaeque domus</i> (1521);
+Gebweiler&rsquo;s <i>Epitome regii ac vetustissimi ortus Caroli V. et Ferdinandi
+I., omniumque archiducum Austriae et comitum Habsburgiensium</i>
+(1527): Meyer&rsquo;s work on the counts of Flanders (1531), and Du
+Boulay&rsquo;s genealogies of the dukes of Lorraine (1547). Later in the
+same century Reineck of Helmstadt put forth many works having
+a wider genealogical scope, and we may cite Henninges&rsquo;s <i>Genealogiae
+Saxonicae</i> (1587) and <i>Theatrum genealogicum</i> (1598), and Reusner&rsquo;s
+<i>Opus genealogicum catholicum</i> (1589-1592). For the politically inconvenient
+falseness of François de Rosières&rsquo; <i>Stemmata Lotharingiae
+ac Barri ducum</i> (1580), wherein the dukes of Lorraine were deduced
+from the line of Charlemagne, the author was sent to the Bastille by
+the parlement of Paris and his book suppressed.</p>
+
+<p>The 17th century saw the production in England of Dugdale&rsquo;s
+great <i>Baronage</i> (1675-1676), a work which still holds a respectable
+place by reason of its citation of authorities, and of Sandford&rsquo;s
+history of the royal house. In the same century André Duchesne,
+the historian of the Montmorencys, Pierre d&rsquo;Hozier, the chronicler
+of the house of La Rochefoucauld, Rittershusius, Imhoff, Spener,
+Lohmeier and many others contribute to the body of continental
+genealogies. Pierre de Guibours, known as Père Anselme de Ste
+Marie, published in 1674 the first edition of his magnificent <i>Histoire
+généalogique de la maison royale de France, des pairs, grands
+officiers de la couronne et de la maison du roy et des anciens barons
+du royaume</i>. Of this encyclopaedic work a third and complete
+edition appeared in 1726-1733. A modern edition under the editorship
+of M. Potier de Courcy began to be issued in 1873, but remains
+incomplete. Among 18th-century work Johann Hübner&rsquo;s <i>Bibliotheca
+genealogica</i> (1729) and <i>Genealogische Tabellen</i> (1725-1733),
+with Lenzen&rsquo;s commentary on the latter work (<i>c.</i> 1756), may be
+signalized, with Gatterer&rsquo;s <i>Handbuch der Genealogie</i> (1761) and his
+Abriss der Genealogie (1788), the latter an early manual on the
+science of genealogy. Hergott&rsquo;s <i>Genealogia diplomatica augustae
+gentis Habsburgicae</i> (1737) is the imperial genealogy compiled by
+the emperor&rsquo;s own historiographer.</p>
+
+<p>Modern peerages in England may be said to date from that of
+Arthur Collins, whose one-volume first edition was published in
+1709. The fifth edition appeared in 1778, in eight volumes, to be
+republished in 1812 by Sir Egerton Brydges, the &ldquo;Baptist Hatton&rdquo;
+of Disraeli&rsquo;s novel, who corrected many legendary pedigrees, besides
+inserting his own forged descent from a common ancestor with the
+dukes of Chandos. From this work and from the Irish peerage of
+Lodge (as re-edited by Archdall) most of the later peerages have
+quarried their material. With these may be named the baronetages
+of Wotton and Betham. Of modern popular peerages and baronetages
+that of Burke has been published since 1822 in many editions
+and now appears yearly. Most important for the historian are the
+<i>Complete Peerage</i> of G.E. C[ockayne] (2nd ed., 1910), and the
+<i>Complete Baronetage</i> of the same author. The <i>Peerage of Scotland</i>
+(1769) of Sir Robert Douglas of Glenbervie came to a second edition
+in 1813, edited by J.P. Wood, and the whole work has been revised
+and re-edited by Sir James Balfour Paul (1904, &amp;c.). Of the popular
+manuals of English untitled families, Burke&rsquo;s <i>Genealogical and
+Heraldic Dictionary of the Commoners</i> (1833-1838) is now brought
+up to date from time to time and reissued as the <i>Landed Gentry</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Lists of pedigrees in English printed works are supplied by Marshall&rsquo;s
+<i>Genealogist&rsquo;s Guide</i> (1903), while pedigrees in the manuscript
+collections of the British Museum are indexed in the list of R. Sims
+(1849). Valuable genealogical material will be found in such
+periodicals as the <i>Genealogist</i>, the <i>Herald and Genealogist</i>, the <i>Topographer
+and Genealogist</i>, <i>Collectanea topographica et genealogica</i>,
+<i>Miscellanea genealogica et heraldica</i> and the <i>Ancestor</i>. In Germany
+the <i>Deutscher Herold</i> is the organ of the Berlin Heraldic and Genealogical
+Society. The <i>Nederlandsche Leeuw</i> is a similar publication
+in the Low Countries.</p>
+
+<p>Modern criticism of the older genealogical methods will be found
+in J.H. Round&rsquo;s <i>Peerage and Pedigree</i>, 2 vols. (London, 1910),
+and in other volumes by the same author. The Harleian Society
+has published many volumes of the Herald&rsquo;s Visitations; and the
+British Record Society&rsquo;s publications, supplying a key to a vast
+mass of wills, Chancery suits and marriage licences, are of still
+greater importance. The <i>Victoria History of the Counties of England</i>
+includes genealogies of the ancient English county families still
+among the land-owning classes. English pedigrees of the age before
+the Conquest are collected in W.G. Searle&rsquo;s <i>Anglo-Saxon Bishops,
+Kings and Nobles</i> (1899).</p>
+
+<p>Genealogical dictionaries of noble French families include Victor
+de Saint Allais&rsquo;s <i>Nobiliaire universel</i> (21 vols., 1872-1877) and Aubert
+de la Chenaye-Desbois&rsquo; <i>Dictionnaire de la noblesse</i> (15 vols., 1863-1876).
+A sumptuous work on the genealogy and heraldry of the
+ancient duchy of Savoy by Count Amédée de Foras began to appear
+in 1863. Spain has Lopez de Haro&rsquo;s <i>Nobiliario genealogico de los
+reyes y títulos de España</i>. Italy has the <i>Teatro araldico</i> of Tettoni
+and Saladini (1841-1848), Litti&rsquo;s <i>Famiglie celebri</i> and an <i>Annuario
+della nobilità</i>. Such annuals are now published more or less intermittently
+in many European countries. Finland has a <i>Ridderscap
+och Adels Kalender</i>, Belgium the <i>Annuaire de la noblesse</i>, the Dutch
+Netherlands an <i>Adelsboek</i>, Denmark the <i>Adels-Garbog</i> and Russia
+the <i>Annuaire</i> of Ermerin. But chief of all such publications is the
+ancient <i>Almanach de Gotha</i>, containing the modern kinship of royal
+and princely houses, and now accompanied by volumes dealing with
+the houses of German and Austrian counts and barons, and with
+houses ennobled in modern times by patent. A useful modern
+reference book for students of history is Stokvis&rsquo;s <i>Manuel d&rsquo;histoire
+et de généalogie de tous les états du globe</i> (1888-1893). The best
+manual for the English genealogist is Walter Rye&rsquo;s <i>Records and
+Record Searching</i> (1897), while an ill-arranged but valuable bibliography
+of English and foreign works on the subject is that of George
+Gatfield (1892).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(O. Ba.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> G.B. Gray&rsquo;s <i>Hebrew Proper Names</i> (1896), with his article in
+the <i>Expositor</i> (Sept. 1897), pp. 173-190, should be consulted for the
+application and range of Hebrew names in O. T. genealogies and
+lists.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> On the subject generally see articles &ldquo;Genos&rdquo; and &ldquo;Gens,&rdquo;
+by A.H. Greenidge, in Smith&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman
+Antiquities</i> (3rd ed., 1890), where the chief authorities are given.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The fondness of Euripides for genealogies is ridiculed by Aristophanes
+(<i>Acharnians</i>, 47).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> All the earlier Greek historians appear to have constructed their
+narratives on assumed genealogical bases. The four books of
+Hecataeus of Miletus dealt respectively with the traditions about
+Deucalion, about Heracles and the Heraclidae, about the early
+settlements in Peloponnesus, and about those in Asia Minor; he
+further made a pedigree for himself, in which his sixteenth ancestor
+was a god. The works of Hellanicus of Lesbos bore titles
+(<span class="grk" title="Deukaliôneia">&#916;&#949;&#965;&#954;&#945;&#955;&#953;&#974;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#945;</span> and the like) which sufficiently explain their nature;
+his disciple, Damastes of Sigeum, was the author of genealogical
+histories of Trojan heroes; Apollodorus of Athens made use of three
+books of <span class="grk" title="Genealogika">&#915;&#949;&#957;&#949;&#945;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#953;&#954;&#940;</span> by Acusilaus of Argos; Pherecydes of Leros
+also wrote <span class="grk" title="genealogiai">&#947;&#949;&#957;&#949;&#945;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#943;&#945;&#953;</span>. See J.A.F. Töpffer, <i>Attische Genealogie</i>
+(1889); also J.H. Schubart, <i>Quaestt. geneal. historicae</i> (1832);
+G. Marckscheffel, <i>De genealogica Graecorum poësi</i> (1840).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5k" id="ft5k" href="#fa5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The chief authority on this subject is Polybius (vi. 53); see also
+T. Mommsen, <i>Römisches Staatsrecht</i>, i. (1887), p. 442.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6k" id="ft6k" href="#fa6k"><span class="fn">6</span></a> At the funeral of Drusus the images of Aeneas, of the Alban
+kings, of Romulus, of the Sabine nobles, of Attus Clausus, and of
+&ldquo;the rest of the Claudians&rdquo; were exhibited (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> iv. 9).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7k" id="ft7k" href="#fa7k"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The Roman stemmata had, as will be seen afterwards, great
+interest for the older modern genealogists. Reference may be made
+to J. Glandorp&rsquo;s <i>Descriptio gentis Antoniae</i> (1557); to the <i>Descriptio
+gentis Juliae</i> (1576) of the same author; and to J. Hübner&rsquo;s <i>Genealogische
+Tabellen</i>. See also G.A. Ruperti&rsquo;s <i>Tabulae genealogicae
+sive stemmata nobiliss</i>. gent. Rom. (1794).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(X.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENELLI, GIOVANNI BUONAVENTURA<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1798-1868),
+German painter, was born at Berlin on the 28th of September
+1798. He was the son of Janus Genelli, a painter whose landscapes
+are still preserved in the Schloss at Berlin, and grandson
+to Joseph Genelli, a Roman embroiderer employed to found a
+school of gobelins by Frederick the Great. Buonaventura
+Genelli first took lessons from his father and then became a
+student of the Berlin academy. After serving his time in the
+guards he went with a stipend to Rome, where he lived ten years,
+a friend and assistant to Koch the landscape painter, a colleague
+of the sculptor Ernst Hähnel (1811-1891), Reinhart, Overbeck
+and Führich, all of whom made a name in art. In 1830 he was
+commissioned by Dr Härtel to adorn a villa at Leipzig with
+frescoes, but quarrelling with this patron he withdrew to Munich,
+where he earned a scanty livelihood at first, though he succeeded
+at last in acquiring repute as an illustrative and figure draughtsman.
+In 1859 he was appointed a professor at Weimar, where
+he died on the 13th of November 1868. Genelli painted few
+pictures, and it is very rare to find his canvases in public
+galleries, but there are six of his compositions in oil in the Schack
+collection at Munich. These and numerous water-colours, as
+well as designs for engravings and lithographs, reveal an artist
+of considerable power whose ideal was the antique, but who
+was also fascinated by the works of Michelangelo. Though a
+German by birth, his spirit was unlike that of Overbeck or
+Führich, whose art was reminiscent of the old masters of their
+own country. He seemed to hark back to the land of his fathers
+and endeavour to revive the traditions of the Italian Renaissance.
+Subtle in thought and powerfully conceived, his compositions
+are usually mythological, but full of matter, energetic and fiery
+in execution, and marked almost invariably by daring effects of
+foreshortening. Impeded by straitened means, the artist seems
+frequently to have drawn from imagination rather than from
+life, and much of his anatomy of muscle is in consequence
+conventional and false. But none the less Genelli merits his
+reputation as a bold and imaginative artist, and his name
+deserves to be remembered beyond the narrow limits of the
+early schools of Munich and Weimar.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENERAL<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (Lat. <i>generalis</i>, of or relating to a <i>genus</i>, kind or
+class), a term which, from its pointing to all or most of the
+members of a class, the whole of an area, &amp;c. as opposed to &ldquo;particular&rdquo;
+or to &ldquo;local,&rdquo; is hence used in various shades of meaning,
+for that which is prevalent, usual, widespread or miscellaneous,
+indefinite, vague. It has been added to the titles of various
+officials, military officers and others; thus the head of a religious
+order is the &ldquo;superior-general,&rdquo; more usually the &ldquo;general,&rdquo;
+and we find the same combination in such offices as that of
+&ldquo;accountant-general,&rdquo; &ldquo;postmaster-general,&rdquo; &ldquo;attorney-&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;solicitor-general,&rdquo; and many others, the additional word implying
+that the official in question is of superior rank, as having a wider
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page578" id="page578"></a>578</span>
+authority or sphere of activity. This is the use that accounts
+for the application of the term, as a substantive, to a military
+officer of superior rank, a &ldquo;general officer,&rdquo; or &ldquo;general,&rdquo; who
+commands or administers bodies of troops larger than a regiment,
+or consisting of more than one arm of the service (see also
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Officers</a></span>). It was towards the end of the 16th century that the
+word began to be used in its present sense as a noun, and in the
+armies of the time the &ldquo;general&rdquo; was commander-in-chief,
+the &ldquo;lieutenant-general&rdquo; commander of the horse and second
+in command of the army, and the &ldquo;major-general&rdquo; (strictly
+&ldquo;sergeant-major-general&rdquo;) commander of the foot and chief
+of the staff. Field marshals, who have now the highest rank,
+were formerly subordinate to the general officers. These titles&mdash;general,
+lieutenant-general and major-general&mdash;are still applied
+in most armies to the first, second and third grades of general
+officer, and in the French service until 1870 the chief of the staff
+of the army bore the title of major-general. In the German
+and Russian services the three grades are qualified by the addition
+of the words &ldquo;of cavalry,&rdquo; &ldquo;of infantry&rdquo; and &ldquo;of artillery.&rdquo;
+The French service possesses only two grades, &ldquo;general of
+brigade&rdquo; and &ldquo;general of division.&rdquo; The Austrian service has
+two ranks of general officers peculiar to itself, &ldquo;lieutenant
+field marshal,&rdquo; equivalent to lieutenant-general, and <i>Feldzeugmeister</i>
+(master of the ordnance), equivalent to the German
+general of infantry or artillery. There is also the rank of
+&ldquo;general of cavalry.&rdquo; The Spanish army still retains the old
+term &ldquo;captain-general.&rdquo; In the German service <i>General
+Oberst</i> (colonel-general) and <i>General Feldzeugmeister</i> (master-general
+of ordnance) are ranks intermediate between that of
+full general and that of general field marshal. It may be noted
+that during the 17th century &ldquo;general&rdquo; was not confined to a
+commanding officer of an army, and was also equivalent to
+&ldquo;admiral&rdquo;; thus when under the Protectorate the office of
+lord high admiral was put into commission, the three first commissioners,
+Blake, Edward Popham and Richard Deane, were
+styled &ldquo;generals at sea.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENERATION<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>generare</i>, to beget, procreate; <i>genus</i>,
+stock, race), the act of procreation or begetting, hence any one of
+the various methods by which plants, animals or substances are
+produced. As applied to the result of procreation, &ldquo;generation&rdquo;
+is used of the offspring of the same parents, taken as one degree
+in descent from a common ancestor, or, widely, of the body
+of living persons born at or near the same time; thus the word is
+also used of the age or period of a generation, usually taken as
+about thirty years, or three generations to a century. As a term
+in biology or physiology, generation is synonymous with the
+Gr. <span class="grk" title="biogenesis">&#946;&#953;&#959;&#947;&#941;&#957;&#949;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span> and the Ger. <i>Zeugung</i>, and may comprehend the
+whole history of the first origin and continued reproduction of
+living bodies, whether plants or animals; but it is frequently
+restricted to the sexual reproduction of animals. The subject
+may be divided into the following branches, viz.: (1) the first
+origin of life and living beings, (2) non-sexual or agamic reproduction,
+and (3) gamic or sexual reproduction. For the first two
+of these topics see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abiogenesis</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Biogenesis</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Biology</a></span>; for
+the third and more extensive division, including (1) the formation
+and fecundation of the ovum, and (2) the development of the embryo
+in different animals, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reproduction</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Embryology</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENESIS<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="genesis">&#947;&#941;&#957;&#949;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>, becoming; the term being used in
+English as a synonym for origin or process of coming into being),
+the name of the first book in the Bible, which derives its title
+from the Septuagint rendering of ch. ii. 4. It is the first of the
+five books (the Pentateuch), or, with the inclusion of Joshua, of
+the six (the Hexateuch), which cover the history of the Hebrews
+to their occupation of Canaan. The &ldquo;genesis&rdquo; of Hebrew
+history begins with records of antediluvian times: the creation of
+the world, of the first pair of human beings, and the origin of sin
+(i.-iii.), the civilization and moral degeneration of mankind, the
+history of man to the time of Noah (iv.-vi. 8), the flood (vi.
+9-ix.), the confusion of languages and the divisions of the human
+race (x.-xi.). Turning next to the descendants of Shem, the book
+deals with Abraham (xii.-xxv. 18), Isaac and Jacob (xxv. 19-xxxv.),
+the &ldquo;fathers&rdquo; of the tribes of Israel, and concludes with
+the personal history of Joseph, and the descent of his father
+Jacob (or Israel) and his brethren into the land of Egypt
+(xxxvii.-l.). The book of Genesis, as a whole, is closely connected
+with the subsequent oppression of the sons of Israel, the revelation
+of Yahweh the God of their fathers (Ex. iii. 6, 15 seq., vi. 2-8),
+the &ldquo;exodus&rdquo; of the Israelites to the land promised to their
+fathers (Ex. xiii. 5, Deut. i. 8, xxvi. 3 sqq., xxxiv. 4) and its conquest
+(Josh. i. 6, xxiv.); cf. also the summaries Neh. ix. 7 sqq.,
+Ps. cv. 6 sqq.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The words, &ldquo;these are the generations of the heavens and of the
+earth when they were created&rdquo; (ii. 4), introduce an account of the
+creation of the world, which, however, is preceded by a
+relatively later and less primitive record (i. 1-ii. 3). The
+<span class="sidenote">Analysis.</span>
+differences between the two accounts lie partly in the style and
+partly in the form and contents of the narratives. i. 1-ii. 3 is marked
+by stereotyped formulae (&ldquo;and God [<i>El&#333;h&#299;m</i>] said ... and it
+was so ... and God saw that it was good, and there was evening
+and there was morning,&rdquo; &amp;c.); it is precise and detailed, whereas
+ii. 4b-iii. is less systematic, fresher and more anthropomorphic.
+The former is cosmic, the latter is local. It is the latter which
+mentions the mysterious garden and the wonderful trees which
+Yahweh planted, and depicts Yahweh conversing with man and
+walking in the garden in the cool of the evening. The former, on
+the other hand, has an enlightened conception of <i>El&#333;h&#299;m</i>; the
+Deity, though grand, is a lifeless figure; several antique ideas
+are nevertheless preserved. The account of the creation, too, is
+different; for example, in chap. i. man and woman are created
+together, whereas in ii. man is at first alone. The naiveness of the
+story of the creation of woman is in line with the interest which
+this more popular source takes in the origin or existence of phenomena,
+customs and contemporary beliefs (the garden, the naming
+of animals, &amp;c.). The primitive record is continued in the story
+of Cain and Abel (iv.), where the old-time problem of Cain&rsquo;s wife
+and the reference to other human beings (iv. 14 seq.) gave rise in pre-critical
+days to the theory of pre-Adamites, as though Adam and Eve
+were not the only inhabitants of the earth. But all the indications
+go to show that there were at least two distinct popular narratives,
+one of which ignores the flood. Cain the murderer, doomed to be a
+wanderer, now becomes the builder of a city, and his descendants
+introduce various arts (iv. 16<i>b</i>-24).<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (See the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abel</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adam</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cain</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cosmogeny</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Enoch</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eve</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lamech</a></span>.) From the &ldquo;generations&rdquo;
+of the heavens and the earth (which one would have expected
+at the head of ch. i.) we pass to the &ldquo;generations of Adam&rdquo; (v. 1).
+The list of the &ldquo;Sethites,&rdquo; with its characteristically stereotyped
+framework, has an older parallel in iv. 25 seq. (with the origin of the
+worship of Yahweh contrast Ex. vi. 2. seq.), and a fragment from the
+same source is found in v. 29.</p>
+
+<p>After the birth of Noah the son of Lamech (v. 29, contrast iv.
+19 sqq.) comes the brief story of the demigods (vi. 1-4). It is no
+part of the account of the fall or of the flood (note verse 4 and Num.
+xiii. 33), least of all does it furnish grounds for the old view of the
+division of the human race into evil Cainites and God-fearing Sethites.
+The excerpt with its description of the fall of the angels is used to
+form a prelude to the wickedness of man and the avenging flood
+(vi. 5). Noah, the father of Ham, Shem and Japheth, appears as
+the hero in the Hebrew version of the flood (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deluge</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Noah</a></span>).
+Duplicates (vi. 5-8, 9-13) and discrepancies (vi. 19 sq. contrasted
+with vii. 2; or vii. 11, viii. 14 contrasted with viii. 8, 10, 12) point
+to the use of two sources (harmonizing passages in vii. 3, 7-9). The
+later narrative, which begins with &ldquo;the generations&rdquo; of Noah
+(vi. 9-22; vii. 6, 11, 13-17<i>a</i>, 18-21, 24; viii. 1-2<i>a</i>, 3<i>b</i>-5, 13<i>a</i>, 14-19;
+ix. 1-17), is almost complete; note the superscription and the
+length of the flood (365 days; according to other notices the flood
+apparently lasted only 61 or 68 days). In the earlier source Noah
+collects seven pairs of clean animals, one of each kind; he sacrifices
+after leaving the ark, and Yahweh promises not to curse the ground
+or to smite living things again. But in the later, he takes only one
+pair, and subsequently El&#333;h&#299;m blesses Noah and makes a covenant
+never again to destroy all flesh by a flood.<a name="fa2l" id="fa2l" href="#ft2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The covenant (characteristic
+of the latest narratives in Genesis) also prohibits the shedding
+of blood (cf. the story of Cain and Abel in the earlier source). Mankind
+is now made to descend from the three sons of Noah. The
+older story, however, continues with another step in the history of
+civilization, and to Noah is ascribed the cult of the vine, the abuse
+of which leads to the utterance of a curse upon Canaan and a blessing
+upon Shem and Japheth (ix. 20-27). The table of nations in x.
+(&ldquo;the generations of the sons of Noah&rdquo;) preserves several signs of
+composite origin (contrast <i>e.g.</i> x. 7 with <i>vv</i>. 28 sq., Ludim <i>v</i>. 13 with
+<i>v.</i> 22, and the Canaanite families v. 16 with the dispersion &ldquo;afterwards,&rdquo;
+<i>v.</i> 18, &amp;c.); see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canaan</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Genealogy</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nimrod</a></span>. The
+history of the primitive age concludes with the story of the tower
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page579" id="page579"></a>579</span>
+of Babel (xi. 1-9), which, starting from a popular etymology of Babel
+(&ldquo;gate of God&rdquo;), as though from Balbel (&ldquo;confusion&rdquo;), tells how
+Yahweh feared lest mankind should become too powerful (cf. iii. 22-24),
+and seeks to explain the origin of the numerous languages in use.
+It is independent of x., which already assumes a confusion of tongues
+(<i>vv.</i> 5, 20, 31), the existence of Babel (<i>v.</i> 10), and gives a different
+account of the rise of the various races. This incident in the journey
+eastwards (xi. 2) is equally independent of the story of the Deluge
+and of Noah&rsquo;s family (see Wellhausen, <i>Prolegomena</i>, p. 316). The
+continuation of the chapter, &ldquo;the generations of Shem&rdquo; (xi. 10-27,
+see the Shemite genealogy in x. 21 sqq., and contrast the ages with
+vi. 3), is in the same stereotyped style as ch. v., and prepares the
+way for the history of the patriarchs.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;generations of Terah&rdquo; (xi. 27) lead to the introduction of
+the first great patriarch Abraham (<i>q.v.</i>).<a name="fa3l" id="fa3l" href="#ft3l"><span class="sp">3</span></a> There is a twofold account
+of his migration to Bethel with his nephew Lot; the more statistical
+form in xi. 31 sq., xii. 4<i>b</i>, 5 belongs to the latest source. The statement
+that the Canaanite was then in the land (xii. 6, cf. xiii. 7) points
+to a time long after the Israelite conquest, when readers needed
+such a reminder (so Hobbes in his <i>Leviathan</i>, 1651). A famine forces
+him to descend into Egypt, where a story of Sarai (here at least 65
+years of age; see xii. 4, xvii. 17) is one of three variants of a similar
+peculiar incident (cf. xx. 1-17, xxvi. 6-14). The passage is an insertion
+(xii. 10-xiii. 2; xii. 9, xiii. 3 seq. being harmonistic). The
+thread is resumed in the account of the separation of the patriarch
+and his nephew Lot, who divide the land between them. Abraham
+occupies Canaan, but moves south to Hebron, which, according to
+Josh. xiv. 15, was formerly known as Kirjath-Arba. Lot dwells in
+the basin of the Jordan, and his history is continued in the story
+of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (xviii.-xix.; Hos. xi. 8,
+Deut. xxix. 23 speak of Admah and Zeboim). Lot is saved and
+becomes the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites, who are
+thus closely related to the descendants of Abraham (note xix. 37,
+&ldquo;unto this day&rdquo;). The great war with Amraphel and Chedorlaomer&mdash;the
+defeat of a world-conquering army by 318 men&mdash;with the
+episode of Melchizedek, noteworthy for the reference to Jerusalem
+(xiv. 18, cf. Ps. lxxvi. 2), has nothing in common with the context
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abraham</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Melchizedek</a></span>). It treats as individuals the place-names
+Mamre and Eshcol (xiv. 13, cf. Num. xiii. 23 seq.), and by
+mentioning Dan (<i>v.</i> 14) anticipates the events in Josh. xix. 47, Judg.
+xviii. 29.<a name="fa4l" id="fa4l" href="#ft4l"><span class="sp">4</span></a> A cycle of narratives deals with the promise that the
+barren Sarai (Sarah) should bear a child whose descendants would
+inhabit the land of Canaan. The importance of the tradition for the
+history of Israel explains both the prominence given to it (cf. already
+xii. 7, xiii. 14-17) and their present complicated character (due to
+repeated revision). The older narratives comprise (<i>a</i>) the promise
+that Abraham shall have a son of his own flesh (xv.)&mdash;the account
+is composite;<a name="fa5l" id="fa5l" href="#ft5l"><span class="sp">5</span></a> (<i>b</i>) the birth of Ishmael, Abraham&rsquo;s son by Hagar,
+their exile, and Yahweh&rsquo;s promise (xvi., with a separate framework
+in <i>vv.</i> 1<i>a.</i> 3, 15 seq.)&mdash;before the birth of Isaac; and (<i>c</i>) the promise
+of a son to Sarai (xviii. 1-15), now combined with the story of Lot
+and the overthrow of Sodom. The latest source (xvii.) is marked
+by the solemn covenant between Yahweh and Abraham, the revelation
+of God Almighty (El-Shaddai, cf. Ex. vi. 3), and the institution
+of circumcision (otherwise treated in Ex. iv. 26, Josh. v. 2 seq.).
+The more elevated character of this source as contrasted with xv.
+and xviii. is as striking as the difference of religious tone in the two
+accounts of the creation (above). Abraham now travels thence
+(xx. 1, Hebron, see xviii. 1), and his adventure in the land of Abimelech,
+king of Gerar (xx.), is a duplicate of xii. (above). It is continued
+in xxi. 22-34, which has a close parallel in the life of Isaac
+(xxvi., below). Isaac is born in accordance with the divine promise
+(xviii. 10 at Hebron); the scene is the south of Palestine. The
+story of the dismissal of Hagar and Ishmael, and the revelation
+(xxi. 8-21) cannot be separated from xvi. 4-14, where <i>vv.</i> 9 seq. are
+intended to harmonize the passages. Although about sixteen years
+intervene (see xvi. 16; xxi. 5, 8), Ishmael is a young child who has
+to be carried (xxi. 15), but the Hebrew text of xxi. 14 (not, however,
+the Septuagint) endeavours to remove the discrepancy.<a name="fa6l" id="fa6l" href="#ft6l"><span class="sp">6</span></a> &ldquo;After
+these things&rdquo; comes the offering of Isaac which implicitly annuls
+the sacrifice of the first-born, a not unfamiliar rite in Palestine as
+the denunciations prove (cf. Ezek. xvi. 20 seq., xx. 26; Mic. vi. 7;
+Is. lvii. 5), and thus marks an advance, <i>e.g.</i> upon the story of
+Jephthah&rsquo;s daughter (Judg. xi.). The story may be contrasted with
+the Phoenician account of the sacrifice by Cronos (to be identified
+with El) of his only son, which practically justified the horrid custom.
+The detailed account of the purchase of the cave of Machpelah
+(contrast the brevity of xxxiii. 19) is of great importance for the
+traditions of the patriarchs, and, like the references to the death of
+Sarah and Abraham, belongs to the latest source (xxiii., xxv. 7-11<i>a</i>).<a name="fa7l" id="fa7l" href="#ft7l"><span class="sp">7</span></a>
+The idyllic picture of life in xxiv. presupposes that Isaac is sole heir
+(<i>v.</i> 36); since this is first stated in xxv. 5, it is probable that xxv. 5,
+11b (and perhaps <i>vv.</i> 6, 18) are out of place. It is noteworthy that
+the district is Abraham&rsquo;s native place (xxiv. 4, 7, 10; contrast the
+Babylonian home specified in xi. 28, 31; xv. 7). In xxv. 1 sqq.
+Abraham takes as wife (but <i>concubine</i>, 1 Chron. i. 32 seq.) Keturah
+(&ldquo;incense&rdquo;) and becomes the father of various Arab tribes, <i>e.g.</i>
+Sheba and Dedan (grandsons of Cush in x. 7).</p>
+
+<p>After &ldquo;the generations of Ishmael&rdquo; (xxv. 12 sqq.) the narrative
+turns to &ldquo;the generations of Isaac&rdquo; (xxv. 19 sqq.). The story of
+the events at the court of Abimelech (xxvi.) finds a parallel in the
+now disjointed xx., xxi. 22-34; note the new explanation of Beersheba,
+the reference in xxvi. 1 to the parallel story in xii., the absence
+of allusion to xx., and the apparent editorial references to xxi. in
+<i>vv.</i> 15, 18. On the whole, the story of Isaac&rsquo;s wife at Gerar is briefer
+and not so elevated as that of Sarah, but the parallel to xxi. 22-34
+is more detailed. The birth of Esau and Jacob (xxv. 21-34) introduces
+the story of Jacob&rsquo;s craft when Isaac is on the point of death
+(xxvii.). Jacob flees to Laban at Haran to escape Esau&rsquo;s hatred
+(xxvii. 41-45); but, according to the latest source (P), he is charged
+by Isaac to go to Paddan-Aram, and take a wife there, and his father
+transfers to him the blessing of Abraham (xxvii. 46-xxviii. 9). On
+his way to Haran he stops at Bethel (formerly Luz, according to
+Judg. i. 22-26), where a vision prompts him to accept the God of the
+place should he return in peace to his father&rsquo;s home (xxviii. 10-22).
+He passes to the land of &ldquo;the children of the east&rdquo; (xxix. 1), and
+the scenes which follow are scarcely situated at Haran, the famous
+and ancient seat of the worship of the moon-god, but in the desert.
+Here he resides fifteen years or more, and by the daughters of Laban
+and their handmaidens becomes the &ldquo;father&rdquo; of the tribes of Israel.
+There are numerous traces of composition from different sources,
+but a satisfactory analysis is impossible.<a name="fa8l" id="fa8l" href="#ft8l"><span class="sp">8</span></a> The flight of Jacob and
+his household (from Paddan-Aram, xxxi. 18 P) leads over &ldquo;the
+River&rdquo; (<i>v.</i> 21, <i>i.e.</i> the Euphrates); though the seven days&rsquo; journey
+of this concourse of men and cattle suggests that he came to Gilead,
+not from Haran (300 m. distant), but from some nearer locality.
+This is to be taken with the evidence against Haran already noticed,
+with the use of the term &ldquo;children of the east&rdquo; (xxix. 1; cf. Jer.
+xlix. 28; Ezek. xxv. 4, 10), and with the details of Laban&rsquo;s kindred
+(xxii. 20-24).<a name="fa9l" id="fa9l" href="#ft9l"><span class="sp">9</span></a> The arrival at Mahanaim (&ldquo;[two?] camps&rdquo;) gives
+rise to specific allusions to the meaning of the name (xxxii. 1 seq.,
+7-12, 13-21); cf. also the plays upon Jabbok, Israel and Peniel in
+xxxii. 22-32. He meets Esau (xxxii. 3-21, xxxiii. 1-16, another
+reference to Peniel, &ldquo;face of God,&rdquo; in <i>v.</i> 10), but they part. Jacob
+now comes to Shechem &ldquo;in peace&rdquo; (cf. the phrase in xxviii. 21),
+where he buys land and erects an altar (xxxiii. 18-20, cf. Abraham
+in xii. 6 seq.). There is a remarkable story of the violation of his
+daughter Dinah by Shechem, the son of Hamor the Hivite (xxxiv.).
+It has been heavily revised; note the alternating prominence of
+Hamor and Shechem, the condemnation of Simeon and Levi for their
+vengeance (cf. the curse in xlix. 5-7), the destruction of the city
+Shechem by all the sons of Jacob, and the survival of the Hamorites
+as a family centuries later (xxxiii. 19, Judg. ix. 28). The narrative
+continues with Jacob&rsquo;s journey to Bethel, the death of Deborah
+(who accompanied Rebekah to Palestine 140 years previously, see
+xxiv. 59, and the latest source in xxv. 20, xxxv. 28), the death of
+Rachel (xxxv. 16-20, contrast xxxvii. 10), and ceases abruptly in the
+middle of a sentence (xxxv. 22, but see xlix. 3-4). The latest source
+(xxxv. 9-13, 15, 22<i>b</i>-29) gives another account of the origin of the
+names Israel (cf. xxxii. 28) and Bethel (cf. xxviii. 19), and the
+genealogy wrongly includes Benjamin among the sons born outside
+Palestine (<i>vv.</i> 24-26). In narrating Jacob&rsquo;s leisurely return to Isaac
+at Hebron, the writers quite ignore the many years which have
+elapsed since he left his father at the point of death in Beersheba
+(xxvii. 1, 2, 7, 10, 41).</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The generations of Esau, the same is Edom,&rdquo; provide much
+valuable material for the study of Israel&rsquo;s rival (xxxvi.). The
+chapter gives yet another account of the separation of Jacob and
+Esau (with <i>vv.</i> 6-8, cf. Abraham and Lot, xiii. 5 seq.), and describes
+the latter&rsquo;s withdrawal to Seir (cf. already xxxii. 3; xxxiii. 14, 16).
+It includes lists of diverse origin (<i>e.g.</i> <i>vv.</i> 2-5, contrast xxvi. 34,
+xxviii. 9); various &ldquo;dukes&rdquo; (R.V. marg. &ldquo;chiefs&rdquo;), or rather
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page580" id="page580"></a>580</span>
+&ldquo;thousands&rdquo; or &ldquo;clans&rdquo;; and also the &ldquo;sons&rdquo; of Seir the Horite,
+<i>i.e.</i> Horite clans (<i>vv.</i> 20 seq. and <i>vv.</i> 29 seq.). A summary of Edomite
+kings is ascribed to the period before the Israelite monarchy (<i>vv.</i>
+31-39), and the record concludes with the &ldquo;dukes&rdquo; of Esau, the
+father of the Edomites (<i>vv.</i> 40-43, cf. names in <i>vv.</i> 10-14, 15-19).<a name="fa10l" id="fa10l" href="#ft10l"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Finally, Genesis turns from the patriarchs to the &ldquo;generations of
+Jacob&rdquo; (xxxvii. 2), and we have stories of the &ldquo;sons,&rdquo; the ancestors
+of the tribes. (In xxxiv. the incidents which primarily concerned
+Simeon and Levi alone have, however, been adjusted to the general
+history of Jacob and his family.) The first place is given to Joseph
+(xxxvii.), although xxxviii. crowds the early history of the family
+of Judah into the twenty-two years between xxxvii. 2 and Jacob&rsquo;s
+descent into Egypt (see xli. 46, 47; xlv. 6).<a name="fa11l" id="fa11l" href="#ft11l"><span class="sp">11</span></a> In xxxvii., xxxix. sqq.
+we have an admirable specimen of writing quite distinct in stamp
+from the patriarchal stories. The romance which has here been
+utilized shows an acquaintance with Egypt; the narratives are
+discursive, not laconic, everything is more detailed, and more under
+the influence of literary art. The Reuben and Simeon which appear
+in it are not the characters which we meet in xxxiv., xxxv. 22, or in
+the poem xlix. 3-7; and the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh do
+not scruple to claim ancestry from Joseph and the daughter of an
+Egyptian priest at the seat of the worship of the sun-god (xli. 45).
+The narratives are composite. Joseph incurs the ill-will of his
+brethren because of Israel&rsquo;s partiality or because of his significant
+dreams. He is at Shechem or at Dothan; and when the brothers
+seek to slay him, Judah proposes that he should be sold to Ishmaelites,
+or Reuben suggests that he should be cast into a pit, where Midianites
+find and kidnap him (xxxvii., cf. xl. 15). The latter sell him to the
+eunuch Potiphar, but he appears in the service of a married householder
+(xxxix., the second clause of v. 1 harmonizes). Among other
+signs of dual origin are the alternation of &ldquo;Jacob&rdquo; and &ldquo;Israel,&rdquo;
+and the prominence of Judah (xliii. 3, 8; xliv. 14, 18) or of Reuben
+(xlii. 22, 37). The money is found in a &ldquo;bag&rdquo; as the brothers
+encamp (xlii. 27, 28<i>a</i>; xliii.), or in a &ldquo;sack&rdquo; when they reach home
+(xlii. 8-26, 29-35, 28<i>b</i>, 36 sq.). When Israel and his family descend
+into Egypt, the latest source gives a detailed list which agrees in
+the main with the Israelite subdivisions (xlvi. 6-27, cf. Num. xxvi.
+and 1 Chron. ii.-viii.). The families dwell in the land of Goshen,
+east of the Delta, &ldquo;for every shepherd is an abomination unto the
+Egyptians&rdquo; (xlv. 10; xlvi. 28-34; xlvii. 1-6); or they are in
+the &ldquo;land of Rameses&rdquo; (xlvii. 11, and Septuagint in xlvi. 28);<a name="fa12l" id="fa12l" href="#ft12l"><span class="sp">12</span></a>
+Joseph&rsquo;s policy during the famine is next described (xlvii. 13-26),
+although it would have been more in place after xli. (see <i>ib.</i> 34).
+There are several difficulties in Jacob&rsquo;s blessing of the sons of Joseph
+(xlviii.).<a name="fa13l" id="fa13l" href="#ft13l"><span class="sp">13</span></a> The blessing in xlix. is a collection of poetical passages
+praising or blaming the various tribes, and must certainly
+date after the Israelite settlement in Palestine; see further the
+articles on the tribes. Jacob&rsquo;s dying instructions to Joseph (xlvii.
+29-31) are continued in l. 1 sqq., his charge to his sons (xlix. 28
+sqq., P) in l. 12 seq. It is significant that Jacob&rsquo;s body is taken to
+Palestine, but the brethren return to Egypt; in spite of a possible
+allusion to the famine in <i>v.</i> 21, the late chronological scheme would
+imply that it had long ceased (see xlv. 6, xlvii. 28). The book closes
+with the death of Joseph about fifty years later, after the birth of
+the children of Machir, who himself was a contemporary of Moses
+forty years after the Exodus (Num. xxxii. 39-41). Joseph&rsquo;s body
+is embalmed, but it is not until the concluding chapter of the book
+of Joshua (xxiv. 32) that his bones find their last resting-place.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Only on the assumption that the book of Genesis is a composite
+work is it possible to explain the duplication of events, the varying
+use of the divine names <i>Yahweh</i> and <i>El&#333;h&#299;m</i>, the
+linguistic and stylistic differences, the internal intricacies
+<span class="sidenote">A composite work.</span>
+of the subject matter, and the differing standpoints
+as regards tradition, chronology, morals and
+religion.<a name="fa14l" id="fa14l" href="#ft14l"><span class="sp">14</span></a> The cumulative effect of the whole evidence is too
+strong to be withstood, and already in the 17th century it was
+recognized that the book was of composite origin. Immense
+labour has been spent in the critical analysis of the contents, but
+it is only since the work of Graf (1866) and Wellhausen (1878) that
+a satisfactory literary hypothesis has been found which explained
+the most obvious intricacies. The Graf-Wellhausen literary
+theory has gained the assent of almost all trained and unbiased
+biblical scholars, it has not been shaken by the more recent light
+from external evidence, and no alternative theory has as yet been
+produced. The internal features of Genesis demand some formulated
+theory, more precise than the indefinite concessions of
+the 17th century, beyond which the opponents of modern literary
+criticism scarcely advance, and the Graf-Wellhausen theory, in
+spite of the numerous difficulties which it leaves untouched, is
+the only adequate starting-point for the study of the book.
+According to this, Genesis is a post-exilic work composed of a
+post-exilic priestly source (P) and non-priestly earlier sources
+which differ markedly from P in language, style and religious
+standpoint, but much less markedly from one and another.<a name="fa15l" id="fa15l" href="#ft15l"><span class="sp">15</span></a>
+These sources can be traced elsewhere in the Pentateuch and
+Joshua, and P itself is related to the post-exilic works Chronicles,
+Ezra and Nehemiah. In its <i>present</i> form Genesis is an indispensable
+portion of the biblical history, and consequently its
+literary growth cannot be viewed apart from that of the
+books which follow. On internal grounds it appears that the
+Pentateuch and Joshua, as they now read, virtually come in
+between an older history by &ldquo;Deuteronomic&rdquo; compilers (easily
+recognizable in Judges and Kings), and the later treatment of the
+monarchy in Chronicles, where the influence of the circle which
+produced P and the present Mosaic legislation is quite discernible.
+There have been stages where earlier extant sources have been
+cut down, adjusted or revised by compilers who have incorporated
+fresh material, and it is the later compilers of Genesis who have
+made the book a fairly knit whole. The technical investigation
+of the <i>literary</i> problems (especially the extent of the earlier
+sources) is a work of great complexity, and, for ordinary purposes,
+it is more important to obtain a preliminary appreciation of the
+general features of the contents of Genesis.</p>
+
+<p>That the records of the pre-historic ages in Gen. i.-xi. are at
+complete variance with modern science and archaeological
+research is unquestionable.<a name="fa16l" id="fa16l" href="#ft16l"><span class="sp">16</span></a> But although it is impossible
+to regard them any longer either as genuine
+<span class="sidenote">Value of traditions.</span>
+history or as subjects for an allegorical interpretation
+(which would prove the accuracy of <i>any</i> record) they are of
+distinct value as human documents. They reflect the ideas
+and thoughts of the Hebrews, they illustrate their conceptions of
+God and the universe, and they furnish material for a comparison
+of the moral development of the Hebrews with that of other
+early races. Some of the traditions are closely akin to those
+current in ancient Babylonia, but a careful and impartial comparison
+at once illustrates in a striking manner the relative
+moral and spiritual superiority of our writers. On these subjects
+see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cosmogony</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deluge</a></span>.<a name="fa17l" id="fa17l" href="#ft17l"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The records of the patriarchal age, xii.-l. are very variously
+estimated, although the great majority of scholars agree that
+they are not contemporary and that they cannot be used, as they
+stand, for pre-Mosaic times. Apart from the ordinary arguments
+of historical criticism, it is to be noticed that external evidence
+does not support the assumption that the records preserve
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page581" id="page581"></a>581</span>
+genuine pre-Mosaic history. There are no grounds for any
+arbitrary distinction between the &ldquo;pre-historic&rdquo; pre-Abrahamic
+age and the later age. External evidence, which recognizes no
+universal deluge and no dispersal of mankind in the third millennium
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, throws its own light upon the opening centuries of
+the second. It has revealed conditions which are not reflected
+in Genesis, and important facts upon which the book is silent&mdash;unless,
+indeed, there is a passing allusion to the great Babylonian
+monarch Khammurabi in the Amraphel of Gen. xiv. Any careful
+perusal of modern attempts to recover historical facts or an
+historical outline from the book will show how very inadequate
+the material proves to be, and the reconstructions will be found to
+depend upon an interpretation of the narratives which is often
+liberal and not rarely precarious, and to imply such reshaping and
+rewriting of the presumed facts that the cautious reader can place
+little reliance on them. Whatever future research may bring, it
+cannot remove the <i>internal</i> peculiarities which combine to show
+that Genesis preserves, not literal history, but popular traditions
+of the past. External evidence has proved the antiquity of
+various elements, but not that of the form or context in which
+they now appear; and the difference is an important one. We
+have now a background upon which to view the book, and, on the
+one hand, it has become obvious that the records preserve&mdash;as is
+only to be expected&mdash;Oriental customs, beliefs and modes of
+thought. But it has not been demonstrated that these are
+exclusively pre-Mosaic. On the other hand, a better acquaintance
+with the ancient political, sociological and religious conditions
+has made it increasingly difficult to interpret the records
+as a whole literally, or even to find a place in pre-Mosaic Palestine
+for the lives of the patriarchs as they are depicted.<a name="fa18l" id="fa18l" href="#ft18l"><span class="sp">18</span></a> Nevertheless,
+though one cannot look to Genesis for the history of the early part
+of the second millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the study of what was thought of
+the past, proves in this, as in many other cases, to be more
+instructive than the facts of the past, and it is distinctly more
+important for the biblical student and the theologian to understand
+the thought of the ages immediately preceding the foundation
+of Judaism in the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> than the actual history of
+many centuries earlier.</p>
+
+<p>A noteworthy feature is the frequent <i>personification</i> of peoples,
+tribes or clans (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Genealogy</a></span>: <i>Biblical</i>). Midian (<i>i.e.</i> the
+Midianites) is a son of Abraham; Canaan is a son of
+Ham (ix. 22), and Cush the son of Ham is the father
+<span class="sidenote">Fusion of diverse features.</span>
+of Ramah and grandfather of the famous S. Arabian
+state Sheba and the traders of Dedan (x. 6 sq., cf.
+Ezek. xxvii. 20-22). Bethuel the father of Rebekah is the brother
+of the tribal names Uz and Buz (xxii. 21 sqq., cf. Jer. xxv. 20, 23).
+Jacob is otherwise known as Israel and becomes the father of
+the tribes of Israel; Joseph is the father of Ephraim and
+Manasseh, and incidents in the life of Judah lead to the birth
+of Perez and Zerah, Judaean clans. This personification is
+entirely natural to the Oriental, and though &ldquo;primitive&rdquo; is not
+necessarily an ancient trait.<a name="fa19l" id="fa19l" href="#ft19l"><span class="sp">19</span></a> It gives rise to what may be
+termed the &ldquo;prophetical interpretation of history&rdquo; (S.R.
+Driver, <i>Genesis</i>, p. 111), where the character, fortunes or history
+of the apparent individual are practically descriptive of the
+people or tribe which, according to tradition, is named after or
+descended from him. The utterance of Noah over Canaan,
+Shem and Japheth (ix. 25 sqq.), of Isaac over Esau and Jacob
+(xxvii.), of Jacob over his sons (xlix.) or grandsons (xlviii.),
+would have no meaning to Israelites unless they had some connexion
+with and interest for contemporary life and thought.
+Herein lies the force of the description of the wild and independent
+Ishmael (xvi. 12), the &ldquo;father&rdquo; of certain well-known tribes
+(xxv. 13-15); or the contrast between the skilful hunter Esau
+and the quiet and respectable Jacob (xxv. 27), and between the
+tiller Cain who becomes the typical nomad and the pastoral Abel
+(iv. 1-15). The interest of the struggles between Jacob and
+Esau lay, not in the history of individuals of the distant past,
+but in the fact that the names actually represented Israel and
+its near rival Edom. These features are in entire accordance
+with Oriental usage and give expression to current belief, existing
+relationships, or to a poetical foreshadowing of historical vicissitudes.
+But in the effort to understand them as they were
+originally understood it is very obvious that this method of
+interpretation can be pressed too far. It would be precarious
+to insist that the entrances into Palestine of Abraham and Jacob
+(or Israel) typified two distinct immigrations. The separation
+of Abraham from Lot (cf. Lotan, an Edomite name), of Isaac
+from Hagar-Ishmael, or of Jacob from Esau-Edom scarcely
+points to the relative antiquity of the origin of these non-Israelite
+peoples who, to judge from the evidence, were closely
+related. Or, if the &ldquo;sons&rdquo; of Jacob had Aramaean mothers,
+to prove that those which are derived from the wives were upon
+a higher level than the &ldquo;sons&rdquo; of the concubines is more difficult
+than to allow that certain of the tribes must have contained
+some element of Aramaean blood (cf. 1 Chron. vii. 14, and see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Asher</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gad</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manasseh</a></span>). Some of the names are clearly
+not those of known clans or tribes (<i>e.g.</i> Abraham, Isaac), and
+many of the details of the narratives obviously have no natural
+ethnological meaning. Stories of heroic ancestors and of tribal
+eponyms intermingle; personal, tribal and national traits are
+interwoven. The entrance of Jacob or Israel with his sons
+suggests that of the children of Israel. The story of Simeon
+and Levi at Shechem is clearly not that of two individuals,
+sons of the patriarch Israel; in fact the story actually uses the
+term &ldquo;wrought folly in Israel&rdquo; (cf. Jud. xx. 6, 10), and the
+individual Shechem, the son of Hamor, cannot be separated
+from the city, the scene of the incidents. Yet Jacob&rsquo;s life with
+Laban has many purely individual traits. And, further, there
+intervenes a remarkable passage with an account of his conflict
+with the divine being who fears the dawn and is unwilling to
+reveal his name. In a few verses the &ldquo;wrestling&rdquo; (&rsquo;<i>-b -&#7731;</i>) of
+Jacob (<i>y&#259;&rsquo;&#259;q&#333;b</i>) is associated with the Jabbok (<i>yabb&#333;q</i>); his
+&ldquo;striving&rdquo; explains his name Israel; at Peniel he sees &ldquo;the
+face of God,&rdquo; and when touched on his vulnerable spot&mdash;the
+hollow of the thigh&mdash;he is lamed, hence &ldquo;the children of Israel
+eat not the sinew of the hip which is upon the hollow of the
+thigh unto this day&rdquo; (xxxii. 24-32). Other examples of the fusion
+of different features can be readily found. Three divine beings
+appear to Abraham at the sacred tree of Hebron, and when the
+birth of Isaac (from <i>&#7779;&#257;&#7717;aq</i>, &ldquo;laugh&rdquo;) is foretold, the account of
+Sarah&rsquo;s behaviour is merely a popular and trivial story suggested
+by the child&rsquo;s name (xviii. 12-15; see also xvii. 17, xxi. 6, 9).
+An extremely fine passage then describes the patriarch&rsquo;s intercession
+for Sodom and Gomorrah, and the narrative passes on
+to the catastrophe which explains the Dead Sea and its desert
+region and has parallels elsewhere (<i>e.g.</i> the Greek legend of Zeus
+and Hermes in Phrygia). Lot escapes to Zoar, the name gives
+rise to the pun on the &ldquo;little&rdquo; city (xix. 20), and his wife, on
+looking back, becomes one of those pillars of salt which still
+invite speculation. Finally the names of his children Moab and
+Ammon are explained by an incident when he is a cave-dweller
+on a mountain.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>To primitive minds which speculated upon the &ldquo;why and wherefore&rdquo;
+of what they saw around them, the narratives of Genesis
+afforded an answer. They preserve, in fact, some of the popular
+philosophy and belief of the Hebrews. They furnish what must
+have been a satisfactory origin of the names Edom, Moab and Ammon,
+Mahanaim and Succoth, Bethel, Beersheba, &amp;c. They explain why
+Shechem, Bethel and Beersheba were ancient sanctuaries (see further
+below); why the serpent writhes along the ground (iii. 14); and
+why the hip sinew might not be eaten (xxxii. 32). To these and a
+hundred other questions the national and tribal stories&mdash;of which
+no doubt only a few have survived, and of which other forms, earlier
+or later, more crude or more refined, were doubtless current&mdash;furnish
+an evidently adequate answer. Myth and legend, fact and fiction,
+the common stock of oral tradition, have been handed down, and
+thus constitute one of the most valuable sources for popular Hebrew
+thought.</p>
+
+<p>The book is not to be judged from any one-sided estimate of its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page582" id="page582"></a>582</span>
+contents. By the side of much that seems trivial, and even non-moral&mdash;for
+the patriarchs themselves are not saints&mdash;it is noteworthy
+how frequently the narratives are didactic. The characteristic
+sense of collective responsibility, which appears more incidentally
+in xx. 7, is treated with striking intensity in a passage (xviii. 23-33)
+which uses the legend of Sodom and Gomorrah as a vehicle for the
+statement of a familiar problem (cf. Ezek. xviii., Ps. lxxiii., Job).
+It will be observed that interviews with divine beings presented as
+little difficulty to the primitive minds of old as to the modern
+native; even the idea of intercourse of supernatural beings with
+mortals (vi. 1-4) is to-day equally intelligible. The modern untutored
+native has a not dissimilar undeveloped and childlike
+attitude towards the divine, a naive theology and a simple cultus.
+The most circumstantial tales are told of imaginary figures, and
+the most incredible details clothe the lives of the historical heroes
+of the past. So abundant is the testimony of modern travellers to
+the extent to which Eastern custom and thought elucidate the
+interpretation of the Bible, that it is very important to notice
+those features which illustrate Genesis. &ldquo;The Oriental,&rdquo; writes
+S.I. Curtiss (<i>Bibl. sacra</i>, Jan. 1901, pp. 103 sqq.), &ldquo;is least of all a
+scientific historian. He is the prince of story-tellers, narratives,
+real and imaginative, spring from his lips, which are the truest
+portraiture of composite rather than individual Oriental life, though
+narrated under forms of individual experience.&rdquo; There are, therefore,
+many preliminary points which combine to show that the
+critical student cannot isolate the book from Oriental life and
+thought; its uniqueness lies in the manner in which the material
+has been shaped and the use to which it has been put.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Book of Jubilees (not earlier than the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+presents the history in another form. It retains some of the
+canonical matter, often with considerable reshaping,
+omits many details (especially those to which exception
+<span class="sidenote">Questions of date.</span>
+could be taken), and adds much that is novel. The
+chronological system of the latest source in Genesis becomes an
+elaborate reckoning of heavenly origin. Written under the
+obvious influence of later religious aims, it is especially valuable
+because one can readily compare the two methods of presenting
+the old traditions.<a name="fa20l" id="fa20l" href="#ft20l"><span class="sp">20</span></a> There is the same kind of personification,
+fresh examples of the &ldquo;prophetical interpretation of history,&rdquo;
+and by the side of the older &ldquo;primitive&rdquo; thought are ideas
+which can only belong to this later period. In each case we have
+merely a selection of current traditional lore. For example,
+Gen. vi. 1-4 mentions the marriage of divine beings with the
+daughters of men and the birth of Neph&#299;l&#299;m or giants (cf. Num.
+xiii. 33). Later allusions to this myth (<i>e.g.</i> Baruch iii. 26-28,
+Book of Enoch vi. sqq., 2 Peter ii. 4, &amp;c.) are not based upon this
+passage; the fragment itself is all that remains of some more
+organic written myth which, as is well-known, has parallels
+among other peoples.<a name="fa21l" id="fa21l" href="#ft21l"><span class="sp">21</span></a> Old myths underlie the account of the
+creation and the garden of Eden, and traces of other versions
+or forms appear elsewhere in the Old Testament. Again, the
+Old Testament throws no light upon the redemption of Abraham
+(Is. xxix. 22), although the Targums and other sources profess
+to be well-informed. The isolated reference to Jacob&rsquo;s conquest
+of Shechem in Gen. xlviii. 22 must have belonged to another
+context, and later writings give in a later and thoroughly incredible
+form allied traditions. In Hosea xii. 4, Jacob&rsquo;s wrestling
+is mentioned before the scene at Bethel (Gen. xxxii. 24 sqq.,
+xxviii. 11 sqq.). The overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah is
+described in Genesis (xviii. seq.), but Hosea refers only to that
+of Admah and Zeboim (xi. 8, cf. Deut. xxix. 23, Gen. x. 19)&mdash;different
+versions of the great catastrophe were doubtless current.
+Consequently investigation must start with the particular
+details which happen to be preserved, and these not necessarily
+in their original or in their only form. Since the antiquity of
+elements of tradition is independent of the shape in which they
+appear before us, a careful distinction must be drawn between
+those details which do not admit of being dated or located and
+those which do. There is evidence for the existence of the
+<i>names</i> Abram, Jacob and Joseph previous to 900 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but
+this does not prove the antiquity of the present narratives
+encircling them. Babylonian tablets of the creation date from
+the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but their contents are many centuries
+earlier (viz. the age of Khammurabi), whereas the Phoenician
+myths of the origin of things are preserved in a late form by the
+late writers Damascius and Philo of Byblus. Gen. xiv., which
+may preserve some knowledge of the reign of Khammurabi, is
+on internal literary grounds of the post-exilic age, and it is at
+least a coincidence that the Babylonian texts, often quoted in
+support of the genuineness of the narrative, belong to about the
+same period and use early Babylonian history for purely didactic
+purposes.<a name="fa22l" id="fa22l" href="#ft22l"><span class="sp">22</span></a> In general, just as the Book of Jubilees, while
+presenting many elements of old tradition, betrays on decisive
+internal grounds an age later than Genesis itself, so, in turn,
+there is sufficient conclusive evidence that Genesis in its present
+form includes older features, but belongs to the age to which
+(on quite independent grounds) the rest of the Pentateuch must
+be ascribed.</p>
+
+<p>Popular tradition often ignores events of historical importance,
+or, as repeated experience shows, will represent them in such a
+form that the true historical kernel could never have
+been recovered without some external clue. The
+<span class="sidenote">Historical backgrounds.</span>
+absence of definite references to the events of the
+Israelite monarchy does not necessarily point to the
+priority of the traditions in Genesis or their later date. Nevertheless,
+some allusion to national fortunes is reflected in the exaltation
+of Jacob (Israel) over Esau (Edom), and in the promise that
+the latter should break the yoke from his neck.<a name="fa23l" id="fa23l" href="#ft23l"><span class="sp">23</span></a> Israelite kings
+are foreshadowed (xvii. 6, xxxv. 11, P), and Israel&rsquo;s kingdom has
+the ideal limits as ascribed to Solomon (xv. 18, see 1 Kings iv. 21;
+but cf. art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solomon</a></span>). Judah is promised a world-wide king
+(xlix. 8-10), though elsewhere the supremacy of Joseph rouses the
+jealousy of his &ldquo;brothers&rdquo; (xxxvii. 8). Different dates and
+circles of interest are thus manifest. The cursing and dispersion
+of Simeon and Levi (xlix. 5-7) recall the fact that Simeon&rsquo;s
+cities were in the territory of Judah (Josh. xix. 1, 9), and that the
+Levitical priests are later scattered and commended to the
+benevolence of the Israelites. But the curse obviously represents
+an attitude quite opposed to the blessing pronounced upon Levi
+by Moses (Deut. xxxiii. 8-11). The Edomite genealogies (xxxvi.)
+represent a more extensive people than the references in the
+popular stories suggest, and the latter by no means indicate that
+Edom had so important a career as we actually gather from a few
+allusions to its kings (xxxvi. 31-39).<a name="fa24l" id="fa24l" href="#ft24l"><span class="sp">24</span></a> The references to Philistines
+are anachronistic for the pre-Mosaic age, and it is clear that
+the tradition of a solemn covenant with a Philistine king and his
+general (xxi. 22 seq., xxvi. 26 sqq.) does not belong to the age or
+the circle which remembered the grievous oppressions of the
+Philistines or felt contempt for these &ldquo;uncircumcised&rdquo; enemies
+of Israel<a name="fa25l" id="fa25l" href="#ft25l"><span class="sp">25</span></a>. Finally, the thread of the tradition unmistakably
+represents a national unity of the twelve sons (tribes) of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page583" id="page583"></a>583</span>
+Israel; but this unity was not felt at certain periods of disorganization,
+and the idea of including Judah among the sons of
+Israel could not have arisen at a time when Israel and Judah
+were rival kingdoms.<a name="fa26l" id="fa26l" href="#ft26l"><span class="sp">26</span></a> In so far as the traditions can be read in the
+light of biblical history it is evident that they belong to different
+ages and represent different national, tribal, or local standpoints.</p>
+
+<p>Another noteworthy feature is the interest taken in <i>sacred
+sites</i>. Certain places are distinguished by theophanies or by the
+erection of an altar (<i>lit.</i> place of sacrificial slaughter),
+and incidents are narrated with a very intelligible
+<span class="sidenote">Interest in holy places.</span>
+purpose. <i>Mizpah</i> in Gilead is the scene of a covenant
+or treaty between Jacob and his Aramaean relative
+commemorated by a pillar (<i>Ma&#7779;&#7779;&#275;bah</i>). It was otherwise known
+for an annual religious ceremony, the traditional origin of which is
+related in the story of Jephthah&rsquo;s vow and sacrifice (Judg. xi.),
+and its priests are denounced by Hosea (v. i). <i>Shechem</i>, the
+famous city of the Samaritans (&ldquo;the foolish nation,&rdquo; Ecclus. I.
+26), where Joseph was buried (Josh. xxiv. 32), had a sanctuary
+and a sacred pillar and tree. It was the scene of the coronation
+(a religious ceremony) of Abimelech (Judg. ix.), and Rehoboam
+(1 Kings xii. 1). The pillar was ascribed to Joshua (Josh. xxiv.
+26 seq.), and although Jacob set up at Shechem an &ldquo;altar,&rdquo; the
+verb suggests that the original object was a pillar (Gen. xxxiii.
+20). The first ancestor of Israel, on the other hand, is merely
+associated with a theophany at an oracular tree (xii. 6). The Benjamite
+<i>Bethel</i> was especially famous in Israelite religious history.
+The story tells how Jacob discovered its sanctity,&mdash;it was the
+gate of heaven,&mdash;made a covenant with its God, established the
+sacred pillar, and instituted its tithes (xxviii.). The prophetess
+Deborah dwelt under a palm-tree near Bethel (Judg. iv. 5), and
+her name is also that of the foster-mother of Rebekah who was
+buried near Bethel beneath the &ldquo;oak of weeping&rdquo; (xxxv. 8).
+<i>Bochim</i> (&ldquo;weeping&rdquo;) elsewhere receives its name when an
+angel appeared to the Israelites (Judg. ii. 1, Septuagint adds
+Bethel). To the prophets Hosea and Amos the cultus of Bethel
+was superstitious and immoral, even though it was Yahweh
+himself who was worshipped there (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bethel</a></span>). South of
+Hebron lay <i>Beersheba</i>, an important centre and place of pilgrimage,
+with a special numen by whom oaths were taken (Amos
+viii. 14, see Sept. and the commentaries). Isaac built its altar,
+and Isaac&rsquo;s God guarded Jacob in his journeying (xxxi. 29,
+xlvi. 1). This patriarch and his &ldquo;brother&rdquo; Ishmael are closely
+associated with the district south of Judah, both are connected
+with <i>Beer-lahai-roi</i> (xxiv. 62, Sept. xxv. 11), whose fountain was
+the scene of a theophany (xvi.), and their traditions are thus
+localized in the district of Kadesh famous in the events of the
+Exodus (cf. xvi. 14, xxi. 21, xxv. 18, Ex. xv. 22). (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exodus,
+The</a></span>.) Abraham planted a sacred tree at Beersheba and invoked
+&ldquo;the everlasting God&rdquo; (xxi. 33). But the patriarch is more
+closely identified with <i>Hebron</i>, which had a sanctuary (cf. 2 Sam.
+xv. 7 seq.), and an altar which he built &ldquo;unto Yahweh&rdquo; (xiii. 18).
+The sacred oak of Mamre was famous in the time of Josephus
+(<i>B. J.</i> iv. 9, 7), it was later a haunt of &ldquo;angels&rdquo; (Sozomen), and
+Constantine was obliged to put down the heathenish cultus.
+The place still has its holy tree. Beneath the oak there appeared
+the three divine beings, and in the cave of Machpelah the illustrious
+ancestor and his wife were buried. The story of his descent into
+Egypt and the plaguing of Pharaoh is a secondary insertion
+(xii. 10-xiii. 2), and where the patriarch appears at Beersheba it is
+in incidents which tend to connect him with his &ldquo;son&rdquo; Isaac.
+There is a very distinct tendency to emphasize the importance of
+Hebron. Taken from primitive giants by the non-Israelite clan
+Caleb (<i>q.v.</i>) it has now become predominant in the patriarchal
+traditions. Jacob leaves his dying father at Beersheba (xxviii.
+10), but according to the <i>latest</i> source he returns to him at Hebron
+(xxxv. 27), and here, north of Beersheba, he continues to live
+(xxxvii. 14, xlvi. 1-5). The cave of Machpelah became the grave
+of Isaac, Rebekah and Leah (but not Rachel); and though Jacob
+appears to be buried beyond the Jordan, it is the latest source
+which places his grave at Hebron (1. i-11 and 12 seq.). So in still
+later tradition, all the sons of Jacob with the exception of
+Joseph find their last resting-place at Hebron, and in Jewish
+prayers for the dead it is besought that their souls may be
+bound up with those of the patriarchs, or that they may go to the
+cave of Machpelah and thence to the Cherubim.<a name="fa27l" id="fa27l" href="#ft27l"><span class="sp">27</span></a> The increasing
+prominence of the old Calebite locality is not the least interesting
+phase in the comparative study of the patriarchal traditions.</p>
+
+<p>The association of the ancestors of Israel with certain sites is a
+feature which finds analogies even in modern Palestine. There
+are old centres of cult which have never lost the veneration of the
+people; the shrines are known as the tombs of saints or <i>walis</i>
+(patrons) with such orthodox names as St George, Elijah, &amp;c.
+Traditions justify the reputation for sanctity, and not only are
+similar stories told of distinct figures, but there are varying
+traditions of a single figure.<a name="fa28l" id="fa28l" href="#ft28l"><span class="sp">28</span></a> The places have retained their
+sacred character despite political and religious vicissitudes;
+they are far older than their present names, and such is the conservatism
+of the east that it is not surprising when, for example,
+a sacred tomb at Gezer stands quite close to the site of an ancient
+holy place, about 3000 years old, the existence of which was
+first made known in the course of excavation. Genesis preserves
+a selection of traditions relating to a few of the old Palestinian
+centres of cult. We cannot suppose that these first gained their
+sacred character in the pre-Mosaic &ldquo;patriarchal&rdquo; age; there is in
+any case the obvious difficulty of bridging the gap between the
+descent into Egypt and the Exodus, and it is clear that when
+the Israelites entered Palestine they came among a people whose
+religion, tradition and thought were fully established. It is only
+in accordance with analogy if stories were current in Israel of
+the institution of the sacred places, and closer study shows that
+we do not preserve the original version of these traditions.<a name="fa29l" id="fa29l" href="#ft29l"><span class="sp">29</span></a></p>
+
+<p>A venerated tree in modern Palestine will owe its sanctity
+to some tradition, associating it, it may be, with some
+saint; the Israelites in their turn held the belief that the
+sacred tree at Hebron was one beneath which their first ancestor
+sat when three divine beings revealed themselves to him.
+But it is noteworthy that Yahweh alone is now prominent;
+the tradition has been revised, apparently in writing, and, later,
+the author of Jubilees (xvi.) ignores the triad. At Beer-lahai-roi
+an El (&ldquo;god&rdquo;) appeared to Hagar, whence the name of her
+child Ishmael; but the writer prefers the unambiguous proper
+name Yahweh, and, what is more, the divine being is now
+Yahweh&rsquo;s angel&mdash;the Almighty&rsquo;s subordinate (xvi.). The older
+traits show themselves partly in the manifestation of various
+<i>Els</i>, and partly in the cruder anthropomorphism of the earlier
+sources. Later hands have by no means eliminated or modified
+them altogether, and in xxxi. 53 one can still perceive that the
+present text has endeavoured to obscure the older belief that
+the God of Abraham was not the God of his &ldquo;brother&rdquo; Nahor
+(see the commentaries). The sacred pillar erected by Jacob at
+Bethel was solemnly anointed with oil, and it (and not the place)
+was regarded as the abode of the Deity (xxviii. 18, 22). This
+agrees with all that is known of stone-cults, but it is quite obvious
+that this interesting example of popular belief is far below the
+religious ideas of the writer of the chapter in its present form.<a name="fa30l" id="fa30l" href="#ft30l"><span class="sp">30</span></a>
+There were many places where it could be said that Yahweh
+had recorded his name and would bless his worshippers (Ex.
+xx. 24). They were abhorrent to the advanced ethical teaching
+of prophets and of those imbued with the spirit of Deuteronomy
+(cf. 2 Kings xviii. 4 with v. 22), and it is patent from Jeremiah,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page584" id="page584"></a>584</span>
+Ezekiel and Is. lvi.-lxvi. that even at a late date opinion varied
+as to how Yahweh was to be served.<a name="fa31l" id="fa31l" href="#ft31l"><span class="sp">31</span></a> It is significant, therefore,
+that the narratives in Genesis (apart from P) reflect a certain
+tolerant attitude; there is much that is contrary to prophetical
+thought, but even the latest compilers have not obliterated all
+features that, from a strict standpoint, could appear distasteful.
+Although the priestly source shows how the lore could be reshaped,
+and Jubilees represents later efforts along similar lines, it is
+evident that for ordinary readers the patriarchal traditions could
+not be presented in an entirely new form, and that to achieve
+their aims the writers could not be at direct variance with
+current thought.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It will now be understood why several scholars have sought to
+recover earlier forms of the traditions, the stages through which the
+material has passed, and the place of the earlier forms and stages
+in the history and religion of Israel. These labours are indispensable
+for scientific biblical study, and are most fruitful when they depend
+upon comprehensive methods of research. When, for example,
+one observes the usual forms of hero-cult and the tendency to regard
+the occupant of the modern sacred shrine as the ancestor of his
+clients, deeper significance is attached to the references to the protective
+care of Abraham and Israel (Is. lxiii. 16), or to the motherly
+sympathy of Rachel (Jer. xxxi. 15). And, again, when one perceives
+the tendency to look upon the alleged ancestor or <i>weli</i> as an almost
+divine being, there is much to be said for the view that the patriarchal
+figures were endowed by popular opinion with divine attributes.
+But here the same external evidence warns us that these considerations
+throw no light upon the original significance of the patriarchs.
+It is impossible to recover the earliest traditions from the present
+narratives, and these alone offer sufficiently perplexing problems.<a name="fa32l" id="fa32l" href="#ft32l"><span class="sp">32</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>From a careful survey of all the accessible material it is beyond
+doubt that Genesis preserves only a selection of traditions of
+various ages and interests, and often not in their
+original form. We have relatively little tradition
+<span class="sidenote">Southern interests.</span>
+from North Israel; Beersheba, Beer-lahai-roi and
+Hebron are more prominent than even Bethel or Shechem,
+while there are no stories of Gilgal, Shiloh or Dan. Yet in the
+nature of the case, there must have been a great store of local
+tradition accessible to some writers and at some periods.<a name="fa33l" id="fa33l" href="#ft33l"><span class="sp">33</span></a>
+Interest is taken not in Phoenicia, Damascus or the northern
+tribes, but in the east and south, in Gilead, Ammon, Moab and
+Ishmael. Particular attention is paid to Edom and Jacob, and
+there is good evidence for a close relationship between Edomite
+and allied names and those of South Palestine (including Simeon
+and Judah). Especially significant, too, is the interest in traditions
+which affected the South of Palestine, that district which is
+of importance for the history of Israel in the wilderness and of
+the Levites.<a name="fa34l" id="fa34l" href="#ft34l"><span class="sp">34</span></a> It is noteworthy, therefore, that while different
+peoples had their own theories of their earliest history, the first-born
+of the first human pair is Cain, the eponym of the Kenites,
+and the ancestor of the beginnings of civilization (iv. 17, 20-22).
+This &ldquo;Kenite&rdquo; version had its own view of the institution of
+the worship of Yahweh (iv. 26); it appears to have ignored
+the Deluge, and it implies the existence of a fuller corpus of
+written tradition. Elsewhere, in the records of the Exodus,
+there are traces of specific traditions associated with Kadesh,
+Kenites, Caleb and Jerahmeel, and with a movement into
+Judah, all originally independent of their present context. Like
+the prominence of the traditions of Hebron and its hero Abraham,
+these features cannot be merely casual.<a name="fa35l" id="fa35l" href="#ft35l"><span class="sp">35</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The fact that one is not dealing with literal history complicates
+the question of the nomadic or semi-nomadic life of the Israelite
+ancestors.<a name="fa36l" id="fa36l" href="#ft36l"><span class="sp">36</span></a> They are tent-dwellers, shepherds, sojourners (xvii. 8,
+xxiii. 4, xxviii. 4, xxxvi. 7, xxxvii. 1), and we breathe the air of the
+open country. But the impression gained from the narratives is
+of course due to the narrators. The movements of the patriarchs
+serve mainly to connect them with traditions which were originally
+independent. When Abraham separates from Lot he settles in
+&ldquo;the land of Canaan,&rdquo; while Lot dwells in &ldquo;the cities of the plain&rdquo;
+(xiii. 12). Isaac at Beersheba enters into an alliance with the
+Philistines (xxvi. 12 sqq.), while Jacob seems to settle at Shechem
+(xxxiv.), and there or at Dothan, a few miles north, his sons pasture
+their father&rsquo;s flock (xxxvii. 12 sqq.).<a name="fa37l" id="fa37l" href="#ft37l"><span class="sp">37</span></a> Indeed, according to an
+isolated fragment Jacob conquered Shechem and gave it to Joseph
+(xlviii. 22), and this tradition underlies (and has not given birth to)
+the late and fantastic stories of his warfare (Jub. xxxiv. 1-9,
+Test. of Judah iii.). Judah, also, is represented as settling among
+the Canaanites (xxxviii.), and Simeon marries a Canaanite&mdash;according
+to late tradition, a woman of Zephath (xlvi. 10; Jub. xxxiv. 20,
+xliv. 13; see Judg. i. 17). These representations have been subordinated
+to others, in particular to the descent into Egypt of Jacob
+(Israel) and his sons, and the Exodus of the Israelites. But the
+critical study of these events raises very serious historical problems.
+Abraham&rsquo;s grandson, with his family&mdash;a mere handful of people&mdash;went
+down into Egypt during a famine (cf. Abraham xii. 10, and
+Isaac xxvi. 1 seq.); 400 years pass, all memory of which is practically
+obliterated, and the Israelite nation composed of similar subdivisions
+returns. Although the later genealogies from Jacob to Moses allow
+only four generations (cf. Gen. xv. 16), the difficulties are not removed.
+Joseph lived to see the children of Machir (l. 23, note Ex.
+i. 8), though Machir received Gilead from the hands of Moses (Num.
+xxxii. 40); Levi descended with Kehath, who became the grandfather
+of Aaron and Moses, while Aaron married a descendant in
+the fifth generation from Judah (Ex. vi. 23). On the other hand
+the genealogies in 1 Chron. ii. sqq. are independent of the Exodus;
+Ephraim&rsquo;s children raid Gath, his daughter founds certain cities,
+and Manasseh has an Aramaean concubine who becomes the mother
+of Machir (1 Chron. vii. 14, 20-24).<a name="fa38l" id="fa38l" href="#ft38l"><span class="sp">38</span></a> Moreover the whole course of
+the invasion and settlement of Israel (under Joshua) has no real
+connexion with pre-Mosaic patriarchal history. If we reinterpret
+the history of the <i>family</i> and its descent into Egypt, and belittle
+its increase into a <i>nation</i>, and if we figure to ourselves a more gradual
+occupation of Palestine, we destroy the entire continuity of history
+as it was understood by those who compiled the biblical history,
+and we have no evidence for any confident reconstruction. With
+such thoroughness have the compilers given effect to their views
+that only on closer examination is it found that even at a relatively
+late period fundamentally differing traditions still existed, and that
+those which belonged to circles which did not recognize the Exodus
+have been subordinated and adjusted by writers to whom this was
+the profoundest event in their past.<a name="fa39l" id="fa39l" href="#ft39l"><span class="sp">39</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>That the journey of Jacob-Israel from his Aramaean relatives
+into Palestine hints at some pre-Mosaic immigration is possible,
+but has not been either proved or disproved. The
+details point rather to a reflection of the entrance of
+<span class="sidenote">The Southern nucleus.</span>
+the children of Israel, elsewhere ascribed to the leadership
+of Joshua (<i>q.v.</i>). Though the latter proceeded to
+Gilgal, a variant tradition, now almost lost, seems to have recorded
+an immediate journey to Shechem (Deut. xxvii. 1-10,
+Josh. viii. 30-35) previous to Joshua&rsquo;s great campaigns (Josh.
+x. seq., cf. Jacob&rsquo;s wars). His religious gathering at Shechem
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page585" id="page585"></a>585</span>
+before the dismissal of the tribes finds its parallel in Jacob&rsquo;s
+reforms before leaving for Bethel (xxiv.; cf. v. 26, Gen. xxxv. 4).
+Owing, perhaps, to the locale of the writers, we hear relatively
+little of the northern tribes. Judah and Simeon are the first
+to conquer their lot, and the &ldquo;house of Joseph&rdquo; proceeds south
+to Bethel, where the story of the &ldquo;weeping&rdquo; at Bochim finds a
+parallel in the &ldquo;oak of weeping&rdquo; (Gen. xxxv. 8). In Gen.
+xxxviii. &ldquo;at that time Judah went down from his brethren&rdquo;&mdash;in
+xxxvii. they are at Shechem or Dothan&mdash;and settled among
+Canaanites, and there is a fragmentary allusion to a similar
+alliance of Simeon (xlvi. 10). The trend of the two series of
+traditions is too close to be accidental, yet the present sequence
+of the narratives in Joshua and Judges associates them with the
+Exodus. Further, Jacob&rsquo;s move to Shechem, Bethel and the
+south is parallel to that of Abraham, but his history actually
+represents a twofold course. On the one hand, he is the Aramaean
+(Deut. xxvi. 5), the favourite son of his Aramaean mother. On
+the other, Rebekah is brought to Beer-lahai-roi (xxiv.), Jacob
+belongs to the south and he leaves Beersheba for his lengthy
+sojourn beyond the Jordan. His separation from Esau, the
+revelation at Bethel, and the new name Israel are recorded twice,
+and if the entrance into Palestine reflects one ethnological
+tradition, the possibility that his departure from Beersheba
+reflects another, finds support (<i>a</i>) in the genealogies which
+associate the nomad &ldquo;father&rdquo; of the southern clans Caleb
+and Jerahmeel with Gilead (1 Chron. ii. 21), and (<i>b</i>) in the
+hints of an &ldquo;exodus&rdquo; from the district of Kadesh northwards.</p>
+
+<p>The history of an immigration into Palestine from beyond the
+Jordan would take various shapes in local tradition. In Genesis
+it is preserved from the southern point of view. The northern
+standpoint appears when Rachel, mother of Joseph and Benjamin,
+is the favoured wife in contrast to the despised Leah, mother of
+Judah and Simeon; when Joseph is supreme among his brethren;
+and when Judah is included among the &ldquo;sons&rdquo; of Israel. It is
+possible that the application of the traditional immigration to
+the history of the tribes is secondary. This at all events suggests
+itself when xxxiv. extends to the history of all the sons, incidents
+which originally concerned Simeon and Levi alone, and which
+may have represented the Shechemite version of a &ldquo;Levitical&rdquo;
+tradition (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span>). However this may be, it is necessary
+to account for the nomadic colouring of the narratives (cf.
+Meyer, pp. 305, 472) and the prominence of southern interests,
+and it would be in accordance with biblical evidence elsewhere
+if northern tradition had been taken over and adapted to the
+standpoint of the southern members of Israel, with the incorporation
+of local tradition which could only have originated in the
+south.<a name="fa40l" id="fa40l" href="#ft40l"><span class="sp">40</span></a> These and other indications point to a late date in
+biblical history. There is a manifest difference between the
+religious importance of Shechem in the traditions of Joshua
+(xxiv.) and Jacob&rsquo;s reforms when he leaves behind him the
+heathen symbols before journeying to the holy site of Bethel
+(Gen. xxxv. 4). There is even some polemic against marriage
+with Shechemites (xxxiv.; more emphatic in Jub. xxx.), while
+in the story of the Hebronite Abraham, Bethel itself is avoided
+and Shechem is of little significance. Again, the present object
+of xxxviii. is to trace the origin of certain Judaean subdivisions
+after the death of the wicked Er and Onan. It is purely local
+and is interested in Shelah, and more especially in Perez and
+Zerah, names of families or clans of the post-exilic age.<a name="fa41l" id="fa41l" href="#ft41l"><span class="sp">41</span></a> Elsewhere,
+in 1 Chron. ii. and iv., the genealogies represent a Judah
+composed of clans from the south (Caleb and Jerahmeel) and
+of small families or guilds, Shelah included. It is not the Judah
+of the monarchy or of the post-exilic Babylonian-Israelite
+community. But the mixed elements were ultimately reckoned
+among the descendants of Judah, through Hezron the &ldquo;father&rdquo;
+of Caleb and Jerahmeel, and just as the southern groups finally
+became incorporated in Israel, so it is to be observed that
+although Hebron and Abraham have gained the first place in the
+patriarchal history, the traditions are no longer specifically
+Calebite, but are part of the common Israelite heritage.</p>
+
+<p>We are taken to a period in biblical history when, though the
+historical sources are almost inexplicably scanty, the narratives
+of the past were approaching their present shape. Some time
+after the fall of Jerusalem (587 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) there was a movement from
+the south of Judah northwards to the vicinity of Jerusalem
+(Bethlehem, Kirjath-jearim, &amp;c.), where, as can be gathered from
+1 Chron. ii., were congregated Kenite and Rechabite communities
+and families of scribes. Names related to those of Edomite and
+kindred groups are found in the late genealogies of both Judah
+and Benjamin, and recur even among families of the time of
+Nehemiah.<a name="fa42l" id="fa42l" href="#ft42l"><span class="sp">42</span></a> The same obscure period witnessed the advent of
+southern families,<a name="fa43l" id="fa43l" href="#ft43l"><span class="sp">43</span></a> the revival of the Davidic dynasty and its
+mysterious disappearance, the outbreak of fierce hatred of Edom,
+the return of exiles from Babylonia, the separation of Judah
+from Samaria and the rise of bitter anti-Samaritan feeling. It
+closes with the reorganization associated with Ezra and Nehemiah
+and the compilation of the historical books in practically their
+present form. It contains diverse interests and changing standpoints
+by which it is possible to explain the presence of purely
+southern tradition, the southern treatment of national history,
+and the antipathy to northern claims. As has already been
+mentioned, the specifically southern writings have everywhere
+been modified or adjusted to other standpoints, or have been
+almost entirely subordinated, and it is noteworthy, therefore,
+that in narratives elsewhere which reflect rivalries and conflicts
+among the priestly families, there is sometimes an animus
+against those whose names and traditions point to a southern
+origin (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Thus the book of Genesis represents the result of efforts to
+systematize the earliest history, and to make it a worthy prelude
+to the Mosaic legislation which formed the charter of
+Judaism as it was established in or about the 5th
+<span class="sidenote">Summary.</span>
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It goes back to traditions of the most varied
+character, whose tone was originally more in accord with earlier
+religion and thought. Though these have been made more
+edifying, they have not lost their charm and interest. The latest
+source, it is true, is without their freshness and life, but it is a
+matter for thankfulness that the simple compilers were conservative,
+and have neither presented a work entirely on the lines
+of P, nor rewritten their material as was done by the author of
+Jubilees and by Josephus. It is obvious that from Jubilees alone
+it would have been impossible to conceive the form which the
+traditions had taken a few centuries previously&mdash;viz. in Genesis.
+Also, from P alone it would have been equally impossible to
+recover the non-priestly forms. But while there is no immeasurable
+gulf between the canonical book of Genesis and Jubilees, the
+internal study of the former reveals traces of earlier traditions
+most profoundly different as regards thought and contents. It
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page586" id="page586"></a>586</span>
+is not otherwise when one looks below the traditional history
+elsewhere (<i>e.g.</i> Samuel, Kings). An explanation may be found in
+the vicissitudes of the age. The movement from the south,
+which seems to account for a considerable cycle of the patriarchal
+traditions, belongs to the age after the downfall of the Israelite
+and (later) the Judaean monarchies when there were vital political
+and social changes. The removal of prominent inhabitants, by
+Assyria and later by Babylonia, the introduction of colonists
+from distant lands, and the movements of restless tribes around
+Palestine were more fatal to the continuity of trustworthy
+tradition than to the persistence of popular thought. New
+conditions arose as the population was reorganized, a new Israel
+claimed to be the heirs of the past (cf. <i>e.g.</i> the Samaritans, Ezr. iv.
+2, Joseph. <i>Antiq</i>. ix. 14, 3; xi. 8, 6), and not until after these
+vicissitudes did the book of Genesis begin to assume its present
+shape.<a name="fa44l" id="fa44l" href="#ft44l"><span class="sp">44</span></a> (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palestine</a></span>: <i>History</i>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The above pages handle only the more important details for the
+study of a book which, as regards contents and literary history,
+cannot be separated from the series to which it forms the introduction.
+As regards the literary-critical problems it is clear that
+with the elimination of P we have the sources (minor adjustment
+and revision excepted) which were accessible to the last compiler
+in the post-exilic age. Most critics have inclined to date these
+sources (J and E) as early as possible, whereas the admitted presence
+of secondary and of relatively late passages (<i>e.g.</i> xviii. 22 sqq., J;
+xxii., E) shows that one must work back from the sources as known
+in P&rsquo;s age, and that one can rely only upon those criteria which
+can be approximately dated. It is usual to regard the more primitive
+character of J and E as a mark of antiquity; but this ignores the
+regular survival of primitive modes of thought and of popular
+tradition outside more cultured circles. It is also recognized that
+J and E are non-prophetical and non-Deuteronomic, but it has
+not been proved that the present J and E are earlier than the prophets
+or the Deuteronomic reforms of Josiah (2 Kings xxii. seq.). J and E
+are linguistically almost identical (in contrast to P), and differ from
+P in features which are often not of chronological but of sociological
+significance (<i>e.g.</i> the mentality of the writers). Their language is
+without some of the phenomena found in narratives which emanate
+from the north (<i>e.g.</i> Judges v., stories of Elijah and Elisha), and
+their stylistic variations may be, as Gunkel suggests, the mark of a
+district or region; for this district one would look in the neighbourhood
+of Jerusalem. The conclusion that P&rsquo;s narratives and laws in
+the Pentateuch are post-exilic was found by biblical scholars to be
+a necessary correction to the original hypothesis of Graf (1866) that
+P&rsquo;s <i>narratives</i> were to be retained (with J and E) at an early date.
+This view was influenced by the close connexion between the
+subject-matter, J, E and P representing the same trend of tradition.
+But by still ascribing J and E as written sources to about the 9th
+or 8th century (individual opinion varies), many difficulties and
+inconsistencies are involved. The present J and E reflect a reshaping
+and readjustment of earlier tradition which is found elsewhere,
+and the suggestion that they are not far removed from
+the age of the priestly writers and redactors does not conflict
+with what is known of language, forms of religious thought,
+or tendencies of tradition. We reach thus approximately the age
+when post-Deuteronomic editors were able to utilize such records
+as Judg. i., xvii. sqq., 2 Sam. ix.-xx. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Judges</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samuel, Books
+of</a></span>), which are equally valuable as specimens of current thought
+and of written tradition. In conclusion, the tendency of criticism
+has been to recognize &ldquo;schools&rdquo; of J and E extending into the exile,
+thus making the three sources J, E and P more nearly contemporaneous.
+The most recent conservative authority also inclines
+to a similar contemporaneity (&ldquo;collaboration&rdquo; or &ldquo;co-operation&rdquo;),
+but at an impossibly early date (J. Orr, <i>Problem of the O. T</i>., 1905,
+pp. 216, 345, 354, 375 seq., 527). By admitting possible revision
+in the post-exilic age (pp. 226, 369, 375 seq.), the conservative theory
+recalls the old legend that Ezra rewrote the Old Testament (2 Esd.
+xiv.) and thus restored the Law which had been lost; a view which,
+through the early Christian Fathers, gained currency and has enjoyed
+a certain popularity to the present day. But when once
+revision or rewriting is conceded, there is absolutely no guarantee
+that the present Pentateuch is in any way identical with the five
+books which tradition ascribed to Moses (<i>q.v.</i>), and the necessity
+for a comprehensive critical investigation of the <i>present</i> contents
+makes itself felt.<a name="fa45l" id="fa45l" href="#ft45l"><span class="sp">45</span></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;Only a few of the numerous works can be mentioned.
+Of those written from a conservative or traditional standpoint
+the most notable are: W.H. Green&rsquo;s <i>Unity of Genesis</i> (1895);
+and J. Orr, <i>Problem of the O. T</i>. (which is nevertheless a great advance
+upon earlier non-critical literature). S.R. Driver&rsquo;s commentary
+(<i>Westminster Series</i>) deals thoroughly with all preliminary problems
+of criticism, and is the best for the ordinary reader; that of A.
+Dillmann (6th ed.; Eng. trans.) is more technical, that of W.H.
+Bennett (<i>Century Bible</i>) is more concise and popular. G.J. Spurrell,
+Notes on the Text of Genesis, and C.J. Ball (in Haupt&rsquo;s <i>Sacred Books
+of the O. T</i>.) appeal to Hebrew students. W.E. Addis, <i>Documents
+of the Hexateuch</i>, Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, <i>The Hexateuch</i>,
+and C.F. Kent, <i>Beginnings of Hebrew History</i>, are more important
+for the literary analysis. J. Wellhausen&rsquo;s sketch in his <i>Proleg. to
+Hist. of Israel</i> (Eng. trans., pp. 259-342) is admirable, as also is the
+general Introduction (trans. by W.H. Carruth, 1907) to H. Gunkel&rsquo;s
+valuable commentary. Of recent works bearing upon the subject-matter
+reference may be made to J.P. Peters, <i>Early Hebrew Story</i>
+(1904), A.R. Gordon, <i>Early Traditions of Genesis</i> (1907), and
+T.K. Cheyne, <i>Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient Israel</i> (1907). Special
+mention must be made of Eduard Meyer and B. Luther, to whose
+<i>Die Israëliten und ihre Nachbarstämme</i> (1906) the present writer is
+indebted for many valuable suggestions and hints. Fuller bibliographical
+information will be found in the works already mentioned,
+in the articles in the <i>Ency. Bib</i>. (G.F. Moore), and Hastings&rsquo;s <i>Dict</i>.
+(G.A. Smith), and in the volume by J. Skinner in the elaborate and
+encyclopaedic <i>International Critical Series</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The abrupt introduction of a small poem (iv. 23 seq.) was long
+ago regarded as due to the use of separate sources (so the Calvinist
+Isaac de la Peyrère, 1654).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2l" id="ft2l" href="#fa2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The divergences of detail, with corresponding stylistic variations,
+were recognized long ago (<i>e.g.</i> by Father Simon in 1682).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3l" id="ft3l" href="#fa3l"><span class="fn">3</span></a> As early as 1685 Jean le Clerc observed that Ur of the Chaldees
+(<i>Chasdim</i>) in xi. 28 anticipates <i>Chesed</i> in xxii. 22, and implied some
+knowledge of the land of the Chaldaeans (cf. Ezek. i. 3, xi. 24).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4l" id="ft4l" href="#fa4l"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The Catholic priest Andrew du Maes (1570) already pointed to
+the names Hebron and Dan as signs of post-Mosaic date.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5l" id="ft5l" href="#fa5l"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Note the repetitions in vv. 2 and 3; Abraham&rsquo;s faith, vv. 4-6,
+and his request, <i>v.</i> 8; contrast the time of day, <i>v.</i> 5 and <i>v.</i> 12, and
+the dates, <i>v.</i> 13 and <i>v.</i> 16. In <i>vv.</i> 12-15 there is a reference to the
+bondage in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6l" id="ft6l" href="#fa6l"><span class="fn">6</span></a> These and other chronological embarrassments, now recognized
+as due to the framework of the post-exilic writer (P), have long been
+observed&mdash;by Spinoza, 1671.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7l" id="ft7l" href="#fa7l"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Points of resemblance in xxiii. with Babylonian usage have
+often been exaggerated; comparison &ldquo;shows noteworthy differences&rdquo;
+(T.G. Pinches, <i>The Old Testament</i>, p. 238); see Carpenter and Harford-Battersby,
+<i>Hexateuch</i>, i. 64, Driver, Gen. p. 230, and <i>Addenda</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8l" id="ft8l" href="#fa8l"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Note, <i>e.g.</i>, the sudden introduction of xxix. 15, the curious
+position of <i>v.</i> 24 (due to P), the double play upon the names Zebulun
+and Joseph, xxx. 20, 23 seq., the internal intricacies in the agreement,
+<i>ib.</i> <i>vv.</i> 31-43; the difficulties in the reference to the latter in xxxi. 6
+sqq. (especially v. 10).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9l" id="ft9l" href="#fa9l"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See Ed. Meyer (and B. Luther), <i>Die Israëliten und ihre Nachbarstämme</i>
+(1906), pp. 238 sqq.; also the shrewd remarks of C.T. Beke,
+<i>Origines biblicae</i> (1834), pp. 123 sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10l" id="ft10l" href="#fa10l"><span class="fn">10</span></a> It is interesting to find that the Spanish Rabbi Isaac (of Toledo,
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 982-1057), noticing that the royal list must be later than the
+time of Saul (also recognized by Martin Luther and others), proposed
+to assign the chapter to the age of Jehoshaphat.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11l" id="ft11l" href="#fa11l"><span class="fn">11</span></a> But the chronology is hopeless, and only ten years are allowed
+according to another and later scheme (xxv. 26, xxxv. 28, xlvii. 9).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12l" id="ft12l" href="#fa12l"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Cf. the account of the Israelites in Egypt, where they are in
+Goshen, unaffected by the plagues (Ex. viii. 22, ix. 26), or, according
+to another view, are living in the midst of the Egyptians (<i>e.g.</i> xii. 23).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13l" id="ft13l" href="#fa13l"><span class="fn">13</span></a> V. 7 breaks the context; there is repetition in <i>vv.</i> 10<i>b</i> and 13b;
+interchange of the names Jacob and Israel; <i>v.</i> 12 suggests a blessing
+upon Joseph himself; and with <i>vv.</i> 15 seq. (the blessing of the sons,
+not of Joseph), contrast vv. 20 sqq. (the singular &ldquo;in thee,&rdquo; v. 20).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14l" id="ft14l" href="#fa14l"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Only the more noticeable peculiarities have been mentioned in
+the preceding columns.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15l" id="ft15l" href="#fa15l"><span class="fn">15</span></a> On the course of modern criticism and on the various sources:
+P, J (Judaean or Yahwist), E (Ephraimite or Elohist), see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>
+(<i>Old Test. Criticism</i>). The passages usually assigned to P in Genesis
+are: i. 1-ii. 4<i>a</i>; <i>v.</i> 1-28, 30-32; vi. 9-22; vii. 6 (and parts of 7-9),
+11, 13-16<i>a</i>, 18-21, 24; viii. 1-2<i>a</i>, 3<i>b</i>-5, 13<i>a</i>, 14-19; ix. 1-17, 28-29;
+x. 1-7, 20, 22-23, 31-32; xi. 10-27, 31-32; xii. 4b-5; xiii. 6, 11<i>b</i>-12<i>a</i>;
+xvi. 1<i>a</i>, 3, 15-16; xvii.; xix. 29; xxi. 1<i>b</i>, 2b-5; xxiii.; xxv. 7-11<i>a</i>,
+12-17, 19-20, 26<i>b</i>; xxvi. 34-35; xxvii. 46-xxviii. 9; xxix. 24, 28<i>b</i>,
+29; xxxi. 18<i>b</i>; xxxiii. 18a; xxxiv. 1-2<i>a</i>, 4, 6, 8-10, 13-18, 20-24,
+part of 25, 27-29; xxxv. 9-13, 15, 22b-29; xxxvi. (in the main);
+xxxvii. 1-2<i>a</i>; xli. 46; xlvi. 6-27; xlvii. 5-6<i>a</i>, 7-11, 27<i>b</i>-28; xlviii.
+3-7; xlix. 1<i>a</i>, 28<i>b</i>-33, l. 12-13.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16l" id="ft16l" href="#fa16l"><span class="fn">16</span></a> See on this, especially, S.R. Driver&rsquo;s <i>Genesis</i> in the &ldquo;Westminster
+Commentaries&rdquo; (seventh ed., 1909).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17l" id="ft17l" href="#fa17l"><span class="fn">17</span></a> The above is typical of modern biblical criticism which is
+compelled to recognize the human element (and can thus have no
+a priori preconceptions in approaching the Old Testament), but at
+the same time reveals ever more decisively the presence of purifying
+influences, without which the records of Israel would have had no
+permanent interest or value. They thus gain a new value which
+cannot be impaired when it is realized that their significance is quite
+independent of their origins.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18l" id="ft18l" href="#fa18l"><span class="fn">18</span></a> See the remarks of W.R. Smith, <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> (1888), pp. 128
+seq. (from the sociological side), and for general considerations,
+A.A. Bevan, <i>Crit. Rev.</i> (1893), pp. 138 sqq.; S.R. Driver, <i>Genesis</i>,
+pp. xliii. sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19l" id="ft19l" href="#fa19l"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Cf. Amos i. 11; 1 Chron. ii. iv. (note iv. 10), the Book of Jubilees
+(see above), and also Arabian usage (W.R. Smith, <i>Kinship and
+Marriage</i>, ch. i.). For modern examples, see E. Littmann, <i>Orient.
+Stud. Theodor Nöldeke</i> (ed. Bezold, 1906), pp. 942-958.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20l" id="ft20l" href="#fa20l"><span class="fn">20</span></a> The Book of Jubilees also enables the student to test the arguments
+based upon any study restricted to Genesis alone. Thus it
+shows that the &ldquo;primitive&rdquo; features of Genesis afford a criterion
+which is sociological rather than chronological. This is often
+ignored. For example, the conveyance of the field of Machpelah
+(xxiii.) is conspicuous for the absence of any reference to a written
+contract in contrast to the &ldquo;business&rdquo; methods in Jer. xxxii.
+This does not prove that Gen. xxiii. is early, because writing was
+used in Palestine about 1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and, on the other hand, the more
+simple forms of agreement are still familiar after the time of Jeremiah
+(<i>e.g.</i> Ruth, Proverbs). Similarly, no safe argument can be based
+upon the institution of blood-revenge in Gen. iv., when one observes
+the undeveloped conditions among the Trachonites of the time of
+Herod the Great (Josephus, Ant. xvi. 9, 1), or the varying usages
+among modern tribes.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21l" id="ft21l" href="#fa21l"><span class="fn">21</span></a> On the Jewish forms, see R.H. Charles, <i>Book of Jubilees</i> (1902),
+pp. 33 seq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft22l" id="ft22l" href="#fa22l"><span class="fn">22</span></a> A.H. Sayce, <i>Proc. of the Soc. of Bibl. Arch.</i> (1907), pp. 13-17.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft23l" id="ft23l" href="#fa23l"><span class="fn">23</span></a> xxvii. 27-29, 39 seq. This is significantly altered in the later
+writings (Jub. xxvi. 34 and the Targums). It is worth noticing that
+in Jub. xxvi. 35 a new turn is given to Gen. xxvii. 41 by changing
+Isaac&rsquo;s approaching death (which raises serious difficulties in the
+history of Jacob) into Esau&rsquo;s wish that it may soon come.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft24l" id="ft24l" href="#fa24l"><span class="fn">24</span></a> See E. Meyer (and B. Luther), <i>Die Israëliten und ihre Nachbarstämme</i>
+(1906), pp. 386-389, 442-446.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft25l" id="ft25l" href="#fa25l"><span class="fn">25</span></a> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Philistines</a></span>. The covenant with Abimelech may be
+compared with the friendship between David and Achish (1 Sam.
+xxvii.), who is actually called Abimelech in the heading of Ps. xxxiv.
+(see 1 Sam. xxi. 10). If this is a mistake (and not a variant tradition)
+it is a very remarkable one. The treatment of the covenant
+by the author of Jubilees (xxiv. 28 sqq.), on the other hand, is only
+intelligible when one recalls the attitude of Judah to the Philistine
+cities in the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; see R.H. Charles, ad loc.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft26l" id="ft26l" href="#fa26l"><span class="fn">26</span></a> In 2 Sam. xix. 43 (original text) the men of Israel claim to be
+the first-born rather than Judah; cf. 1 Chron. v. 1 seq., where the
+birthright (after Reuben was degraded) is explicitly conferred upon
+Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft27l" id="ft27l" href="#fa27l"><span class="fn">27</span></a> Cf. Josephus, <i>Antiq.</i> ii. 8, 2; <i>Test. of xii. Patriarchs</i>; Acts vii.
+16 (where Shechem is an error); Oesterley and Box, <i>Religion and
+Worship of the Synagogue</i>, pp. 340 seq.; M.G. Dampier, in <i>Church
+and Synagogue</i> (1909), p. 78.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft28l" id="ft28l" href="#fa28l"><span class="fn">28</span></a> See J.P. Peters, <i>Early Heb. Story</i> (1904), pp. 81 sqq.; S.A.
+Cook, <i>Relig. of Anc. Palestine</i> (1908), pp. 19 sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft29l" id="ft29l" href="#fa29l"><span class="fn">29</span></a> In like manner the Babylonian story of the flood has been revised
+and adapted to the Hebrew Noah (cf. <i>Nippur, ad fin.</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft30l" id="ft30l" href="#fa30l"><span class="fn">30</span></a> The writer in Jub. xxvii. 27 treats the pillar as a &ldquo;sign.&rdquo;
+Another useful example of revision is to be found in Josh. xxii.,
+where what was regarded (by a reviser) as an object unworthy of
+the religion of Yahweh is now merely commemorative.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft31l" id="ft31l" href="#fa31l"><span class="fn">31</span></a> For popular religious thought and practice (often described as
+pre-prophetical, though non-prophetical would be a safer term), see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Religion</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft32l" id="ft32l" href="#fa32l"><span class="fn">32</span></a> Among recent efforts to find and explain mythical elements, see
+especially Stucken, <i>Astralmythen</i>: H. Winckler, <i>Geschichte Israëls</i>,
+vol. ii.; and P. Jensen, <i>Das Gilgamesch-Epos in der Weltlitteratur</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft33l" id="ft33l" href="#fa33l"><span class="fn">33</span></a> Again the analogy of the modern East is instructive. Especially
+interesting are the traditions associating the same figure or incident
+with widely separated localities.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft34l" id="ft34l" href="#fa34l"><span class="fn">34</span></a> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exodus, The</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span>. On this feature see Luther and
+Meyer, op. cit. pp. 158 seq., 227 sqq., 259, 279, 305, 386, 443. Their
+researches on this subject are indispensable for a critical study of
+Genesis.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft35l" id="ft35l" href="#fa35l"><span class="fn">35</span></a> The notion of an Eve (<i>hawwah</i>, &ldquo;serpent&rdquo;) as the first woman
+may be conjecturally associated with (<i>a</i>) the frequent traditions of
+the serpent-origin of clans, and (<i>b</i>) with evidence which seems to
+connect the Levites and allied families with some kind of serpent-cult
+(see Meyer, op. cit. pp. 116, 426 seq., 443, and art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Serpent-worship</a></span>).
+The account of mankind as it now reads (ii. seq.) is in
+several respects less primitive (contrast vi. 1 seq.), and the present
+story of Cain and his murder of Abel really places the former in
+an unfavourable light.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft36l" id="ft36l" href="#fa36l"><span class="fn">36</span></a> See the discussion between B.D. Eerdmans and G.A. Smith
+in the <i>Expositor</i> (Aug.-Oct. 1908), and the former&rsquo;s <i>Alttest. Studien</i>,
+ii. (1908), <i>passim.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft37l" id="ft37l" href="#fa37l"><span class="fn">37</span></a> xxxiv. (note v. 9) indicates a possible alliance with Shechemites,
+and xxxv. 4 (taken literally) implies a residence long enough for a
+religious reform to be necessary. Yet the present aim of the narratives
+is to link together the traditions and emphasize Jacob&rsquo;s return
+from Laban to his dying father (xxviii. 21; xxxi. 3, 13, 18; xxxii. 9;
+xxxv. 1, 27).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft38l" id="ft38l" href="#fa38l"><span class="fn">38</span></a> Cf. Benjamin&rsquo;s descendants in 1 Chron. viii. 6 seq. and see on
+the naive and primitive character of these traditions, Kittel, comment.
+<i>ad loc.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft39l" id="ft39l" href="#fa39l"><span class="fn">39</span></a> That there are traditions in Genesis which do not form the
+prelude to Exodus is very generally recognized by those who agree
+that the Israelites after entering Palestine took over some of the
+indigenous lore (whether from the Canaanites or from a presumed
+earlier layer of Israelites). This adoption of native tradition by
+new settlers, however, cannot be confined to any single period.
+See further, Luther and Meyer, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 108, 110, 156, 227 seq.,
+254 seq., 414 seq., 433; on traditions related to the descent into
+Egypt, <i>ib.</i> 122 sqq., 151 seq., 260; and on the story of Joseph
+(ch. xxxv., xxxvii. sqq.), as an independent cycle used to form a
+connecting link, Luther, <i>ib.</i> pp. 142-154.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft40l" id="ft40l" href="#fa40l"><span class="fn">40</span></a> Cf. the late &ldquo;Deuteronomic&rdquo; form of Judges where a hero of
+Kenizzite origin (and therefore closely connected with Caleb) stands
+at the head of the Israelite &ldquo;judges&rdquo;; also, from another aspect,
+the specifically Judaean and anti-Israelite treatment of the history
+of the monarchy. But in each case the feature belongs to a relatively
+late stage in the literary history of the books; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Judges</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samuel,
+Books of</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kings</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft41l" id="ft41l" href="#fa41l"><span class="fn">41</span></a> Mahalalel (son of Kenan, another form of Cain, v. 12) is also a
+prominent ancestor in Perez (Neh. xi. 4), and Zerah claimed the
+renowned sages of Solomon&rsquo;s day (1 Chron. ii. 6, 1 Kings iv. 31).
+The story implies that Perez surpassed his &ldquo;brother&rdquo; clan Zerah
+(xxxviii. 27-30), and in fact Perez is ultimately reckoned the head
+of the Judaean subdivisions (1 Chron. ii. 4 sqq.), and thus is the
+reputed ancestor of the Davidic dynasty (Ruth iv. 12, 18 sqq.).</p>
+
+<p>The sympathies of these traditions are as suggestive as their presence
+in the canonical history, which, it must be remembered, ultimately
+passed through the hands of Judaean compilers.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft42l" id="ft42l" href="#fa42l"><span class="fn">42</span></a> Neh. iii. 9, 14; see Meyer, pp. 300, 430; S.A. Cook, <i>Critical
+Notes on O. T. History</i>, p. 58 n. 2. While the evidence points to an
+early close relationship among S. Palestinian groups (Edom, Ishmael,
+&amp;c.; cf. Meyer, p. 446), there are many allusions to subsequent
+treacherous attacks which made Edom execrable. Here again
+biblical criticism cannot at present determine precisely when or
+precisely why the changed attitude began; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Edom</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>,
+§§ 20, 22.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft43l" id="ft43l" href="#fa43l"><span class="fn">43</span></a> Although the movement reflected in 1 Chron. ii. is scarcely
+pre-exilic, yet naturally there had always been a close relation
+between Judah and the south, as the Assyrian inscriptions of the
+latter part of the 8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> indicate.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft44l" id="ft44l" href="#fa44l"><span class="fn">44</span></a> The south of Palestine, if less disturbed by these changes, may
+well have had access to older authoritative material.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft45l" id="ft45l" href="#fa45l"><span class="fn">45</span></a>  For Orr&rsquo;s other concessions bearing upon Genesis, see <i>op. cit</i>.,
+pp. 9 seq., 87, 93, and (on J, E, P) 196, 335, 340. These, like the
+concessions of other apologetic writers, far outweigh the often
+hypercritical, irrelevant, and superficial objections brought against
+the literary and historical criticism of Genesis.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENET<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span>, typically a south European carnivorous mammal
+referable to the <i>Viverridae</i> or family of civets, but also taken to
+include several allied species from Africa. The true genet
+(<i>Genetta vulgaris</i> or <i>Genetta genetta</i>) occurs throughout the south
+of Europe and in Palestine, as well as North Africa. The fur is of
+a dark-grey colour, thickly spotted with black, and having a dark
+streak along the back, while the tail, which is nearly as long as the
+body, is ringed with black and white. The genet is rare in the
+south of France, but commoner in Spain, where it frequents the
+banks of streams, and feeds on small mammals and birds. It
+differs from the true civets in that the anal pouch is a mere
+depression, and contains only a faint trace of the highly characteristic
+odour of the former. In south-western Europe and North
+Africa it is sought for its soft and beautifully spotted fur. In
+some parts of Europe, the genet, which is easily tamed, is kept
+like a cat for destroying mice and other vermin.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:449px; height:494px" src="images/img586.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">The Genet (<i>Genetta vulgaris</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENEVA<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span>, a city of Ontario county, New York, U.S.A., at the
+N. end of Seneca Lake, about 52 m. S.E. of Rochester. Pop.
+(1890) 7557; (1900) 10,433 (of whom 1916 were foreign-born);
+(1910 census) 12,446. It is served by the New York Central
+&amp; Hudson River, and the Lehigh Valley railways, and by the
+Cayuga &amp; Seneca Canal. It is an attractively built city, and has
+good mineral springs. Malt, tinware, flour and grist-mill products,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page587" id="page587"></a>587</span>
+boilers, stoves and ranges, optical supplies, wall-paper, cereals,
+canned goods, cutlery, tin cans and wagons are manufactured,
+and there are also extensive nurseries. The total value of the
+factory product in 1905 was $4,951,964, an increase of 82.3%
+since 1900. Geneva has a public library, a city hospital and
+hygienic institute. It is the seat of the New York State
+Agricultural Experiment Station and of Hobart College (non-sectarian),
+which was first planned in 1812, was founded in 1822
+(the majority of its incorporators being members of the Protestant
+Episcopal church) as successor to Geneva Academy, received a
+full charter as Geneva College in 1825, and was renamed
+Hobart Free College in 1852 and Hobart College in 1860, in
+honour of Bishop John Henry Hobart. The college had in 1908-1909
+107 students, 21 instructors, and a library of 50,000 volumes
+and 15,000 pamphlets. A co-ordinate woman&rsquo;s college, the
+William Smith school for women, opened in 1908, was endowed in
+1906 by William Smith of Geneva, who at the same time provided
+for a Hall of Science and for further instruction in science,
+especially in biology and psychology. In 1888 the Smith Observatory
+was built at Geneva, being maintained by William Smith,
+and placed in charge of Dr William Robert Brooks, professor of
+astronomy in Hobart College. The municipality owns its water-supply
+system. Geneva was first settled about 1787 almost on
+the site of the Indian village of Kanadasega, which was destroyed
+in 1779 during Gen. John Sullivan&rsquo;s expedition against the
+Indians in western New York. It was chartered as a city in 1898.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENEVA<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Genève</i>, Ger. <i>Genf</i>, Ital. <i>Ginevra</i>, Late Lat.
+<i>Gebenna</i>, though <i>Genava</i> in good Latin), a city and canton of
+Switzerland, situated at the extreme south-west corner both of
+the country and of the Lake of Geneva or Lake Leman. The
+canton is, save Zug, the smallest in the Swiss Confederation,
+while the city, long the most populous in the land, is now surpassed
+by Zürich and by Basel.</p>
+
+<p>The canton has an area of 108.9 sq. m., of which 88.5 sq. m. are
+classed as &ldquo;productive&rdquo; (forests covering 9.9 sq. m. and vineyards
+6.8 sq. m., the rest being cultivated land). Of
+the &ldquo;unproductive&rdquo; 20.3 sq. m., 11½ are accounted for
+<span class="sidenote">The canton.</span>
+by that portion of the Lake of Geneva which belongs to
+the canton. It is entirely surrounded by French territory (the
+department of Haute Savoie lying to the south, and that of the
+Ain to the west and the north), save for about 3½ m. on the
+extreme north, where it borders on the Swiss canton of Vaud.
+The Rhone flows through it from east to west, and then along its
+south-west edge, the total length of the river in or within the
+canton being about 13 m., as it is very sinuous. The turbid Arve is
+by far its largest tributary (left), and flows from the snows of the
+chain of Mont Blanc, the only other affluent of any size being
+the London (right). Market gardens, orchards, and vineyards
+occupy a large proportion of the soil (outside the city), the
+apparent fertility of which is largely due to the unremitting
+industry of the inhabitants. In 1901 there were 6586 cows,
+3881 horses, 2468 swine and 2048 bee-hives in the canton.
+Besides building materials, such as sandstone, slate, &amp;c., the only
+mineral to be found within the canton is bituminous shale, the
+products of which can be used for petroleum and asphalt. The
+broad-gauge railways in the canton have a length of 18¾ m., and
+include bits of the main lines towards Paris and Lausanne (for
+Bern or the Simplon), while there are also 72¾ m. of electric
+tramways. The canton was admitted into the Swiss Confederation
+in 1815 only, and ranks as the junior of the 22 cantons.
+In 1815-1816 it was created by adding to the old territory
+belonging to the city (just around it, with the outlying districts of
+Jussy, Genthod, Satigny and Cartigny) 16 communes (to the south
+and east, including Carouge and Chêne) ceded by Savoy, and 6
+communes (to the north, including Versoix), cut off from the
+French district of Gex.</p>
+
+<p>In 1900 there were, not counting the city, 27,813 inhabitants
+in the canton, or, including the city, 132,609, the city alone having
+thus a population of 104,796. (In the following statistics those
+for the city are enclosed within brackets.) In 1900 this population
+<span class="sidenote">Statistics of canton and city.</span>
+was thus divided in point of religion: Romanists, 67,162
+(49,965), Protestants, 62,400 (52,121), and Jews 1119 (1081).
+In point of language 109,741 (84,259) were French-speaking,
+13,343 (12,004) German-speaking, and 7345 (6574) Italian-speaking,
+while there were also 89 (76) Romonsch-speaking
+persons. More remarkable are the results as
+to nationality: 43,550 (31,607) were Genevese citizens,
+and 36,415 (30,582) Swiss citizens of other cantons.
+Of the 52,644 (42,607) foreigners, there were 34,277 (26,018)
+French, 10,211 (9126) Italians, 4653 (4283) subjects of the German
+empire, 583 (468) British subjects, 832 (777) Russians, and 285
+(251) citizens of the United States of America. In the canton
+there were 10,821 (5683) inhabited houses, while the number
+of separate households was 35,450 (28,621). Two points as to
+these statistics deserve to be noted. The number of foreign
+residents is steadily rising, for in 1900 there were only 79,965
+(62,189) Swiss in all as against 52,644 (42,607) foreigners. One
+result of this foreign immigration, particularly from France and
+Italy, has been the rapid increase of Romanists, who now form
+the majority in the canton, while in the city they were still
+slightly less numerous than the Protestants in 1900; later
+(local) statistics give in the Canton 75,400 Romanists to 64,200
+Protestants, and in the city 52,638 Romanists to 51,221 Protestants.
+Geneva has always been a favourite residence of
+foreigners, though few can ever have expected to hear that the
+&ldquo;protestant Rome&rdquo; has now a Romanist majority as regards
+its inhabitants. Galiffe (<i>Genève hist. et archéolog</i>.) estimates
+the population in 1356 at 5800, and in 1404 at 6490, in both
+cases within the fortifications. In 1536 the old city acquired the
+outlying districts mentioned above, as well as the suburb of
+St Gervais on the right bank of the Rhone, so that in 1545 the
+number is given as 12,500, reduced by 1572 to 11,000. After
+the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) it rose, by 1698,
+to 16,934. Thenceforward the progress was fairly steady:
+18,500 (1711); 24,712 (1782); 26,140 (1789). After the creation
+of the canton (1815) the numbers were (those for the city are
+enclosed within brackets) 48,489 (25,289), the city rising in 1837
+to 33,714, and in 1843 to 36,452. The result of the Federal
+censuses (begun in 1850) are as follows: in 1850, 64,146 (42,127);
+in 1860, 82,876 (59,826); in 1870, 88,791 (65,606); in 1880,
+99,712 (76,197), and in 1888, 105,509 (81,407).</p>
+
+<p>The canton comprises 3 administrative districts: the 13
+communes on the right bank and the 34 on the left bank each
+form one, while the city proper, on both sides of the
+river, forms one district and one commune. From
+<span class="sidenote">Government.</span>
+1815 to 1842 the city and the cantonal government
+was the same. But at that date the city obtained its independence,
+and is now ruled by a town council of 41 members,
+and an executive of 5 members, the election in each case being
+made direct by the citizens, and the term of office being 4 years.
+The existing cantonal constitution dates, in most of its main
+features, from 1847. The legislature or <i>Grand Conseil</i> (now composed
+of 100 members) is elected (in the proportion of 1 member
+for every 1000 inhabitants or fraction over 500) for 3 years
+by a direct popular vote, subject (since 1892) to the principles
+of proportional representation, while the executive or <i>conseil</i>
+<i>d&rsquo;état</i> (7 members) is elected (no proportional representation)
+by a popular vote for 3 years. By the latest enactments (one
+dating from 1905) 2500 citizens can claim a vote (&ldquo;facultative
+referendum&rdquo;) as to any legislative project, or can exercise the
+&ldquo;right of initiative&rdquo; as to any such project or as to the revision
+of the cantonal constitution. The canton sends 2 members
+(elected by a popular vote) to the Federal <i>Ständerath</i>, and 7 to
+the Federal <i>Nationalrath</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Consistory rules the Established Protestant Church, and
+is now composed of 31 members, 25 being laymen and 6 (formerly
+15) clerics, while the &ldquo;venerable company of pastors&rdquo;
+(pastors actually holding cures) has greatly lost its
+<span class="sidenote">Religion.</span>
+former importance and can now only submit proposals to the
+Consistory. The Christian Catholic Church is also &ldquo;established&rdquo;
+at Geneva (since 1873) and is governed by the <i>conseil supérieur</i>,
+composed of 25 lay members and 5 clerics. No other religious
+denominations are &ldquo;established&rdquo; at Geneva. But the Romanists
+(who form 13% of the electors) are steadily growing in numbers
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page588" id="page588"></a>588</span>
+and in influence, while the Christian Catholics are losing ground
+rapidly, the highest number of votes received by a candidate
+for the <i>conseil supérieur</i> having fallen from 2003 in 1874 to 806
+in 1890 and 507 in 1906, while they are abandoning the country
+churches (some were lost as early as 1892) which they had taken
+from the Romanists in the course of the <i>Kulturkampf</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The fairs of Geneva (held 4 times a year) are mentioned as
+early as 1262, and attained the height of their prosperity about
+1450, but declined after Louis XI.&rsquo;s grants of 1462-1463
+in favour of the fairs of Lyons. Among the
+<span class="sidenote">Industry.</span>
+chief articles brought to these fairs (which were largely frequented
+by Italian, French and Swiss merchants) were cloth,
+silk, armour, groceries, wine, timber and salt, this last coming
+mainly from Provence. The manufacturers of Geneva formed
+in 1487 no fewer than 38 gilds, including tailors, hatters, mercers,
+weavers, tanners, saddle-makers, furriers, shoe-makers, painters
+on glass, &amp;c. Goldsmiths are mentioned as early as 1290.
+Printing was introduced in 1478 by Steinschaber of Schweinfurth,
+and flourished much in the 16th century, though the rigorous
+supervision exercised by the Consistory greatly hampered the
+Estiennes (Stephanus) in their enterprises. Nowadays the best
+known industry at Geneva is that of watchmaking, which was
+introduced in 1587 by Charles Cusin of Autun, and two years
+later regulations as to the trade were issued. In 1685 there were
+in Geneva 100 master watchmakers, employing 300 work-people,
+who turned out 5000 pieces a year, while in 1760 this trade
+employed 4000 work-people. Of recent years its prosperity
+has diminished greatly, so that the watchmaking and jewelry
+trades in 1902 numbered respectively but 38 and 32 of the 394
+establishments in Geneva which were subject to the factory
+laws. Lately, huge establishments have been constructed for
+the utilization of the power contained in the Rhone. The local
+commerce of Geneva is much aided by the fact that the city is
+nearly entirely surrounded by &ldquo;free zones,&rdquo; in which no customs
+duties are levied, though the districts are politically French:
+this privilege was given to Gex in 1814, and to the Savoyard
+districts in 1860, when they were also neutralized.</p>
+
+<p>Considering the small size of Geneva, till recently, it is surprising
+how many celebrated persons have been connected with it as
+natives or as residents. Here are a few of the principal,
+special articles being devoted to many of them in this
+<span class="sidenote">Celebrities.</span>
+work. In the 16th century, besides Calvin and Bonivard,
+we have Isaac Casaubon, the scholar; Robert and Henri Estienne,
+the printers, and, from 1572 to 1574, Joseph Scaliger himself,
+though but for a short time. J.J. Rousseau is, of course, the
+great Genevese of the 18th century. At that period, and in the
+19th century, Geneva was a centre of light, especially in the case
+of various of the physical sciences. Among the scientific
+celebrities were de Saussure, the most many-sided of all; de
+Candolle and Boissier, the botanists; Alphonse Favre and
+Necker, the geologists; Marignac, the chemist; Deluc, the
+physicist, and Plantamour, the astronomer. Charles Bonnet
+was both a scientific man and a philosopher, while Amiel belonged
+to the latter class only. Pradier and Chaponnière, the sculptors;
+Arlaud, Diday and Calame, the artists; Mallet, who revealed
+Scandinavia to the literary world; Necker, the minister;
+Sismondi, the historian of the Italian republics; General Dufour,
+author of the great survey which bears the name of the &ldquo;Dufour
+Map,&rdquo; have each a niche in the Temple of Fame. Of a less
+severe type were Cherbuliez, the novelist; Töpffer, who spread
+a taste for pedestrianism among Swiss youth; Duchosal, the
+poet; Marc Monnier, the littérateur; not to mention the names
+of any persons still living, or of politicians of any date.</p>
+
+<p>The city of Geneva is situated at the south-western extremity
+of the beautiful lake of the same name, whence the &ldquo;arrowy
+Rhone&rdquo; flows westwards under the seven bridges by
+which the two halves of the town communicate with
+<span class="sidenote">The city and its buildings.</span>
+each other. To the south is the valley of the Arve
+(descending from the snows of the Mont Blanc chain),
+which unites with that of the Rhone a little below the town;
+while behind the Arve the grey and barren rocks of the Petit
+Salève rise like a wall, which in turn is overtopped by the distant
+and ethereal snows of Mont Blanc. Yet the actual site of the
+town is not as picturesque as that of several other spots in
+Switzerland. Though the cathedral crowns the hillock round
+which clusters the old part of the town, a large portion of the
+newer town is built on the alluvial flats on either bank of the
+Rhone. Since the demolition of the fortifications in 1849 the
+town has extended in every direction, and particularly on the
+right bank of the Rhone. It possesses many edifices, public
+and private, which are handsome or elegant, but it has almost
+nothing to which the memory reverts as a masterpiece of architectural
+art. It is possible that this is, in part, due to the artistic
+blight of the Calvinism which so long dominated the town. But,
+while lacking the medieval appearance of Fribourg or Bern, or
+Sion or Coire, the great number of modern fine buildings in
+Geneva, hotels, villas, &amp;c., gives it an air of prosperity and
+comfort that attracts many visitors, though on others modern
+French architecture produces a blinding glare. On the other
+hand, there are broad quays along the river, while public gardens
+afford grateful shade.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedral (Protestant) of St Pierre is the finest of the older
+buildings in the city, but is a second-rate building, though as
+E.A. Freeman remarks, &ldquo;it is an excellent example of a small
+cathedral of its own style and plan, with unusually little later
+alteration.&rdquo; The hillock on which it rises was no doubt the site of
+earlier churches, but the present Transitional building dates only
+from the 12th and 13th centuries, while its portico was built in the
+18th century, after the model of the Pantheon at Rome. It
+contains a few sepulchral monuments, removed from the cloisters
+(pulled down in 1721), and a fine modern organ, but the historical
+old bell <i>La Clémence</i> has been replaced by a newer and larger one
+which bears the same name. More interesting than the church
+itself is the adjoining chapel of the Maccabees, built in the 15th
+century, and recently restored. Near the cathedral are the
+arsenal (now housing the historical museum, in which are preserved
+many relics of the &ldquo;Escalade&rdquo; of 1602, including the
+famous ladders), and the maison de ville or town hall. The latter
+building is first mentioned in 1448, but most of the present
+building dates from far later times, though the quaint paved
+spiral pathway (taking the place of a staircase in the interior) was
+made in the middle of the 16th century. In the <i>Salle du Conseil
+d&rsquo;État</i> some curious 15th-century frescoes have lately been
+discovered, while the old Salle des Festins is now known as the
+Salle de l&rsquo;Alabama, in memory of the arbitration tribunal of 1872.
+In the 15th-century Tour Baudet, adjoining the Town Hall, are
+preserved the rich archives of the city. Not far away is the
+palais de justice, built in 1709 as a hospital, but used as a court
+house since 1858. On the Île in the Rhone stands the tower
+(built c. 1219) of the old castle belonging to the bishop. Among
+the modern buildings we may mention the following: the
+University (founded in 1559, but raised to the rank of a University
+in 1873 only), the Athénée, the Conservatoire de Musique, the
+Victoria Hall (a concert hall, presented in 1904 to the city by
+Mr Barton, formerly H.B.M.&rsquo;s Consul), the theatre, the Salle de la
+Réformation (for religious lectures and popular concerts), the
+Bâtiment Electoral, the Russian church and the new post office.
+At present the museums of various kinds at Geneva are widely
+dispersed, but a huge new building in course of construction (1906)
+will ultimately house most of them. The Musée Rath contains
+pictures and sculptures; the Musée Fol, antiquities of various
+dates; the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, <i>inter alia</i>, a fine collection of
+prints; the Musée Industriel, industrial objects and models; the
+Musée Archéologique, prehistoric and archaeological remains; the
+Musée d&rsquo;Histoire Naturelle, scientific collections; and the Musée
+Epigraphique, a considerable number of inscriptions. Some way
+out of the town is the Musée Ariana (extensive art collections),
+left, with a fine park, in 1890 to the city by a rich citizen, Gustave
+Revilliod. The public library is in the university buildings and
+contains many valuable MSS. and printed books. Geneva boasts
+also of a fine observatory and of a number of technical schools
+(watchmaking, chemistry, medicine, commerce, fine arts, &amp;c.),
+some of which are really annexes of the university, which in June
+1906 was attended by 1158 matriculated students, of whom 903
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page589" id="page589"></a>589</span>
+were non-Swiss, the Russians (475 in number) forming the
+majority of the foreign students. Geneva is well supplied with
+charitable institutions, hospitals, &amp;c. Among other remarkable
+sights of the city may be mentioned the great hydraulic establishment
+(built 1882-1899) of the <i>Forces Motrices du Rhône</i> (turbines),
+the singular monument set up to the memory of the late duke of
+Brunswick who left his fortune to the city in 1873, and the Île
+Jean-Jacques Rousseau now connected with the Pont des Bergues.
+The house occupied by Rousseau is No. 40 in the Grand&rsquo; Rue,
+while No. 13 in the same street is on the site of Calvin&rsquo;s house,
+though not the actual dwelling inhabited by him.</p>
+
+<p>The real name of the city is <i>Genava</i>, that being the form under
+which it appears in almost all the known documents up to the
+7th century, <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, the variation <i>Genua</i> (which has led to
+great confusion with Genoa) being also found in the 6th
+<span class="sidenote">History.</span>
+century. But <i>Geneva</i> and <i>Gebenna</i> are of later date. The first
+mention of the city is made by Caesar (<i>Bell. Galli</i>. i. 6-7) who tells
+us that it was the last <i>oppidum</i> of the Allobroges, and the nearest
+to the territory of the Helvetii, with which it was connected by a
+bridge that, for military reasons, he was forced to destroy.
+Inscriptions of later date state that it was only a <i>vicus</i> of the
+Viennese province, while mentioning the fact that a gild of
+boatmen flourished there. But the many Roman remains found
+on the original site (in the region of the cathedral) of the city show
+that it must have been of some importance, and that it possessed
+a considerable commerce. About 400 the <i>Notitia Galliarum</i> calls
+it a <i>civitas</i> (so that it then had a municipal administration of its
+own), and reckons it as first among those of the Viennese. Probably
+this rise in dignity was connected with the establishment of a
+bishop&rsquo;s see there, the first bishop certainly known, Isaac, being
+heard of about 400 in a letter addressed by St Eucherius to
+Salvius, while, in 450, a letter of St Leo states that the see was
+then a suffragan of the archbishopric of Vienne. It is possible
+that there may be some ground for the local tradition that
+Christianity was introduced into this region by Dionysius and
+Paracodus, who successively occupied the see of Vienne, but
+another tradition that the first bishop was named St Nazarius
+rests on a confusion, as that saint belongs to Genoa and not to
+Geneva.</p>
+
+<p>About the middle of the 5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> it came into the
+possession of the Burgundians, who held it as late as 527 (thus
+leaving no room for any occupation by the Ostrogoths), and in
+534 passed into the hands of the Franks. The Burgundian kings
+seem to have made Geneva one of their principal residences, and
+the <i>Notitia</i> (above named) tells us that the city was <i>restaurata</i> by
+King Gundibald (d. 516) which is generally supposed to mean
+that he first surrounded it with a wall, the city then comprising
+little more than the hill on which the present cathedral stands.
+That building is of course of much later date, but it seems certain
+that when (<i>c.</i> 513-516) Sigismund, son of King Gundibald, built
+a stone church on the site, it took the place of an earlier wooden
+church, constructed on Roman foundations, all three layers
+being clearly visible at the present day. We know that St
+Avitus, archbishop of Vienne (d. 518), preached a sermon (preserved
+to us) at the dedication of a church at Geneva which had
+been built on the site of one burnt by the enemy, and the bits of
+half-burnt wood found in the second of the two layers mentioned
+above, seem to make it probable that the reference is to Sigismund&rsquo;s
+church. But Geneva was in no sense one of the great
+cities of the region, though it is mentioned in the <i>Antonine
+Itinerary</i> and in the <i>Peutinger Table</i> (both 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), no
+doubt owing to its important position on the bank of the Rhone,
+which then rose to the foot of the hill on which the original city
+stood. This is no doubt the reason why, apart from some passing
+allusions (for instance, Charles the Great held a council of war
+there in 773, on his first journey to Italy), we hear very little
+about it.</p>
+
+<p>In 1032, with the rest of the kingdom of Burgundy or Arles, it
+reverted to the emperor Conrad II., who was crowned king at
+Payerne in 1033, and in 1034 was recognized as such at Geneva
+by a great assembly of nobles from Germany, Burgundy and
+Italy, this rather unwilling surrender signifying the union of
+those 3 kingdoms. It is said that Conrad granted the temporal
+sovereignty of the city to the bishop, who, in 1162, was raised
+to the rank of a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, being elected,
+from 1215, by the chapter, but, after 1418, named directly by the
+pope himself.</p>
+
+<p>Like many other prince-bishops, the ruler of Geneva had to
+defend his rights: without against powerful neighbours, and
+within against the rising power of the citizens. These struggles
+constitute the entire political history of Geneva up to about
+1535, when a new epoch of unrest opens with the adoption of
+Protestantism. The first foe without was the family of the counts
+of the Genevois (the region south of the city and in the neighbourhood
+of Annecy), who were also &ldquo;protectors&rdquo; (<i>advocati</i>) of the
+church of Geneva, and are first heard of in the 11th and 12th
+centuries. Their influence was probably never stronger than
+during the rule as bishop (1118-1119) of Guy, the brother of the
+reigning count. But his successor, Humbert de Grammont,
+resumed the grants made to the count, and in 1125 by the Accord
+of Seyssel, the count fully acknowledged the suzerainty of the
+bishop. A fresh struggle under Bishop Ardutius (1135-1185)
+ended in the confirmation by Frederick Barbarossa, as emperor,
+of the position of the bishop as subject to no one but himself
+(1153), this declaration being strengthened by the elevation of the
+bishop and his successors to the rank of princes of the empire
+(1162).</p>
+
+<p>In 1250 the counts of Savoy first appear in connexion with
+Geneva, being mortgagees of the Genevois family, and, in 1263,
+practically their heirs as &ldquo;protectors&rdquo; of the city. It was thus
+natural that the citizens should invoke the aid of Savoy against
+their bishop, Robert of the Genevois (1276-1287). But Count
+Amadeus of Savoy not merely seized (1287) the castle built by the
+bishops (about 1219) on the Île, but also (1288) the office of
+<i>vicedominus</i> [<i>vidomne</i>], the official through whom the bishop
+exercised his minor judicial rights. The new bishop, William of
+Conflans (1287-1295) could recover neither, and in 1290 had to
+formally recognize the position of Savoy (which was thus legalized)
+in his own cathedral city. It was during this struggle that about
+1287 (these privileges were finally sanctioned by the bishop in
+1300) the citizens organized themselves into a commune or
+corporation, elected 4 syndics, and showed their independent
+position by causing a seal for the city to be prepared. The bishop
+was thus threatened on two sides by foes of whom the influence
+was rising, and against whom his struggles were of no avail. In
+1365 the count obtained from the emperor the office of imperial
+vicar over Geneva, but the next bishop William of Marcossay
+(1366-1377: he began the construction of a new wall round the
+greatly extended city, a process not completed till 1428) secured
+the withdrawal of this usurpation (1366-1367), which the count
+finally renounced (1371). One of that bishop&rsquo;s successors,
+Adhémar Fabri (1385-1388) codified and confirmed all the
+franchises, rights and privileges of the citizens (1387), this grant
+being the <i>Magna Carta</i> of the city of Geneva. In 1401 Amadeus
+VIII. of Savoy bought the county of the Genevois, as the dynasty
+of its rulers had become extinct. Geneva was now surrounded on
+all sides by the dominions of the house of Savoy.</p>
+
+<p>Amadeus did homage, in 1405, to the bishop for those of the
+newly acquired lands which he held from the bishop. But, after
+his power had been strengthened by his elevation (1417) by the
+emperor to the rank of a duke, and by his succession to the
+principality of Piedmont (1418, long held by a cadet branch of his
+house), Amadeus tried to purchase Geneva from its bishop, John
+of Pierre-Scisé or Rochetaillée (1418-1422). This offer was
+refused both by the bishop and by the citizens, while in 1420 the
+emperor Sigismund declared that he alone was the suzerain of the
+city, and forbade any one to attack it or harm it in any fashion.
+Oddly enough Amadeus did in the end get hold of the city, for,
+having been elected pope under the name of Felix V., he named
+himself to the vacant see of Geneva (1444), and kept it, after his
+resignation of the Papacy in 1449, till his death in 1451. For the
+most part of this period he resided in Geneva. From 1451 to
+1522 the see was almost continuously held by a cadet of the house
+of Savoy, which thus treated it as a kind of appange.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page590" id="page590"></a>590</span></p>
+
+<p>Most probably Geneva would soon have become an integral
+part of the realms of the house of Savoy had it not been for the
+appearance of a new protector on the scene&mdash;the Swiss confederation.
+In the early 15th century the town of Fribourg made an
+alliance with Geneva for commercial purposes (the cloth warehouses
+of Fribourg at Geneva being enlarged in 1432 and 1465),
+as the cloth manufactured at Fribourg found a market in the
+fairs of Geneva (which are mentioned as early as 1262, and were
+at the height of their prosperity about 1450). The duke, however,
+was no better inclined towards the Swiss than towards Geneva.
+He struck a blow at both, when, in 1462-1463, he induced his son-in-law,
+Louis XI. of France, to forbid French merchants to attend
+the fairs of Geneva, altering also the days of the fairs at Lyons
+(established in 1420 and increased in number in 1463) so as to make
+them clash with those fixed for the fairs of Geneva. This nearly
+ruined Geneva, which, too, in 1477 had to pay a large indemnity
+to the Swiss army that, after the defeat of Charles the Bold,
+duke of Burgundy, advanced to take vengeance on the dominions
+of his ally, Yolande, dowager duchess of Savoy and sister of Louis
+XI., as well as on the bishop of Geneva, her brother-in-law. But,
+after this payment, the bishop made an alliance with the Swiss.
+A prolonged attempt was made (1517-1530) by the reigning duke
+of Savoy, Charles III. (1504-1553), to secure Geneva for his
+family, at first with the help of his bastard cousin John (1513-1522),
+the last of his house to hold the see. In this struggle the
+syndic, Philibert Berthelier, succeeded in concluding (1519) an
+alliance with Fribourg, which, however, had to be given up
+almost immediately. It split the citizens into two parties; the
+<i>Eidgenots</i> relying on the Swiss, while the <i>Mamelus</i> (mamelukes)
+supported the duke. Berthelier was executed in 1519, and Amé
+Lévrier in 1524, but Bezanson Hugues (d. 1532) took their place,
+and in 1526 succeeded in renewing the alliance with Fribourg and
+adding to it one with Bern. This much enraged the duke, who
+took active steps against the citizens, and tried (1527) to carry
+off the bishop, Pierre de la Baume (1522-1544), who soon found
+it best to make his submission.</p>
+
+<p>The Genevese, thus abandoned by their natural protector,
+looked to the Swiss for help. They sent (October 1530) a considerable
+army to save the city. This armed intervention
+compelled the duke to sign the treaty of St Julien (19th October)
+by which he engaged not to trouble the Genevese any more,
+agreeing that if he did so the two towns of Fribourg and Bern
+should have the right to occupy his barony of Vaud. The two
+towns also, by the decision given as arbitrators at Payerne (30th
+December 1530), upheld their alliance with Geneva, condemned
+the duke to pay all the expenses of the war, and confirmed the
+clause as to their right to occupy Vaud; they also surrounding
+the exercise of the powers of <i>vidomne</i> by the duke with so many
+restrictions that in 1532 the duke, after much resistance, formally
+agreed to recognize the alliance of Geneva with the two towns and
+not to annoy the Genevese any more. Thus a legal tie between
+Geneva and two of the Swiss cantons was established, while the
+duke did not any longer venture to annoy the Genevese, as he clung
+to his fine barony of Vaud. In the course of this struggle (and
+especially after the last episcopal <i>vidomne</i> had left the town in
+1526) the municipal authorities of the city greatly developed, a
+<i>grand conseil</i> of 200 members being set up in imitation of those at
+Bern and at Fribourg, while within the larger assembly there was
+a <i>petit conseil</i> of 60 members for more confidential business.
+Thus 1530 marks the date at which Geneva became its own
+mistress within, while allied externally with the Swiss confederation.
+But hardly had this settlement been reached when a fresh
+element of discord threatened to wholly upset matters&mdash;the
+adoption of Protestant principles by the city. Just before this
+event, however, the fortifications were once more (1534) rebuilt
+(bits still remain) and extended so as to take in several new
+suburbs, including that of St Gervais on the right bank of the
+Rhone which, till then, seems to have been unenclosed (1511-1527).</p>
+
+<p>In 1532 William Farel, a Protestant preacher from Dauphiné,
+who had converted Vaud, &amp;c. to the new belief, first came to
+Geneva and settled there in 1533. But although Bern supported
+the Reform, Fribourg did not, and in 1534 withdrew from its
+alliance with Geneva, while directly afterwards the duke of Savoy
+made a fresh attempt to seize the city. On the 10th of August
+1535 the Protestant faith was formally adopted by Geneva, but
+an offer of help from France having been refused, as the city was
+unwilling to give up any of its sovereign rights, the duke&rsquo;s party
+continued its intrigues. Finally Bern, fearing that Geneva might
+fall to France instead of to itself, sent an army to protect the city
+(January 1536), but, not being able to persuade the citizens to
+give up their freedom, had to content itself with the conquest of
+the barony of Vaud and of the bishopric of Lausanne, thus acquiring
+rich territories, while becoming close neighbours of Geneva
+(January and March 1536). Meanwhile Farel had been advancing
+the cause of religious reform, which was definitively adopted on
+the 21st of May 1536. In July 1536 a French refugee, John Calvin
+(<i>q.v.</i>), came to Geneva for a night, but was detained by Farel who
+found in him a powerful helper. The opposition party of the
+<i>Libertins</i> succeeded in getting them both exiled in 1538, but, in
+September 1541, Calvin was recalled (Farel spending the rest of
+his life at Neuchâtel, where he died 1565) to Geneva. Born in
+1509, he was then about 32 years of age. He set up this theocracy
+in Geneva, and ruled the reorganized republic with a strong hand
+till his death in 1564, when he was succeeded by the milder
+Théodore de Beza (1519-1605).</p>
+
+<p>The great blot on Calvin&rsquo;s rule was his intolerance of other
+thinkers, as exemplified by his burning of Gruet (1547) and of
+Servetus (1553). But, on the other hand, he founded (1559) the
+Academy, which, originally meant as a seminary for his preachers,
+later greatly extended its scope, and in 1873 assumed the rank of
+a University. The strict rule of Calvin drove out many old
+Genevese families, while he caused to be received as citizens
+many French, Italian and English refugees, so that Geneva
+became not merely the &ldquo;Protestant Rome&rdquo; but also quite a
+cosmopolitan little city. The Bernese often interfered with the
+internal affairs of Geneva (while Calvin, a Frenchman, naturally
+looked towards France), and refused to allow the city to conclude
+any alliances save with itself. That alliance was finally renewed
+in 1558, while in 1560 the Romanist cantons made one with the
+duke of Savoy, a zealous supporter of the old faith. In 1564,
+after long negotiations, Bern restored to the duke part of its
+conquests of 1536, viz. Gex, the Genevois and the Chablais,
+Geneva being thus once more placed amid the dominions of the
+duke; though by the same treaty (that of Lausanne, October
+1564, Calvin having died the preceding May) the alliance of Bern
+with Geneva was maintained. In 1579 Geneva was included in
+the alliance concluded by France with Bern and Soleure, while in
+1584 Zürich joined Bern in another alliance with Geneva. The
+struggle widened as Geneva became a pawn in the great attempt
+of the duke of Savoy to bring back his subjects to the old faith,
+his efforts being seconded by François de Sales, the &ldquo;apostle of
+the Chablais.&rdquo; But the king of France, for political reasons,
+opposed Savoy, with whom, however, he made peace in 1601.
+In December 1602 François de Sales was consecrated bishop of
+Geneva (since 1535 the bishops had lived at Annecy), and a few
+days later the duke of Savoy made a final attempt to get hold of
+the city by a surprise attack in the night of 11-12th December
+1602 (Old Style), known in history as the &ldquo;Escalade,&rdquo; as ladders
+were used to scale the city walls. It was successfully repelled,
+over 200 of the foe being slain, while 17 Genevese only perished.
+Filled with joy at their rescue from this attack, the citizens
+crowded to their cathedral, where Beza (then 83 years of age)
+bid them to sing the 124th Psalm which has ever since been sung
+on the anniversary of this great delivery. The peace of St Julien
+(21st of July 1603) marked the final defeat of the duke of Savoy
+in the long struggle waged (since 1290) by his house against the
+city of Geneva.</p>
+
+<p>In the charter of 1387 we hear only of the <i>conseil général</i>
+(composed of all male heads of families) which acted as the legislature,
+and elected annually the executive of 4 syndics; no
+doubt this form of rule existed earlier than 1387. Even before
+1387 there was also the <i>petit conseil</i> or <i>conseil ordinaire</i> or <i>conseil
+étroit</i>, a body not recognized by the law, though it became very
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page591" id="page591"></a>591</span>
+powerful; it was composed of the 4 syndics, with several other
+counsellors, and acted originally as the adviser of the syndics
+who were legally responsible for the rule of the city. In 1457
+we first hear of the Council of the Fifty (re-established in 1502
+and later known as the Sixty), and in 1526 of the Council of the
+Two Hundred (established in imitation of those of Bern and
+Fribourg), both being summoned in special cases of urgency.
+The members of both were named by the <i>petit conseil</i>, of which,
+in turn, the members were confirmed or not by the Two Hundred.
+By the Constitution of 1543 the <i>conseil général</i> had only the right
+of choosing the 4 syndics out of a list of 8 presented by the
+<i>petit conseil</i> and the Two Hundred, which therefore really elected
+them, subject to a formal approbation on the part of the larger
+body. This system was slightly modified in 1568, the constitution
+of that date lasting till 1794. The <i>conseil général</i> fell more and
+more into the background, the members of the other councils
+gradually obtained the privilege of being irremovable, and the
+system of co-optation resulted in the creation of a close monopoly
+of political offices in the hands of a few leading families.</p>
+
+<p>During the 17th and 18th centuries, while the Romanist
+majority of the Swiss cantons steadily refused to accept Geneva
+as even a subordinate member of the Confederation, the city
+itself was distracted on several occasions by attempts of the
+citizens, as a whole, to gain some share in the aristocratic government
+of the town, though these attempts were only partially
+successful. But the last half of the 18th century marks the most
+brilliant period in the literary history of Geneva, whether as
+regards natives or resident foreigners, while in the succeeding
+half century the number of Genevese scientific celebrities is
+remarkable. In 1794 the effects of the French Revolution were
+shown in the more liberal constitution granted by the city
+government. But in 1798 the city was annexed to France and
+became the capital of the French department of Léman (to be
+carefully distinguished from the Swiss <i>canton</i> of Léman, that is
+Vaud, of the Helvetic Republic, also set up in 1798), while in
+1802, by the Concordat, the ancient bishopric of Geneva was
+suppressed. On the fall of Napoleon (1813) the city recovered
+its independence, and finally, in 1815, was received as the junior
+member of the Swiss confederation, several bits of French and
+Savoyard territory (as pointed out above) being added to the
+narrow bounds of the old Genevese Republic in order to give
+the town some protection against its non-Swiss neighbours.</p>
+
+<p>The constitution of 1814 set up a common form of government
+for the city and the canton, the city not obtaining its municipal
+independence till the constitution of 1842. From 1535 to 1798
+public worship according to the Romanist form had been strictly
+forbidden. In 1799 already the first attempts were made to reestablish
+it, and in 1803 the church of St Germain was handed
+over to the Romanists. The constitution of 1814, looking forward
+to the annexation of Romanist districts to the city territory
+to form the new canton, guaranteed to that body the freedom
+of worship, at any rate in these newly gained districts. In 1819
+the canton (the new portions of which were inhabited mainly
+by Romanists) was annexed to the bishopric of Lausanne, the
+bishop in 1821 being authorized to add &ldquo;and of Geneva&rdquo; to
+his episcopal style. After the adventure of the &ldquo;Escalade&rdquo;
+the fortifications were once more strengthened and extended,
+these works being completed about 1726. But, in 1822, some of
+the bastions were converted into promenades, while in 1849 the
+rest of the fortifications were pulled down so as to allow the city
+to expand and gradually assume its present aspect.</p>
+
+<p>When Geneva recovered its political independence in 1814 a
+new constitution was drawn up, but it was very reactionary,
+for there is no mention in it of the sovereignty of the people.
+It set up a <i>conseil représentatif</i> or legislature of 250 members,
+which named the <i>conseil d&rsquo;état</i> or executive, while it was itself
+elected by a limited class, for the electoral qualification was
+the annual payment of direct taxes to the amount of 20 Swiss
+livres or about 23 shillings. It was not till 1842 that this system,
+though much criticized, was modified. In the early part of 1841
+the &ldquo;Third of March Association&rdquo; was formed to watch over
+the interests of the citizens, and in November of that year the
+government was forced by a popular demonstration to summon
+an <i>assemblée constituante</i>, which in 1842 elaborated a new constitution
+that was accepted by the citizens. Besides bestowing
+on the city a government distinct from that of the canton, it
+set up for the latter a <i>grand conseil</i> or legislature, and a conseil
+<i>d&rsquo;état</i> or executive of 13 members, both elected for the term of 4
+years. But this constitution did not seem liberal enough to
+many citizens, so that in 1846 the government gave way to the
+Radicals, led by James Fazy (1794-1878), who drew up a constitution
+that was accepted by a popular vote on the 21st of May
+1847. It was much more advanced than that of 1842, and in its
+main features still prevails. From that date till 1864 the Radicals
+ruled the state, their head, Fazy, being an able man, though
+extravagant and inclined to absolutism. Under his sway the
+town was modernized and developed, but the finances were
+badly administered, and Fazy became more and more a radical
+dictator. &ldquo;On voudrait faire de Genève,&rdquo; sighed the conservative,
+de la Rive, &ldquo;la plus petite des grandes villes, et pour
+moi je préfère qu&rsquo;elle reste la plus grande des petites villes.&rdquo; In
+1861 and in 1864 Fazy failed to secure his re-election to the
+<i>conseil d&rsquo;état</i>, riots followed his defeat, and the Federal troops
+were forced to intervene so as to restore order.</p>
+
+<p>The Democratic party (liberal-conservative) ruled from 1865
+to 1870, and did much to improve the finances of the state. In
+1870 the Radicals regained the supremacy under their new
+chief, Antoine Carteret (1813-1889) and kept it till 1878. This
+was a period of religious strife, due to the irritation caused by
+the Vatican council, and the pope&rsquo;s attempt to revive the bishopric
+of Geneva. Gaspard Mermillod (1824-1891) was named in 1864
+<i>curé</i> of Geneva, and made bishop of Hebron <i>in partibus</i>, acting
+as the helper of the bishop of Lausanne. Early in 1873 the
+pope named him &ldquo;vicar apostolic of Geneva,&rdquo; but he was expelled
+a few weeks later from Switzerland, not returning till
+1883, when he became bishop of Lausanne, being made cardinal
+in 1890. The Radical government enacted severe laws as to
+the Romanists in Geneva, and gave privileges to the Christian
+Catholic Church, which, organized in 1874 in Switzerland, had
+absorbed the community founded at Geneva by Père Hyacinthe,
+an ex-Carmelite friar. The Romanists therefore were no longer
+recognized by the state, and were persecuted in divers ways,
+though the tide afterwards turned in their favour. The Democrats
+ruled from 1878 to 1880, and introduced the &ldquo;Referendum&rdquo;
+(1879) into the cantonal constitution, but, their policy of the
+separation of church and state having been rejected by the
+people at a vote, they gave way to the Radicals. The Radicals
+went out in 1889, and the Democrats held the reins of power till
+1897, their leader being Gustave Ador. In 1891 they introduced
+the &ldquo;Initiative&rdquo; into the cantonal constitution, and in 1892
+the principle of proportional representation so far as regards
+the <i>grand conseil</i>, while Th. Turrettini did much to increase the
+economical prosperity of the city. In 1897 the Radicals came in
+again, their leaders being first Georges Favon (1843-1902) till
+his death, and then Henri Fazy, a distant relative of James
+and an excellent historian. They attempted to rule by aid of
+the Socialists, but their power fluctuated as the demands of
+the Socialists became greater. On the 30th of June 1907 the
+Genevese, by a popular vote, decided on the separation of Church
+and State.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;D. Baud-Bovy, <i>Peintres genevois, 1702-1807</i> (2
+vols., Geneva, 1903-1904); J.T. de Belloc, <i>Le Cardinal Mermillod</i>
+(Fribourg, 1892): M. Besson, Recherches <i>sur les origines des évêchés
+de Genève, Lausanne et Sion</i> (Fribourg, 1906); J.D. Blavignac,
+Armorial genevois (Geneva, 1849), and <i>Études sur Genève depuis
+l&rsquo;antiquité jusqu&rsquo;à nos jours</i> (2 vols., Geneva, 1872-1874); Fr.
+Bonivard, <i>Chroniques de Genève</i> (Reprint) (2 vols., Geneva, 1867);
+F. Borel, <i>Les Foires de Genève au XV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Geneva, 1892); Ch.
+Borgeaud, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;université de Genève, 1559-1798</i> (Geneva,
+1900); E. Choisy, <i>La Théocratie à Genève au temps de Calvin</i> (Geneva,
+1898), and <i>L&rsquo;État chrétien Calviniste à Genève au temps de Théodore
+de Bèze</i> (Geneva, 1902); F. de Crue, <i>La Guerre féodale de Genève
+et l&rsquo;établissement de la Commune, 1205-1320</i> (Geneva, 1907); H.
+Denkinger, <i>Histoire populaire du canton de Genève</i> (Geneva, 1905);
+E. Doumergue, <i>La Genève Calviniste</i> (containing a minute topographical
+description of 16th-century Geneva, and forming vol. iii.
+of the author&rsquo;s <i>Jean Calvin</i>) (Lausanne, 1905); E. Dunant, <i>Les</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page592" id="page592"></a>592</span>
+<i>Relations politiques de Genève avec Berne et les Suisses, de 1536 à 1564</i>
+(Geneva, 1894); <i>Documents de l&rsquo;Escalade de Genève</i> (Geneva, 1903);
+G. Fatio and F. Boissonnas, <i>La Campagne genevoise d&rsquo;après nature</i>
+(Geneva, 1899), and <i>Genève à travers les siècles</i> (Geneva, 1900);
+H. Fazy, <i>Histoire de Genève à l&rsquo;époque de l&rsquo;Escalade, 1598-1603</i>
+(Geneva, 1902), and <i>Les Constitutions de la République de Genève</i> (to
+1847) (Geneva, 1890); J.B.G. Galiffe, <i>Genève historique et archéologique</i>
+(2 vols., Geneva, 1869-1872); J.A. Gautier, <i>Histoire de
+Genève</i> (to 1691) (6 vols., 1896-1903); F. Gribble and J.H. and
+M.H. Lewis, <i>Geneva</i> (London, 1908); J. Jullien, Histoire de Genève
+(new ed.; Geneva, 1889); C. Martin, <i>La Maison de Ville de Genève</i>
+(Geneva, 1906); <i>Mémoires et documents</i> (publ. by the local Historical
+Society since 1821); F. Mugnier, <i>Les Évêques de Genève-Annecy,
+1535-1870</i> (Paris, 1888); <i>Pierre de Genève, St</i> (monograph on the
+cathedral), 4 parts (Geneva, 1891-1899); A. de Montet, <i>Dictionnaire
+biographique des Genevois, &amp;c.</i> (2 vols., Lausanne, 1878);
+C.L. Perrin, <i>Les Vieux Quartiers de Genève</i> (Geneva, 1904); A.
+Pfleghart, <i>Die schweizerische Uhrenindustrie</i> (Leipzig, 1908); <i>Régeste
+genevois avant 1312</i> (Geneva, 1866); <i>Registres du conseil de Genève</i>,
+vols. i. and ii., 1409-1477 (Geneva, 1900-1906); A. Roget, <i>Histoire
+du peuple de Genève depuis la Réforme jusqu&rsquo;à l&rsquo;Escalade</i> (7 vols.,
+from 1536-1568; Geneva, 1870-1883); A. Rilliet, <i>Le Rétablissement
+du Catholicisme à Genève il y a deux siècles</i> (Geneva, 1880); P.
+Vaucher, <i>Luttes de Genève contre la Savoie</i>, 1517-1530 (Geneva,
+1889); <i>Recueil généalogique suisse</i> (<i>Genève</i>) (2 vols., Geneva, 1902-1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENEVA CONVENTION<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span>, an international agreement for the
+purpose of improving the condition of wounded soldiers of armies
+in the field, originally adopted at an international conference
+held at Geneva, Switzerland, in 1864, and afterwards replaced by
+the convention of July 6, 1906, also adopted at Geneva. This
+later agreement is the one now known as the Geneva Convention.
+The conference of 1864 was the result of a movement
+which sprang from the publication in 1862 of a book entitled
+<i>Un Souvenir de Solférino</i> by Henri Dunant, a Genevese philanthropist,
+in which he described the sufferings of the wounded
+at the battle of Solférino with such vivid effect that the subject
+became forthwith one of public interest. It was energetically
+taken up by M. Gustave Moynier, whose agitation led to an
+unofficial congress being held at Geneva in October 1863. This
+was followed by an official one at Geneva, called by the Swiss
+government in 1864. The convention which was there signed
+(22nd August 1864) on behalf of the states represented, afterwards
+received the adherence of every civilized power.</p>
+
+<p>At a second conference on the same subject, held at Geneva in
+1868, a supplementary convention was drawn up, consisting of
+fourteen additional articles, five of which related to war on land
+and nine to naval warfare. The additional articles were not,
+however, ratified by the chief states, and never became operative.
+The Brussels International Conference (1874) for the codification
+of the law and customs of war occupied itself with the Geneva
+Convention and again drew up a number of articles which were
+submitted to the interested governments. But, as in the case of
+the additional articles of 1868, no effect was ever given to them.</p>
+
+<p>At the Peace Conference of 1899 Great Britain withdrew her
+objections to the application of the convention to maritime
+warfare, and agreed to the adoption of a special convention
+&ldquo;adapting to Maritime warfare the principles of the Geneva
+Convention.&rdquo; A <i>voeu</i> was also adopted by the conference expressing
+the wish that a special conference should be held as soon as
+possible for the purpose of revising the convention of 1864.</p>
+
+<p>In deference to the above <i>voeu</i> the Swiss government in 1901
+sounded the other parties to the convention of 1864 as to whether
+the time had not come to call the proposed special conference, but
+the replies received did not give much encouragement and the
+matter was dropped for the time being. By a circular note of the
+17th of February 1903, the Swiss government invited all the states
+which had signed or adhered to the Geneva Convention to send
+representatives to a conference to be held at Geneva in the
+following September. Some governments did not accept the
+invitation in time and the conference had to be postponed. At the
+beginning of 1904, there being no apparent obstacle, the Swiss
+government again invited the powers to send delegates to a
+conference in the following May. Meanwhile war broke out
+between Russia and Japan and there was again an adjournment.
+At length in March 1906 an invitation was accepted
+by thirty-five states, only Turkey, Salvador, Bolivia, Venezuela,
+Nicaragua and Colombia abstaining and the conference was held
+at Geneva in July 1906, when a full revised convention was
+adopted, which now takes the place of that of 1864.<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The
+adoption of the new Geneva Convention entailed a revision of
+the above-mentioned Hague Convention and a new edition of the
+latter is one of the documents adopted at the Peace Conference
+of 1907.</p>
+
+<p>The new Geneva Convention consists of thirty-three articles
+divided into the following chapters, (i.) the wounded and sick;
+(ii.) medical units and establishments; (iii.) personnel; (iv.)
+material; (v.) convoys of evacuation; (vi.) the distinctive
+emblem; (vii.) application and carrying out of the Convention;
+(viii.) prevention of abuses and infractions; (ix.) general provisions.</p>
+
+<p>The essential parts of the new Hague Convention of 1907
+(18th of October) adapting the above conventions to maritime
+warfare as follows: (N.B. The alterations are in italics. The
+parts of the older convention of 1899 which have been suppressed
+are in brackets).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>i. Military hospital-ships, that is to say, ships constructed or
+assigned by states specially and solely for the purpose of assisting
+the wounded, sick or shipwrecked, and the names of which shall
+have been communicated to the belligerent powers at the commencement
+or during the course of hostilities, and in any case before they
+are employed, shall be respected and cannot be captured while
+hostilities last.</p>
+
+<p>These ships, moreover, are not on the same footing as men-of-war
+as regards their stay in a neutral port.</p>
+
+<p>ii. Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of private
+individuals or officially-recognized Relief Societies, shall likewise
+be respected and exempt from capture, provided the belligerent
+power to whom they belong has given them an official commission
+and has notified their names to the hostile power at the commencement
+of or during hostilities, and in any case before they are employed.</p>
+
+<p>These ships should be furnished with a certificate from the competent
+authorities, declaring that they had been under their control
+while fitting out and on final departure.</p>
+
+<p>iii. Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of
+private individuals or officially-recognized Societies of neutral
+countries shall be respected and exempt from capture [if the neutral
+power to whom they belong has given them an official commission
+and notified their names to the belligerent powers at the commencement
+of or during hostilities, and in any case before they are employed]
+<i>on condition that they are placed under the orders of one of
+the belligerents, with the previous consent of their own Government and
+with the authorization of the belligerent, and on condition that the latter
+shall have notified their names to the enemy at the commencement or
+during the course of hostilities, in any event, before they are employed.</i></p>
+
+<p>iv. The ships mentioned in Articles i., ii. and iii. shall afford relief
+and assistance to the wounded, sick and shipwrecked of the belligerents
+independently of their nationality.</p>
+
+<p>The governments engage not to use these ships for any military
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p>These ships must not in any way hamper the movements of the
+combatants.</p>
+
+<p>During and after an engagement they will act at their own risk
+and peril.</p>
+
+<p>The belligerents will have the right to control and visit them;
+they can refuse to help them, order them off, make them take a
+certain course, and put a commissioner on board; they can even
+detain them, if important circumstances require it.</p>
+
+<p>As far as possible the belligerents shall inscribe in the sailing
+papers of the hospital-ships the orders they give them.</p>
+
+<p>v. The military hospital-ships shall be distinguished by being
+painted white outside with a horizontal band of green about a metre
+and a half in breadth.</p>
+
+<p>The ships mentioned in Articles ii. and iii. shall be distinguished
+by being painted white outside with a horizontal band of red about
+a metre and a half in breadth.</p>
+
+<p>The boats of the ships above mentioned, as also small craft which
+may be used for hospital work, shall be distinguished by similar
+painting.</p>
+
+<p>All hospital-ships shall make themselves known by hoisting,
+together with their national flag, the white flag with a red cross
+provided by the Geneva Convention, <i>and, in addition, if they belong
+to a neutral State, by hoisting on the mainmast the national flag of the
+belligerent under whose direction they are placed.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Hospital-ships which, under the terms of Article iv., are detained by</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page593" id="page593"></a>593</span>
+<i>the enemy, must lower the national flag of the belligerent under whom
+they were acting.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>The above-mentioned vessels and boats, desiring at night-time to
+ensure the respect due to them, shall, with the consent of the belligerent
+whom they are accompanying, take the necessary steps that the special
+painting denoting them shall be sufficiently conspicuous.</i></p>
+
+<p>vi. [Neutral merchantmen, yachts or vessels, having, or taking on
+board, sick, wounded or shipwrecked of the belligerents, cannot be
+captured for so doing, but they are liable to capture for any violation
+of neutrality they may have committed.]</p>
+
+<p><i>The distinctive signs provided by Article v. can only be used, whether
+in time of peace or in time of war, to protect ships therein mentioned.</i></p>
+
+<p>vii. <i>In the case of a fight on board a war-ship, the hospitals shall be
+respected and shall receive as much consideration as possible.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>These hospitals and their belongings are subject to the laws of war,
+but shall not be employed for any other purpose so long as they shall be
+necessary for the sick and wounded.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Nevertheless, the commander who has them under his orders, may
+make use of them in case of important military necessity, but he shall
+first ensure the safety of the sick and wounded on board.</i></p>
+
+<p>viii. <i>The protection due to hospital-ships and to hospitals on board
+war-ships shall cease if they are used against the enemy.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>The fact that the crew of hospital-ships, and attached to hospitals on
+war-ships, are armed for the maintenance of order and for the defence
+of the sick or wounded, and the existence of a radio-telegraphic installation
+on board, is not considered as a justification for withdrawing the
+above-mentioned protection.</i></p>
+
+<p>ix. <i>Belligerents may appeal to the charitable zeal of commanders of
+neutral merchant vessels, yachts or other craft, to take on board and look
+after the sick and wounded.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Ships having responded to this appeal, as well as those who have
+spontaneously taken on board sick, wounded or shipwrecked men, shall
+have the advantage of a special protection and of certain immunities.
+In no case shall they be liable to capture on account of such transport;
+but subject to any promise made to them they are liable to capture for
+any violation of neutrality they may have committed.</i></p>
+
+<p>[vii.] x. The religious, medical or hospital staff of any captured
+ship is inviolable, and its members cannot be made prisoners of war.
+On leaving the ship they take with them the objects and surgical
+instruments which are their own private property.</p>
+
+<p>This staff shall continue to discharge its duties while necessary,
+and can afterwards leave when the commander-in-chief considers it
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>The belligerents must guarantee to the staff that has fallen into
+their hands [the enjoyment of their salaries intact] <i>the same allowances
+and pay as those of persons of the same rank in their own navy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>[viii.] xi. Sailors and soldiers, <i>and other persons officially attached
+to navies or armies</i>, who are taken on board when sick or wounded,
+to whatever nation they belong, shall be [protected] respected and
+looked after by the captors.</p>
+
+<p>xii. <i>Every vessel of war of a belligerent party may claim the return
+of the wounded, sick or shipwrecked who are on board military hospital-ships,
+hospital-ships of aid societies or of private individuals, merchant
+ships, yachts or other craft, whatever be the nationality of these vessels.</i></p>
+
+<p>xiii. <i>If the wounded, sick or shipwrecked are received on board a
+neutral ship of war, it shall be provided, as far as possible, that they
+may take no further part in war operations.</i></p>
+
+<p>xiv. The shipwrecked, wounded or sick of one of the belligerents
+who fall into the hands of the other, are prisoners of war. The
+captor must decide, according to circumstances, if it is best to keep
+them or send them to a port of his own country, to a neutral port,
+or even to a hostile port. In the last case, prisoners thus repatriated
+cannot serve as long as the war lasts.</p>
+
+<p>xv. The shipwrecked, wounded or sick who are landed at a neutral
+port with the consent of the local authorities, must, failing a contrary
+arrangement between the neutral State and the belligerents, be
+guarded by the neutral State, so that they may not be again able to
+take part in the military operations.</p>
+
+<p><i>The expenses of hospital treatment and internment shall be borne by
+the State to which the shipwrecked, wounded or sick belong.</i></p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. Ba.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Another International Conference held in December 1904 at the
+Hague dealt with the status of hospital-ships in time of war. Great
+Britain did not take part in this Conference. Her abstention,
+however, was not owing to any objection of principle, but purely
+to considerations of domestic legislation.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENEVA, LAKE OF,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> the largest lake of which any portion
+belongs to Switzerland, and indeed in central Europe. It is
+called <i>Lacus Lemannus</i> by the old Latin and Greek writers, in
+4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> <i>Lacus Lausonius</i> or <i>Losanetes</i>, in the middle ages
+generally <i>Lac de Lausanne</i>, but from the 16th century onwards
+<i>Lac de Genève</i>, though from the end of the 18th century the name
+<i>Lac Léman</i> was revived&mdash;according to Prof. Forel <i>Le Léman</i> is the
+proper form. Its area is estimated at 223 sq. m. (Swiss Topographical
+Bureau) or 225½ sq. m. (Forel), of which about 140 sq.
+m. (134½ sq. m. Forel) are politically Swiss (123½ sq. m. belonging
+to the canton of Vaud, 11½ sq. m. to that of Geneva, and 5 sq. m.
+to that of the Valais), the remainder (83 sq. m.) being French since
+the annexation of Savoy in 1860&mdash;the entire lake is included in
+the territory (Swiss or Savoyard) neutralized by the congress of
+Vienna in 1815. The French part takes in nearly the whole of
+the south shore, save its western and eastern extremities, which
+belong respectively to Geneva and to the Valais.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The lake is formed by the Rhone, which enters it at its east end,
+between Villeneuve (E.) and St Gingolph (W.), and quits it at its
+west end, flowing through the city of Geneva. The only important
+tributaries are the Drance (S.), the Venoge (N.) and the Veveyse
+(N.). The form of the lake is that of a crescent, of which the east
+end is broad and rounded, while the west end tapers towards the
+city of Geneva. The bird&rsquo;s eye length of the whole lake, from
+Chillon to Geneva, is 39½ m., but along its axis 45 m. The coast-line
+of the north shore is 59 m. in length and that of the south shore
+44¾ m. The maximum depth is 1015½ ft., but the mean depth
+only 500 ft. The surface is 1231¼ ft. (Swiss Topog. Bureau) or
+1220 ft. (Forel) above sea-level. The greatest width (between
+Morges and Amphion) is 8½ m., but the normal width is 5 m. The
+lake forms two well-marked divisions, separated by the strait of
+Promenthoux, which is 216½ ft. in depth, as a bar divides the Grand
+Lac from the Petit Lac. The <i>Grand Lac</i> includes the greater portion
+of the lake, the <i>Petit Lac</i> (to the west of the strait or bar) being the
+special Genevese portion of the lake, and having an area of but
+30½ sq. m. The unusual blueness of the waters has long been
+remarked, and the transparency increases the farther we get from
+the point where the Rhone enters it, the deposits which the river
+brings down from the Alps gradually sinking to the bottom of the
+lake. At Geneva we recall Byron&rsquo;s phrase, &ldquo;the blue rushing of the
+arrowy Rhone&rdquo; (<i>Childe Harold</i>, canto iii. stanza 71). The limit of
+visibility of a white disk is 33 ft. in winter (in February 1891 Prof.
+Forel observed an extreme of 70½ ft.) and 21¼ ft. in summer. Apart
+from the seasonal changes in the level of the lake (which is highest
+in summer, no doubt because of the melting of the Alpine snows
+that feed the Rhone), there are also the remarkable temporary
+disturbances of level known as the <i>seiches</i>, in which the whole mass
+of water in the lake rhythmically swings from shore to shore.
+According to Prof. Forel there are both longitudinal and transverse
+<i>seiches</i>. The effect of the longitudinal <i>seiches</i> at Geneva is
+four times as great as at Chillon, at the other end of the lake, while
+the extreme duration of this phenomenon is 73 minutes for the
+uninodal longitudinal <i>seiches</i> (35½ minutes for the binodal) and 10
+minutes for the transverse <i>seiches</i> (5 minutes for the binodal).
+The maximum height of a recorded <i>seiche</i> at Geneva is rather over
+6 ft. (October 1841). The currents in the water itself are irregular.
+The principal winds that blow over the lake are the <i>bise</i> (from the
+N.E.), the <i>vaudaire</i> or <i>Föhn</i> (from the S.E.), the <i>sudois</i> or <i>vent de
+pluie</i> (from the S.W.) and the <i>joran</i> (from the N.W.). The storm
+winds are the <i>molan</i> (from the Arve valley towards Geneva) and the
+<i>bornan</i> (from the Drance valley towards the central portion of the
+lake). The lake is not as rich in fish as the other Swiss lakes, one
+reason being the obstacle opposed by the Perte du Rhône to fish
+seeking to ascend that river. Prof. Forel knows of but twenty
+indigenous species (of which the <i>Féra</i>, or <i>Coregonus fera</i>, is the
+principal) and six that have been introduced by man in the 19th
+century. A number of lake dwellings, of varying dates, have been
+found on the shores of the lake. The first steamer placed on the
+lake was the &ldquo;Guillaume Tell,&rdquo; built in 1823 at Geneva by an
+Englishman named Church, while in 1873 the present Compagnie
+générale de navigation sur le lac Léman was formed, and in 1875
+constructed the first saloon steamer, the &ldquo;Mont Blanc.&rdquo; But
+despite this service and the railways along each shore, the red lateen
+sails of minor craft still brighten the landscape. The railway along
+the northern shore runs from Geneva past Nyon, Rolle, Morges,
+Ouchy (the port of Lausanne), Vevey and Montreux to Villeneuve
+(56½ m.). That on the south shore gains the edge of the lake at
+Thonon only (22¼ m. from Geneva), and then runs past Evian and
+St Gingolph to Le Bouveret (20 m. from Thonon). In the harbour
+of Geneva two erratic boulders of granite project above the surface
+of the water, and are named <i>Pierres du Niton</i> (supposed to be altars
+to Neptune). The lower of the two, which is also the farthest from
+the shore, has been taken as the basis of the triangulation of Switzerland:
+the official height is 376.86 mètres, which in 1891 was reduced
+to 373.54 mètres, though 376.6 mètres is now said to be the real
+figure. Of course the heights given on the Swiss Government map
+vary with these different estimates of the point taken as basis.</p>
+
+<p>For all matters relating to the lake, see Prof. F.A. Forel&rsquo;s
+monumental work, <i>Le Léman</i> (3 vols. Lausanne, 1892-1904); also
+(with fine illustrations) G. Fatio and F. Boissonnas, <i>Autour du lac
+Léman</i> (Geneva, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENEVIÈVE<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Genovefa</span>, <b>ST</b> (<i>c</i>. 422-512), patroness of
+Paris, lived during the latter half of the 5th century. According
+to tradition, she was born about 422 at Nanterre near Paris;
+her parents were called Severus and Gerontia, but accounts
+differ widely as to their social position. According to the legend,
+she was only in her seventh year when she was induced by St
+Germain, bishop of Auxerre, to dedicate herself to the religious
+life. On the death of her parents she removed to Paris, where she
+distinguished herself by her benevolence, as well as by her austere
+life. She is said to have predicted the invasion of the Huns; and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page594" id="page594"></a>594</span>
+when Attila with his army was threatening the city, she persuaded
+the inhabitants to remain on the island and encouraged them by
+an assurance, justified by subsequent events, that the attack
+would come to nothing (451). She is also said to have had
+great influence over Childeric, father of Clovis, and in 460 to have
+caused a church to be built over the tomb of St Denis. Her
+death occurred about 512 and she was buried in the church of the
+Holy Apostles, popularly known as the church of St Geneviève.
+In 1793 the body was taken from the new church, built in her
+honour by Louis XV., when it became the Panthéon, and burnt
+on the Place de Grève; but the relics were enshrined in a chapel
+of the neighbouring church of St Étienne du Mont, where they
+still attract pilgrims; her festival is celebrated with great pomp
+on the 3rd of January. The frescoes of the Panthéon by Puvis de
+Chavannes are based upon the legend of the saint.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;The main source is the anonymous <i>Vita s.
+Genovefae virginis Parisiorum</i>, published in 1687 by D.P. Charpentier.
+The genuineness of this life was attacked by B. Krusch
+(<i>Neues Archiv</i>, 1893 and 1894) and defended by L. Duchesne,
+<i>Bibliothèque de l&rsquo;École des Chartes</i> (1893), <i>Bulletin critique</i> (1897),
+p. 473. Krusch continued to hold that the life was an 8th-century
+forgery (<i>Scriptores rer. Merov</i>. iii. 204-238). See A. Potthast,
+<i>Bibliotheca medii aevi</i> (1331, 1332), and G. Kurth, <i>Clovis</i>, ii. 249-254.
+The legends and miracles are given in the Bollandists&rsquo; <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>,
+January 1st; there is a short sketch by Henri Lesetre, <i>Ste Geneviève</i>,
+in &ldquo;Les Saints&rdquo; series (Paris, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENEVIÈVE<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Genoveva</span> or <span class="sc">Genovefa</span>, <b>OF BRABANT</b>,
+heroine of medieval legend. Her story is a typical example of the
+widespread tale of the chaste wife falsely accused and repudiated,
+generally on the word of a rejected suitor. Genovefa of Brabant
+was said to be the wife of the palatine Siegfried of Treves, and was
+falsely accused by the majordomo Golo. Sentenced to death she
+was spared by the executioner, and lived for six years with her
+son in a cave in the Ardennes nourished by a roe. Siegfried, who
+had meanwhile found out Golo&rsquo;s treachery, was chasing the roe
+when he discovered her hiding-place, and reinstated her in her
+former honour. Her story is said to rest on the history of Marie
+of Brabant, wife of Louis II., duke of Bavaria, and count-palatine
+of the Rhine, who was tried by her husband and beheaded on the
+18th of January 1256, for supposed infidelity, a crime for which
+Louis afterwards had to do penance. The change in name may
+have been due to the cult of St Geneviève, patroness of Paris.
+The tale first obtained wide popularity in <i>L&rsquo;Innocence reconnue, ou
+vie de Sainte Geneviève de Brabant</i> (pr. 1638) by the Jesuit René de
+Cérisier (1603-1662), and was a frequent subject for dramatic
+representation in Germany. With Genovefa&rsquo;s history may be
+compared the Scandinavian ballads of <i>Ravengaard og Memering</i>,
+which exist in many recensions. These deal with the history of
+Gunild, who married Henry, duke of Brunswick and Schleswig.
+When Duke Henry went to the wars he left his wife in charge of
+Ravengaard, who accused her of infidelity. Gunild is cleared
+by the victory of her champion Memering, the &ldquo;smallest of
+Christian men.&rdquo; The Scottish ballad of Sir Aldingar is a version
+of the same story. The heroine Gunhilda is said to have been the
+daughter of Canute the Great and Emma. She married in 1036
+King Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry III., and there was
+nothing in her domestic history to warrant the legend, which is
+given as authentic history by William of Malmesbury (<i>De gestis
+regum Anglorum</i>, lib. ii. § 188). She was called Cunigund after her
+marriage, and perhaps was confused with St Cunigund, the wife
+of the emperor Henry II. In the <i>Karlamagnus-saga</i> the innocent
+wife is Oliva, sister of Charlemagne and wife of King Hugo, and in
+the French Carolingian cycle the emperor&rsquo;s wife Sibille (<i>La Reine
+Sibille</i>) or Blanchefleur (<i>Macaire</i>). Other forms of the legend are
+to be found in the story of Doolin&rsquo;s mother in <i>Doon de Mayence</i>,
+the English romance of <i>Sir Triamour</i>, in the story of the mother of
+Octavian in <i>Octavian the Emperor</i>, in the German folk book
+<i>Historie von der geduldigen Königin Crescentia</i>, based on a 12th-century
+poem to be found in the <i>Kaiserchronik</i>; and the English
+<i>Erl of Toulouse</i> (<i>c.</i> 1400). In the last-named romance it has been
+suggested that the story gives the relations between Bernard I.
+count of Toulouse, son of the Guillaume d&rsquo;Orange of the Carolingian
+romances, and the empress Judith, second wife of Louis
+the Pious.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F.J. Child, <i>English and Scottish Popular Ballads</i>, vol. ii.
+(1886), art. &ldquo;Sir Aldingar&rdquo;; S. Grundtvig, <i>Danske Kaempeviser</i>
+(Copenhagen, 1867); &ldquo;Sir Triamore,&rdquo; in <i>Bishop Percy&rsquo;s Folio MS.</i>,
+ed. Hales and Furnivall, vol. ii. (London, 1868); <i>The Romance of
+Octavian</i>, ed. E.M. Goldsmid (Aungervyle Soc., Edinburgh, 1882);
+<i>The Erl of Toulous and the Emperes of Almayn</i>, ed. G. Lüdtke (Berlin,
+1881); B. Seuffert, <i>Die Legende von der Pfalzgräfin Genovefa</i> (Würzburg,
+1877); B. Golz, <i>Pfalzgräfin Genovefa in der deutschen Dichtung</i>
+(Leipzig, 1897); R. Köhler, &ldquo;Die deutschen Volksbücher von der
+Pfalzgräfin Genovefa,&rdquo; in <i>Zeitschr. für deutsche Philologie</i> (1874).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENGA, GIROLAMO<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1476-1551), Italian painter and
+architect, was born in Urbino about 1476. At the age of ten
+he was apprenticed to the woollen trade, but showed so much
+inclination for drawing that he was sent to study under an
+obscure painter, and at thirteen under Luca Signorelli, with
+whom he remained a considerable while, frequently painting
+the accessories of his pictures. He was afterwards for three
+years with Pietro Perugino, in company with Raphael. He
+next worked in Florence and Siena, along with Timoteo della
+Vite; and in the latter city he painted various compositions
+for Pandolfo Petrucci, the leading local statesman. Returning
+to Urbino, he was employed by Duke Guidobaldo in the decorations
+of his palace, and showed extraordinary aptitude for
+theatrical adornments. Thence he went to Rome; and in the
+church of S. Caterina da Siena, in that capital, is one of his most
+distinguished works, &ldquo;The Resurrection,&rdquo; remarkable both for
+design and for colouring. He studied the Roman antiquities
+with zeal, and measured a number of edifices; this practice,
+combining with his previous mastery of perspective, qualified
+him to shine as an architect. Francesco Maria della Rovere,
+the reigning duke of Urbino, recalled Genga, and commissioned
+him to execute works in connexion with his marriage-festivities.
+This prince being soon afterwards expelled by Pope Leo X.,
+Genga followed him to Mantua, whence he went for a time to
+Pesaro. The duke of Urbino was eventually restored to his
+dominions; he took Genga with him, and appointed him the
+ducal architect. As he neared the close of his career, Genga
+retired to a house in the vicinity of Urbino, continuing still to
+produce designs in pencil; one, of the &ldquo;Conversion of St Paul,&rdquo;
+was particularly admired. Here he died on the 11th of July
+1551. Genga was a sculptor and musician as well as painter and
+architect. He was jovial, an excellent talker, and kindly to his
+friends. His principal pupil was Francesco Menzocchi. His
+own son Bartolommeo (1518-1558) became an architect of
+celebrity. In Genga&rsquo;s paintings there is a great deal of freedom,
+and a certain peculiarity of character consonant with his versatile,
+lively and social temperament. One of his leading works is
+in the church of S. Agostino in Cesena&mdash;a triptych in oil-colours,
+representing the &ldquo;Annunciation,&rdquo; &ldquo;God the Father in Glory,&rdquo;
+and the &ldquo;Madonna and Child.&rdquo; Among his architectural
+labours are the church of San Giovanni Battista in Pesaro;
+the bishop&rsquo;s palace at Sinigaglia; the façade of the cathedral
+of Mantua, ranking high among the productions of the 16th
+century; and a new palace for the duke of Urbino, built on the
+Monte Imperiale. He was also concerned in the fortifications
+of Pesaro.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENISTA<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span>, in botany, a genus of about eighty species of shrubs
+belonging to the natural order Leguminosae, and natives of
+Europe, western Asia and North Africa. Three are native in
+Britain. <i>G. anglica</i> is the needle-furze or petty whin, found
+on heaths and moist moors, a spinous plant with slender
+spreading branches 1 to 2 ft. long, very small leaves and short
+racemes of small yellow papilionaceous flowers. The pollen is
+emitted in a shower when an insect alights on it. <i>G. tinctoria</i>,
+dyer&rsquo;s green-weed, the flowers of which yield a yellow dye, has
+no spines. Other species are grown on rock-work or as greenhouse
+plants.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENIUS<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>genere</i>, <i>gignere</i>), a term which originally
+meant, in Roman mythology, a generative and protecting spirit,
+who has no exact parallel in Greek religion, and at least in his
+earlier aspect is of purely Italian origin as one of the deities of
+family or household. Every man has his genius, who is not his
+creator, but only comes into being with him and is allotted to
+him at his birth. As a creative principle the genius is restricted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page595" id="page595"></a>595</span>
+to man, his place being taken by a Juno (cp. Juno Lucina,
+the goddess of childbirth) in the case of women. The male and
+female spirit may thus be distinguished respectively as the
+protector of generation and of parturition (<i>tutela generandi,
+pariendi</i>), although the female appears less prominent. It is
+the genius of the <i>paterfamilias</i> that keeps the marriage bed,
+named after him <i>lectus genialis</i> and dedicated to him, under his
+special protection. The genius of a man, as his higher intellectual
+self, accompanies him from the cradle to the grave. In many
+ways he exercises a decisive influence on the man&rsquo;s character
+and mode of life (Horace, <i>Epistles</i>, ii. 2. 187). The responsibility
+for happiness or unhappiness, good or bad fortune, lay
+with the genius; but this does not suppose the existence of two
+genii for man, the one good and the other bad (<span class="grk" title="agathodaimôn">&#7936;&#947;&#945;&#952;&#959;&#948;&#945;&#943;&#956;&#969;&#957;</span>,
+<span class="grk" title="kakodaimôn">&#954;&#945;&#954;&#959;&#948;&#945;&#943;&#956;&#969;&#957;</span>), an idea borrowed from the Greek philosophers. The
+Roman genius, representing man&rsquo;s natural optimism, always
+endeavoured to guide him to happiness; that man was intended
+to enjoy life is shown by the fact that the Roman spoke of indulging
+or cheating his genius of his due according as he enjoyed
+himself or failed to do so, when he had the opportunity. A man&rsquo;s
+birthday was naturally a suitable occasion for honouring his
+genius, and on that occasion offerings of incense, wine, garlands,
+and cakes were made (Tibullus ii. 2; Ovid, <i>Tristia</i>, iii. 13. 18).
+As the representative of a man&rsquo;s higher self and participating
+in a divine nature, the genius could be sworn by, and a person
+could take an oath by his own or some one else&rsquo;s genius. When
+under Greek influence the Roman idea of the gods became more
+and more anthropomorphized, a genius was assigned to them,
+not however as a distinct personality. Thus we hear of the genius
+of Jupiter (Jovis Genio, <i>C.I.L.</i> i. 603), Mars, Juno, Pluto,
+Priapus. In a more extended sense the genius is also the
+generator and preserver of human society, as manifested in the
+family, corporate unions, the city, and the state generally. Thus,
+the genius publicus Populi Romani&mdash;probably distinct from the
+genius Urbis Romae, to whom an old shield on the Capitol was
+dedicated, with an inscription expressing doubt as to the sex
+(<i>Genio ... sive mas sive femina</i>)&mdash;stood in the forum near
+the temple of Concord, in the form of a bearded man, crowned
+with a diadem, and carrying a cornu copiae and sceptre. It
+frequently appears on the coins of Trajan and Hadrian. Sacrifice,
+not confined to bloodless offerings like those of the genius of
+the house, was offered to him annually on the 8th of October.
+There were genii of cities, colonies, and even of provinces; of
+artists, business people and craftsmen; of cooks, gladiators,
+standard-bearers, a legion, a century, and of the army generally
+(<i>genius sanctus castrorum peregrinorum totiusque exercitus</i>). In
+imperial times the genius of Augustus and of the reigning
+emperor, as part of the sacra of the imperial family, were publicly
+worshipped. It was a common practice (often compulsory) to
+swear by the genius of the emperor, and any one who swore
+falsely was flogged. Localities also, such as theatres, baths,
+stables, streets, and markets, had their own genius. The word
+thus gradually lost its original meaning; the nameless local
+genii became an expression for the universality of the <i>divinum
+numen</i> and were sometimes identified with the higher gods.
+The local genius was usually represented by a snake, the symbol
+of the fruitfulness of the earth and of perpetual youth. Hence
+snakes were usually kept in houses (Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> v. 95; Persius
+i. 113), their death in which was considered a bad omen. The
+personal genius usually appeared as a handsome youth in a toga,
+with head sometimes veiled and sometimes bare, carrying a
+drinking cup and cornu copiae, frequently in the position of one
+offering sacrifice.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W.H. Roscher, <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>, and article by J.A.
+Hild in Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>, where
+full references to ancient and modern authorities are given; L.
+Preller, <i>Römische Mythologie</i>, 3rd ed., by H. Jordan; G. Wissowa,
+<i>Religion und Kultur der Römer</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Apart from the Latin use of the term, the plural &ldquo;genii&rdquo;
+(with a singular &ldquo;genie&rdquo;) is used in English, as equivalent to
+the Arabic <i>jinn</i>, for a class of spirits, good or bad, such as are
+described, for instance, in <i>The Arabian Nights</i>. But &ldquo;genius&rdquo;
+itself has become the regular English word for the highest
+conceivable form of original ability, something altogether
+extraordinary and beyond even supreme educational prowess,
+and differing, in kind apparently, from &ldquo;talent,&rdquo; which is
+usually distinguished as marked intellectual capacity short
+only of the inexplicable and unique endowment to which the
+term &ldquo;genius&rdquo; is confined. The attempt, however, to define
+either quality, or to discriminate accurately between them, has
+given rise to continual controversy, and there is no agreement
+as to the nature of either; and the commonly quoted definitions
+of genius&mdash;such as Carlyle&rsquo;s &ldquo;transcendant capacity of taking
+trouble, first of all,&rdquo;<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in which the last three words are usually
+forgotten&mdash;are either admittedly incomplete or are of the
+nature of epigrams. Nor can it be said that any substantial
+light has been thrown on the matter by the modern physiological
+school, Lombroso and others, who regard the eccentricity of genius
+as its prime factor, and study it as a form of mental derangement.
+The error here is partly in ignoring the history of the word, and
+partly in misrepresenting the nature of the fact. There are many
+cases, no doubt, in which persons really insane, of one type or
+another, or with a history of physical degeneration or epilepsy,
+have shown remarkable originality, which may be described
+as genius, but there are at least just as many in whom no such
+physical abnormality can be observed. The word &ldquo;genius&rdquo;
+itself however has only gradually been used in English to express
+the degree of original greatness which is beyond ordinary powers
+of explanation, <i>i.e.</i> far beyond the capacity of the normal human
+being in creative work; and it is a convenient term (like Nietzsche&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;superman&rdquo;) for application to those rare individuals who in
+the course of evolution reveal from time to time the heights to
+which humanity may develop, in literature, art, science, or
+administrative life. The English usage was originally derived,
+naturally enough, from the Roman ideas contained in the term
+(with the analogy of the Greek <span class="grk" title="daimôn">&#948;&#945;&#943;&#956;&#969;&#957;</span>), and in the 16th and
+17th centuries we find it equivalent simply to &ldquo;distinctive
+character or spirit,&rdquo; a meaning still commonly given to the word.
+The more modern sense is not even mentioned in Johnson&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary</i>,
+and represents an 18th-century development, primarily
+due to the influence of German writers; the meaning of &ldquo;distinctive
+natural capacity or endowment&rdquo; had gradually been
+applied specially to creative minds such as those of poets and
+artists, by contrast with those whose mental ability was due to
+the results of education and study, and the antithesis has
+extended since, through constant discussions over the attempt
+to differentiate between the real nature of genius and that of
+&ldquo;talent,&rdquo; until we now speak of the exceptional person not
+merely as having genius but as &ldquo;a genius.&rdquo; This phraseology
+appears to indicate some reversion to the original Roman usage,
+and the identification of the great man with a generative spirit.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Modern theories on the nature of &ldquo;genius&rdquo; should be studied
+with considerable detachment, but there is much that is interesting
+and thought-provoking in such works as J.F. Nisbet&rsquo;s <i>Insanity of
+Genius</i> (1891), Sir Francis Galton&rsquo;s <i>Hereditary Genius</i> (new ed.,
+1892), and C. Lombroso&rsquo;s <i>Man of Genius</i> (Eng. trans., 1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Frederick the Great</i>, iv. iii. 1407.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENUS, STÉPHANIE-FÉLICITÉ DU CREST DE SAINT-AUBIN<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span>,
+<span class="sc">Comtesse de</span> (1746-1830), French writer and educator,
+was born of a noble but impoverished Burgundian family, at
+Champcéry, near Autun, on the 25th of January 1746. When six
+years of age she was received as a canoness into the noble chapter
+of Alix, near Lyons, with the title of Madame la Comtesse de
+Lancy, taken from the town of Bourbon-Lancy. Her entire
+education, however, was conducted at home. In 1758, in Paris,
+her skill as a harpist and her vivacious wit speedily attracted
+admiration. In her sixteenth year she was married to Charles
+Brûlart de Genlis, a colonel of grenadiers, who afterwards
+became marquis de Sillery, but this was not allowed to interfere
+with her determination to remedy her incomplete education, and
+to satisfy a taste for acquiring and imparting knowledge. Some
+years later, through the influence of her aunt, Madame de
+Montesson, who had been clandestinely married to the duke of
+Orleans, she entered the Palais Royal as lady-in-waiting to the
+duchess of Chartres (1770). She acted with great energy and zeal
+as governess to the daughters of the family, and was in 1781
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page596" id="page596"></a>596</span>
+appointed by the duke of Chartres to the responsible office of
+<i>gouverneur</i> of his sons, a bold step which led to the resignation of
+all the tutors as well as to much social scandal, though there is no
+reason to suppose that the intellectual interests of her pupils
+suffered on that account. The better to carry out her ingenious
+theories of education, she wrote several works for their use, the
+best known of which are the <i>Théâtre d&rsquo;éducation</i> (4 vols., 1779-1780),
+a collection of short comedies for young people, <i>Les
+Annales de la vertu</i> (2 vols., 1781) and <i>Adèle et Théodore</i> (3 vols.,
+1782). Sainte-Beuve tells how she anticipated many modern
+methods of teaching. History was taught with the help of magic
+lantern slides and her pupils learnt botany from a practical
+botanist during their walks. In 1789 Madame de Genlis showed
+herself favourable to the Revolution, but the fall of the Girondins
+in 1793 compelled her to take refuge in Switzerland along with her
+pupil Mademoiselle d&rsquo;Orléans. In this year her husband, the
+marquis de Sillery, from whom she had been separated since 1782,
+was guillotined. An &ldquo;adopted&rdquo; daughter, Pamela,<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> had been
+married to Lord Edward Fitzgerald (<i>q.v.</i>) in the preceding
+December.</p>
+
+<p>In 1794 Madame de Genlis fixed her residence at Berlin, but,
+having been expelled by the orders of King Frederick William,
+she afterwards settled in Hamburg, where she supported herself
+for some years by writing and painting. After the revolution of
+18th Brumaire (1799) she was permitted to return to France,
+and was received with favour by Napoleon, who gave her apartments
+at the arsenal, and afterwards assigned her a pension of
+6000 francs. During this period she wrote largely, and produced,
+in addition to some historical novels, her best romance,
+<i>Mademoiselle de Clermont</i> (1802). Madame de Genlis had lost
+her influence over her old pupil Louis Philippe, who visited her
+but seldom, although he allowed her a small pension. Her
+government pension was discontinued by Louis XVIII., and she
+supported herself largely by her pen. Her later years were
+occupied largely with literary quarrels, notably with that which
+arose out of the publication of the <i>Dîners du Baron d&rsquo;Holbach</i>
+(1822), a volume in which she set forth with a good deal of
+sarcastic cleverness the intolerance, the fanaticism, and the
+eccentricities of the &ldquo;philosophes&rdquo; of the 18th century. She
+survived until the 31st of December 1830, and saw her former
+pupil, Louis Philippe, seated on the throne of France.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The numerous works of Madame de Genlis (which considerably
+exceed eighty), comprising prose and poetical compositions on a
+vast variety of subjects and of various degrees of merit, owed much
+of their success to adventitious causes which have long ceased to
+operate. They are useful, however (especially the voluminous
+<i>Mémoires inédits sur le XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, 10 vols., 1825), as furnishing
+material for history. Most of her writings were translated into
+English almost as soon as they were published. A list of her writings
+with useful notes is given by Quérard in <i>La France littéraire</i>. Startling
+light was thrown on her relations with the duc de Chartres by
+the publication (1904) of her correspondence with him in <i>L&rsquo;Idylle
+d&rsquo;un &ldquo;gouverneur&rdquo;</i> by G. Maugras. See also Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries
+du lundi</i>, vol. iii.; H. Austin Dobson, <i>Four Frenchwomen</i> (1890);
+L. Chabaud, <i>Les Précurseurs du féminisme</i> (1901); W. de Chabreul,
+<i>Gouverneur de princes, 1737-1830</i> (1900); and <i>Lettres inédites à ...
+Casimir Baecker, 1802-1830</i> (1902), edited by Henry Lapauze.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Gerald Campbell, <i>Edward and Pamela Fitzgerald</i> (1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENNA<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span>, a word of obscure origin borrowed from the Assamese,
+and used technically by anthropologists to describe a class of
+social and religious ordinances based on sanctions which derive
+their validity from a vague sense of mysterious danger which
+results from disobedience to them. These prohibitions&mdash;or
+system of things forbidden&mdash;affect the relations, permanent and
+temporary, of individuals (either as members of a tribe, village,
+clan or household, or as occupying an official position in the
+village or clan) towards other persons or groups of persons and
+towards material objects which possess intrinsic sanctity. The
+term is extended to the communal rites performed by the village,
+clan or household, either as magical ceremonies or as prophylactics
+on special occasions when the social, commensal, conjugal
+and alimentary relations of the group affected are subjected to
+temporary modifications. These practices and beliefs are observed
+among the hill tribes of Assam from the Abors and Mishmis on
+the north to the Lusheis on the south, all linguistically members
+of the Tibeto-Burman group, and among the Khasis, members of
+the Mon-Khmer group. Genna and taboo (<i>q.v.</i>) are products of
+an identical level of culture and similar psychological processes,
+and provide the mechanism of the social and religious systems.</p>
+
+<p><i>Permanent Gennas.</i>&mdash;The only universal <i>genna</i> is that which
+forbids the intermarriage of members of the same clan. In some
+cases in Manipur animals are <i>genna</i> to the tribe&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> they must
+not be killed or eaten&mdash;but tribal differentiation is, in practice,
+based on dialectical distinctions rather than on tribal <i>gennas</i>.
+The village as such possesses no permanent <i>gennas</i>, but the clans,
+as the units of marriage under the law of exogamy, have distinct
+elementary <i>gennas</i>, especially the clan to which the priest-chief
+belongs. The most important individual <i>gennas</i> are those which
+protect the priest-chief from impurity or contact with &ldquo;sacred&rdquo;
+substances such as the flesh of animals used in sacrifices. He may
+neither eat in a strange house, nor utter words of abuse, nor take
+an oath in a dispute, except in his representative capacity on
+behalf of his village. The first-fruits are <i>genna</i> to the village
+until he eats, thus establishing an opposition between him and his
+co-villagers. Married and unmarried women are subject to alimentary
+<i>gennas</i>; thus unmarried girls are forbidden the flesh of
+any male animal or of any female animal dying gravid.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ritual Gennas.</i>&mdash;Ritual <i>gennas</i> are held annually to foster the
+rice crops, all other industries and activities being <i>genna</i> (forbidden)
+during the cultivating season, to secure good hunting, to
+avert sickness, especially epidemics, to take omens, and to lay
+finally to rest the ghosts of all that have died within the year.
+The village gates are closed, men and women eat apart, and conjugal
+relations are suspended. Special village <i>gennas</i> are held
+when rain is needed, when a villager dies in any manner out of the
+ordinary, as women in childbirth, when an animal gives birth to
+still-born offspring, and when any permanent genna has been
+violated. Clan <i>gennas</i> are held for all ordinary cases of death.
+Household <i>gennas</i> are held on the occasions of birth (when the
+aliment and conduct of the father are specially regulated),
+naming, ear-piercing, the first hair-cutting, sickness, and, in certain
+areas, tattooing. Individuals are subjected to temporary <i>gennas</i>
+as warriors both before and after a head-hunting raid, pregnant
+women, married persons at the beginning of their married life,
+the wives of the priest-chief, and those who from ambition or
+pride of wealth seek to perpetuate their names by erecting a
+stone monument, an act which confers the right to wear the
+distinctive clothes of the priest-chief which otherwise are <i>genna</i>
+to the whole village. Ritual <i>gennas</i> are of varying duration.
+Some last for a month while others are complete in two days. As
+religious or magical rites, they prevent danger or establish and
+restore normal relations with powers which are potentially
+harmful or require placation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Official records of the government of India, Nos.
+23 (1855), 27 (1859), 68 (1870); Colonel T.H. Lewin, <i>Hill Tracts
+of Chittagong; Report on the Census of Assam</i> (1891), vol. i. Report,
+note by A.W. Davis, p. 237 seq.; Major P.R.T. Gurdon, <i>The
+Khasis</i> (1907); T.C. Hodson, <i>Journal of the Royal Anthropological
+Institute</i>, vol. xxxvi. (1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. C. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENNADIUS II.<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> [as layman <span class="sc">Georgios Scholarios</span>] (d. <i>c.</i>
+1468), patriarch of Constantinople from 1454 to 1456, philosopher
+and theologian, was one of the last representatives of Byzantine
+learning. Extremely little is known of his life, but he appears to
+have been born at Constantinople about 1400 and to have entered
+the service of the emperor John VII. Paleologus as imperial
+judge or counsellor. Georgios first appears conspicuously
+in history as present at the great council held in 1438 at
+Ferrara and Florence with the object of bringing about a union
+between the Greek and Latin Churches. At the same council
+was present the celebrated Platonist, Gemistus Pletho, the most
+powerful opponent of the then dominant Aristotelianism, and
+consequently the special object of reprobation to Georgios.
+In church matters, as in philosophy, the two were opposed,&mdash;Pletho
+maintaining strongly the principles of the Greek Church,
+and being unwilling to accept union through compromise,
+while Georgios, more politic and cautious, pressed the necessity
+for union and was instrumental in drawing up a form which from
+its vagueness and ambiguity might be accepted by both parties.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page597" id="page597"></a>597</span>
+He was at a disadvantage because, being a layman, he could not
+directly take part in the discussions of the council. But on his return
+to Greece his views changed, and he violently and obstinately
+opposed the union he had previously urged. In 1448 he became a
+monk at Pantokrator and took the name Gennadius. In 1453,
+after the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, Mahommed II.,
+finding that the patriarchal chair had been vacant for some time,
+resolved to elect some one to the office, and the choice fell on
+Gennadius. While holding the episcopal office Gennadius drew
+up, apparently for the use of Mahommed, a lucid confession or
+exposition of the Christian faith, which was translated into Turkish
+by Ahmed, judge of Beroea, and first printed by A. Brassicanus
+at Vienna in 1530. After a couple of years Gennadius found the
+position of patriarch under a Turkish sultan so irksome that he
+retired to the monastery of John the Baptist near Serrae in
+Macedonia, where he died about 1468. About one hundred of
+his alleged writings exist, the majority in manuscript and of
+doubtful authenticity.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The fullest account of his writings is given in Gass, <i>Gennadius
+and Pletho</i> (Berlin, 1844), the second part of which contains Pletho&rsquo;s
+<i>Contra Gennadium</i>. See also F. Schultze, <i>Gesch. der Phil. d. Renaissance</i>,
+i. (1874). A list of the known writings of Gennadius is given
+in Fabricius, <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i>, ed. Harles, vol. xi., and what has
+been printed is to be found in Migne, <i>Patrol. Gr.</i> vol. clx.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENOA<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (anc. <i>Genua</i>, Ital. <i>Genova</i>, Fr. <i>Gênes</i>), the chief port
+of Liguria, Italy, and capital of the province of Genoa, 119 m.
+N.W. of Leghorn by rail. Pop. (1906) 255,294 (town); 267,248
+(commune). The town is situated on the Gulf of Genoa, and is
+the chief port and commercial town of Italy, the seat of an
+archbishop and a university, the headquarters of the IV. Italian
+army corps, and a strong fortress. The city, as seen from the
+sea, is &ldquo;built nobly,&rdquo; and deserves the title it has acquired or
+assumed of the Superb. Finding only a small space of level
+ground along the shore, it has been obliged to climb the lower
+hills of the Ligurian Alps, which afford many a coign of vantage
+for the effective display of its architectural magnificence. The
+original nucleus of the city is that portion which lies to the east
+of the port in the neighbourhood of the old pier (Molo Vecchio).
+In the 10th century it began to feel a lack of room within the
+limits of its fortifications; and accordingly, in the middle of
+the 12th century, it was found necessary to extend the line of
+circumvallation. Even this second circuit, however, was of
+small compass, and it was not till 1320-1330 that a third line
+took in the greater part of the modern site of the city proper.
+This presented about 3 m. of rampart towards the land side,
+and can still be easily traced from point to point through the
+city, though large portions, especially towards the east, have
+been dismantled. The present line of circumvallation dates
+from 1626-1632, the period when the independence of Genoa
+was threatened by the dukes of Savoy. From the mouth of
+the Bisagno in the east, and from the lighthouse point in the west,
+it stretches inland over hill and dale to the great fort of Sperone,
+<i>i.e.</i> the Spur, on the summits of Monte Peraldo at a height of
+1650 ft.,&mdash;the circuit being little less than 12 m., and all the
+important points along the line being defended by forts or
+batteries.</p>
+
+<p>A portion of the enclosed area is open country, dotted only here
+and there with houses and gardens. There are eight gates, the
+more important being Porta Pila and Porta Romana towards the
+east, and the Porta Lanterna or Lighthouse Gate to the west. The
+main architectural features of Genoa are its medieval churches,
+with striped façades of black and white marble, and its magnificent
+16th-century palaces. The earlier churches of Genoa show
+a mixture of French Romanesque and the Pisan style&mdash;they are
+mostly basilicas with transepts, and as a rule a small dome;
+the pillars are sometimes ancient columns, and sometimes
+formed of alternate layers of black and white marble. The
+façades are simple, without galleries, having only pilasters
+projecting from the wall, and are also alternately black and
+white. This style continued in Gothic times also. The oldest
+is S. Maria di Castello (11th century), the columns and capitals
+of which are almost all antique. S. Cosma, S. Donato (with
+remains of the 10th-century building) and others belong to the
+12th century, and S. Giovanni di Prè, S. Agostino (with a fine
+campanile), S. Stefano, S. Matteo and others to the 13th. The
+famous painting of the martyrdom of S. Stephen, by Giulio
+Romano, carried off by Napoleon in 1811, was restored to S.
+Stefano in 1815. S. Matteo, the church of the D&rsquo;Oria or Doria
+family, was founded in 1126 by Martino Doria. The façade
+dates from 1278, and the interior of the edifice dates in the main
+from 1543. In the crypt is the tomb of Andrea Doria by
+Montorsoli, and above the main altar hangs the dagger presented
+to the doge by Pope Paul III. To the left of the church is an
+exquisite cloister of 1308 with double columns, in which a number
+of inscriptions relating to the Doria family and also the statue
+of Andrea Doria by Montorsoli are preserved. The little square
+in front of the church is surrounded by Gothic palaces of the Doria
+family. Of the churches the principal is the comparatively
+small cathedral of S. Lorenzo. Tradition makes its first foundation
+contemporary with St Lawrence himself; and a document
+of 987 implies that it was even then the metropolitan church.
+Reconstructed about the end of the 11th and beginning of the
+12th century, it was formally consecrated by Pope Gelasius II.
+on the 18th of October 1118; and since then it has undergone
+a large number of extensive though partial renovations. The
+façade, with its three elaborate doorways, belongs to the 14th
+century and is a copy of French models of the 13th. The two
+side portals with Romanesque sculptures belong to the 12th-14th
+centuries. Some pagan reliefs are built into the tower.
+The interior was rebuilt in 1307, the old columns being used.
+The belfry, which rises above the right-hand doorway, was erected
+about 1520 by the doge, Ottaviano da Campofragoso, and the
+cupola was erected after the designs of the architect Galeazzo
+Alessi in 1567. The fine Early Renaissance (1448) sculptural
+decorations of the chapel of S. John the Baptist were due to
+Domenico Gagini of Bissone on the Lake of Lugano, who later
+transferred his activities to Naples and Palermo, and other
+Lombard masters. An edict of Innocent VIII. forbids women
+to enter the chapel except on one day in the year. In the
+treasury of the cathedral is a magnificent silver monstrance
+dating from 1553, and an octagonal bowl, the Sacro Catino,
+brought from Caesarea in 1101, which corresponds to the descriptions
+given of the Holy Grail, and was long regarded as an
+emerald of matchless value, but was found when broken at Paris,
+whither it had been carried by Napoleon I., to be only a remarkable
+piece of ancient glass. The choir-stalls are a very fine
+work of the 15th century and later, with intarsias. Near the
+cathedral is a small 12th-century (?) cloister.</p>
+
+<p>Of older date than the cathedral is the church of S. Ambrose
+and S. Andrew, if its first foundation be correctly assigned to
+the Milanese bishop Honoratus of the 6th century; but the
+present edifice is due to the Society of Jesus, who obtained
+possession of the church in 1587. The interior is richly decorated
+and contains the &ldquo;Circumcision&rdquo; and &ldquo;St Ignatius&rdquo; by Rubens,
+and the &ldquo;Assumption&rdquo; of Guido Reni. The Annunziata del
+Guastato is one of the largest churches in the city, erected in
+1587. It is a cruciform structure, with a dome, and the central
+nave is supported by fourteen Corinthian columns of white
+marble. To the otherwise unfinished brick façade a portal borne
+by marble columns was added in 1843. The interior is covered
+with gilding and frescoes of the 17th century, and is somewhat
+overloaded with rich decoration, while a range of white marble
+columns supports the nave. Santa Maria delle Vigne probably
+dates from the 9th century, but the present structure was erected
+in 1586. The campanile, however, is a remarkable work of the
+13th century. Adjoining the church is a ruined cloister of the
+11th century. San Siro, originally the &ldquo;Church of the Apostles&rdquo;
+and the cathedral of Genoa, was rebuilt by the Benedictines in
+the 11th century, and restored and enlarged by the Theatines
+in 1576, the façade being added in 1830; in this church in 1339
+Simone Boccanera was elected first doge of Genoa. Santa Maria
+di Carignano, or more correctly Santa Maria Assunta e SS.
+Fabiano e Sebastiano, belongs mainly to the 16th century, and
+was designed by Galeazzo Alessi, in imitation of Bramante&rsquo;s
+plan for S. Peter&rsquo;s at Rome, as it was then being executed by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page598" id="page598"></a>598</span>
+Michelangelo. The interior is fine, harmonious and restrained,
+painted in white and grey, while the colouring of the exterior
+is less pleasing. From the highest gallery of the dome&mdash;368
+ft. above the sea-level, and 194 ft. above the ground&mdash;a magnificent
+view is obtained of the city and the neighbouring coast.</p>
+
+<p>Buildings of the 15th century do not occupy an important
+place in Genoa, but there are some small private houses and
+remains of sculptural decoration of the Early Renaissance to be
+seen in the older portions of the town. The palaces of the Genoese
+patricians, famous for their sumptuous architecture, their general
+effectiveness (though the architectural details are often faulty if
+closely examined), and their artistic collections, were many of
+them built in the latter part of the 16th century by Galeazzo
+Alessi, a pupil of Michelangelo, whose style is of an imposing
+and uniform character and displays marvellous ingenuity in
+using a limited or unfavourable site to the greatest advantage.
+Several of the villas in the vicinity of the city are also his work.
+The Via Garibaldi is flanked by a succession of magnificent
+palaces, chief among which is the Palazzo Rosso, so called from
+its red colour. Formerly the palace of the Brignole-Sale family,
+it was presented by the duchess of Galliera to the city in 1874,
+along with its valuable contents, its library and picture gallery,
+which includes fine examples of Van Dyck and Paris Bordone.
+The Palazzo Municipale, built by Rocco Lurago at the end of
+the 16th century, once the property of the dukes of Turin, has a
+beautiful entrance court and a hanging terraced garden fronting
+a noble staircase of marble which leads to the spacious council
+chamber. In an adjoining room are preserved a bronze tablet
+dating from 117 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (see below), two autograph letters of
+Columbus, and the violin of Paganini, also a native of Genoa.
+Opposite the Palazzo Rosso is the Palazzo Bianco, a palace full
+of art treasures bequeathed to the city by the duchess of Galliera
+upon her death in 1889, and subsequently converted into a
+museum. The Roman antiquities here preserved belong to
+other places&mdash;Luna, Libarna, &amp;c. The Adorno, Giorgio Doria
+(both containing small but choice picture-galleries), Parodi and
+Serra and other palaces in this street are worthy of mention.
+The Via Balbi again contains a number of palaces. The Durazzo
+Pallavicini palace has a noble façade and staircase and a rich
+picture-gallery. The street takes its name, however, from the
+Palazzo Balbi-Senarega, which has Doric colonnades and a fine
+orangery. The Palazzo dell&rsquo; Università has an extremely fine
+court and staircase of the early 17th century. The Palazzo
+Reale is also handsome but somewhat later. The Palazzo
+Doria in the Piazza del Principe, presented to Andrea Doria
+by the Genoese in 1522, is on the other hand earlier; it was
+remodelled in 1529 by Montorsoli and decorated with fine frescoes
+by Perino del Vaga. The old palace of the doges, originally
+a building of the 13th century, to which the tower alone belongs,
+the rest of the building having been remodelled in the 16th
+century and modernized after a fire in 1777, stands in the Piazza
+Umberto Primo near the cathedral, and now contains the
+telegraph and other government offices. Another very fine
+building is the Gothic Palazzo di S. Giorgio, near the harbour,
+dating from about 1260, occupied from 1408 to 1797 by the
+Banca di S. Giorgio, and now converted into a produce exchange.
+The Campo Santo or Cimitero di Staglieno, about 1½ m. from
+the city on the banks of the Bisagno, is one of the chief features of
+Genoa; its situation is of great natural beauty and it is remarkable
+for its sepulchral monuments, many of which have been
+executed by the foremost sculptors of modern Italy. The
+university, founded in 1471, is a flourishing institution with
+faculties in law, medicine, natural science, engineering and
+philosophy. Attached to it are a library, an observatory, a
+botanical garden, and a physical and natural history museum.
+Genoa is also well supplied with technical schools and other
+institutions for higher education, while ample provision is made
+for primary education. The hospitals and the asylum for the
+poor are among the finest institutions of their kind in Italy.
+Mention must also be made of the Academy of Fine Arts, the
+municipal library, the great Teatro Carlo Felice and the Verdi
+Institute of Music.</p>
+
+<p>The irregular relief of its site and its long confinement within
+the limits of fortifications, which it had outgrown, have both
+contributed to render Genoa a picturesque confusion of narrow
+streets, lanes and alleys, varied with stairways climbing the
+steeper slopes and bridges spanning the deeper valleys. Large
+portions of the town are inaccessible to ordinary carriages, and
+many of the important streets have very little room for traffic.
+In modern times, however, a number of fine streets and squares
+with beautiful gardens have been laid out. The Piazza Ferrari,
+a large irregular space, is the chief focus of traffic and the centre
+of the Genoese tramway system; it is embellished with a fine
+equestrian statue of Garibaldi, unveiled in 1893, which stands
+in front of the Teatro Carlo Felice. Leading from this piazza
+is the Via Venti Settembre, a broad, handsome street laid out
+since 1887, leading south-east to the Ponte Pila, the central
+bridge over the Bisagno. The street is itself spanned by an
+elegant bridge carrying the Corso Andrea Podesta, a modern
+avenue on the heights above. Adjoining the church of the
+Madonna della Consolazione is the new market, a building of
+no little beauty. The Via Roma, another important centre of
+traffic which gives on to the Via Carlo Felice near the Piazza
+Ferrari, leads to the Piazza Corvetto, in the centre of which
+stands the colossal equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel II.
+To the left is the Villetta Dinegro, a beautiful park belonging to
+the city, decorated with cascades and a number of statues and
+busts of prominent statesmen and citizens. To the right is
+another park, the Acquasola, laid out in 1837 on the site of the
+old ramparts. In the west of the city, in front of the principal
+station, is the Piazza Acquaverde. On the north side, embowered
+in palm trees, is a great statue of Columbus, at whose feet kneels
+the figure of America. Opposite is the Palazzo Faraggiana,
+with scenes from the life of Columbus in relief on its marble
+pediment. Among other modern thoroughfares, the Via di
+Circonvallazione a Monte, laid out since 1876 on the hills at the
+back of the town, leads by many curves from the Piazza Manin
+along the hill-tops westward, and finally descends into the Piazza
+Acquaverde; its entire length is traversed by an electric tramway,
+and it commands magnificent views of the town. A similar
+road, the Via di Circonvallazione a Mare, was laid out in 1893-1895
+on the site of the outer ramparts, and skirts the sea-front
+from the Piazza Cavour to the mouth of the Bisagno,
+thence ascending the right bank to the Ponte Pila. Genoa
+is remarkably well served with electric tramways, which are
+found in all the wider streets, and run, often through tunnels,
+into the suburbs and to the surrounding country on the east as
+far as Nervi and to Pegli oh the west. Three funicular railways
+from different points of the city give access to the highest parts
+of the hills behind the town.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Though its existence as a maritime power was originally due to
+its port, it is only since 1870 that Genoa has provided the conveniences
+necessary for the modern development of its trade,
+the duke of Galliera&rsquo;s gift of £800,000 to the city in 1875 being
+devoted to this purpose. A further enlargement of the harbour was
+necessitated upon the opening of the St Gotthard tunnel in 1882,
+which extended the commercial range of the port through Switzerland
+into Germany. The old harbour is semi-circular in shape, 232
+acres in area, with numerous quays, and protected by moles from
+southern and south-westerly winds. An outer harbour, 247 acres
+in area, has been constructed in front of this by extending the Molo
+Nuovo by the Molo Duca di Galliera, and another basin, the Vittorio
+Emanuele III., for coal vessels, with an area of 96 acres, is in course
+of construction to the west of this, between it and the lofty lighthouse
+which rises on the promontory at the south-west extremity of the
+harbour. This basin is to be entered from both the east and the
+west, and allows for a future extension in front of San Pier d&rsquo;Arena
+as far as the mouth of the river Polcevera. The port administration
+was placed under an autonomous harbour board (<i>consorzio</i>) in 1903.
+The largest ships can enter the harbour, which has a minimum depth
+of 30 ft.; it has two dry docks, a graving dock and a floating dry
+dock. Very large warehouses have been constructed. The exports
+are olive oil, hemp, flax, rice, fruit, wine, hats, cheese, steel, velvets,
+gloves, flour, paper, soap and marble, while the main imports are
+coal, cotton, grain, machinery, &amp;c. Genoa has a large emigrant
+traffic with America, and a large general passenger steamer traffic
+both for America and for the East.</p>
+
+<p>The development of industry has kept pace with that of the
+harbour. The Ansaldo shipbuilding yards construct armoured
+cruisers both for the Italian navy and for foreign governments,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page599" id="page599"></a>599</span>
+The Odero yards, for the construction of merchant and passenger
+steamers, have been similarly extended, and the Foce yard is also
+important. A number of foundries and metallurgical works supply
+material for repairs and shipbuilding. The sugar-refining industry
+has been introduced by two important companies, and most of the
+capital employed in sugar-refining in other parts of Italy has been
+subscribed at Genoa, where the administrative offices of the principal
+companies and individual refiners are situated. The old industries
+of macaroni and cognate products maintain their superiority.
+Tanneries and cotton-spinning and weaving mills have considerably
+extended throughout the province. Cement works have acquired
+an extension previously unknown, more than thirty firms being now
+engaged in that branch of industry. The manufactures of crystallized
+fruits and of filigree silver-work may also be mentioned. The
+trade of the port increased from well under 1,000,000 tons in 1876
+to 6,164,873 metric tons in 1906 (the latter figure, however, includes
+home trade in a proportion of about 12%). Of this large total
+5,365,544 tons are imports and only 799,319 tons are exports, and,
+comparing 1906 with 1905, we have a decrease of 34,355 tons on
+the exports, and an increase of 436,123 tons on the imports. The
+effect upon the railway problem is of course very great, inasmuch
+as, while the supply of trucks required per day in 1906 was from
+1000 to 1200, about 80% of these had to be sent down empty to the
+harbour. Of the four main lines which centre on Genoa&mdash;(1) to
+Novi, which is the junction for Alessandria, where lines diverge to
+Turin and France via the Mont Cenis, and to Novara and Switzerland
+and France via the Simplon, and for Milan; (2) to Acqui and Piedmont;
+(3) to Savona, Ventimiglia and the French Riviera, along
+the coast; (4) to Spezia and Pisa&mdash;the first line has to take no less
+than 78% of the traffic. It has indeed two alternative double
+lines for the passage over the Apennines, but one of them has a
+maximum gradient of 1 : 18 and a tunnel over 2 m. long, and the
+other has a maximum gradient of 1 : 62, and a tunnel over 5 m. long.
+A marshalling station costing some £800,000, connected directly
+with the harbour by tunnels, with 31 m. of rails, capable of taking
+2000 trucks, was constructed at Campasso in 1906 north of San Pier
+d&rsquo;Arena (through which till then the traffic of the first three lines,
+representing 95% of the total, had to pass). It is computed that
+some 40% of the total commerce of Italy passes through Genoa;
+it is indeed the most important harbour in the western Mediterranean,
+with the exception of Marseilles, with which it carries on a keen
+rivalry. Genoa has in the past been somewhat handicapped in
+the race by the insufficiency of railway communication, which,
+owing to the mountains which encircle it, is difficult to secure,
+many tunnels being necessary. The general condition of the Italian
+railways has also affected it, and the increased traffic has not always
+found the necessary facilities in the way of a proper amount of trucks
+to receive the goods discharged, leading to considerable encumbrance
+of the port and consequent diversion of a certain amount of trade
+elsewhere, and besides this to serious temporary deficiencies in the
+coal supply of northern Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The imports of Genoa are divided into four main classes: about
+50% of the total weight is coal, grain about 12%, cotton about
+6%, and miscellaneous about 34%. Of the coal imports the great
+bulk is from British ports: about half comes from Cardiff and
+Barry, one-tenth from other Welsh ports, one-fifth from the Tyne
+ports. The amount shows an almost continued increase from
+617,798 tons in 1881 to 2,737,919 in 1906. The total of shipping
+entered in 1906 was 6586 vessels with a tonnage of 6,867,442, while
+that cleared was 6611 vessels with a tonnage of 6,682,104.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Genoa, being a natural harbour of the first rank,
+must have been in use as a seaport as early as navigation began
+in the Tyrrhenian Sea. We hear nothing from ancient authorities
+of its having been visited or occupied by the Greeks, but the
+discovery of a Greek cemetery of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span><a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> proves
+it. The construction of the Via Venti Settembre gave occasion
+for the discovery of a number of tombs, 85 in all, the bulk of
+which dated from the end of the 5th and the 4th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+The bodies had in all cases been cremated, and were buried in
+small shaft graves, the interment itself being covered by a slab
+of limestone. The vases were of the last red figure style, and
+were mostly imported from Greece or Magna Graecia, while
+the bronze objects came from Etruria, and the brooches (<i>fibulae</i>)
+from Gaul. This illustrates the early importance of Genoa as
+a trading port, and the penetration of Greek customs, inhumation
+being the usual practice of the Ligurians. Genoa is believed to
+derive its name from the fact that the shape of this portion of
+the coast resembles that of a knee (<i>genu</i>).</p>
+
+<p>We hear of the Romans touching here in 216 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and of its
+destruction by the Carthaginians in 209 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and immediate
+restoration by the Romans, who made it and Placentia their
+headquarters against the Ligurians. It was reached from Rome
+by the Via Aurelia, which ran along the north-west coast, and
+its prolongation, which later acquired the name of the Via
+Aemilia (Scauri); for the latter was only constructed in 109
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and there must have been a coast-road long before, at least
+as early as 148 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when the Via Postumia was built from
+Genua through Libarna (mod. Serravalle, where remains of an
+amphitheatre and inscriptions have been found), Dertona, Iria,
+Placentia, Cremona, and thence eastwards. We also have an
+inscription of 117 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (now preserved in the Palazzo Municipale
+at Genoa) giving the text of the decision given by the <i>patroni</i>,
+Q. and M. Minucius, of Genua, in accordance with a decree of
+the Roman senate, in a controversy between the people of Genua
+and the Langenses or Langates (also known as the Viturii), the
+inhabitants of a neighbouring hill-town, which was included
+in the territory of Genua. But none of the other inscriptions
+found in Genoa or existing there at the present day, which are
+practically all sepulchral, can be demonstrated to have belonged
+to the ancient city; it is equally easy to suppose that they were
+brought from elsewhere by sea (Mommsen in <i>Corp. Inscr. Lat.</i>
+v. p. 884). It is only from inscriptions of other places that we
+know that it had municipal rights, and we do not know at what
+period it obtained them. Classical authors tell us but little of
+it. Strabo (iv. 6. 2, p. 202) states that it exported wood, skins
+and honey, and imported olive oil and wine, though Pliny speaks
+of the wine of the district as the best of Liguria (<i>H.N.</i> xiv. 67.)</p>
+
+<p>The history of Genoa during the dark ages, throughout the
+Lombard and Carolingian periods, is but the repetition of the
+general history of the Italian communes, which succeeded in
+snatching from contending princes and barons the first charters
+of their freedom. The patriotic spirit and naval prowess of the
+Genoese, developed in their defensive wars against the Saracens,
+led to the foundation of a popular constitution, and to the rapid
+growth of a powerful marine. From the necessity of leaguing
+together against the common Saracen foe, Genoa united with
+Pisa early in the 11th century in expelling the Moslems from the
+island of Sardinia, but the Sardinian territory thus acquired
+soon furnished occasions of jealousy to the conquering allies, and
+there commenced between the two republics the long naval wars
+destined to terminate so fatally for Pisa. With not less adroitness
+than Venice, Genoa saw and secured all the advantages of the
+great carrying trade which the crusades created between Western
+Europe and the East. The seaports wrested at the same period
+from the Saracens along the Spanish and Barbary coasts became
+important Genoese colonies, whilst in the Levant, on the shores of
+the Black Sea, and along the banks of the Euphrates were erected
+Genoese fortresses of great strength. No wonder if these conquests
+generated in the minds of the Venetians and the Pisans
+fresh jealousy against Genoa, and provoked fresh wars; but the
+struggle between Genoa and Pisa was brought to a disastrous
+conclusion for the latter state by the battle of Meloria in 1284.</p>
+
+<p>The commercial and naval successes of the Genoese during the
+middle ages were the more remarkable because, unlike their
+rivals, the Venetians, they were the unceasing prey to intestine
+discord&mdash;the Genoese commons and nobles fighting against each
+other, rival factions amongst the nobles themselves striving to
+grasp the supreme power in the state, nobles and commons alike
+invoking the arbitration and rule of some foreign captain as the
+sole means of obtaining a temporary truce. From these contests
+of rival nobles, in which the names of Spinola and Doria stand
+forth with greatest prominence, Genoa was soon drawn into the
+great vortex of the Guelph and Ghibelline factions; but its recognition
+of foreign authority&mdash;successively German, Neapolitan and
+Milanese&mdash;gave way to a state of greater independence in 1339,
+when the government assumed a more permanent form with the
+appointment of the first doge, an office held at Genoa for life, in
+the person of Simone Boccanera. Alternate victories and defeats
+of the Venetians and Genoese&mdash;the most terrible being the defeat
+sustained by the Venetians at Chioggia in 1380&mdash;ended by
+establishing the great relative inferiority of the Genoese rulers,
+who fell under the power now of France, now of the Visconti of
+Milan. The Banca di S. Giorgio, with its large possessions,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page600" id="page600"></a>600</span>
+mainly in Corsica, formed during this period the most stable
+element in the state, until in 1528 the national spirit appeared to
+regain its ancient vigour when Andrea Doria succeeded in
+throwing off the French domination and restoring the old form of
+government. It was at this very period&mdash;the close of the 15th and
+commencement of the 16th century&mdash;that the genius and daring of
+a Genoese mariner, Christopher Columbus, gave to Spain that new
+world, which might have become the possession of his native
+state, had Genoa been able to supply him with the ships and seamen
+which he so earnestly entreated her to furnish. The government
+as restored by Andrea Doria, with certain modifications
+tending to impart to it a more conservative character, remained
+unchanged until the outbreak of the French Revolution and the
+creation of the Ligurian republic. During this long period of
+nearly three centuries, in which the most dramatic incident is the
+conspiracy of Fieschi, the Genoese found no small compensation
+for their lost traffic in the East in the vast profits which they made
+as the bankers of the Spanish crown and outfitters of the Spanish
+armies and fleets both in the old world and the new, and Genoa,
+more fortunate than many of the other cities of Italy, was
+comparatively immune from foreign domination.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of the 17th century the city was bombarded by the
+French, and in 1746, after the defeat of Piacenza, surrendered to
+the Austrians, who were, however, soon driven out. A revolt in
+Corsica, which began in 1729, was suppressed with the help of the
+French, who in 1768 took possession of the island for themselves
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Corsica</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The short-lived Ligurian republic was soon swallowed up in the
+French empire, not, however, until Genoa had been made to
+experience, by the terrible privations of the siege when Masséna
+held the city against the Austrians (1800), all that was meant by a
+participation in the vicissitudes of the French Revolution. In
+1814 Genoa rose against the French, on the assurance given by
+Lord William Bentinck that the allies would restore to the republic
+its independence. It had, however, been determined by a
+secret clause of the treaty of Paris that Genoa should be incorporated
+with the dominions of the king of Sardinia. The discontent
+created at the time by the provision of the treaty of Paris as
+confirmed by the congress of Vienna had doubtless no slight share
+in keeping alive in Genoa the republican spirit which, through the
+influence of a young Genoese citizen, Joseph Mazzini, assumed
+forms of permanent menace not only to the Sardinian monarchy
+but to all the established governments of the peninsula. Even
+the material benefits accruing from the union with Sardinia and
+the constitutional liberty accorded to all his subjects by King
+Charles Albert were unable to prevent the republican outbreak of
+1848, when, after a short and sharp struggle, the city, momentarily
+seized by the republican party, was recovered by General Alfonzo
+La Marmora.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among the earlier Genoese historians the most important are
+Bartolommeo Fazio and Jacopo Bracelli, both of the 15th century,
+and Paolo Partenopeo, Jacopo Bonfadio, Oberto Foglietta and
+Agostino Giustiniano of the 16th. Paganetti wrote the ecclesiastical
+history of the city; and Accinelli and Gaggero collected material
+for the ecclesiastical archaeology. The memoirs of local writers and
+artists were treated by Soprani and Ratti. Among more general
+works are Bréquigny, <i>Histoire des révolutions de Gênes jusqu&rsquo;en 1748</i>;
+Serra, <i>La Storia dell&rsquo; antica Liguria e di Genova</i> (Turin, 1834);
+Varesi, <i>Storia della repubblica di Genova sino al 1814</i> (Genoa, 1835-1839);
+Canale, <i>Storia dei Genovesi</i> (Genoa, 1844-1854), <i>Nuova
+istoria della repubblica di Genova</i> (Florence, 1858), and <i>Storia della
+rep. di Genova dall&rsquo; anno 1528 al 1550</i> (Genoa, 1874); Blumenthal,
+<i>Zur Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsgeschichte Genua&rsquo;s im 12ten Jahrhundert</i>
+(Kalbe an der Saale, 1872); Malleson, <i>Studies from Genoese
+History</i> (London, 1875). The <i>Liber jurium reipublicae Genuensis</i>
+was edited by Ricotti in the 7th, 8th and 9th volumes of the <i>Monumenta
+historiae patriae</i> (Turin, 1854-1857). A great variety of
+interesting matter will be found in the <i>Atti della Società Ligure di
+storia patria</i> (1861 sqq.), and in the <i>Giornale Ligustico di archeologia,
+storia, e belle arti</i>. The history of the university has been written
+by Lorenzo Isnardi, and continued by Em. Celesia (2 vols., Genoa).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See <i>Notizie degli scavi</i> (1898), 395 (A. d&rsquo;Andrade), 464 (G.
+Ghirardini).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENOVESI, ANTONIO<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1712-1769), Italian writer on philosophy
+and political economy, was born at Castiglione, near
+Salerno, on the 1st of November 1712. He was educated for the
+church, and, after some hesitation, took orders in 1736 at Salerno,
+where he was appointed professor of eloquence at the theological
+seminary. During this period of his life he began the study of
+philosophy, being especially attracted by Locke. Dissatisfied
+with ecclesiastical life, Genovesi resigned his post, and qualified
+as an advocate at Rome. Finding law as distasteful as theology,
+he devoted himself entirely to philosophy, of which he was
+appointed extraordinary professor in the university of Naples.
+His first works were <i>Elementa Metaphysicae</i> (1743 et seq.) and
+<i>Logica</i> (1745). The former is divided into four parts, Ontosophy,
+Cosmosophy, Theosophy, Psychosophy, supplemented by a
+treatise on ethics and a dissertation on first causes. The <i>Logic</i>,
+an eminently practical work, written from the point of view of
+Locke, is in five parts, dealing with (1) the nature of the human
+mind, its faculties and operations; (2) ideas and their kinds; (3)
+the true and the false, and the various degrees of knowledge; (4)
+reasoning and argumentation; (5) method and the ordering of
+our thoughts. If Genovesi does not take a high rank in philosophy,
+he deserves the credit of having introduced the new order
+of ideas into Italy, at the same time preserving a just mean
+between the two extremes of sensualism and idealism. Although
+bitterly opposed by the partisans of scholastic routine, Genovesi
+found influential patrons, amongst them Bartolomeo Intieri, a
+Florentine, who in 1754 founded the first Italian or European
+chair of political economy (commerce and mechanics), on condition
+that Genovesi should be the first professor, and that it
+should never be held by an ecclesiastic. The fruit of Genovesi&rsquo;s
+professorial labours was the <i>Lezioni di Commercio</i>, the first
+complete and systematic work in Italian on economics. On the
+whole he belongs to the &ldquo;Mercantile&rdquo; school, though he does not
+regard money as the only form of wealth. Specially noteworthy
+in the <i>Lezioni</i> are the sections on human wants as the foundation
+of economical theory, on labour as the source of wealth, on
+personal services as economic factors, and on the united working
+of the great industrial functions. He advocated freedom of the
+corn trade, reduction of the number of religious communities, and
+deprecated regulation of the interest on loans. In the spirit of
+his age he denounced the relics of medieval institutions, such as
+entails and tenures in mortmain. Gioja&rsquo;s more important treatise
+owes much to Genovesi&rsquo;s lectures. Genovesi died on the 22nd of
+September 1769.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Ugoni, <i>Della letteratura italiana nella seconda metà del secolo
+XVIII</i> (1820-1822); A. Fabroni, <i>Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium</i>
+(1778-1799); R. Bobba, <i>Commemorazione di A. Genovesi</i>
+(Benevento, 1867).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENSONNÉ, ARMAND<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1758-1793), French politician, the
+son of a military surgeon, was born at Bordeaux on the 10th of
+August 1758. He studied law, and at the outbreak of the
+Revolution was an advocate of the parlement of Bordeaux. In
+1790 he became <i>procureur</i> of the Commune, and in July 1791 was
+elected by the newly created department of the Gironde a member
+of the court of appeal. In the same year he was elected deputy for
+the department to the Legislative Assembly. As reporter of the
+diplomatic committee, in which he supported the policy of Brissot,
+he proposed two of the most revolutionary measures passed by
+the Assembly: the decree of accusation against the king&rsquo;s brothers
+(January 1, 1792), and the declaration of war against the king of
+Bohemia and Hungary (April 20, 1792). He was vigorous in his
+denunciations of the intrigues of the court and of the &ldquo;Austrian
+committee&rdquo;; but the violence of the extreme democrats, culminating
+in the events of the 10th of August, alarmed him; and
+when he was returned to the National Convention, he attacked
+the Commune of Paris (October 24 and 25). At the trial of Louis
+XVI. he supported an appeal to the people, but voted for the
+death sentence. As a member of the Committee of General
+Defence, and as president of the Convention (March 7-21, 1793),
+he shared in the bitter attacks of the Girondists on the Mountain;
+and on the fatal day of the 2nd of June his name was among the
+first of those inscribed on the prosecution list. He was tried by
+the Revolutionary Tribunal on the 24th of October 1793, condemned
+to death and guillotined on the 31st of the month,
+displaying on the scaffold a stoic fortitude. Gensonné was
+accounted one of the most brilliant of the little band of brilliant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page601" id="page601"></a>601</span>
+orators from the Gironde, though his eloquence was somewhat
+cold and he always read his speeches.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENTIAN<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span>, botanically <i>Gentiana</i>, a large genus of herbaceous
+plants belonging to the natural order Gentianaceae. The genus
+comprises about 300 species,&mdash;most of them perennial plants
+with tufted growth, growing in hilly or mountainous districts,
+chiefly in the northern hemisphere, some of the blue-flowered
+species ascending to a height of 16,000 ft. in the Himalaya
+Mountains. The leaves are opposite, entire and smooth, and
+often strongly ribbed. The flowers have a persistent 4- to 5-lobed
+calyx and a 4- to 5-lobed tubular corolla; the stamens
+are equal in number to the lobes of the corolla. The ovary is
+one-celled, with two stigmas, either separate and rolled back
+or contiguous and funnel-shaped. The fruit when ripe separates
+into two valves, and contains numerous small seeds. The
+majority of the genus are remarkable for the deep or brilliant
+blue colour of their blossoms, comparatively few having yellow,
+white, or more rarely red flowers; the last are almost exclusively
+found in the Andes.</p>
+
+<p>Only a few species occur in Britain. <i>G. amarella</i> (felwort)
+and <i>G. campestris</i> are small annual species growing on chalky
+or calcareous hills, and bear in autumn somewhat tubular pale
+purple flowers; the latter is most easily distinguished by having
+two of the lobes of the calyx larger than the other two, while
+the former has the parts of the calyx in fives, and equal in size.
+Some intermediate forms between these two species occur,
+although rarely, in England; one of these, <i>G. germanica</i>, has
+larger flowers of a bluer tint, spreading branches, and a stouter
+stem. Some of these forms flower in spring. <i>G. pneumonanthe</i>,
+the Calathian violet, is a rather rare perennial species, growing
+in moist heathy places from Cumberland to Dorsetshire. Its
+average height is from 6 to 9 in. It has linear leaves, and a
+bright blue corolla 1½ in. long, marked externally with five
+greenish bands, is without hairs in its throat, and is found in
+perfection about the end of August. It is the handsomest of
+the British species; two varieties of it are known in cultivation,
+one with spotted and the other with white flowers. <i>G. verna</i>
+and <i>G. nivalis</i> are small species with brilliant blue flowers and
+small leaves. The former is a rare and local perennial, occurring,
+however, in Teesdale and the county of Clare in Ireland in tolerable
+abundance. It has a tufted habit of growth, and each stem
+bears only one flower. It is sometimes cultivated as an edging
+for flower borders. <i>G. nivalis</i> in Britain occurs only on a few
+of the loftiest Scottish mountains. It differs from the last in
+being an annual, and having a more isolated habit of growth, and
+in the stem bearing several flowers. On the Swiss mountains
+these beautiful little plants are very abundant; and the splendid
+blue colour of masses of gentian in flower is a sight which, when
+once seen, can never be forgotten. For ornamental purposes
+several species are cultivated. The great difficulty of growing
+them successfully renders them, however, less common than would
+otherwise be the case; although very hardy when once established,
+they are very impatient of removal, and rarely flower
+well until the third year after planting. Of the ornamental
+species found in British gardens some of the prettiest are <i>G.
+acaulis</i>, <i>G. verna</i>, <i>G. pyrenaica</i>, <i>G. bavarica</i>, <i>G. septemfida</i> and
+<i>G. gelida</i>. Perhaps the handsomest and most easily grown is
+the first named, often called <i>Gentianella</i>, which produces its
+large intensely blue flowers early in the spring.</p>
+
+<p>All the species of the genus are remarkable for possessing an
+intense but pure bitter taste and tonic properties. About forty
+species are used in medicine in different parts of the world. The
+name of felwort given to <i>G. amarella</i>, but occasionally applied
+to the whole genus, is stated by Dr Prior to be given in allusion
+to these properties&mdash;<i>fel</i> meaning gall, and <i>wort</i> a plant. In the
+same way the Chinese call <i>G. asclepiadea</i>, and the Japanese <i>G.
+Buergeri</i>, &ldquo;dragon&rsquo;s gall plants,&rdquo; in common with several other
+very bitter plants whose roots they use in medicine. <i>G. campestris</i>
+is sometimes used in Sweden and other northern countries as a
+substitute for hops.</p>
+
+<p>By far the most important of the species used in medicine is
+<i>G. lutea</i>, a large handsome plant 3 or 4 ft. high, growing in open
+grassy places on the Alps, Apennines and Pyrenees, as well as
+on some of the mountainous ranges of France and Germany,
+extending as far east as Bosnia and the Danubian principalities.
+It has large oval strongly-ribbed leaves and dense whorls of
+conspicuous yellow flowers. Its use in medicine is of very ancient
+date. Pliny and Dioscorides mention that the plant was noticed
+by Gentius, a king of the Illyrians, living 180-167 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, from
+whom the name <i>Gentiana</i> is supposed to be derived. During
+the middle ages it was much employed in the cure of disease,
+and as an ingredient in counter-poisons. In 1552 Hieronymus
+Bock (Tragus) (1498-1554), a German priest, physician and
+botanist, mentions the use of the root as a means of dilating
+wounds.</p>
+
+<p>The root, which is the part used in medicine, is tough and
+flexible, scarcely branched, and of a brownish colour and spongy
+texture. It has a pure bitter taste and faint distinctive odour.
+The bitter principle, known as <i>gentianin</i>, is a glucoside, soluble
+in water and alcohol. It can be decomposed into glucose and
+gentiopicrin by the action of dilute mineral acids. It is not
+precipitated by tannin or subacetate of lead. A solution of
+caustic potash or soda forms with gentianin a yellow solution,
+and the tincture of the root to which either of these alkalis has
+been added loses its bitterness in a few days. Gentian root also
+contains <i>gentianic acid</i> (C<span class="su">14</span>H<span class="su">10</span>O<span class="su">5</span>), which is inert and tasteless.
+It forms pale yellow silky crystals, very slightly soluble in water
+or ether, but soluble in hot strong alcohol and in aqueous alkaline
+solutions. This substance is also called <i>gentianin</i>, <i>gentisin</i> and
+<i>gentisic acid</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The root also contains 12 to 15% of an uncrystallizable
+sugar called gentianose, of which fact advantage has long been
+taken in Switzerland and Bavaria for the production of a bitter
+cordial spirit called <i>Enzianbranntwein</i>. The use of this spirit,
+especially in Switzerland, has sometimes been followed by
+poisonous symptoms, which have been doubtfully attributed
+to inherent narcotic properties possessed by some species of
+gentian, the roots of which may have been indiscriminately
+collected with it; but it is quite possible that it may be due to
+the contamination of the root with that of <i>Veratrum album</i>, a
+poisonous plant growing at the same altitude, and having leaves
+extremely similar in appearance and size to those of <i>G. lutea</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Gentian is one of the most efficient of the class of substances
+which act upon the stomach so as to invigorate digestion and
+thereby increase the general nutrition, without exerting any
+direct influence upon any other portion of the body than the
+alimentary canal. Having a pleasant taste and being non-astringent
+(owing to the absence of tannic acid), it is the most
+widely used of all bitter tonics. The British Pharmacopoeia
+contains an aqueous extract (dose, 2-8 grains), a compound
+infusion with orange and lemon peel (dose, ½-1 ounce), and a
+compound tincture with orange peel and cardamoms (dose ½-1
+drachm). It is used in dyspepsia, chlorosis, anaemia and
+various other diseases, in which the tone of the stomach and
+alimentary canal is deficient, and is sometimes added to purgative
+medicines to increase and improve their action. In veterinary
+medicine it is also used as a tonic, and enters into a well-known
+compound called <i>diapente</i> as a chief ingredient.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENTIANACEAE<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (the gentian family), in botany, an order of
+Dicotyledons belonging to the sub-class Sympetalae or Gamopetalae,
+and containing about 750 species in 64 genera. It has
+a world-wide distribution, and representatives adapted to very
+various conditions, including, for instance, alpine plants, like
+the true gentians (<i>Gentiana</i>), meadow plants such as the British
+<i>Chlora perfoliata</i> (yellow-wort) or <i>Erythraea Centaurium</i> (centaury),
+marsh plants such as <i>Menyanthes trifoliata</i> (bog-bean), floating
+water plants such as <i>Limnanthemum</i>, or steppe and sea-coast
+plants such as <i>Cicendia</i>. They are annual or perennial herbs,
+rarely becoming shrubby, and generally growing erect, with a
+characteristic forked manner of branching; the Asiatic genus
+<i>Crawfurdia</i> has a climbing stem; they are often low-growing
+and caespitose, as in the alpine gentians.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:337px; height:681px" src="images/img602.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">Central figure and figs. 1-4 after Curtis, <i>Flora Londinensis</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><i>Gentiana Amarella.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p>1, A small form, natural size.</p>
+<p>2, Calyx and protruding style.</p>
+<p>3, Corolla, laid open.</p>
+<p>4, Capsule, bursting into two valves, and showing the seeds attached to their margins.</p>
+<p>5, Floral diagram.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The leaves are in decussating pairs (that is, each pair is in a
+plane at right angles to the previous or succeeding pair), except in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page602" id="page602"></a>602</span>
+<i>Menyanthes</i> and a few allied aquatic or marsh genera, where they are
+alternate or radical. Several genera, chiefly American, are saprophytes,
+forming slender low-growing herbs, containing little or no
+chlorophyll and with leaves reduced to scales; such are <i>Voyria</i>
+and <i>Leiphaimos</i>, mainly tropical American. The inflorescence is
+generally cymose, often dichasial, recalling that of Caryophyllaceae,
+the lateral branches often becoming monochasial; it is sometimes
+reduced to a few flowers or one only, as in some gentians. The
+flowers are hermaphrodite, and regular with parts in 4&rsquo;s and 5&rsquo;s,
+with reduction to 2 in the pistil; in <i>Chlora</i> there are 6 to 8 members
+in each whorl. The calyx generally forms a tube with teeth or
+segments which usually overlap in the bud. The corolla shows great
+variety in form; thus among the British genera it is rotate in
+<i>Chlora</i>, funnel-shaped in <i>Erythraea</i>, and cylindrical, bell-shaped,
+funnel-shaped or salver-shaped in <i>Gentiana</i>; the segments are
+generally twisted to
+the right in the bud;
+the throat is often
+fimbriate or bears
+scales. The stamens,
+as many as, and
+alternating with, the
+corolla-segments, are
+inserted at very different
+heights on the
+corolla-tube; the filaments
+are slender,
+the anthers are
+usually attached dorsally,
+are versatile,
+and dehisce by two
+longitudinal slits;
+after escape of the
+pollen they sometimes
+become spirally
+twisted as in
+<i>Erythraea</i>. Dimorphic
+flowers are
+frequent, as in the
+bog-bean (<i>Menyanthes</i>).
+There is
+considerable variation
+in the size, shape
+and external markings
+of the pollen
+grains, and a division
+of the order
+into tribes and subtribes
+based primarily
+on pollen
+characters has been
+proposed. The form
+of the honey-secreting
+developments of
+the disk at the base
+of the ovary also
+shows considerable
+variety. The superior
+ovary is generally
+one-chambered, with
+two variously developed
+parietal placentas,
+which occasionally
+meet, forming
+two chambers;
+the ovules are generally
+very numerous
+and anatropous or
+half-anatropous in
+form. The style,
+which varies much
+in length, is simple, with an undivided or bilobed or bipartite
+stigma. The fruit is generally a membranous or leathery capsule,
+splitting septicidally into two valves; the seeds are small and
+numerous, and contain a small embryo in a copious endosperm.</p>
+
+<p>The brilliant colour of the flowers, often occurring in large numbers
+(as in the alpine gentians), the presence of honey-glands and the
+frequency of dimorphy and dichogamy, are adaptations for pollination
+by insect visitors. In the true gentians (<i>Gentiana</i>) the flowers
+of different species are adapted for widely differing types of insect
+visitors. Thus <i>Gentiana lutea</i>, with a rotate yellow corolla and
+freely exposed honey, is adapted to short-tongued insect visitors;
+<i>G. Pneumonanthe</i>, with a long-tubed, bright blue corolla, is visited
+by <span class="correction" title="amended from humble">bumble</span> bees; and <i>G. verna</i>, with a still longer narrower tube, is
+visited by Lepidoptera.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gentiana</i>, the largest genus, contains nearly three hundred species,
+distributed over Europe (including arctic), five being British, the
+mountains of Asia, south-east Australia and New Zealand, the
+whole of North America and along the Andes to Cape Horn; it
+does not occur in Africa. Bitter principles are general in the
+vegetative parts, especially in the rhizomes and roots, and have
+given a medicinal value to many species, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Gentiana lutea</i> and
+others.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENTILE<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span>, in the English Bible, the term generally applied
+to those who were not of the Jewish race. It is an adaptation
+of the Lat. <i>gentilis</i>, of or belonging to the same <i>gens</i>, the clan or
+family; as defined in Paulus ex Festo &ldquo;gentilis dicitur et ex
+eodem genere ortus et is qui simili nomine; ut ait Cincius,
+gentiles mihi sunt, qui meo nomine appellantur.&rdquo; In post-Augustan
+Latin <i>gentilis</i> became wider in meaning, following the
+usage of <i>gens</i>, in the sense of race, nation, and meant &ldquo;national,&rdquo;
+belonging to the same race. Later still the word came to mean
+&ldquo;foreign,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> other than Roman, and was so used in the Vulgate,
+with <i>gentes</i>, to translate the Hebrew <i>goyyim</i>, nations, LXX. <span class="grk" title="ethnê">&#7956;&#952;&#957;&#951;</span>,
+the non-Israelitish peoples (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENTILE DA FABRIANO<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1370-<i>c.</i> 1450), Italian painter,
+was born at Fabriano about 1370. He is said to have been a
+pupil of Allegretto di Nuzio, and has been supposed to have
+received most of his early instruction from Fra Angelico, to
+whose manner his bears in some respects a close similarity.
+About 1411 he went to Venice, where by order of the doge and
+senate he was engaged to adorn the great hall of the ducal
+palace with frescoes from the life of Barbarossa. He executed
+this work so entirely to the satisfaction of his employers that
+they granted him a pension for life, and accorded him the privilege
+of wearing the habit of a Venetian noble. About 1422 he went
+to Florence, where in 1423 he painted an &ldquo;Adoration of the Magi&rdquo;
+for the church of Santa Trinita, which is preserved in the Florence
+Accademia; this painting is considered his best work now extant.
+To the same period belongs a &ldquo;Madonna and Child,&rdquo; which is now
+in the Berlin Museum. He had by this time attained a wide
+reputation, and was engaged to paint pictures for various churches,
+more particularly Siena, Perugia, Gubbio and Fabriano. About
+1426 he was called to Rome by Martin V. to adorn the church
+of St John Lateran with frescoes from the life of John the
+Baptist. He also executed a portrait of the pope attended by
+ten cardinals, and in the church of St Francesco Romano a
+painting of the &ldquo;Virgin and Child attended by St Benedict and
+St Joseph,&rdquo; which was much esteemed by Michelangelo, but is
+no longer in existence. Gentile da Fabriano died about 1450.
+Michelangelo said of him that his works resembled his name,
+meaning noble or refined. They are full of a quiet and serene
+joyousness, and he has a naïve and innocent delight in splendour
+and in gold ornaments, with which, however, his pictures are
+not overloaded.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENTILESCHI<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span>, <b>ARTEMISIA</b> and <b>ORAZIO DE&rsquo;</b>, Italian
+painters.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Orazio</span> (<i>c.</i> 1565-1646) is generally named Orazio Lomi de&rsquo;
+Gentileschi; it appears that De&rsquo; Gentileschi was his correct
+surname, Lomi being the surname which his mother had borne
+during her first marriage. He was born at Pisa, and studied under
+his half-brother Aurelio Lomi, whom in course of time he surpassed.
+He afterwards went to Rome, and was associated with
+the landscape-painter Agostino Tasi, executing the figures for the
+landscape backgrounds of this artist in the Palazzo Rospigliosi,
+and it is said in the great hall of the Quirinal Palace, although by
+some authorities the figures in the last-named building are
+ascribed to Lanfranco. His best works are &ldquo;Saints Cecilia and
+Valerian,&rdquo; in the Palazzo Borghese, Rome; &ldquo;David after the
+death of Goliath,&rdquo; in the Palazzo Doria, Genoa; and some works
+in the royal palace, Turin, noticeable for vivid and uncommon
+colouring. At an advanced age Gentileschi went to England at
+the invitation of Charles I., and he was employed in the palace at
+Greenwich. Vandyck included him in his portraits of a hundred
+illustrious men. His works generally are strong in shadow and
+positive in colour. He died in England in 1646.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Artemisia</span> (1590-1642), Orazio&rsquo;s daughter, studied first under
+Guido, acquired much renown for portrait-painting, and considerably
+excelled her father&rsquo;s fame. She was a beautiful and
+elegant woman; her likeness, limned by her own hand, is to be
+seen in Hampton Court. Her most celebrated composition is
+&ldquo;Judith and Holofernes,&rdquo; in the Uffizi Gallery; certainly a work
+of singular energy, and giving ample proof of executive faculty,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page603" id="page603"></a>603</span>
+but repulsive and unwomanly in its physical horror. She
+accompanied her father to England, but did not remain there
+long; the best picture which she produced for Charles I. was
+&ldquo;David with the head of Goliath.&rdquo; Artemisia refused an offer
+of marriage from Agostino Tasi, and bestowed her hand on Pier
+Antonio Schiattesi, continuing, however, to use her own surname.
+She settled in Naples, whither she returned after her
+English sojourn; she lived there in no little splendour, and
+there she died in 1642. She had a daughter and perhaps other
+children.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENTILI, ALBERICO<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1552-1608), Italian jurist, who has great
+claims to be considered the founder of the science of international
+law, second son of Matteo Gentili, a physician of noble family and
+scientific eminence, was born on the 14th of January 1552 at
+Sanginesio, a small town of the march of Ancona which looks
+down from the slopes of the Apennines upon the distant Adriatic.
+After taking the degree of doctor of civil law at the university of
+Perugia, and holding a judicial office at Ascoli, he returned to his
+native city, and was entrusted with the task of recasting its
+statutes, but, sharing the Protestant opinions of his father,
+shared also, together with a brother, Scipio, afterwards a famous
+professor at Altdorf, his flight to Carniola, where in 1579 Matteo
+was appointed physician to the duchy. The Inquisition condemned
+the fugitives as contumacious, and they soon received
+orders to quit the dominions of Austria.</p>
+
+<p>Alberico set out for England, travelling by way of Tübingen and
+Heidelberg, and everywhere meeting with the reception to which
+his already high reputation entitled him. He arrived at Oxford
+in the autumn of 1580, with a commendatory letter from the earl
+of Leicester, at that time chancellor of the university, and was
+shortly afterwards qualified to teach by being admitted to the
+same degree which he had taken at Perugia. His lectures on
+Roman law soon became famous, and the dialogues, disputations
+and commentaries, which he published henceforth in rapid
+succession, established his position as an accomplished civilian,
+of the older and severer type, and secured his appointment in
+1587 to the regius professorship of civil law. It was, however,
+rather by an application of the old learning to the new questions
+suggested by the modern relations of states that his labours
+have produced their most lasting result. In 1584 he was consulted
+by government as to the proper course to be pursued with
+Mendoza, the Spanish ambassador, who had been detected in
+plotting against Elizabeth. He chose the topic to which his
+attention had thus been directed as a subject for a disputation
+when Leicester and Sir Philip Sidney visited the schools at
+Oxford in the same year; and this was six months later expanded
+into a book, the <i>De legationibus libri tres</i>. In 1588 Alberico
+selected the law of war as the subject of the law disputations at the
+annual &ldquo;Act&rdquo; which took place in July; and in the autumn
+published in London the <i>De Jure Belli commentatio prima</i>. A
+second and a third <i>Commentatio</i> followed, and the whole matter,
+with large additions and improvements, appeared at Hanau, in
+1598, as the <i>De Jure Belli libri tres</i>. It was doubtless in consequence
+of the reputation gained by these works that Gentili
+became henceforth more and more engaged in forensic practice,
+and resided chiefly in London, leaving his Oxford work to be
+partly discharged by a deputy. In 1600 he was admitted to be a
+member of Gray&rsquo;s Inn, and in 1605 was appointed standing counsel
+to the king of Spain. He died on the 19th of June 1608, and was
+buried, by the side of Dr Matteo Gentili, who had followed his son
+to England, in the churchyard of St Helen&rsquo;s, Bishopsgate. By
+his wife, Hester de Peigni, he left two sons, Robert and Matthew,
+and a daughter, Anna, who married Sir John Colt. His notes of
+the cases in which he was engaged for the Spaniards were posthumously
+published in 1613 at Hanau, as <i>Hispanicae advocationis
+libri duo</i>. This was in accordance with his last wishes; but his
+direction that the remainder of his MSS. should be burnt was not
+complied with, since fifteen volumes of them found their way, at
+the beginning of the 19th century, from Amsterdam to the
+Bodleian library.</p>
+
+<p>The true history of Gentili and of his principal writings has
+only been ascertained in recent years, in consequence of a revived
+appreciation of the services which he rendered to international
+law. The movement to do him honour originated in 1875 in
+England, as the result of the inaugural lecture of Prof. T.E.
+Holland, and was warmly taken up in Italy. In spreading
+through Europe it encountered two curious cross-currents of
+opinion,&mdash;one the ultra-Catholic, which three centuries before had
+ordered his name to be erased from all public documents and
+placed his works in the <i>Index</i>; another the narrowly-Dutch,
+which is, it seems, needlessly careful of the supremacy of Grotius.
+These two currents resulted respectively in a bust of Garcia Moreno
+being placed in the Vatican, and in the unveiling in 1886, with
+much international oratory, of a fine statue of Grotius at Delft.
+The English committee, under the honorary presidency of Prince
+Leopold, in 1877 erected a monument to the memory of Gentili in
+St Helen&rsquo;s church, and saw to the publication of a new edition of
+the <i>De Jure Belli</i>. The Italian committee, of which Prince (afterwards
+King) Humbert was honorary president, was less successful.
+It was only in 1908, the tercentenary of the death of Alberico,
+that the statue of the great heretic was at length unveiled in his
+native city by the minister of public instruction, in the presence
+of numerous deputations from Italian cities and universities.
+Preceding writers had dealt with various international questions,
+but they dealt with them singly, and with a servile submission to
+the decisions of the church. It was left to Gentili to grasp as a
+whole the relations of states one to another, to distinguish
+international questions from questions with which they are
+more or less intimately connected, and to attempt their solution
+by principles entirely independent of the authority of Rome.
+He uses the reasonings of the civil and even the canon law, but
+he proclaims as his real guide the <i>Jus Naturae</i>, the highest
+common sense of mankind, by which historical precedents are to
+be criticized and, if necessary, set aside.</p>
+
+<p>His faults are not few. His style is prolix, obscure, and to the
+modern reader pedantic enough; but a comparison of his
+greatest work with what had been written upon the same subject
+by, for instance, Belli, or Soto, or even Ayala, will show that he
+greatly improved upon his predecessors, not only by the fulness
+with which he has worked out points of detail, but also by clearly
+separating the law of war from martial law, and by placing the
+subject once for all upon a non-theological basis. If, on the other
+hand, the same work be compared with the <i>De Jure Belli et Pacis</i> of
+Grotius, it is at once evident that the later writer is indebted to
+the earlier, not only for a large portion of his illustrative erudition,
+but also for all that is commendable in the method and arrangement
+of the treatise.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following is probably a complete list of the writings of Gentili,
+with the places and dates of their first publication: <i>De juris interpretibus
+dialogi sex</i> (London, 1582); <i>Lectionum et epist. quae ad jus civile
+pertinent libri tres</i> (London, 1583-1584); <i>De legationibus libri tres</i>
+(London, 1585); <i>Legal. comitiorum Oxon. actio</i> (London, 1585-1586);
+<i>De divers. temp. appellationibus</i> (Hanau, 1586); <i>De nascendi tempore
+disputatio</i> (Witteb., 1586); <i>Disputationum decas prima</i> (London, 1587);
+<i>Conditionum liber singularis</i> (London, 1587); <i>De jure belli comm. prima</i>
+(London, 1588); <i>secunda, ib.</i> (1588-1589); <i>tertia</i> (1589);
+<i>De injustitia bellica Romanorum</i> (Oxon, 1590); <i>Ad tit. de Malef, et Math,
+de Prof. et Med.</i> (Hanau, 1593); <i>De jure belli libri tres</i> (Hanau, 1598);
+<i>De armis Romanis, &amp;c.</i> (Hanau, 1599); <i>De actoribus et de abusu
+mendacii</i> (Hanau, 1599); <i>De ludis scenicis epist. duae</i> (Middleburg,
+1600); <i>Ad I. Maccabaeorum et de linguarum mistura disp.</i> (Frankfurt,
+1600); <i>Lectiones Virgilianae</i> (Hanau, 1600); <i>De nuptiis libri septem</i>
+(1601); <i>In tit. si quis principi, et ad leg. Jul. maiest.</i>  (Hanau, 1604);
+<i>De latin, vet. Bibl.</i> (Hanau, 1604); <i>De libro Pyano</i> (Oxon, 1604);
+<i>Laudes Acad. Perus. et Oxon.</i> (Hanau, 1605); <i>De unione Angliae
+et Scotiae</i> (London, 1605); <i>Disputationes tres, de libris jur. can., de
+libris jur. civ., de latinitate vet. vers.</i>  (Hanau, 1605); <i>Regales disput.
+tres, de pot. regis absoluta, de unione regnorum, de vi civium</i> (London,
+1605); <i>Hispanicae advocationis libri duo</i> (Hanau, 1613); <i>In tit.
+de verb. signif.</i> (Hanau, 1614); <i>De legatis in test.</i> (Amsterdam,
+1661). An edition of the <i>Opera omnia</i>, commenced at Naples in
+1770, was cut short by the death of the publisher, Gravier, after the
+second volume. Of his numerous unpublished writings, Gentili
+complained that four volumes were lost &ldquo;pessimo pontificiorum
+facinore,&rdquo; meaning probably that they were left behind in his flight
+to Carniola.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Several tracts by the Abate Benigni in Colucci,
+<i>Antichità Picene</i> (1790); a dissertation by W. Reiger annexed to the
+<i>Program of the Groningen Gymnasium</i> for 1867; an inaugural
+lecture delivered in 1874 by T.E. Holland, translated into Italian,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page604" id="page604"></a>604</span>
+with additions by the author, by A. Saffi (1884); the preface to a new
+edition of the <i>De jure belli</i> (1877) and <i>Studies in International Law</i>
+(1898) (which see, for details as to the family and MSS. of Gentili),
+by the same; works by Valdarnini and Foglietti (1875), Speranza
+and De Giorgi (1876), Fiorini (a translation of the <i>De jure belli</i>,
+with essay, 1877), A. Saffi (1878), L. Marson (1885), M. Thamm
+(1896), B. Brugi (1898), T.A. Walker (an analysis of the principal
+works of Gentili) in his <i>History of the Law of Nations</i>, vol. i.(1899);
+H. Nézarel, in Pillet&rsquo;s <i>Fondateurs de droit international</i> (1904);
+E. Agabiti (1908). See also E. Comba, in the <i>Rivista Christiana</i>
+(1876-1877); Sir T. Twiss, in the <i>Law Review</i> (1878); articles in
+the <i>Revue de droit international</i> (1875-1878, 1883, 1886, 1908);
+O. Scalvanti, in the <i>Annali dell&rsquo; Univ. di Perugia</i>, N.S., vol. viii.
+(1898).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. E. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENTLE<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (through the Fr. <i>gentil</i>, from Lat. <i>gentilis</i>, belonging
+to the same <i>gens</i>, or family), properly an epithet of one born of a
+&ldquo;good family&rdquo;; the Latin <i>generosus</i>, &ldquo;well born&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gentleman</a></span>),
+contrasted with &ldquo;noble&rdquo; on the one side and &ldquo;simple&rdquo; on
+the other. The word followed the wider application of the word
+&ldquo;gentleman&rdquo;; implying the manners, character and breeding
+proper to one to whom that name could be applied, courteous,
+polite; hence, with no reference to its original meaning, free from
+violence or roughness, mild, soft, kind or tender. With a
+physical meaning of soft to the touch, the word is used substantively
+of the maggot of the bluebottle fly, used as a bait by
+fishermen. At the end of the 16th century the French <i>gentil</i> was
+again adapted into English in the form &ldquo;gentile,&rdquo; later changed
+to &ldquo;genteel.&rdquo; The word was common in the 17th and 18th
+centuries as applied to behaviour, manner of living, dress, &amp;c.,
+suitable or proper to persons living in a position in society
+above the ordinary, hence polite, elegant. From the early part
+of the 19th century it has also been used in an ironical sense,
+and applied chiefly to those who pay an excessive and absurd
+importance to the outward marks of respectability as evidence of
+being in a higher rank in society than that to which they properly
+belong.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENTLEMAN<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>gentilis</i>, &ldquo;belonging to a race or
+<i>gens</i>,&rdquo; and &ldquo;man&rdquo;; Fr. <i>gentilhomme</i>, Span, <i>gentil hombre</i>, Ital.
+<i>gentil huomo</i>), in its original and strict signification, a term
+denoting a man of good family, the Lat. <i>generosus</i> (its invariable
+translation in English-Latin documents). In this sense it is the
+equivalent of the Fr. <i>gentilhomme</i>, &ldquo;nobleman,&rdquo; which latter
+term has in Great Britain been long confined to the peerage (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nobility</a></span>); and the term &ldquo;gentry&rdquo; (&ldquo;gentrice&rdquo; from O. Fr.
+<i>genterise</i> for <i>gentelise</i>) has much of the significance of the Fr.
+<i>noblesse</i> or the Ger. <i>Adel</i>. This was what was meant by the rebels
+under John Ball in the 14th century when they repeated:</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;When Adam delved and Eve span,</p>
+<p class="i05">Who was then the gentleman?&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Selden (<i>Titles of Honor</i>, 1672), discussing the title &ldquo;gentleman,&rdquo;
+speaks of &ldquo;our English use of it&rdquo; as &ldquo;convertible with <i>nobilis</i>,&rdquo;
+and describes in connexion with it the forms of ennobling in
+various European countries. William Harrison, writing a century
+earlier, says &ldquo;gentlemen be those whom their race and blood, or
+at the least their virtues, do make noble and known.&rdquo; But for
+the complete gentleman the possession of a coat of arms was in
+his time considered necessary; and Harrison gives the following
+account of how gentlemen were made in Shakespeare&rsquo;s day:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;... gentlemen whose ancestors are not known to come in with
+William duke of Normandy (for of the Saxon races yet remaining
+we now make none accompt, much less of the British issue) do take
+their beginning in England after this manner in our times. Who
+soever studieth the laws of the realm, who so abideth in the university,
+giving his mind to his book, or professeth physic and the
+liberal sciences, or beside his service in the room of a captain in the
+wars, or good counsel given at home, whereby his commonwealth
+is benefited, can live without manual labour, and thereto is able
+and will bear the port, charge and countenance of a gentleman,
+he shall for money have a coat and arms bestowed upon him by
+heralds (who in the charter of the same do of custom pretend antiquity
+and service, and many gay things) and thereunto being
+made so good cheap be called master, which is the title that men
+give to esquires and gentlemen, and reputed for a gentleman ever
+after. Which is so much the less to be disallowed of, for that the
+prince doth lose nothing by it, the gentleman being so much subject
+to taxes and public payments as is the yeoman or husbandman,
+which he likewise doth bear the gladlier for the saving of his reputation.
+Being called also to the wars (for with the government of
+the commonwealth he medleth little) what soever it cost him, he
+will both array and arm himself accordingly, and show the more
+manly courage, and all the tokens of the person which he representeth.
+No man hath hurt by it but himself, who peradventure
+will go in wider buskins than his legs will bear, or as our proverb
+saith, now and then bear a bigger sail than his boat is able to
+sustain.&rdquo;<a name="fa1q" id="fa1q" href="#ft1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this way Shakespeare himself was turned, by the grant of
+his coat of arms, from a &ldquo;vagabond&rdquo; into a gentleman.</p>
+
+<p>The fundamental idea of &ldquo;gentry,&rdquo; symbolized in this grant
+of coat-armour, had come to be that of the essential superiority
+of the fighting man; and, as Selden points out (p. 707), the
+fiction was usually maintained in the granting of arms &ldquo;to an
+ennobled person though of the long Robe wherein he hath little
+use of them as they mean a shield.&rdquo; At the last the wearing
+of a sword on all occasions was the outward and visible sign of a
+&ldquo;gentleman&rdquo;; and the custom survives in the sword worn with
+&ldquo;court dress.&rdquo; This idea that a gentleman must have a coat
+of arms, and that no one is a &ldquo;gentleman&rdquo; without one is,
+however, of comparatively late growth, the outcome of the natural
+desire of the heralds to magnify their office and collect fees for
+registering coats; and the same is true of the conception of
+&ldquo;gentlemen&rdquo; as a separate class. That a distinct order of
+&ldquo;gentry&rdquo; existed in England very early has, indeed, been
+often assumed, and is supported by weighty authorities. Thus,
+the late Professor Freeman (<i>Ency. Brit.</i> xvii. p. 540 b, 9th ed.)
+said: &ldquo;Early in the 11th century the order of &lsquo;gentlemen&rsquo;
+as a separate class seems to be forming as something new. By
+the time of the conquest of England the distinction seems to
+have been fully established.&rdquo; Stubbs (<i>Const. Hist.</i>, ed. 1878,
+iii. 544, 548) takes the same view. Sir George Sitwell, however,
+has conclusively proved that this opinion is based on a wrong
+conception of the conditions of medieval society, and that it is
+wholly opposed to the documentary evidence. The fundamental
+social cleavage in the middle ages was between the <i>nobiles</i>, <i>i.e.</i>
+the tenants in chivalry, whether earls, barons, knights, esquires
+or franklins, and the <i>ignobiles</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the villeins, citizens and
+burgesses;<a name="fa2q" id="fa2q" href="#ft2q"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and between the most powerful noble and the
+humblest franklin there was, until the 15th century, no &ldquo;separate
+class of gentlemen.&rdquo; Even so late as 1400 the word &ldquo;gentleman&rdquo;
+still only had the sense of <i>generosus</i>, and could not be used as a
+personal description denoting rank or quality, or as the title of
+a class. Yet after 1413 we find it increasingly so used; and the
+list of landowners in 1431, printed in <i>Feudal Aids</i>, contains,
+besides knights, esquires, yeomen and husbandmen (<i>i.e.</i> householders),
+a fair number who are classed as &ldquo;gentilman.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Sir George Sitwell gives a lucid explanation of this development,
+the incidents of which are instructive and occasionally amusing.
+The immediate cause was the statute I Henry V. cap. v. of 1413,
+which laid down that in all original writs of action, personal
+appeals and indictments, in which process of outlawry lies, the
+&ldquo;estate degree or mystery&rdquo; of the defendant must be stated,
+as well as his present or former domicile. Now the Black Death
+(1349) had put the traditional social organization out of gear.
+Before that the younger sons of the <i>nobiles</i> had received their
+share of the farm stock, bought or hired land, and settled down as
+agriculturists in their native villages. Under the new conditions
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page605" id="page605"></a>605</span>
+this became increasingly impossible, and they were forced to
+seek their fortunes abroad in the French wars, or at home as
+hangers-on of the great nobles. These men, under the old system,
+had no definite status; but they were <i>generosi</i>, men of birth,
+and, being now forced to describe themselves, they disdained
+to be classed with franklins (now sinking in the social scale),
+still more with yeomen or husbandmen; they chose, therefore,
+to be described as &ldquo;gentlemen.&rdquo; On the character of these
+earliest &ldquo;gentlemen&rdquo; the records throw a lurid light. According
+to Sir George Sitwell (p. 76), &ldquo;the premier gentleman of England,
+as the matter now stands, is &lsquo;Robert Erdeswyke of Stafford,
+gentilman,&rsquo;&rdquo; who had served among the men-at-arms of Lord
+Talbot at Agincourt (<i>ib.</i> note). He is typical of his class.
+&ldquo;Fortunately&mdash;for the gentle reader will no doubt be anxious
+to follow in his footsteps&mdash;some particulars of his life may be
+gleaned from the public records. He was charged at the
+Staffordshire Assizes with housebreaking, wounding with
+intent to kill, and procuring the murder of one Thomas Page,
+who was cut to pieces while on his knees begging for his
+life.&rdquo; If any earlier claimant to the title of &ldquo;gentleman&rdquo;
+be discovered, Sir George Sitwell predicts that it will be within
+the same year (1414) and in connexion with some similar disreputable
+proceedings.<a name="fa3q" id="fa3q" href="#ft3q"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>From these unpromising beginnings the separate order of
+&ldquo;gentlemen&rdquo; was very slowly evolved. The first &ldquo;gentleman&rdquo;
+commemorated on an existing monument was John Daundelyon
+of Margate (d. c. 1445); the first gentleman to enter the House
+of Commons, hitherto composed mainly of &ldquo;valets,&rdquo; was
+&ldquo;William Weston, gentylman&rdquo;; but even in the latter half of
+the 15th century the order was not clearly established. As to the
+connexion of &ldquo;gentilesse&rdquo; with the official grant or recognition
+of coat-armour, that is a profitable fiction invented and upheld
+by the heralds; for coat-armour was but the badge assumed by
+gentlemen to distinguish them in battle, and many gentlemen of
+long descent never had occasion to assume it, and never did.
+This fiction, however, had its effect; and by the 16th century,
+as has been already pointed out, the official view had become
+clearly established that &ldquo;gentlemen&rdquo; constituted a distinct
+order, and that the badge of this distinction was the heralds&rsquo;
+recognition of the right to bear arms. It is unfortunate that this
+view, which is quite unhistorical and contradicted by the present
+practice of many undoubtedly &ldquo;gentle&rdquo; families of long descent,
+has of late years been given a wide currency in popular manuals
+of heraldry.</p>
+
+<p>In this narrow sense, however, the word &ldquo;gentleman&rdquo; has
+long since become obsolete. The idea of &ldquo;gentry&rdquo; in the
+continental sense of <i>noblesse</i> is extinct in England, and is likely
+to remain so, in spite of the efforts of certain enthusiasts to
+revive it (see A.C. Fox-Davies, <i>Armorial Families</i>, Edinburgh,
+1895). That it once existed has been sufficiently shown; but
+the whole spirit and tendency of English constitutional and social
+development tended to its early destruction. The comparative
+good order of England was not favourable to the continuance
+of a class, developed during the foreign and civil wars of the
+14th and 15th centuries, for whom fighting was the sole honourable
+occupation. The younger sons of noble families became
+apprentices in the cities, and there grew up a new aristocracy
+of trade. Merchants are still &ldquo;citizens&rdquo; to William Harrison;
+but he adds &ldquo;they often change estate with gentlemen, as gentlemen
+do with them, by a mutual conversion of the one into the
+other.&rdquo; A frontier line between classes so indefinite could not
+be maintained, especially as in England there was never a
+&ldquo;nobiliary prefix&rdquo; to stamp a person as a gentleman by his
+surname, as in France or Germany.<a name="fa4q" id="fa4q" href="#ft4q"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The process was hastened,
+moreover, by the corruption of the Heralds&rsquo; College and by the
+ease with which coats of arms could be assumed without a shadow
+of claim; which tended to bring the &ldquo;science of armory&rdquo;
+into contempt. The word &ldquo;gentleman&rdquo; as an index of rank
+had already become of doubtful value before the great political
+and social changes of the 19th century gave to it a wider and
+essentially higher significance. The change is well illustrated
+in the definitions given in the successive editions of the <i>Encyclopaedia
+Britannica</i>. In the 5th edition (1815) &ldquo;a gentleman
+is one, who without any title, bears a coat of arms, or whose
+ancestors have been freemen.&rdquo; In the 7th edition (1845) it
+still implies a definite social status: &ldquo;All above the rank of
+yeomen.&rdquo; In the 8th edition (1856) this is still its &ldquo;most extended
+sense&rdquo;; &ldquo;in a more limited sense&rdquo; it is defined in the
+same words as those quoted above from the 5th edition; but
+the writer adds, &ldquo;By courtesy this title is generally accorded
+to all persons above the rank of common tradesmen when their
+manners are indicative of a certain amount of refinement and
+intelligence.&rdquo; The Reform Bill of 1832 has done its work; the
+&ldquo;middle classes&rdquo; have come into their own; and the word
+&ldquo;gentleman&rdquo; has come in common use to signify not a distinction
+of blood, but a distinction of position, education and manners.
+The test is no longer good birth, or the right to bear arms, but
+the capacity to mingle on equal terms in good society. In its
+best use, moreover, &ldquo;gentleman&rdquo; involves a certain superior
+standard of conduct, due, to quote the 8th edition once more,
+to &ldquo;that self-respect and intellectual refinement which manifest
+themselves in unrestrained yet delicate manners.&rdquo; The word
+&ldquo;gentle,&rdquo; originally implying a certain social status, had very
+early come to be associated with the standard of manners
+expected from that status. Thus by a sort of punning process
+the &ldquo;gentleman&rdquo; becomes a &ldquo;gentle-man.&rdquo; Chaucer in the
+<i>Meliboeus</i> (<i>c.</i> 1386) says: &ldquo;Certes he sholde not be called a
+gentil man, that ... ne dooth his diligence and bisynesse, to
+kepen his good name&rdquo;; and in the <i>Wife of Bath&rsquo;s Tale</i>:</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Loke who that is most vertuous alway</p>
+<p class="i05">Prive and apert, and most entendeth ay</p>
+<p class="i05">To do the gentil dedes that he can</p>
+<p class="i05">And take him for the gretest gentilman,&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and In the <i>Romance of the Rose</i> (<i>c.</i> 1400) we find &ldquo;he is gentil
+bycause he doth as longeth to a gentilman.&rdquo; This use develops
+through the centuries, until in 1714 we have Steele, in the
+<i>Tatler</i> (No. 207), laying down that &ldquo;the appellation of Gentleman
+is never to be affixed to a man&rsquo;s circumstances, but to his
+Behaviour in them,&rdquo; a limitation over-narrow even for the present
+day. In this connexion, too, may be quoted the old story, told
+by some&mdash;very improbably&mdash;of James II., of the monarch who
+replied to a lady petitioning him to make her son a gentleman, &ldquo;I
+could make him a nobleman, but God Almighty could not make
+him a gentleman.&rdquo; Selden, however, in referring to similar
+stories &ldquo;that no Charter can make a Gentleman, which is cited as
+out of the mouth of some great Princes that have said it,&rdquo; adds
+that &ldquo;they without question understood Gentleman for <i>Generosus</i>
+in the antient sense, or as if it came from <i>Gentilis</i> in that sense, as
+<i>Gentilis</i> denotes one of a noble Family, or indeed for a Gentleman
+by birth.&rdquo; For &ldquo;no creation could make a man of another
+blood than he is.&rdquo; The word &ldquo;gentleman,&rdquo; used in the wide
+sense with which birth and circumstances have nothing to do, is
+necessarily incapable of strict definition. For &ldquo;to behave like a
+gentleman&rdquo; may mean little or much, according to the person by
+whom the phrase is used; &ldquo;to spend money like a gentleman&rdquo;
+may even be no great praise; but &ldquo;to conduct a business like a
+gentleman&rdquo; implies a standard at least as high as that involved
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page606" id="page606"></a>606</span>
+in the phrase &ldquo;noblesse oblige.&rdquo; In this sense of a person of
+culture, character and good manners the word &ldquo;gentleman&rdquo; has
+supplied a gap in more than one foreign language.</p>
+
+<p>The evolution of this meaning of &ldquo;gentleman&rdquo; reflects very
+accurately that of English society; and there are not wanting
+signs that the process of evolution, in the one as in the other, is
+not complete. The indefinableness of the word mirrors the
+indefinite character of &ldquo;society&rdquo; in England; and the use by
+&ldquo;the masses&rdquo; of &ldquo;gentleman&rdquo; as a mere synonym for &ldquo;man&rdquo;
+has spread <i>pari passu</i> with the growth of democracy. It is a
+protest against implied inferiority, and is cherished as the
+modern French <i>bourgeois</i> cherishes his right of duelling with
+swords, under the <i>ancien régime</i> a prerogative of the <i>noblesse</i>.
+Nor is there much justification for the denunciation by purists of
+the &ldquo;vulgarization&rdquo; and &ldquo;abuse&rdquo; of the &ldquo;grand old name of
+gentleman.&rdquo; Its strict meaning has now fallen completely
+obsolete. Its current meaning varies with every class of society
+that uses it. But it always implies some sort of excellency of
+manners or morals. It may by courtesy be over-loosely applied
+by one common man to another; but the common man would
+understand the reproach conveyed in &ldquo;You&rsquo;re no gentleman.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Selden, <i>Titles of Honor</i> (London, 1672); William
+Harrison, <i>Description of England</i>, ed. G.F.J. Furnivall for the New
+Shakspere Soc. (London, 1877-1878); Sir George Sitwell, &ldquo;The
+English Gentleman,&rdquo; in the <i>Ancestor</i>, No. 1 (Westminster, April
+1902); <i>Peacham&rsquo;s Compleat Gentleman</i> (1634), with an introduction
+by G.S. Gordon (Oxford, 1906); A. Smythe-Palmer, D.D., <i>The
+Ideal of a Gentleman, or a Mirror for Gentlefolk: A Portrayal in
+Literature from the Earliest Times</i> (London, 1908), a very exhaustive
+collection of extracts from authors so wide apart as Ptah-hotep
+(3300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and William Watson, arranged under headings: &ldquo;The
+Historical Idea of a Gentleman,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Herald&rsquo;s Gentleman,&rdquo; &ldquo;The
+Poet&rsquo;s Gentleman,&rdquo; &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Description of England</i>, bk. ii. ch. v. p. 128. Henry Peacham,
+in his <i>Compleat Gentleman</i> (1634), takes this matter more seriously.
+&ldquo;Neither must we honour or esteem,&rdquo; he writes, &ldquo;those ennobled,
+or made gentle in blood, who by mechanic and base means have
+raked up a mass of wealth ... or have purchased an ill coat (of
+arms) at a good rate; no more than a player upon the stage, for
+wearing a lord&rsquo;s cast suit: since nobility hangeth not upon the
+airy esteem of vulgar opinion, but is indeed of itself essential and
+absolute&rdquo; (Reprint, p. 3). Elsewhere (p. 161) he deplores the abuse
+of heraldry, which had even in his day produced &ldquo;all the world
+over such a medley of coats&rdquo; that, but for the commendable activity
+of the earls marshals, he feared that yeomen would soon be &ldquo;as
+rare in <i>England</i> as they are in <i>France</i>.&rdquo; See also an amusing
+instance from the time of Henry VIII., given in &ldquo;The Gentility of
+Richard Barker,&rdquo; by Oswald Barron, in the <i>Ancestor</i>, vol. ii. (July
+1902).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2q" id="ft2q" href="#fa2q"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Even this classification would seem to need modifying. For
+certain of the great patrician families of the cities were certainly
+<i>nobiles</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3q" id="ft3q" href="#fa3q"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The designation &ldquo;gentilman&rdquo; is, indeed, found some two
+centuries earlier. In the <i>Inquisitio maneriorum Ecclesiae S. Pauli
+Londin.</i> of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1222 (W.A. Hale, <i>Domesday of St Paul&rsquo;s</i>, Camden
+Soc., 1858, p. 80) occurs the entry: <i>Adam gentilm&#257; di&#7743; acr&#257;, p&rsquo; iii. d.</i>
+This is probably the earliest record of the &ldquo;grand old name of
+gentleman&rdquo;; but Adam, who held half an acre at a rent of three
+pence&mdash;less by half than that held by &ldquo;Ralph the bondsman&rdquo;
+(Rad&rsquo; le bunde) in the same list&mdash;was certainly not a &ldquo;gentleman.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Gentilman&rdquo; here was a nickname, perhaps suggested by Adam&rsquo;s
+name, and thus in some sort anticipating the wit of the famous
+couplet repeated by John Ball&rsquo;s rebels.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4q" id="ft4q" href="#fa4q"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The prefix &ldquo;de&rdquo; attached to some English names is in no
+sense &ldquo;nobiliary.&rdquo; In Latin documents <i>de</i> was the equivalent of the
+English &ldquo;of,&rdquo; as <i>de la</i> of &ldquo;at&rdquo; (so de la Pole for Atte Poole, cf.
+such names as Attwood, Attwater). In English this &ldquo;of&rdquo; was in
+the 15th century dropped; <i>e.g.</i> the grandson of Johannes de Stoke
+(John of Stoke) in a 14th-century document becomes John Stoke.
+In modern times, under the influence of romanticism, the prefix
+&ldquo;de&rdquo; has been in some cases &ldquo;revived&rdquo; under a misconception, <i>e.g.</i>
+&ldquo;de Trafford,&rdquo; &ldquo;de Hoghton.&rdquo; Very rarely it is correctly retained
+as derived from a foreign place-name, <i>e.g.</i> de Grey.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GENTZ, FRIEDRICH VON<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1764-1832), German publicist and
+statesman, was born at Breslau on the 2nd of May 1764. His
+father was an official, his mother an Ancillon, distantly
+related to the Prussian minister of that name. On his father&rsquo;s
+transference to Berlin, as director of the mint, the boy was sent
+to the Joachimsthal gymnasium there; his brilliant talents,
+however, did not develop until later, when at the university of
+Königsberg he fell under the influence of Kant. But though
+his intellect was sharpened and his zeal for learning quickened by
+the great thinker&rsquo;s influence, Kant&rsquo;s &ldquo;categorical imperative&rdquo;
+did not prevent him from yielding to the taste for wine, women
+and high play which pursued him through life. When in 1785 he
+returned to Berlin, he received the appointment of secret secretary
+to the royal <i>Generaldirectorium</i>, his talents soon gaining him
+promotion to the rank of councillor for war (<i>Kriegsrath</i>). During
+an illness, which kept him virtuous by confining him to his room,
+he studied French and English, gaining a mastery of these
+languages which, at that time exceedingly rare, opened up for
+him opportunities for a diplomatic career.</p>
+
+<p>His interest in public affairs was, however, first aroused by the
+outbreak of the French Revolution. Like most quick-witted
+young men, he greeted this at first with enthusiasm; but its
+subsequent developments cooled his ardour and he was converted
+to more conservative counsels by Burke&rsquo;s <i>Essay on the French
+Revolution</i>, a translation of which into German (1794) was his first
+literary venture. This was followed, next year, by translations
+of works on the Revolution by Mallet du Pan and Mounier, and
+at this time he also founded and edited a monthly journal, the
+<i>Neue deutsche Monatsschrift</i>, in which for five years he wrote,
+mainly on historical and political questions, maintaining the
+principles of British constitutionalism against those of revolutionary
+France. The knowledge he displayed of the principles and
+practice of finance was especially remarkable. In 1797, at the
+instance of English statesmen, he published a translation of a
+history of French finance by François d&rsquo;Ivernois (1757-1842), an
+eminent Genevese exile naturalized and knighted in England,
+extracts from which he had previously given in his journal.
+His literary output at this time, all inspired by a moderate
+Liberalism, was astounding, and included an essay on the results
+of the discovery of America, and another, written in French, on
+the English financial system (<i>Essai sur l&rsquo;état de l&rsquo;administration
+des finances de la Grande-Bretagne</i>, London, 1800). Especially
+noteworthy, however, was the <i>Denkschrift</i> or <i>Missive</i> addressed
+by him to King Frederick William III. on his accession (1797), in
+which, <i>inter alia</i>, he urged upon the king the necessity for granting
+freedom to the press and to commerce. For a Prussian official
+to venture to give uncalled-for advice to his sovereign was a
+breach of propriety not calculated to increase his chances of
+favour; but it gave Gentz a conspicuous position in the public
+eye, which his brilliant talents and literary style enabled him to
+maintain. Moreover, he was from the first aware of the probable
+developments of the Revolution and of the consequences to Prussia
+of the weakness and vacillations of her policy. Opposition to
+France was the inspiring principle of the <i>Historisches Journal</i>
+founded by him in 1799-1800, which once more held up English
+institutions as the model, and became in Germany the mouthpiece
+of British policy towards the revolutionary aggressions of
+the French republic. In 1801 he ceased the publication of the
+<i>Journal</i>, because he disliked the regularity of journalism, and
+issued instead, under the title <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte</i>, &amp;c., a
+series of essays on contemporary politics. The first of these was
+<i>Über den Ursprung und Charakter des Krieges gegen die französische
+Revolution</i> (1801), by many regarded as Gentz&rsquo;s masterpiece;
+another important brochure, <i>Von dem politischen Zustande von
+Europa vor und nach der Revolution</i>, a criticism of Hauterive&rsquo;s
+<i>De l&rsquo;état de la France à la fin de l&rsquo;an VIII</i>, appeared the same
+year.</p>
+
+<p>This activity gained him recognition abroad and gifts of money
+from the British and Austrian governments; but it made his
+position as an official in Berlin impossible, for the Prussian
+government had no mind to abandon its attitude of cautious
+neutrality. Private affairs also combined to urge Gentz to leave
+the Prussian service; for, mainly through his own fault, a
+separation with his wife was arranged. In May 1802, accordingly,
+he took leave of his wife and left with his friend Adam Müller for
+Vienna. In Berlin he had been intimate with the Austrian
+ambassador, Count Stadion, whose good offices procured him an
+introduction to the emperor Francis. The immediate result was
+the title of imperial councillor, with a yearly salary of 4000
+gulden (December 6th, 1802); but it was not till 1809 that he
+was actively employed. Before returning to Berlin to make
+arrangements for transferring himself finally to Vienna, Gentz
+paid a visit to London, where he made the acquaintance of Pitt
+and Granville, who were so impressed with his talents that, in
+addition to large money presents, he was guaranteed an annual
+pension by the British government in recognition of the value of
+the services of his pen against Bonaparte. From this time
+forward he was engaged in a ceaseless polemic against every
+fresh advance of the Napoleonic power and pretensions; with
+matchless sarcasm he lashed &ldquo;the nerveless policy of the courts,
+which suffer indignity with resignation&rdquo;; he denounced the
+recognition of Napoleon&rsquo;s imperial title, and drew up a manifesto
+of Louis XVIII. against it. The formation of the coalition and
+the outbreak of war for a while raised his hopes, in spite of his
+lively distrust of the competence of Austrian ministers; but the
+hopes were speedily dashed by Austerlitz and its results. Gentz
+used his enforced leisure to write a brilliant essay on &ldquo;The
+relations between England and Spain before the outbreak of war
+between the two powers&rdquo; (Leipzig, 1806); and shortly afterwards
+appeared <i>Fragmente aus der neuesten Geschichte des politischen
+Gleichgewichts in Europa</i> (translated <i>s.t. Fragments on
+the Balance of Power in Europe</i>, London, 1806). This latter,
+the last of Gentz&rsquo;s works as an independent publicist, was a
+masterly exposé of the actual political situation, and at the same
+time prophetic in its suggestions as to how this should be retrieved:
+&ldquo;Through Germany Europe has perished, through Germany it
+must rise again.&rdquo; He realized that the dominance of France
+could only be broken by the union of Austria and Prussia, acting
+in concert with Great Britain. He watched with interest the
+Prussian military preparations, and, at the invitation of Count
+Haugwitz, he went at the outset of the campaign to the Prussian
+headquarters at Erfurt, where he drafted the king&rsquo;s proclamation
+and his letter to Napoleon. The writer was known, and it was in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page607" id="page607"></a>607</span>
+this connexion that Napoleon referred to him as &ldquo;a wretched
+scribe named Gentz, one of those men without honour who sell
+themselves for money.&rdquo; In this mission Gentz had no official
+mandate from the Austrian government, and whatever hopes he
+may have cherished of privately influencing the situation in the
+direction of an alliance between the two German powers were
+speedily dashed by the campaign of Jena.</p>
+
+<p>The downfall of Prussia left Austria the sole hope of Germany
+and of Europe. Gentz, who from the winter of 1806 onwards
+divided his time between Prague and the Bohemian watering-places,
+seemed to devote himself wholly to the pleasures of
+society, his fascinating personality gaining him a ready reception
+in those exalted circles which were to prove of use to him later
+on in Vienna. But, though he published nothing, his pen was
+not idle, and he was occupied with a series of essays on the
+future of Austria and the best means of liberating Germany and
+redressing the balance of Europe; though he himself confessed
+to his friend Adam Müller (August 4th, 1806) that, in the miserable
+circumstances of the time, his essay on &ldquo;the principles of a
+general pacification&rdquo; must be taken as a &ldquo;political poem.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1809, on the outbreak of war between Austria and France,
+Gentz was for the first time actively employed by the Austrian
+government under Stadion; he drafted the proclamation announcing
+the declaration of war (15th of April), and during the
+continuance of hostilities his pen was ceaselessly employed.
+But the peace of 1810 and the fall of Stadion once more dashed
+his hopes, and, disillusioned and &ldquo;hellishly blasé,&rdquo; he once more
+retired to comparative inactivity at Prague. Of Metternich,
+Stadion&rsquo;s successor, he had at the outset no high opinion, and
+it was not till 1812 that there sprang up between the two men
+the close relations that were to ripen into life-long friendship.
+But when Gentz returned to Vienna as Metternich&rsquo;s adviser and
+henchman, he was no longer the fiery patriot who had sympathized
+and corresponded with Stein in the darkest days of German
+depression and in fiery periods called upon all Europe to free
+itself from foreign rule. Disillusioned and cynical, though
+clear-sighted as ever, he was henceforth before all things an
+Austrian, more Austrian on occasion even than Metternich;
+as, <i>e.g.</i>, when, during the final stages of the campaign of 1814,
+he expressed the hope that Metternich would substitute
+&ldquo;Austria&rdquo; for &ldquo;Europe&rdquo; in his diplomacy and&mdash;strange advice
+from the old hater of Napoleon and of France&mdash;secure an Austro-French
+alliance by maintaining the husband of Marie Louise
+on the throne of France.</p>
+
+<p>For ten years, from 1812 onward, Gentz was in closest touch
+with all the great affairs of European history, the assistant,
+confidant, and adviser of Metternich. He accompanied the
+chancellor on all his journeys; was present at all the conferences
+that preceded and followed the war; no political secrets were
+hidden from him; and his hand drafted all important diplomatic
+documents. He was secretary to the congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
+and to all the congresses and conferences that followed,
+up to that of Verona (1822), and in all his vast knowledge of
+men and affairs made him a power. He was under no illusion
+as to their achievements; his memoir on the work of the congress
+of Vienna is at once an incisive piece of criticism and a monument
+of his own disillusionment. But the Liberalism of his early
+years was gone for ever, and he had become reconciled to
+Metternich&rsquo;s view that, in an age of decay, the sole function of
+a statesman was to &ldquo;prop up mouldering institutions.&rdquo; It was
+the hand of the author of that offensive <i>Missive</i> to Frederick
+William III., on the liberty of the press, that drafted the Carlsbad
+decrees; it was he who inspired the policy of repressing the
+freedom of the universities; and he noted in his diary as &ldquo;a
+day more important than that of Leipzig&rdquo; the session of the
+Vienna conference of 1819, in which it was decided to make the
+convocation of representative assemblies in the German states
+impossible, by enforcing the letter of Article XIII. of the Act
+of Confederation.</p>
+
+<p>As to Gentz&rsquo;s private life there is not much to be said. He
+remained to the last a man of the world, though tormented
+with an exaggerated terror of death. His wife he had never
+seen again since their parting at Berlin, and his relations with
+other women, mostly of the highest rank, were too numerous
+to record. But passion tormented him to the end, and his
+infatuation for Fanny Elssler, the celebrated <i>danseuse</i>, forms
+the subject of some remarkable letters to his friend Rahel, the
+wife of Varnhagen von Ense (1830-1831). He died on the 9th
+of June 1832.</p>
+
+<p>Gentz has been very aptly described as a mercenary of the
+pen, and assuredly no other such mercenary has ever carved
+out for himself a more remarkable career. To have done so
+would have been impossible, in spite of his brilliant gifts, had he
+been no more than the &ldquo;wretched scribe&rdquo; sneered at by Napoleon.
+Though by birth belonging to the middle class in a country of
+hide-bound aristocracy, he lived to move on equal terms in the
+society of princes and statesmen; which would never have been
+the case had he been notoriously &ldquo;bought and sold.&rdquo; Yet
+that he was in the habit of receiving gifts from all and sundry
+who hoped for his backing is beyond dispute. He notes that at
+the congress of Vienna he received 22,000 florins through Talleyrand
+from Louis XVIII., while Castlereagh gave him £600,
+accompanied by <i>les plus folles promesses</i>; and his diary is full
+of such entries. Yet he never made any secret of these gifts;
+Metternich was aware of them, and he never suspected Gentz
+of writing or acting in consequence against his convictions. As
+a matter of fact, no man was more free or outspoken in his
+criticism of the policy of his employers than this apparently
+venal writer. These gifts and pensions were rather in the nature
+of subsidies than bribes; they were the recognition by various
+powers of the value of an ally whose pen had proved itself so
+potent a weapon in their cause.</p>
+
+<p>It is, indeed, the very impartiality and objectivity of his
+attitude that make the writings of Gentz such illuminating
+documents for the period of history which they cover. Allowance
+must of course be made for his point of view, but less so perhaps
+than in the case of any other writer so intimately concerned
+with the policies which he criticizes. And, apart from their
+value as historical documents, Gentz&rsquo;s writings are literary
+monuments, classical examples of nervous and luminous German
+prose, or of French which is a model for diplomatic style.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A selection of Gentz&rsquo;s works (<i>Ausgewählte Schriften</i>) was published
+by Weick in 5 vols. (1836-1838); his lesser works (Mannheim,
+1838-1840) in 5 vols. and <i>Mémoires et lettres inédites</i> (Stuttgart,
+1841) were edited by G. Schlesier. Subsequently there have appeared
+<i>Briefe an Chr. Garve</i> (Breslau, 1857); correspondence (<i>Briefwechsel</i>)
+with Adam Müller (Stuttgart, 1857); <i>Briefe an Pilat</i> (2 vols.,
+Leipzig, 1868); <i>Aus dem Nachlass Friedrichs von Gentz</i> (2 vols.),
+edited by Count Anton Prokesch-Osten (Vienna, 1867); <i>Aus der
+alten Registratur der Staats-Kanzlei: Briefe politischen Inhalts von
+und an Friedrich von Gentz</i>, edited by C. von Klinkowström (Vienna,
+1870); <i>Dépêches inédites du chev. de Gentz aux Hospodars de Valachie
+1813-1828</i> (a correspondence on current affairs commissioned by
+the Austrian government), edited by Count Anton von Prokesch-Osten
+the younger (3 vols., Paris, 1876), incomplete, but partly
+supplemented in <i><span class="correction" title="amended from Öesterreichs">Österreichs</span> Teilnahme an den Befreiungskriegen</i>
+(Vienna, 1887), a collection of documents of the greatest value;
+<i>Zur Geschichte der orientalischen Frage: Briefe aus dem Nachlass
+Friedrichs von Gentz</i> (Vienna, 1877), edited by Count Prokesch-Osten
+the younger. Finally Gentz&rsquo;s diaries, from 1800 to 1828,
+an invaluable mine of authentic material, were edited by Varnhagen
+von Ense and published after his death under the title <i>Tagebücher</i>,
+&amp;c. (Leipzig, 1861; new ed., 4 vols., <i>ib.</i> 1873). Several lives of
+Gentz exist. The latest is by E. Guglia, <i>Friedrich von Gentz</i> (Vienna,
+1901).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GEOCENTRIC,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> referred to the centre of the earth (Gr. <span class="grk" title="gê">&#947;&#8134;</span>) as
+an origin; a term designating especially the co-ordinates of a
+heavenly body referred to this origin.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 11, Slice 5, by Various
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,16397 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 11, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 5
+       "Gassendi, Pierre" to "Geocentric"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August 31, 2011 [EBook #37282]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 11 SL 5 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE GAUDEN, JOHN: "... and on the fact that it was admitted by
+      Clarendon, who should have had means of being acquainted with the
+      truth." 'should' amended from 'sould'.
+
+    ARTICLE GAWAIN: "In the later Historia of Geoffrey of Monmouth, and
+      its French translation by Wace, Gawain plays an important and
+      'pseudo-historic' role." 'Geoffrey' amended from 'Goeffrey'.
+
+    ARTICLE GAYA: "... and at which a religious fair is held each
+      September, attended by 10,000 to 20,000 pilgrims." '20,000' amended
+      from '20,0000'.
+
+    ARTICLE GECKO: "The arrangement of the lamellae and pads differs
+      much in the various genera and is used for classificatory
+      purposes." 'classificatory' amended from 'classificactory'.
+
+    ARTICLE GEDDES, ALEXANDER: "Although under ecclesiastical censures,
+      he had never swerved from a consistent profession of faith as a
+      Catholic; and on his death-bed he duly received the last rites of
+      his communion." 'Although' amended from 'Athough'.
+
+    ARTICLE GELSEMIUM: "It was first described in 1640 by John
+      Parkinson, who grew it in his garden from seed sent by Tradescant
+      from Virginia; at the present time it is but rarely seen, even in
+      botanical gardens, in Great Britain." 'Britain' amended from
+      'Britian'.
+
+    ARTICLE GEM: "From the Byzantine period downward one peculiarity of
+      gem-engraving becomes noticeable." 'peculiarity' amended from
+      'peculiarty'.
+
+    ARTICLE GENEALOGY: "... or that Bilhan points to an old clan
+      associated with Reuben (Gen. xxxv. 22) or Edom (Bilhan, Gen. xxxvi.
+      27), ..." 'Bilhan' amended from 'Bilhah'.
+
+    ARTICLE GENTIANACEAE: "... bright blue corolla, is visited by
+      bumble bees; and G. verna, with a still longer narrower tube, is
+      visited by Lepidoptera." 'bumble' amended from 'humble'.
+
+    ARTICLE GENTZ, FRIEDRICH VON: "... but partly supplemented in
+      Osterreichs Teilnahme an den Befreiungskriegen (Vienna, 1887) ..."
+      'Osterreichs' amended from 'Oesterreichs'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME XI, SLICE V
+
+       Gassendi, Pierre to Geocentric
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  GASSENDI, PIERRE                  GEFLE
+  GASTEIN                           GEGENBAUR, CARL
+  GASTRIC ULCER                     GEGENSCHEIN
+  GASTRITIS                         GEIBEL, EMANUEL
+  GASTROPODA                        GEIGE
+  GASTROTRICHA                      GEIGER, ABRAHAM
+  GATAKER, THOMAS                   GEIJER, ERIK GUSTAF
+  GATCHINA                          GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD
+  GATE                              GEIKIE, JAMES
+  GATEHOUSE                         GEIKIE, WALTER
+  GATES, HORATIO                    GEILER VON KAISERSBERG, JOHANN
+  GATESHEAD                         GEINITZ, HANS BRUNO
+  GATH                              GEISHA
+  GATLING, RICHARD JORDAN           GEISLINGEN
+  GATTY, MARGARET                   GEISSLER, HEINRICH
+  GAU, JOHN                         GELA
+  GAUDEN, JOHN                      GELADA
+  GAUDICHAUD-BEAUPRE, CHARLES       GELASIUS
+  GAUDRY, JEAN ALBERT               GELATI
+  GAUDY                             GELATIN
+  GAUERMANN, FRIEDRICH              GELDERLAND (duchy)
+  GAUGE                             GELDERLAND (province of Holland)
+  GAUHATI                           GELDERN
+  GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM             GELL, SIR WILLIAM
+  GAUL                              GELLERT, CHRISTIAN FURCHTEGOTT
+  GAULT                             GELLERT
+  GAUNTLET                          GELLIUS, AULUS
+  GAUR (ruined city of India)       GELLIVARA
+  GAUR (wild ox)                    GELNHAUSEN
+  GAUSS, KARL FRIEDRICH             GELO
+  GAUSSEN, FRANCOIS SAMUEL LOUIS    GELSEMIUM
+  GAUTIER, EMILE THEODORE LEON      GELSENKIRCHEN
+  GAUTIER, THEOPHILE                GEM
+  GAUTIER D'ARRAS                   GEM, ARTIFICIAL
+  GAUZE                             GEMBLOUX
+  GAVARNI                           GEMINI
+  GAVAZZI, ALESSANDRO               GEMINIANI, FRANCESCO
+  GAVELKIND                         GEMISTUS PLETHO, GEORGIUS
+  GAVESTON, PIERS                   GEMMI PASS
+  GAVOTTE                           GENDARMERIE
+  GAWAIN                            GENEALOGY
+  GAWLER                            GENELLI, GIOVANNI BUONAVENTURA
+  GAY, JOHN                         GENERAL
+  GAY, MARIE FRANCOISE SOPHIE       GENERATION
+  GAY, WALTER                       GENESIS
+  GAYA                              GENET
+  GAYAL                             GENEVA (New York, U.S.A.)
+  GAYANGOS Y ARCE, PASCUAL DE       GENEVA (Switzerland)
+  GAYARRE, CHARLES ETIENNE ARTHUR   GENEVA CONVENTION
+  GAY-LUSSAC, JOSEPH LOUIS          GENEVA, LAKE OF
+  GAZA, THEODORUS                   GENEVIEVE, ST
+  GAZA                              GENEVIEVE, OF BRABANT
+  GAZALAND                          GENGA, GIROLAMO
+  GAZEBO                            GENISTA
+  GAZETTE                           GENIUS
+  GEAR                              GENUS, STEPHANIE DE SAINT-AUBIN
+  GEBER                             GENNA
+  GEBHARD TRUCHSESS VON WALDBURG    GENNADIUS II.
+  GEBWEILER                         GENOA
+  GECKO                             GENOVESI, ANTONIO
+  GED, WILLIAM                      GENSONNE, ARMAND
+  GEDDES, ALEXANDER                 GENTIAN
+  GEDDES, ANDREW                    GENTIANACEAE
+  GEDDES, JAMES LORRAINE            GENTILE
+  GEDDES, SIR WILLIAM DUGUID        GENTILE DA FABRIANO
+  GEDYMIN                           GENTILESCHI, ARTEMISIA and ORAZIO DE'
+  GEE, THOMAS                       GENTILI, ALBERICO
+  GEEL, JACOB                       GENTLE
+  GEELONG                           GENTLEMAN
+  GEESTEMUNDE                       GENTZ, FRIEDRICH VON
+  GEFFCKEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH      GEOCENTRIC
+  GEFFROY, MATHIEU AUGUSTE
+
+
+
+
+GASSENDI[1] [GASSEND], PIERRE (1592-1655), French philosopher, scientist
+and mathematician, was born of poor parents at Champtercier, near Digne,
+in Provence, on the 22nd of January 1592. At a very early age he gave
+indications of remarkable mental powers and was sent to the college at
+Digne. He showed particular aptitude for languages and mathematics, and
+it is said that at the age of sixteen he was invited to lecture on
+rhetoric at the college. Soon afterwards he entered the university of
+Aix, to study philosophy under P. Fesaye. In 1612 he was called to the
+college of Digne to lecture on theology. Four years later he received
+the degree of doctor of theology at Avignon, and in 1617 he took holy
+orders. In the same year he was called to the chair of philosophy at
+Aix, and seems gradually to have withdrawn from theology. He lectured
+principally on the Aristotelian philosophy, conforming as far as
+possible to the orthodox methods. At the same time, however, he followed
+with interest the discoveries of Galileo and Kepler, and became more and
+more dissatisfied with the Peripatetic system. It was the period of
+revolt against the Aristotelianism of the schools, and Gassendi shared
+to the full the empirical tendencies of the age. He, too, began to draw
+up objections to the Aristotelian philosophy, but did not at first
+venture to publish them. In 1624, however, after he had left Aix for a
+canonry at Grenoble, he printed the first part of his _Exercitationes
+paradoxicae adversus Aristoteleos_. A fragment of the second book was
+published later at La Haye (1659), but the remaining five were never
+composed, Gassendi apparently thinking that after the _Discussiones
+Peripateticae_ of Francesco Patrizzi little field was left for his
+labours.
+
+After 1628 Gassendi travelled in Flanders and Holland. During this time
+he wrote, at the instance of Mersenne, his examination of the mystical
+philosophy of Robert Fludd (_Epistolica dissertatio in qua praecipua
+principia philosophiae Ro. Fluddi deteguntur_, 1631), an essay on
+parhelia (_Epistola de parheliis_), and some valuable observations on
+the transit of Mercury which had been foretold by Kepler. He returned to
+France in 1631, and two years later became provost of the cathedral
+church at Digne. Some years were then spent in travelling through
+Provence with the duke of Angouleme, governor of the department. The
+only literary work of this period is the _Life of Peiresc_, which has
+been frequently reprinted, and was translated into English. In 1642 he
+was engaged by Mersenne in controversy with Descartes. His objections to
+the fundamental propositions of Descartes were published in 1642; they
+appear as the fifth in the series contained in the works of Descartes.
+In these objections Gassendi's tendency towards the empirical school of
+speculation appears more pronounced than in any of his other writings.
+In 1645 he accepted the chair of mathematics in the College Royal at
+Paris, and lectured for many years with great success. In addition to
+controversial writings on physical questions, there appeared during this
+period the first of the works by which he is known in the history of
+philosophy. In 1647 he published the treatise _De vita, moribus, et
+doctrina Epicuri libri octo_. The work was well received, and two years
+later appeared his commentary on the tenth book of Diogenes Laertius,
+_De vita, moribus, et placitis Epicuri, seu Animadversiones in X. librum
+Diog. Laer_. (Lyons, 1649; last edition, 1675). In the same year the
+more important _Syntagma philosophiae Epicuri_ (Lyons, 1649; Amsterdam,
+1684) was published.
+
+In 1648 ill-health compelled him to give up his lectures at the College
+Royal. He travelled in the south of France, spending nearly two years at
+Toulon, the climate of which suited him. In 1653 he returned to Paris
+and resumed his literary work, publishing in that year lives of
+Copernicus and Tycho Brahe. The disease from which he suffered, lung
+complaint, had, however, established a firm hold on him. His strength
+gradually failed, and he died at Paris on the 24th of October 1655. A
+bronze statue of him was erected by subscription at Digne in 1852.
+
+His collected works, of which the most important is the _Syntagma
+philosophicum_ (_Opera_, i. and ii.), were published in 1658 by Montmort
+(6 vols., Lyons). Another edition, also in 6 folio volumes, was
+published by N. Averanius in 1727. The first two are occupied entirely
+with his _Syntagma philosophicum_; the third contains his critical
+writings on Epicurus, Aristotle, Descartes, Fludd and Lord Herbert, with
+some occasional pieces on certain problems of physics; the fourth, his
+_Institutio astronomica_, and his _Commentarii de rebus celestibus_; the
+fifth, his commentary on the tenth book of Diogenes Laertius, the
+biographies of Epicurus, N.C.F. de Peiresc, Tycho Brahe, Copernicus,
+Georg von Peuerbach, and Regiomontanus, with some tracts on the value of
+ancient money, on the Roman calendar, and on the theory of music, to all
+which is appended a large and prolix piece entitled _Notitia ecclesiae
+Diniensis_; the sixth volume contains his correspondence. The _Lives_,
+especially those of Copernicus, Tycho and Peiresc, have been justly
+admired. That of Peiresc has been repeatedly printed; it has also been
+translated into English. Gassendi was one of the first after the revival
+of letters who treated the _literature_ of philosophy in a lively way.
+His writings of this kind, though too laudatory and somewhat diffuse,
+have great merit; they abound in those anecdotal details, natural yet
+not obvious reflections, and vivacious turns of thought, which made
+Gibbon style him, with some extravagance certainly, though it was true
+enough up to Gassendi's time--"le meilleur philosophe des litterateurs,
+et le meilleur litterateur des philosophes."
+
+  Gassendi holds an honourable place in the history of physical science.
+  He certainly added little to the stock of human knowledge, but the
+  clearness of his exposition and the manner in which he, like Bacon,
+  urged the importance of experimental research, were of inestimable
+  service to the cause of science. To what extent any place can be
+  assigned him in the history of philosophy is more doubtful. The
+  _Exercitationes_ on the whole seem to have excited more attention than
+  they deserved. They contain little or nothing beyond what had been
+  already advanced against Aristotle. The first book expounds clearly,
+  and with much vigour, the evil effects of the blind acceptance of the
+  Aristotelian dicta on physical and philosophical study; but, as is the
+  case with so many of the anti-Aristotelian works of this period, the
+  objections show the usual ignorance of Aristotle's own writings. The
+  second book, which contains the review of Aristotle's dialectic or
+  logic, is throughout Ramist in tone and method. The objections to
+  Descartes--one of which at least, through Descartes's statement of it
+  in the appendix of objections in the _Meditationes_ has become
+  famous--have no speculative value, and in general are the outcome of
+  the crudest empiricism. His labours on Epicurus have a certain
+  historical value, but the want of consistency inherent in the
+  philosophical system raised on Epicureanism is such as to deprive it
+  of genuine worth. Along with strong expressions of empiricism we find
+  him holding doctrines absolutely irreconcilable with empiricism in any
+  form. For while he maintains constantly his favourite maxim "that
+  there is nothing in the intellect which has not been in the senses"
+  (_nihil in intellectu quod non prius fuerit in sensu_), while he
+  contends that the imaginative faculty (_phantasia_) is the counterpart
+  of sense--that, as it has to do with material images, it is itself,
+  like sense, material, and essentially the same both in men and brutes;
+  he at the same time admits that the intellect, which he affirms to be
+  immaterial and immortal--the most characteristic distinction of
+  humanity--attains notions and truths of which no effort of sensation
+  or imagination can give us the slightest apprehension (Op. ii. 383).
+  He instances the capacity of forming "general notions"; the very
+  conception of universality itself (_ib._ 384), to which he says
+  brutes, who partake as truly as men in the faculty called _phantasia_,
+  never attain; the notion of God, whom he says we may imagine to be
+  corporeal, but understand to be incorporeal; and lastly, the reflex
+  action by which the mind makes its own phenomena and operations the
+  objects of attention.
+
+  The _Syntagma philosophicum_, in fact, is one of those eclectic
+  systems which unite, or rather place in juxtaposition, irreconcilable
+  dogmas from various schools of thought. It is divided, according to
+  the usual fashion of the Epicureans, into logic (which, with Gassendi
+  as with Epicurus, is truly _canonic_), physics and ethics. The logic,
+  which contains at least one praiseworthy portion, a sketch of the
+  history of the science, is divided into theory of right apprehension
+  (_bene imaginari_), theory of right judgment (_bene proponere_),
+  theory of right inference (_bene colligere_), theory of right method
+  (_bene ordinare_). The first part contains the specially empirical
+  positions which Gassendi afterwards neglects or leaves out of account.
+  The senses, the sole source of knowledge, are supposed to yield us
+  immediately cognition of individual things; phantasy (which Gassendi
+  takes to be material in nature) reproduces these ideas; understanding
+  compares these ideas, which are particular, and frames general ideas.
+  Nevertheless, he at the same time admits that the senses yield
+  knowledge--not of things--but of qualities only, and holds that we
+  arrive at the idea of thing or substance by induction. He holds that
+  the true method of research is the analytic, rising from lower to
+  higher notions; yet he sees clearly, and admits, that inductive
+  reasoning, as conceived by Bacon, rests on a general proposition not
+  itself proved by induction. He ought to hold, and in disputing with
+  Descartes he did apparently hold, that the evidence of the senses is
+  the only convincing evidence; yet he maintains, and from his special
+  mathematical training it was natural he should maintain, that the
+  evidence of reason is absolutely satisfactory. The whole doctrine of
+  judgment, syllogism and method is a mixture of Aristotelian and Ramist
+  notions.
+
+  In the second part of the _Syntagma_, the physics, there is more that
+  deserves attention; but here, too, appears in the most glaring manner
+  the inner contradiction between Gassendi's fundamental principles.
+  While approving of the Epicurean physics, he rejects altogether the
+  Epicurean negation of God and particular providence. He states the
+  various proofs for the existence of an immaterial, infinite, supreme
+  Being, asserts that this Being is the author of the visible universe,
+  and strongly defends the doctrine of the foreknowledge and particular
+  providence of God. At the same time he holds, in opposition to
+  Epicureanism, the doctrine of an immaterial rational soul, endowed
+  with immortality and capable of free determination. It is altogether
+  impossible to assent to the supposition of Lange (_Gesch. des
+  Materialismus_, 3rd ed., i. 233), that all this portion of Gassendi's
+  system contains nothing of his own opinions, but is introduced solely
+  from motives of self-defence. The positive exposition of atomism has
+  much that is attractive, but the hypothesis of the _calor vitalis_
+  (vital heat), a species of _anima mundi_ (world-soul) which is
+  introduced as physical explanation of physical phenomena, does not
+  seem to throw much light on the special problems which it is invoked
+  to solve. Nor is his theory of the weight essential to atoms as being
+  due to an inner force impelling them to motion in any way reconcilable
+  with his general doctrine of mechanical causes.
+
+  In the third part, the ethics, over and above the discussion on
+  freedom, which on the whole is indefinite, there is little beyond a
+  milder statement of the Epicurean moral code. The final end of life is
+  happiness, and happiness is harmony of soul and body (_tranquillitas
+  animi et indolentia corporis_). Probably, Gassendi thinks, perfect
+  happiness is not attainable in this life, but it may be in the life to
+  come.
+
+  The _Syntagma_ is thus an essentially unsystematic work, and clearly
+  exhibits the main characteristics of Gassendi's genius. He was
+  critical rather than constructive, widely read and trained thoroughly
+  both in languages and in science, but deficient in speculative power
+  and original force. Even in the department of natural science he shows
+  the same inability steadfastly to retain principles and to work from
+  them; he wavers between the systems of Brahe and Copernicus. That his
+  revival of Epicureanism had an important influence on the general
+  thinking of the 17th century may be admitted; that it has any real
+  importance in the history of philosophy cannot be granted.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Gassendi's life is given by Sorbiere in the first
+  collected edition of the works, by Bugerel, _Vie de Gassendi_ (1737;
+  2nd ed., 1770), and by Damiron, _Memoire sur Gassendi_ (1839). An
+  abridgment of his philosophy was given by his friend, the celebrated
+  traveller, Bernier (_Abrege de la philosophie de Gassendi_, 8 vols.,
+  1678; 2nd ed., 7 vols., 1684). The most complete surveys of his work
+  are those of G.S. Brett (_Philosophy of Gassendi_, London, 1908),
+  Buhle (_Geschichte der neuern Philosophie_, iii. 1, 87-222), Damiron
+  (_Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de philosophie au XVII^e siecle_),
+  and P.F. Thomas (_La Philosophie de Gassendi_, Paris, 1889). See also
+  Ritter, _Geschichte der Philosophie_, x. 543-571; Feuerbach, _Gesch.
+  d. neu. Phil. von Bacon bis Spinoza_, 127-150; F.X. Kiefl, _P.
+  Gassendis Erkenntnistheorie und seine Stellung zum Materialismus_
+  (1893) and "Gassendi's Skepticismus" in _Philos. Jahrb._ vi. (1893);
+  C. Guttler, "Gassend oder Gassendi?" in _Archiv f. Gesch. d. Philos._
+  x. (1897), pp. 238-242.     (R. Ad.; X.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] It was formerly thought that _Gassendi_ was really the genitive
+    of the Latin form _Gassendus_. C. Guttler, however, holds that it is
+    a modernized form of the O. Fr. _Gassendy_ (see paper quoted in
+    bibliography).
+
+
+
+
+GASTEIN, in the duchy of Salzburg, Austria, a side valley of the Pongau
+or Upper Salzach, about 25 m. long and 1-1/4 m. broad, renowned for its
+mineral springs. It has an elevation of between 3000 and 3500 ft. Behind
+it, to the S., tower the mountains Mallnitz or Nassfeld-Tauern (7907
+ft.) and Ankogel (10,673 ft.), and from the right and left of these
+mountains two smaller ranges run northwards forming its two side walls.
+The river Ache traverses the valley, and near Wildbad-Gastein forms two
+magnificent waterfalls, the upper, the Kesselfall (196 ft.), and the
+lower, the Barenfall (296 ft.). Near these falls is the Schleierfall
+(250 ft.), formed by the stream which drains the Bockhart-see. The
+valley is also traversed by the so-called Tauern railway (opened up to
+Wildbad-Gastein in September 1905), which goes to Mallnitz, piercing the
+Tauern range by a tunnel 9260 yds. in length. The principal villages of
+the valley are Hof-Gastein, Wildbad-Gastein and Bockstein.
+
+HOF-GASTEIN, pop. (1900) 840, the capital of the valley, is also a
+watering-place, the thermal waters being conveyed here from
+Wildbad-Gastein by a conduit 5 m. long, constructed in 1828 by the
+emperor Francis I. of Austria. Hof-Gastein was, after Salzburg, the
+richest place in the duchy, owing to its gold and silver mines, which
+were already worked during the Roman period. During the 16th century
+these mines were yielding annually 1180 lb. of gold and 9500 lb. of
+silver, but since the 17th century they have been much neglected and
+many of them are now covered by glaciers.
+
+WILDBAD-GASTEIN, commonly called _Bad-Gastein_, one of the most
+celebrated watering-places in Europe, is picturesquely situated in the
+narrow valley of the Gasteiner Ache, at an altitude of 3480 ft. The
+thermal springs, which issue from the granite mountains, have a
+temperature of 77 deg.-120 deg. F., and yield about 880,000 gallons of
+water daily. The water contains only 0.35 to 1000 of mineral ingredients
+and is used for bathing purposes. The springs are resorted to in cases
+of nervous affections, senile and general debility, skin diseases, gout
+and rheumatism. Wildbad-Gastein is annually visited by over 8500 guests.
+The springs were known as early as the 7th century, but first came into
+fame by a successful visit paid to them by Duke Frederick of Austria in
+1436. Gastein was a favourite resort of William I. of Prussia and of the
+Austrian imperial family, and it was here that, on the 14th of August
+1865, was signed the agreement known as the Gastein Convention, which by
+dividing the administration of the conquered provinces of Schleswig and
+Holstein between Austria and Prussia postponed for a while the outbreak
+of war between the two powers. It was also here (August-September 1879)
+that Prince Bismarck negotiated with Count Julius Andrassy the
+Austro-German treaty, which resulted in the formation of the Triple
+Alliance.
+
+  See Proll, _Gastein, Its Springs and Climate_ (Vienna, 5th ed., 1893).
+
+
+
+
+GASTRIC ULCER (ulcer of the stomach), a disease of much gravity,
+commonest in females, and especially in anaemic domestic servants. It is
+connected in many instances with impairment of the circulation in the
+stomach and the formation of a clot in a small blood-vessel
+(thrombosis). It may be due to an impoverished state of the blood
+(anaemia), but it may also arise from disease of the blood-vessels, the
+result of long-continued indigestion and gastric catarrh.
+
+When clotting takes place in a blood-vessel the nutrition of that
+limited area of the stomach is cut off, and the patch undergoes
+digestion by the unresisted action of the gastric juices, an ulcer being
+formed. The ulcer is usually of the size of a silver threepence or
+sixpence, round or oval, and, eating deeply, is apt to make a hole right
+through the coats of the stomach. Its usual site is upon the posterior
+wall of the upper curvature, near to the pyloric orifice. It may undergo
+a healing process at any stage, in which case it may leave but little
+trace of its existence; while, on the other hand, it may in the course
+of cicatrizing produce such an amount of contraction as to lead to
+stricture of the pylorus, or to a peculiar hour-glass deformity of the
+stomach. Perforation is in most cases quickly fatal, unless previously
+the stomach has become adherent to some neighbouring organ, by which the
+dangerous effects of this occurrence may be averted, or unless the
+condition has been promptly recognized and an operation has been quickly
+done. Usually there is but one ulcer, but sometimes there are several
+ulcers.
+
+The symptoms of ulcer of the stomach are often indefinite and obscure,
+and in some cases the diagnosis has been first made on the occurrence of
+a fatal perforation. First among the symptoms is pain, which is present
+at all times, but is markedly increased after food. The pain is situated
+either at the lower end of the breast-bone or about the middle of the
+back. Sometimes it is felt in the sides. It is often extremely severe,
+and is usually accompanied with localized tenderness and also with a
+sense of oppression, and by an inability to wear tight clothing. The
+pain is due to the movements of the stomach set up by the presence of
+the food, as well as to the irritation of the inflamed nerve filaments
+in the floor of the ulcer. Vomiting is a usual symptom. It occurs either
+soon after the food is swallowed or at a later period, and generally
+relieves the pain and discomfort. Vomiting of blood (haematemesis) is a
+frequent and important symptom. The blood may show itself in the form of
+a brown or coffee-like mixture, or as pure blood of dark colour and
+containing clots. It comes from some vessel or vessels which the
+ulcerative process has ruptured. Blood is also found mixed with the
+discharges from the bowels, rendering them dark or tarry-looking. The
+general condition of the patient with gastric ulcer is, as a rule, that
+of extreme ill-health, with pallor, emaciation and debility. The tongue
+is red, and there is usually constipation. In most of the cases the
+disease is chronic, lasting for months or years; and in those cases
+where the ulcers are large or multiple, incomplete healing may take
+place, relapses occurring from time to time. But the ulcers may give
+rise to no marked symptoms, and there have been instances where fatal
+perforation suddenly took place, and where post-mortem examination
+revealed the existence of long-standing ulcers which had given rise to
+no suggestive symptoms. While gastric ulcer is to be regarded as
+dangerous, its termination, in the great majority of cases, is in
+recovery. It frequently, however, leaves the stomach in a delicate
+condition, necessitating the utmost care as regards diet. Occasionally
+the disease proves fatal by sudden haemorrhage, but a fatal result is
+more frequently due to perforation and the escape of the contents of the
+stomach into the peritoneal cavity, in which case death usually occurs
+in from twelve to forty-eight hours, either from shock or from
+peritonitis. Should the stomach become adherent to another organ, and
+fatal perforation be thus prevented, chronic "indigestion" may persist,
+owing to interference with the natural movements of the stomach.
+Stricture of the pylorus and consequent dilatation of the stomach may be
+caused by the cicatrization of an ulcer.
+
+The patient should at once be sent to bed and kept there, and allowed
+for a while nothing stronger than milk and water or milk and lime water.
+But if bleeding has recently taken place no food whatever should be
+allowed by the stomach, and the feeding should be by nutrient enemata.
+As the symptoms quiet down, eggs may be given beaten up with milk, and
+later, bread and milk and home-made broths and soups. Thus the diet
+advances to chicken and vegetables rubbed through a sieve, to custard
+pudding and bread and butter. As regards medicines, iron is the most
+useful, but no pills of any sort should be given. Under the influence of
+rest and diet most gastric ulcers get well. The presence of
+healthy-looking scars upon the surface of the stomach, which are
+constantly found in operating upon the interior of the abdomen, or as
+revealed in post-mortem examinations, are evidence of the truth of this
+statement. It is unlikely that under the treatment just described
+perforation of the stomach will take place, and if the surgeon is called
+in to assist he will probably advise that operation is inadvisable.
+Moreover, he knows that if he should open the abdomen to search for an
+ulcer of the stomach he might fail to find it; more than that, his
+search might also be in vain if he opened the stomach itself and
+examined the interior. Serious haemorrhages, however, may make it
+necessary that a prompt and thorough search should be made in order that
+the surgeon may endeavour to locate the ulcer, and, having found it,
+secure the damaged vessel and save the patient from death by bleeding.
+
+Perforation of a gastric ulcer having taken place, the septic germs,
+which were harmless whilst in the stomach, escape with the rest of the
+contents of the stomach into the general peritoneal cavity. The
+immediate effects of this leakage are sudden and severe pain in the
+upper part of the abdomen and a great shock to the system (collapse).
+The muscles of the abdominal wall become hard and resisting, and as
+peritonitis appears and the intestines are distended with gas, the
+abdomen is distended and becomes greatly increased in size and ceases to
+move, the respiratory movements being short and quick. At first, most
+likely, the temperature drops below normal, and the pulse quickens.
+Later, the temperature rises. If nothing is done, death from the septic
+poisoning of peritonitis is almost certain.
+
+The treatment of ruptured gastric ulcer demands immediate operation. An
+incision should be made in the upper part of the middle line of the
+abdomen, and the perforation should be looked for. There is not, as a
+rule, much difficulty in finding it, as there are generally deposits of
+lymph near the spot, and other signs of local inflammation; moreover,
+the contents of the stomach may be seen escaping from the opening. The
+ulcer is to be closed by running a "purse-string" suture in the healthy
+tissue around it, and the place is then buried in the stomach by picking
+up small folds of the stomach-wall above and below it and fixing them
+together by suturing. This being done, the surface of the stomach, and
+the neighbouring viscera which have been soiled by the leakage, are
+wiped clean and the abdominal wound is closed, provision being made for
+efficient drainage. A large proportion of cases of perforated gastric
+ulcer thus treated recover.     (E. O.*)
+
+
+
+
+GASTRITIS (Gr. [Greek: gaster], stomach), an inflammatory affection of
+the stomach, of which the condition of catarrh, or irritation of its
+mucous membrane, is the most frequent and most readily recognized. This
+may exist in an acute or a chronic form, and depends upon some
+condition, either local or general, which produces a congested state of
+the circulation in the walls of the stomach (see DIGESTIVE ORGANS:
+_Pathology_).
+
+_Acute Gastritis_ may arise from various causes. The most intense forms
+of inflammation of the stomach are the toxic conditions which follow the
+swallowing of corrosive poisons, such as strong mineral acids of alkalis
+which may extensively destroy the mucous membrane. Other non-corrosive
+poisons cause acute degeneration of the stomach wall (see POISONS).
+Acute inflammatory conditions may be secondary to zymotic diseases such
+as diphtheria, pyaemia, typhus fever and others. Gastritis is also
+caused by the ingestion of food which has begun to decompose, or may
+result from eating unsuitable articles which themselves remain
+undigested and so excite acute catarrhal conditions. These give rise to
+the symptoms well known as characterizing an acute "bilious attack,"
+consisting in loss of appetite, sickness or nausea, and headache,
+frontal or occipital, often accompanied with giddiness. The tongue is
+furred, the breath foetid, and there is pain or discomfort in the region
+of the stomach, with sour eructations, and frequently vomiting, first of
+food and then of bilious matter. An attack of this kind tends to subside
+in a few days, especially if the exciting cause be removed. Sometimes,
+however, the symptoms recur with such frequency as to lead to the more
+serious chronic form of the disease.
+
+The treatment bears reference, in the first place, to any known source
+of irritation, which, if it exist, may be expelled by an emetic or
+purgative (except in cases due to poisoning). This, however, is seldom
+necessary, since vomiting is usually present. For the relief of sickness
+and pain the sucking of ice and counter-irritation over the region of
+the stomach are of service. Further, remedies which exercise a soothing
+effect upon an irritable mucous membrane, such as bismuth or weak
+alkaline fluids, and along with these the use of a light milk diet, are
+usually sufficient to remove the symptoms.
+
+_Chronic Gastric Catarrh_ may result from the acute or may arise
+independently. It is not infrequently connected with antecedent disease
+in other organs, such as the lungs, heart, liver or kidneys, and it is
+especially common in persons addicted to alcoholic excess. In this form
+the texture of the stomach is more altered than in the acute form,
+except in the toxic and febrile forms above referred to. It is
+permanently in a state of congestion, and its mucous membrane and
+muscular coat undergo thickening and other changes, which markedly
+affect the function of digestion. The symptoms are those of dyspepsia in
+an aggravated form (see DYSPEPSIA), of which discomfort and pain after
+food, with distension and frequently vomiting, are the chief; and the
+treatment must be conducted in reference to the causes giving rise to
+it. The careful regulation of the diet, alike as to the amount, the
+quality, and the intervals between meals, demands special attention.
+Feeding on artificially soured milk may in many cases be useful. Lavage
+or washing out of the stomach with weak alkaline solutions has been used
+with marked success in the treatment of chronic gastritis. Of medicinal
+agents, bismuth, arsenic, nux vomica, and the mineral acids are all of
+acknowledged efficacy, as are also preparations of pepsin.
+
+
+
+
+GASTROPODA, the second of the five classes of animals constituting the
+phylum Mollusca. For a discussion of the relationship of the Gastropoda
+to the remaining classes of the phylum, see MOLLUSCA.
+
+  The Gastropoda are mainly characterized by a loss of symmetry,
+  produced by torsion of the visceral sac. This torsion may be resolved
+  into two successive movements. The first is a ventral flexure in the
+  antero-posterior or sagittal plane; the result of this is to
+  approximate the two ends of the alimentary canal. In development, the
+  openings of the mantle-cavity and the anus are always originally
+  posterior; later they are brought forward ventrally. During this first
+  movement flexure is also produced by the coiling of the visceral sac
+  and shell; primitively the latter was bowl-shaped; but the ventral
+  flexure, which brings together the two extremities of the digestive
+  tube, gives the visceral sac the outline of a more or less acute cone.
+  The shell necessarily takes this form also, and then becomes coiled in
+  a dorsal or anterior plane--that is to say, it becomes exogastric.
+  This condition may be seen in embryonic _Patellidae, Fissurellidae_
+  and _Trochidae_ (fig. 1, A), and agrees with the method of coiling of
+  a mollusc without lateral torsion, such as _Nautilus_. But ultimately
+  the coil becomes ventral or endogastric, in consequence of the second
+  torsion movement then apparent.
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.
+
+  FIG. 1.--Three stages in the development of Trochus, during the
+  process of torsion. (After Robert.)
+
+    A, Nearly symmetrical larva (veliger).
+    B, A stage 1-1/2 hours later than A.
+    C, A stage 3-1/2 hours later than B.
+    f, Foot.
+    op, Operculum.
+    pac, Pallial cavity.
+    ve, Velum.]
+
+  The shell is represented as fixed, while the head and foot rotate from
+  left to right. In reality the head and foot are fixed and the shell
+  rotates from right to left.
+
+  The second movement is a lateral torsion of the visceral mass, the
+  foot remaining a fixed point; this torsion occurs in a plane
+  approximately at right angles to that of the first movement, and
+  carries the pallial aperture and the anus from behind forwards. If, at
+  this moment, the animal were placed with mouth and ventral surface
+  turned towards the observer, this torsion carries the circumanal
+  complex in a clockwise direction (along the right side in dextral
+  forms) through 180 deg. as compared with its primitive condition. The
+  (primitively) right-hand organs of the complex thus become left-hand,
+  and vice versa. The visceral commissure, while still surrounding the
+  digestive tract, becomes looped; its right half, with its proper
+  ganglion, passes to the left side over the dorsal face of the
+  alimentary canal (whence the name supra-intestinal), while the left
+  half passes below towards the right side, thus originating the name
+  infra-intestinal given to this half and to its ganglion. Next, the
+  shell, the coil of which was at first exogastric, being also included
+  in this rotation through 180 deg., exhibits an endogastric coiling
+  (fig. 1, B, C). This, however, is not generally retained in one plane,
+  and the spire projects, little by little, on the side which was
+  originally left, but finally becomes right (in dextral forms, with a
+  clockwise direction, if viewed from the side of the spire; but
+  counter-clockwise in sinistral forms). Finally, the original symmetry
+  of the circumanal complex vanishes; the anus leaves the centre of the
+  pallial cavity and passes towards the right side (left side in
+  sinistral forms); the organs of this side become atrophied and
+  disappear. The essential feature of the asymmetry of Gastropoda is the
+  atrophy or disappearance of the primitively left half of the
+  circumanal complex (the right half in sinistral forms), including the
+  gill, the auricle, the osphradium, the hypobranchial gland and the
+  kidney.
+
+  In dextral Gastropods the only structure found on the topographically
+  right side of the rectum is the genital duct. But this is not part of
+  the primitive complex. It is absent in the most primitive and
+  symmetrical forms, such as _Haliotis_ and _Pleurotomaria_. Originally
+  the gonads opened into the kidneys. In the most primitive existing
+  Gastropods the gonad opens into the right kidney (_Patellidae,
+  Trochidae, Fissurellidae_). The gonaduct, therefore, is derived from
+  the topographically right kidney. The transformation has been
+  actually shown to take place in the development of Paludina. In a
+  dextral Gastropod the shell is coiled in a right-handed spiral from
+  apex to mouth, and the spiral also projects to the right of the median
+  plane of the animal.
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 2.--Four stages in the development of a Gastropod showing the
+  process of body torsion. (After Robert.)
+
+    A, Embryo without flexure.
+    B, Embryo with ventral flexure of the intestine.
+    C, Embryo with ventral flexure and exogastric shell.
+    D, Embryo with lateral torsion and an endogastric shell.
+    a, Anus.
+    f, Foot.
+    m, Mouth.
+    pa, Mantle.
+    pac, Pallial cavity.
+    ve, Velum.]
+
+  When the shell is sinistral the asymmetry of the organs is usually
+  reversed, and there is a complete situs _inversus viscerum_, the
+  direction of the spiral of the shell corresponding to the position of
+  the organs of the body. _Triforis, Physa, Clausilia_ are examples
+  of sinistral Gastropods, but reversal also occurs as an individual
+  variation among forms normally dextral. But there are forms in which
+  the involution is "hyperstrophic," that is to say, the turns of the
+  spire projecting but slightly, the spire, after flattening out
+  gradually, finally becomes re-entrant and transformed into a false
+  umbilicus; at the same time that part which corresponds to the
+  umbilicus of forms with a normal coil projects and constitutes a false
+  spire; the coil thus appears to be sinistral, although the asymmetry
+  remains dextral, and the coil of the operculum (always the opposite to
+  that of the shell) sinistral (e.g. _Lanistes_ among Streptoneura,
+  _Limacinidae_ among Opisthobranchia). The same, _mutatis mutandis_,
+  may occur in sinistral shells.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG 3.--Sketch of a model designed so as to show the
+  effect of torsion or rotation of the visceral hump in Streptoneurous
+  Gastropoda.
+
+    A, Unrotated ancestral condition.
+    B, Quarter-rotation.
+    C, Complete semi-rotation (the limit).
+    an, Anus.
+    ln, rn, Primarily left nephridium and primarily right nephridium.
+    lvg, Primarily left (subsequently the sub-intestinal) visceral
+      ganglion.
+    rvg, Primarily right (subsequently the sub-intestinal) visceral
+      ganglion.
+    cerg, Cerebral ganglion.
+    plg, Pleural ganglion.
+    pedg, Pedal ganglion.
+    abg, Abdominal ganglion.
+    bucc, Buccal mass.
+    W, Wooden arc representing the base-line of the wall of the visceral
+      hump.
+    x, 'x, Pins fastening the elastic cord (representing the visceral
+      nerve loop) to W.]
+
+  The problem of the causes of the torsion of the Gastropod body has
+  been much discussed. E.R. Lankester in the ninth edition of this work
+  attributed it to the pressure of the shell and visceral hump towards
+  the right side. He referred also to the nautiloid shell of the larva
+  falling to one side. But these are two distinct processes. In the
+  larva a nautiloid shell is developed which is coiled exogastrically,
+  that is, dorsally, and the pallial cavity is posterior or ventral
+  (fig. 2, C): the larva therefore resembles _Nautilus_ in the relations
+  of body and shell. The shell then rotates towards the left side
+  through 180 deg., so that it becomes ventral or endogastric (fig. 2,
+  D). The pallial cavity, with its organs, is by this torsion moved up
+  the _right_ side of the larva to the dorsal surface, and thus the left
+  organs become right and vice versa. In the subsequent growth of the
+  shell the spire comes to project on the right side, which was
+  originally the left. Neither the rotation of the shell as a whole nor
+  its helicoid spiral coiling is the immediate cause of the torsion of
+  the body in the individual, for the direction of the torsion is
+  indicated in the segmentation of the ovum, in which there is a
+  complete reversal of the cleavage planes in sinistral as compared
+  with dextral forms. The facts, however, strongly suggest that the
+  original cause of the torsion was the weight of the exogastric shell
+  and visceral hump, which in an animal creeping on its ventral surface
+  necessarily fell over to one side. It is not certain that the
+  projection of the spire to the originally left side of the shell has
+  anything to do with the falling over of the shell to that side. The
+  facts do not support such a suggestion. In the larva there is no
+  projection at the time the torsion takes place. In some forms the
+  coiling disappears in the adult, leaving the shell simply conical as
+  in _Patellidae, Fissurellidae_, &c., and in some cases the shell is
+  coiled in one plane, e.g. _Planorbis_. In all these cases the torsion
+  and asymmetry of the body are unaffected.
+
+  The characteristic torsion attains its maximum effect among the
+  majority of the Streptoneura. It is followed in some specialized
+  Heteropoda and in the Euthyneura by a torsion in the opposite
+  direction, or detorsion, which brings the anus farther back and
+  untwists the visceral commissure (see Euthyneura, below). This
+  conclusion has shown that the Euthyneura do not represent an archaic
+  form of Gastropoda, but are themselves derived from streptoneurous
+  forms. The difference between the two sub-classes has been shown to be
+  slight; certain of the more archaic Tectibranchia (_Actaeon_) and
+  Pulmonata (_Chilina_) still have the visceral commissure long and not
+  untwisted. The fact that all the Euthyneura are hermaphrodite is not a
+  fundamental difference; several Streptoneura are so, likewise
+  _Valvata, Oncidiopsis, Marsenina, Odostomia, Bathysciadium,
+  Entoconcha_.
+
+  _Classification._--The class Gastropoda is subdivided as follows:
+
+    Sub-class I. Streptoneura.
+       Order 1. Aspidobranchia.
+          Sub-order 1. Docoglossa.
+               "    2. Rhipidoglossa.
+       Order 2. Pectinibranchia.
+          Sub-order 1. Taenioglossa.
+              Tribe 1. Platypoda.
+                "   2. Heteropoda.
+          Sub-order 2. Stenoglossa.
+              Tribe 1. Rachiglossa.
+                "   2. Toxiglossa.
+
+    Sub-class II. Euthyneura.
+       Order 1. Opisthobranchia.
+          Sub-order 1. Tectibranchia.
+              Tribe 1. Bullomorpha.
+                "   2. Aplysiomorpha.
+                "   3. Pleurobranchomorpha.
+          Sub-order 2. Nudibranchia.
+              Tribe 1. Tritoniomorpha.
+                "   2. Doridomorpha.
+                "   3. Eolidomorpha.
+                "   4. Elysiomorpha.
+       Order 2. Pulmonata.
+          Sub-order 1. Basommatophora.
+               "    2. Stylommatophora.
+              Tribe 1. Holognatha.
+                "   2. Agnatha.
+                "   3. Elasmognatha.
+                "   4. Ditremata.
+
+
+Sub-Class I.--STREPTONEURA
+
+In this division the torsion of the visceral mass and visceral
+commissure is at its maximum, the latter being twisted into a figure of
+eight. The right half of the commissure with its ganglion is
+supra-intestinal, the left half with its ganglion infra-intestinal. In
+some cases each pleural ganglion is connected with the opposite branch
+of the visceral commissure by anastomosis with the pallial nerve, a
+condition which is called dialyneury; or there may be a direct
+connective from the pleural ganglion to the visceral ganglion of the
+opposite side, which is called zygoneury. The head bears only one pair
+of tentacles. The radular teeth are of several different kinds in each
+transverse row. The heart is usually posterior to the branchia
+(proso-branchiate). The sexes are usually separate.
+
+The old division into Zygobranchia and Azygobranchia must be abandoned,
+for the Azygobranchiate Rhipidoglossa have much greater affinity to the
+Zygobranchiate _Haliotidae_ and _Fissurellidae_ than to the
+Azygobranchia in general. This is shown by the labial commissure and
+pedal cords of the nervous system, by the opening of the gonad into the
+right kidney, and by other points. Further, the _Pleurotomariidae_ have
+been discovered to possess two branchiae. The sub-class is now divided
+into two orders: the Aspidobranchia in which the branchia or ctenidium
+is bipectinate and attached only at its base, and the Pectinibranchia in
+which the ctenidium is monopectinate and attached to the mantle
+throughout its length.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--The Common Limpet (_Patella vulgata_) in its
+  shell, seen from the pedal surface. (Lankester.)
+
+    x, y, The median antero-posterior axis.
+    a, Cephalic tentacle.
+    b, Plantar surface of the foot.
+    c, Free edge of the shell.
+    d, The branchial efferent vessel carrying aerated blood to the
+      auricle, and here interrupting the circlet of gill lamellae.
+    e, Margin of the mantle-skirt.
+    f, Gill lamellae (_not_ ctenidia, but special pallial growths,
+      comparable with those of Pleurophyllidia).
+    g, The branchial efferent vessel.
+    h, Factor of the branchial advehent vessel.
+    i, Interspaces between the muscular bundles of the root of the foot,
+      causing the separate areae seen in fig. 5, c.]
+
+  Order I. ASPIDOBRANCHIA.--These are the most primitive Gastropods,
+  retaining to a great degree the original symmetry of the organs of the
+  pallial complex, having two kidneys, in some cases two branchiae, and
+  two auricles. The gonad has no accessory organs and except in
+  _Neritidae_ no duct, but discharges into the right kidney.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Dorsal surface of the Limpet removed from its
+  shell and deprived of its black pigmented epithelium; the internal
+  organs are seen through the transparent body-wall. (Lankester.)
+
+    c, Muscular bundles forming the root of the foot, and adherent to
+      the shell.
+    e, Free mantle-skirt.
+    em, Tentaculiferous margin of the same.
+    i, Smaller (left) nephridium.
+    k, Larger (right) nephridium.
+    l, Pericardium.
+    lx, Fibrous septum, behind the pericardium.
+    n, Liver.
+    int, Intestine.
+    ecr, Anterior area of the mantle-skirt over-hanging the head
+      (cephalic hood).]
+
+  Forms adapted to terrestrial life and to aerial respiration occur in
+  various divisions of Gastropods, and do not constitute a single
+  homogeneous group. Thus the _Helicinidae_, which are terrestrial, are
+  now placed among the Aspidobranchia. In these there are neither
+  branchia nor osphradium, and the pallial chamber which retains its
+  large opening serves as a lung. Degeneration of the shell occurs in
+  some members of the order. It is largely covered by the mantle in some
+  _Fissurellidae_, is entirely internal in _Pupilia_ and absent in
+  _Titiscaniidae_.
+
+  The common limpet is a specially interesting and abundant example of
+  the more primitive Aspidobranchia. The foot of the limpet is a nearly
+  circular disk of muscular tissue; in front, projecting from and raised
+  above it, are the head and neck (figs. 4, 13). The visceral hump forms
+  a low conical dome above the sub-circular foot, and standing out all
+  round the base of this dome so as completely to overlap the head and
+  foot, is the circular mantle-skirt. The depth of free mantle-skirt is
+  greatest in front, where the head and neck are covered in by it. Upon
+  the surface of the visceral dome, and extending to the edge of the
+  free mantle-skirt, is the conical shell. When the shell is taken away
+  (best effected by immersion in hot water) the surface of the visceral
+  dome is found to be covered by a black-coloured epithelium, which may
+  be removed, enabling the observer to note the position of some organs
+  lying below the transparent integument (fig. 5). The muscular columns
+  (c) attaching the foot to the shell form a ring incomplete in front,
+  external to which is the free mantle-skirt. The limits of the large
+  area formed by the flap over the head and neck (ecr) can be traced,
+  and we note the anal papilla showing through and opening on the right
+  shoulder, so to speak, of the animal into the large anterior region of
+  the sub-pallial space. Close to this the small renal organ (i, mediad)
+  and the larger renal organ (k, to the right and posteriorly) are seen,
+  also the pericardium (l) and a coil of the intestine (int) embedded
+  in the compact liver.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 6.--Anterior portion of the same Limpet, with the
+  overhanging cephalic hood removed. (Lankester.)
+
+    a, Cephalic tentacle.
+    b, Foot.
+    c, Muscular substance forming the root of the foot.
+    d, The capito-pedal organs of Lankester (= rudimentary ctenidia).
+    e, Mantle-skirt.
+    f, Papilla of the larger nephridium.
+    g, Anus.
+    h, Papilla of the smaller nephridium.
+    i, Smaller nephridium.
+    k, Larger nephridium.
+    l, Pericardium.
+    m, Cut edge of the mantle-skirt.
+    n, Liver.
+    p, Snout.]
+
+  On cutting away the anterior part of the mantle-skirt so as to expose
+  the sub-pallial chamber in the region of the neck, we find the right
+  and left renal papillae (discovered by Lankester in 1867) on either
+  side of the anal papilla (fig. 6), but no gills. If a similar
+  examination be made of the allied genus _Fissurella_ (fig. 17, d), we
+  find right and left of the two renal apertures a right and left
+  gill-plume or ctenidium, which here as in _Haliotis_ and
+  _Pleurotomaria_ retain their original paired condition. In _Patella_
+  no such plumes exist, but right and left of the neck are seen a pair
+  of minute oblong yellow bodies (fig. 6, d), which were originally
+  described by Lankester as orifices possibly connected with the
+  evacuation of the generative products. On account of their position
+  they were termed by him the "capito-pedal orifices," being placed near
+  the junction of head and foot. J.W. Spengel has, however, in a most
+  ingenious way shown that these bodies are the representatives of the
+  typical pair of ctenidia, here reduced to a mere rudiment. Near to
+  each rudimentary ctenidium Spengel has discovered an olfactory patch
+  or osphradium (consisting of modified epithelium) and an olfactory
+  nerve-ganglion (fig. 8). It will be remembered that, according to
+  Spengel, the osphradium of mollusca is definitely and intimately
+  related to the gill-plume or ctenidium, being always placed near the
+  base of that organ; further, Spengel has shown that the nerve-supply
+  of this olfactory organ is always derived from the visceral loop.
+  Accordingly, the nerve-supply affords a means of testing the
+  conclusion that we have in Lankester's capito-pedal bodies the
+  rudimentary ctenidia. The accompanying diagrams (figs. 9, 10) of the
+  nervous systems of _Patella_ and of _Haliotis_, as determined by
+  Spengel, show the identity in the origin of the nerves passing from
+  the visceral loop to Spengel's olfactory ganglion of the Limpet, and
+  that of the nerves which pass from the visceral loop of _Haliotis_ to
+  the olfactory patch or osphradium, which lies in immediate relation on
+  the right and on the left side to the right and left gill-plumes
+  (ctenidia) respectively. The same diagrams serve to demonstrate the
+  streptoneurous condition of the visceral loop in Aspidobranchia.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--The same specimen viewed from the left front,
+  so as to show the sub-anal tract (ff) of the larger nephridium, by
+  which it communicates with the pericardium. o, Mouth; other letters as
+  in fig. 6.]
+
+  Thus, then, we find that the limpet possesses a symmetrically disposed
+  pair of ctenidia in a rudimentary condition, and justifies its
+  position among Aspidobranchia. At the same time it possesses a
+  totally distinct series of _functional_ gills, which are not derived
+  from the modification of the typical molluscan ctenidium. These gills
+  are in the form of delicate lamellae (fig. 4, f), which form a series
+  extending completely round the inner face of the depending
+  mantle-skirt. This circlet of gill-lamellae led Cuvier to class the
+  limpets as Cyclobranchiata, and, by erroneous identification of them
+  with the series of metamerically repeated ctenidia of _Chiton_, to
+  associate the latter mollusc with the former. The gill-lamellae of
+  _Patella_ are processes of the mantle comparable with the plait-like
+  folds often observed on the roof of the branchial chamber in other
+  Gastropoda (e.g. _Buccinum_ and _Haliotis_). They are termed pallial
+  gills. The only other molluscs in which they are exactly represented
+  are the curious Opisthobranchs _Phyllidia_ and _Pleurophyllidia_ (fig.
+  55). In these, as in _Patella_, the typical ctenidia are aborted, and
+  the branchial function is assumed by close-set lamelliform processes
+  arranged in a series beneath the mantle-skirt on either side of the
+  foot. In fig. 4, d, the large branchial vein of _Patella_ bringing
+  blood from the gill-series to the heart is seen; where it crosses the
+  series of lamellae there is a short interval devoid of lamellae.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 8.--A, Section in a plane vertical to the surface
+  of the neck of _Patella_ through a, the rudimentary ctenidium
+  (Lankester's organ), and b, the olfactory epithelium (osphradium); c,
+  the olfactory (osphradial) ganglion. (After Spengel.)
+
+  B, Surface view of a rudimentary ctenidium of _Patella_ excised and
+  viewed as a transparent object. (Lankester.)]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 9.--Nervous system of _Patella_; the visceral loop
+  is lightly shaded; the buccal ganglia are omitted. (After Spengel.)
+
+    ce, Cerebral ganglia.
+    c'e, Cerebral commissure.
+    pl, Pleural ganglion.
+    pe, Pedal ganglion. p'e, Pedal nerve.
+    s, s', Nerves (right and left) to the mantle.
+    o, Olfactory ganglion, connected by nerve to the streptoneurous
+    visceral loop.]
+
+  The heart in _Patella_ consists of a single auricle (not two as in
+  _Haliotis_ and _Fissurella_) and a ventricle; the former receives the
+  blood from the branchial vein, the latter distributes it through a
+  large aorta which soon leads into irregular blood-lacunae.
+
+  The existence of two renal organs in _Patella_, and their relation to
+  the pericardium (a portion of the coelom), is important. Each renal
+  organ is a sac lined with glandular epithelium (ciliated cell, with
+  concretions) communicating with the exterior by its papilla, and by a
+  narrow passage with the pericardium. The connexion with the
+  pericardium of the smaller of the two renal organs was demonstrated by
+  Lankester in 1867, at a time when the fact that the renal organ of the
+  Mollusca, as a rule, opens into the pericardium, and is therefore a
+  typical nephridium, was not known. Subsequent investigations carried
+  on under the direction of the same naturalist have shown that the
+  larger as well as the smaller renal sac is in communication with the
+  pericardium. The walls of the renal sacs are deeply plaited and thrown
+  into ridges. Below the surface these walls are excavated with
+  blood-vessels, so that the sac is practically a series of
+  blood-vessels covered with renal epithelium, and forming a meshwork
+  within a space communicating with the exterior. The larger renal sac
+  (remarkably enough, that which is aborted in other Anisopleura)
+  extends between the liver and the integument of the visceral dome very
+  widely. It also bends round the liver as shown in fig. 12, and forms
+  a large sac on half of the upper surface of the muscular mass of the
+  foot. Here it lies close upon the genital body (ovary or testis), and
+  in such intimate relationship with it that, when ripe, the gonad
+  bursts into the renal sac, and its products are carried to the
+  exterior by the papilla on the right side of the anus (Robin, Dall).
+  This fact led Cuvier erroneously to the belief that a duct existed
+  leading from the gonad to this papilla. The position of the gonad,
+  best seen in the diagrammatic section (fig. 13), is, as in other
+  Aspidobranchia, devoid of a special duct communicating with the
+  exterior. This condition, probably an archaic one, distinguishes the
+  Aspidobranchia from other Gastropoda.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Nervous system of _Haliotis_; the visceral
+  loop is lightly shaded; the buccal ganglia are omitted. (After
+  Spengel.)
+
+    ce, Cerebral ganglion.
+    pl.pe, The fused pleural and pedal ganglia.
+    pe, The right pedal nerve.
+    ce.pl, The cerebro-pleural connective.
+    ce.pe, The cerebro-pedal connective.
+    s, s', Right and left mantle nerves.
+    ab, Abdominal ganglion or site of same.
+    o, o, Right and left olfactory ganglia and osphardia receiving nerve
+      from visceral loop.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Nervous system of _Fissurella_. (From
+  Gegenbaur, after Jhering.)
+
+    pl, Pallial nerve.
+    p, Pedal nerve.
+    A, Abdominal ganglia in the streptoneurous visceral commissure, with
+      supra- and sub-intestine ganglion on each side.
+    B, Buccal ganglia.
+    C, C, Cerebral ganglia.
+    es, Cerebral commissure.
+    o, Otocysts attached to the cerebro-pedal connectives.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Diagram of the two renal organs (nephridia),
+  to show their relation to the rectum and to the pericardium.
+  (Lankester.)
+
+    f, Papilla of the larger nephridium.
+    g, Anal papilla with rectum leading from it.
+    h, Papilla of the smaller nephridium, which is only represented by
+      dotted outlines.
+    l, Pericardium indicated by a dotted outline--at its right side are
+      seen the two reno-pericardial pores.
+    ff, The sub-anal tract of the large nephridium given off near its
+      papilla and seen through the unshaded smaller nephridium.
+    ks.a, Anterior superior lobe of the large nephridium.
+    ks.l, Left lobe of same.
+    ks.p, Posterior lobe of same.
+    ks.i, Inferior sub-visceral lobe of same.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Diagram of a vertical antero-postero median
+  section of a Limpet. Letters as in figs. 6, 7, with following
+  additions. (Lankester.)
+
+    q, Intestine in transverse section.
+    r, Lingual sac (radular sac).
+    rd, Radula.
+    s, Lamellated stomach.
+    t, Salivary gland.
+    u, Duct of same.
+    v, Buccal cavity
+    w, Gonad.
+    br.a, Branchial advehent vessel (artery).
+    br.v, Branchial efferent vessel (vein).
+    bv, Blood-vessel.
+    odm, Muscles and cartilage of the odontophore.
+    cor, Heart within the pericardium.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Vertical section in a plane running right and
+  left through the anterior part of the visceral hump of _Patella_ to
+  show the two renal organs and their openings into the pericardium.
+  (J.T. Cunningham.)
+
+    a, Large or external or right renal organ.
+    ab, Narrow process of the same running _below_ the intestine and
+      leading by k into the pericardium.
+    b, Small or median renal organ.
+    c, Pericardium.
+    d, Rectum.
+    e, Liver.
+    f, Manyplies.
+    g, Epithelium of the dorsal surface.
+    h, Renal epithelium lining the renal sacs.
+    i, Aperture connecting the small sac with the pericardium.
+    k, Aperture connecting the large sac with the pericardium.]
+
+  The digestive tract of _Patella_ offers some interesting features. The
+  odontophore is powerfully developed; the radular sac is
+  extraordinarily long, lying coiled in a space between the mass of the
+  liver and the muscular foot. The radula has 160 rows of teeth with
+  twelve teeth in each row. Two pairs of salivary ducts, each leading
+  from a salivary gland, open into the buccal chamber. The oesophagus
+  leads into a remarkable stomach, plaited like the manyplies of a
+  sheep, and after this the intestine takes a very large number of turns
+  embedded in the yellow liver, until at last it passes between the two
+  renal sacs to the anal papilla. A curious ridge (spiral? valve) which
+  secretes a slimy cord is found upon the inner wall of the intestine.
+  The general structure of the Molluscan intestine has not been
+  sufficiently investigated to render any comparison of this structure
+  of _Patella_ with that of other Mollusca possible. The eyes of the
+  limpet deserve mention as examples of the most primitive kind of eye
+  in the Molluscan series. They are found one on each cephalic tentacle,
+  and are simply minute open pits or depressions of the epidermis, the
+  epidermic cells lining them being pigmented and connected with nerves
+  (compare fig. 14, art. CEPHALOPODA). The limpet breeds upon the
+  southern English coast in the early part of April, but its development
+  has not been followed. It has simply been traced as far as the
+  formation of a diblastula which acquires a ciliated band, and becomes
+  a nearly spherical trochosphere. It is probable that the limpet takes
+  several years to attain full growth, and during that period it
+  frequents the same spot, which becomes gradually sunk below the
+  surrounding surface, especially if the rock be carbonate of lime. At
+  low tide the limpet (being a strictly intertidal organism) is exposed
+  to the air, and (according to trustworthy observers) quits its
+  attachment and walks away in search of food (minute encrusting algae),
+  and then once more returns to the identical spot, not an inch in
+  diameter, which belongs, as it were, to it. Several million
+  limpets--twelve million in Berwickshire alone--are annually used on
+  the east coast of Britain as bait.
+
+  Sub-order 1. _Docoglossa._--Nervous system without dialyneury. Eyes
+  are open invaginations without crystalline lens. Two osphradia present
+  but no hypobranchial glands nor operculum. Teeth of radula beam-like,
+  and at most three marginal teeth on each side. Heart has only a single
+  auricle, neither heart nor pericardium traversed by rectum. Shell
+  conical without spire.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Acmaeidae._ A single bipectinate ctenidium on left side.
+    Acmaea, without pallial branchiae, British. Scurria, with pallial
+    branchiae in a circle beneath the mantle.
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Tryblidiidae._ Muscle scar divided into numerous
+    impressions. _Tryblidium_, Silurian.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Patellidae_. No ctenidia but pallial branchiae in a circle
+    between mantle and foot. _Patella_, pallial branchiae forming a
+    complete circle, no epipodial tentacles, British. _Ancistromesus_,
+    radula with median central tooth. _Nacella_, epipodial tentacles
+    present. _Helcion_, circlet of branchiae interrupted anteriorly,
+    British.
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Lepetidae._ Neither ctenidia nor pallial branchiae.
+    _Lepeta_, without eyes. _Pilidium. Propilidium._
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Bathysciadidae._ Hermaphrodite; head with appendage on
+    right side; radula without central tooth. _Bathysciadium_, abyssal.
+
+  Sub-order 2. RHIPIDOGLOSSA.--Aspidobranchia with a palliovisceral
+  anastomosis (dialyneurous); eye-vesicle closed, with crystalline lens;
+  ctenidia, osphradia and hypobranchial glands paired or single. Radula
+  with very numerous marginal teeth arranged like the rays of a fan.
+  Heart with two auricles; ventricle traversed by the rectum, except in
+  the _Helicinidae_. An epipodial ridge on each side of the foot and
+  cephalic expansions between the tentacles often present.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Pleurotomariidae_. Shell spiral; mantle and shell with an
+    anterior fissure; two ctenidia; a horny operculum. _Pleurotomaria_,
+    epipodium without tentacles. Genus includes several hundred extinct
+    species ranging from the Silurian to the Tertiary. Five living
+    species from the Antilles, Japan and the Moluccas. Moluccan species
+    is 19 cm. in height.
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Bellerophontidae._ 300 species, all fossil, from Cambrian
+    to Trias.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Euomphalidae._ Also extinct, from Cambrian to Cretaceous.
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Haliotidae._ Spire of shell much reduced; two bipectinate
+    ctenidia, the right being the smaller; no operculum. Haliotis.
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Velainiellidae_, an extinct family from the Eocene.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--_Halio tistuberculata._ d, Foot; i,
+  tentacular processes of the mantle. (From Owen, after Cuvier.)]
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Fissurellidae._ Shell conical; slit or hole in anterior
+    part of mantle; two symmetrical ctenidia; no operculum.
+    _Emarginula_, mantle and shell with a slit, British. _Scutum_,
+    mantle split anteriorly and reflected over shell, which has no slit.
+    _Puncturella_, mantle and shell with a foramen in front of the apex,
+    British. _Fissurella_, mantle and shell perforated at apex, British.
+
+    Fam. 7.--_Cocculinidae._ Shell conical, symmetrical, without slit or
+    perforation. _Cocculina_, abyssal.
+
+    Fam. 8.--_Trochidae._ Shell spirally coiled; a single ctenidium;
+    eyes perforated; a horny operculum; lobes between the tentacles.
+    _Trochus_, shell umbilicated, spire pointed and prominent, British.
+    _Monodonta_, no jaws, spire not prominent, no umbilicus, columella
+    toothed. _Gibbula_, with jaws, three pairs of epipodial cirri
+    without pigment spots at their bases, British. _Margarita_, five to
+    seven pairs of epipodial cirri with a pigment spot at base of each.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--_Scutum_, seen from the pedal surface.
+  (Lankester.)
+
+    o, Mouth.
+    T, Cephalic tentacle.
+    br, One of the two symmetrical gills placed on the neck.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Dorsal aspect of a specimen of _Fissurella_
+  from which the shell has been removed, whilst the anterior area of the
+  mantle-skirt has been longitudinally slit and its sides reflected.
+  (Lankester.)
+
+    a, Cephalic tentacle.
+    b, Foot.
+    d, Left (archaic right) gill-plume.
+    e, Reflected mantle-flap.
+    fi, The fissure or hole in the mantle-flap traversed by the
+      longitudinal incision.
+    f, Right (archaic left) nephridium's aperture.
+    g, Anus.
+    h, Left (archaic right) aperture of nephridium.
+    p, Snout.]
+
+    Fam. 9.--_Stomatellidae._ Spire of shell much reduced; a single
+    ctenidium. _Stomatella_, foot truncated posteriorly, an operculum
+    present, no epipodial tentacles. _Gena_, foot elongated posteriorly,
+    no operculum.
+
+    Fam. 10.--_Delphinulidae._ Shell spirally coiled; operculum horny;
+    intertentacular lobes absent. _Delphinula._
+
+    Fam. 11.--_Liotiidae_, shell globular, margin of aperture thickened.
+    _Liotia_.
+
+    Fam. 12.--_Cyclostrematidae._ Shell flattened, umbilicated; foot
+    anteriorly truncated with angles produced into lobes. _Cyclostrema._
+    _Teinostoma._
+
+    Fam. 13.--_Trochonematidae._ All extinct, Cambrian to Cretaceous.
+
+    Fam. 14.--_Turbinidae._ Shell spirally coiled; epipodial tentacles
+    present; operculum thick and calcareous. _Turbo. Astralium. Molleria.
+    Cyclonema._
+
+    Fam. 15.--_Phasianellidae._ Shell not nacreous, without umbilicus,
+    with prominent spire and polished surface. _Phasianella._
+
+    Fam. 16.--_Umboniidae._ Shell flattened, not umbilicated, generally
+    smooth; operculum horny. _Umbonium. Isanda._
+
+    Fam. 17.--_Neritopsidae._ Shell semi-globular, with short spire;
+    operculum calcareous, not spiral. _Neritopsis. Naticopsis_,
+    extinct.
+
+    Fam. 18.--_Macluritidae._ Extinct, Cambrian and Silurian.
+
+    Fam. 19.--_Neritidae._ Shell with very low spire, without umbilicus,
+    internal partitions frequently absorbed; a single ctenidium; a
+    cephalic penis present. _Nerita_, marine. _Neritina_, freshwater,
+    British. _Septaria_, shell boat-shaped.
+
+    Fam. 20.--_Titiscaniidae._ Without shell and operculum, but with
+    pallial cavity and ctenidium. _Titiscania_, Pacific.
+
+    Fam. 21.--_Helicinidae._ No ctenidium, but a pulmonary cavity; heart
+    with a single auricle, not traversed by the rectum. _Helicina.
+    Eutrochatella. Stoastoma. Bourceria._
+
+    Fam. 22.--_Hydrocenidae._ No ctenidium, but a pulmonary cavity;
+    operculum with an apophysis. _Hydrocena_, Dalmatia.
+
+    Fam. 23.--_Proserpinidae._ No operculum. _Proserpina_, Central
+    America.
+
+  Order 2. PECTINIBRANCHIA.--In this order there is no longer any trace
+  of bilateral symmetry in the circulatory, respiratory and excretory
+  organs, the topographically right half of the pallial complex having
+  completely disappeared, except the right kidney, which is represented
+  by the genital duct. There is usually a penis in the male. The
+  ctenidium is monopectinate and attached to the mantle along its whole
+  length, except in _Adeorbis_ and _Valvata_; in the latter alone it is
+  bipectinate. There is a single well-developed, often pectinated
+  osphradium. The eye is always a closed vesicle, and the internal
+  cornea is extensive. In the radula there is a single central tooth or
+  none.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Animal and shell of _Pyrula laevigata_. (From
+  Owen.)
+
+    a, Siphon.
+    b, Head-tentacles.
+    C, Head, the letter placed near the right eye.
+    d, The foot, expanded as in crawling.
+    h, The mantle-skirt reflected over the sides of the shell.]
+
+  The former classification into Holochlamyda, Pneumochlamyda and
+  Siphonochlamyda has been abandoned, as it was founded on adaptive
+  characters not always indicative of true affinities. The order is now
+  divided into two sub-orders: the Taenioglossa, in which there are
+  three teeth on each side of the median tooth of the radula, and the
+  Stenoglossa, in which there is only one tooth on each side of the
+  median tooth. In the latter a pallial siphon, a well-developed
+  proboscis and an unpaired oesophageal gland are always present, in the
+  former they are usually absent. The siphon is an incompletely tubular
+  outgrowth of the mantle margin on the left side, contained in a
+  corresponding outgrowth of the edge of the shell-mouth, and serving to
+  conduct water to the respiratory cavity.
+
+  The condition usually spoken of as a "proboscis" appears to be derived
+  from the condition of a simple rostrum (having the mouth at its
+  extremity) by the process of _incomplete introversion_ of that simple
+  rostrum. There is no reason in the actual significance of the word why
+  the term "proboscis" should be applied to an alternately introversible
+  and eversible tube connected with an animal's body, and yet such is a
+  very customary use of the term. The introversible tube may be
+  completely closed, as in the "proboscis" of Nemertine worms, or it may
+  have a passage in it leading into a non-eversible oesophagus, as in
+  the present case, and in the case of the eversible pharynx of the
+  predatory Chaetopod worms. The diagrams here introduced (fig. 19) are
+  intended to show certain important distinctions which obtain amongst
+  the various "introverts," or intro- and e-versible tubes so frequently
+  met with in animal bodies. Supposing the tube to be completely
+  introverted and to commence its eversion, we then find that eversion
+  may take place, either by a forward movement of the side of the tube
+  near its attached base, as in the proboscis of the Nemertine worms,
+  the pharynx of Chaetopods and the eye-tentacle of Gastropods, or by a
+  forward movement of the inverted apex of the tube, as in the proboscis
+  of the Rhabdocoel Planarians, and in that of Gastropods here under
+  consideration. The former case we call "pleurecbolic" (fig. 19, A, B,
+  C, H, I, K), the latter "acrecbolic" tubes or introverts (fig. 19, D,
+  E, F, G). It is clear that, if we start from the condition of full
+  eversion of the tube and watch the process of introversion, we shall
+  find that the pleurecbolic variety is introverted by the apex of the
+  tube sinking inwards; it may be called acrembolic, whilst conversely
+  the acrecbolic tubes are pleurembolic. Further, it is obvious enough
+  that the process either of introversion or of eversion of the tube may
+  be arrested at any point, by the development of fibres connecting the
+  wall of the introverted tube with the wall of the body, or with an
+  axial structure such as the oesophagus; on the other hand, the range
+  of movement of the tubular introvert may be unlimited or complete. The
+  acrembolic proboscis or frontal introvert of the Nemertine worms has a
+  complete range. So has the acrembolic pharynx of Chaetopods, if we
+  consider the organ as terminating at that point where the jaws are
+  placed and the oesophagus commences. So too the acrembolic
+  eye-tentacle of the snail has a complete range of movement, and also
+  the pleurembolic proboscis of the Rhabdocoel prostoma. The introverted
+  rostrum of the Pectinibranch Gastropods presents in contrast to these
+  a limited range of movement. The "introvert" in these Gastropods is
+  not the pharynx as in the Chaetopod worms, but a prae-oral structure,
+  its apical limit being formed by the true lips and jaws, whilst the
+  apical limit of the Chaetopod's introvert is formed by the jaws placed
+  at the junction of pharynx and oesophagus, so that the Chaetopod's
+  introvert is part of the stomodaeum or fore-gut, whilst that of the
+  Gastropod is external to the alimentary canal altogether, being in
+  front of the mouth, not behind it, as is the Chaetopod's. Further, the
+  Gastropod's introvert is pleurembolic (and therefore acrecbolic), and
+  is limited both in eversion and in introversion; it cannot be
+  completely everted owing to the muscular bands (fig. 19, G), nor can
+  it be fully introverted owing to the bands (fig. 19, F) which tie the
+  axial pharynx to the adjacent wall of the apical part of the
+  introvert. As in all such intro- and e-versible organs, eversion of
+  the Gastropod proboscis is effected by pressure communicated by the
+  muscular body-wall to the liquid contents (blood) of the body-space,
+  accompanied by the relaxation of the muscles which directly pull upon
+  either the sides or the apex of the tubular organ. The inversion of
+  the proboscis is effected directly by the contraction of these
+  muscles. In various members of the Pectinibranchia the mouth-bearing
+  cylinder is introversible (i.e. is a _proboscis_)--with rare
+  exceptions these forms have a siphonate mantle-skirt. On the other
+  hand, many which have a siphonate mantle-skirt are not provided with
+  an introversible mouth-bearing cylinder, but have a simple
+  non-introversible rostrum, as it has been termed, which is also the
+  condition presented by the mouth-bearing region in nearly all other
+  Gastropoda. One of the best examples of the introversible
+  mouth-cylinder or proboscis which can be found is that of the common
+  whelk (_Buccinum undatum_) and its immediate allies. In fig. 23 the
+  proboscis is seen in an everted state; it is only so carried when
+  feeding, being withdrawn when the animal is at rest. Probably its use
+  is to enable the animal to introduce its rasping and licking apparatus
+  into very narrow apertures for the purposes of feeding, e.g. into a
+  small hole bored in the shell of another mollusc.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Diagrams explanatory of the nature of
+  so-called proboscides or "introverts." (Lankester.)
+
+    A, Simple introvert completely introverted.
+
+    B, The same, partially everted by eversion of the sides, as in the
+    Nemertine proboscis and Gastropod eye-tentacle = pleurecbolic.
+
+    C, The same, fully everted.
+
+    D, E, A similar simple introvert in course of eversion by the
+    forward movement, not of its sides, but of its apex, as in the
+    proboscidean Rhabdocoels = acrecbolic.
+
+    F, Acrecbolic (= pleurembolic) introvert, formed by the snout of the
+    proboscidiferous Gastropod. al, alimentary canal; d, the true mouth.
+    The introvert is not a simple one with complete range both in
+    eversion and introversion, but is arrested in introversion by the
+    fibrous bands at c, and similarly in eversion by the fibrous bands
+    at b.
+
+    G, The acrecbolic snout of a proboscidiferous Gastropod, arrested
+    short of complete eversion by the fibrous band b.
+
+    H, The acrembolic (= pleurecbolic) pharynx of a Chaetopod fully
+    introverted. al, alimentary canal; at d, the jaws; at a, the mouth;
+    therefore a to d is stomodaeum, whereas in the Gastropod (F) a to d
+    is inverted body-surface.
+
+    I, Partial eversion of H.
+
+    K, Complete eversion of H.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Male of _Littorina littoralis_, Lin., removed
+  from its shell; the mantle-skirt cut along its right line of
+  attachment and thrown over to the left side of the animal so as to
+  expose the organs on its inner face.
+
+    a, Anus.
+    i, Intestine.
+    r, Nephridium (kidney).
+    r', Aperture of the nephridium.
+    c, Heart.
+    br, Ctenidium (gill-plume).
+    pbr, Parabranchia (= the osphradium or olfactory patch).
+    x, Glandular lamellae of the inner face of the mantle-skirt.
+    y, Adrectal (purpuriparous) gland.
+    t, Testis.
+    vd, Vas deferens.
+    p, Penis.
+    mc, Columella muscle (muscular process grasping the shell).
+    v, Stomach.
+    h, Liver.
+
+    N.B.--Note the simple snout or rostrum not introverted as a
+      "proboscis."]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Nervous system of _Paludina_ as a type of the
+  streptoneurous condition. (From Gegenbaur, after Jhering.)
+
+    B, Buccal (suboesophageal) ganglion.
+    C, Cerebral ganglion.
+    Co, Pleural ganglion.
+    P, Pedal ganglion with otocyst attached.
+    p, Pedal nerve.
+    A, Abdominal ganglion at the extremity of the twisted visceral
+      "loop."
+    sp, Supra-intestinal visceral ganglion on the course of the right
+      visceral cord.
+    sb, Sub-intestinal ganglion on the course of the left visceral
+      cord.]
+
+  The very large assemblage of forms coming under this order comprises
+  the most highly developed predaceous sea-snails, numerous vegetarian
+  species, a considerable number of freshwater and some terrestrial
+  forms. The partial dissection of a male specimen of the common
+  periwinkle, _Littorina littoralis_, drawn in fig. 20, will serve to
+  exhibit the disposition of viscera which prevails in the group. The
+  branchial chamber formed by the mantle-skirt overhanging the head has
+  been exposed by cutting along a line extending backward from the
+  letters vd to the base of the columella muscle mc, and the whole roof
+  of the chamber thus detached from the right side of the animal's neck
+  has been thrown over to the left, showing the organs which lie upon
+  the roof. No opening into the body-cavity has been made; the organs
+  which lie in the coiled visceral hump show through its transparent
+  walls. The head is seen in front resting on the foot and carrying a
+  median non-retractile snout or rostrum, and a pair of cephalic
+  tentacles at the base of each of which is an eye. In many Gastropoda
+  the eyes are not thus sessile but raised upon special eye-tentacles
+  (figs. 25, 56). To the right of the head is seen the muscular penis p,
+  close to the termination of the vas deferens (spermatic duct) vd. The
+  testis t occupies a median position in the coiled visceral mass.
+  Behind the penis on the same side is the hook-like columella muscle, a
+  development of the retractor muscle of the foot, which clings to the
+  spiral column or columella of the shell (see fig. 33). This columella
+  muscle is the same thing as the muscles adhering to the shell in
+  _Patella_, and the posterior adductor of Lamellibranchs.
+
+  The surface of the neck is covered by integument forming the floor of
+  the branchial cavity. It has not been cut into. Of the organs lying on
+  the reflected mantle-skirt, that which in the natural state lay
+  nearest to the vas deferens on the right side of the median line of
+  the roof of the branchial chamber is the rectum i', ending in the anus
+  a. It can be traced back to the intestine i near the surface of the
+  visceral hump, and it is found that the apex of the coil formed by the
+  hump is occupied by the liver h and the stomach v. Pharynx and
+  oesophagus are concealed in the head. The enlarged glandular structure
+  of the walls of the rectum is frequent in the Pectinibranchia, as is
+  also though not universal the gland marked y, next to the rectum. It
+  is the adrectal gland, and in the genera _Murex_ and _Purpura_
+  secretes a colourless liquid which turns purple upon exposure to the
+  atmosphere, and was used by the ancients as a dye. Near this and less
+  advanced into the branchial chamber is the single renal organ or
+  nephridium r with its opening to the exterior r'. Internally this
+  glandular sac presents a second slit or aperture which leads into the
+  pericardium (as is now found to be the case in all Mollusca). The
+  heart c lying in the pericardium is seen in close proximity to the
+  renal organ, and consists of a single auricle receiving blood from the
+  gill, and of a single ventricle which pumps it through the body by an
+  anterior and posterior aorta. The surface x of the mantle between the
+  rectum and the gill-plume is thrown into folds which in many
+  sea-snails (whelks or _Buccinidae_, &c.) are very strongly developed.
+  The whole of this surface appears to be active in the secretion of a
+  mucous-like substance. The single gill-plume br lies to the left of
+  the median line in natural position. It corresponds to the right of
+  the two primitive ctenidia in the untwisted archaic condition of the
+  molluscan body, and does not project freely into the branchial cavity,
+  but its axis is attached (by concrescence) to the mantle-skirt (roof
+  of the branchial chamber). It is rare for the gill-plume of a
+  Pectinibranch Gastropod to stand out freely as a plume, but
+  occasionally this more archaic condition is exhibited as in _Valvata_
+  (fig. 30). Next beyond (to the left of) the gill-plume we find the
+  so-called parabranchia, which is here simple, but sometimes lamellated
+  as in _Purpura_ (fig. 22). This organ has, without reason, been
+  supposed to represent the second ctenidium of the typical mollusc,
+  which it cannot do on account of its position. It should be to the
+  right of the anus were this the case. Spengel showed that the
+  parabranchia of Gastropods is the typical olfactory organ or
+  osphradium in a highly developed condition. The minute structure of
+  the epithelium which clothes it, as well as the origin of the nerve
+  which is distributed to the parabranchia, proves it to be the same
+  organ which is found universally in molluscs at the base of each
+  gill-plume, and tests the indrawn current of water by the sense of
+  smell. The nerve to this organ is given off from the superior
+  (original right, see fig. 3) visceral ganglion.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Female of _Purpura lapillus_ removed from its
+  shell; the mantle-skirt cut along its left line of attachment and
+  thrown over to the right side of the animal so as to expose the organs
+  on its inner face.
+
+    a, Anus.
+    vg, Vagina.
+    gp, Adrectal purpuriparous gland.
+    r', Aperture of the nephridium (kidney).
+    br, Ctenidium (branchial plume).
+    br', Parabranchia (= the comb-like osphradium or olfactory organ).]
+
+  The figures which are given here of various Pectinibranchia are in
+  most cases sufficiently explained by the references attached to them.
+  As an excellent general type of the nervous system, attention may be
+  directed to that of _Paludina_ drawn in fig. 21. On the whole the
+  ganglia are strongly individualized in the Pectinibranchia, nerve-cell
+  tissue being concentrated in the ganglia and absent from the cords. At
+  the same time, the junction of the visceral loop above the intestine
+  prevents in all Streptoneura the shortening of the visceral loop, and
+  it is rare to find a fusion of the visceral ganglia with either
+  pleural, pedal or cerebral--a fusion which can and does take place
+  where the visceral loop is not above but below the intestine, e.g. in
+  the Euthyneura (fig. 48), Cephalopoda and Lamellibranchia. As
+  contrasted with the Aspidobranchia, we find that in the
+  Pectinibranchia the pedal nerves are distinctly nerves given off from
+  the pedal ganglia, rather than cord-like nerve-tracts containing both
+  nerve-cells or ganglionic elements and nerve-fibres. Yet in some
+  Pectinibranchia (_Paludina_) a ladder-like arrangement of the two
+  pedal nerves and their lateral branches has been detected. The
+  histology of the nervous system of Mollusca has yet to be seriously
+  inquired into.
+
+  The alimentary canal of the Pectinibranchia presents little diversity
+  of character, except in so far as the buccal region is concerned.
+  Salivary glands are present, and in some carnivorous forms (_Dolium_)
+  these secrete free sulphuric acid (as much as 2% is present in the
+  secretion), which assists the animal in boring holes by means of its
+  rasping tongue through the shells of other molluscs upon which it
+  preys. A crop-like dilatation of the gut and a recurved intestine,
+  embedded in the compact yellowish-brown liver, the ducts of which open
+  into it, form the rest of the digestive tract and occupy a large bulk
+  of the visceral hump. The buccal region presents a pair of shelly jaws
+  placed laterally upon the lips, and a wide range of variation in the
+  form of the denticles of the lingual ribbon or radula.
+
+  Well-developed glandular invaginations occur in different positions on
+  the foot in Pectinibranchia. The most important of these opens by the
+  ventral pedal pore, situated in the median line in the anterior half
+  of the foot. This organ is probably homologous with the byssogenous
+  gland of Lamellibranchs. The aperture, which was formerly supposed to
+  be an aquiferous pore, leads into an extensive and often ramified
+  cavity surrounded by glandular tubules. The gland has been found in
+  both sub-orders of the Pectinibranchia, in _Cyclostoma_ and _Cypraea_
+  among the Taenioglossa, in _Hemifusus, Cassis, Nassa, Murex,
+  Fasciolariidae, Turbinellidae, Olividae, Marginellidae_ and _Conidae_
+  among the Stenoglossa. It was discovered by J.T. Cunningham that in
+  _Buccinum_ the egg-capsules are formed by this pedal gland and not by
+  any accessory organ of the generative system. Such horny egg-capsules
+  doubtless have the same origin in all other species in which they
+  occur, e.g. _Fusus, Pyrula, Purpura, Murex, Nassa, Trophon, Voluta_,
+  &c. The float of the pelagic _Janthina_, to which the egg-capsules are
+  attached, probably is also formed by the secretion of the pedal gland.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--A, _Triton variegatum_, to show the proboscis
+  or buccal introvert (e) in a state of eversion.
+
+    a, Siphonal notch of the shell occupied by the siphonal fold of the
+      mantle-skirt (Siphonochlamyda).
+    b, Edge of the mantle-skirt resting on the shell.
+    c, Cephalic eye.
+    d, Cephalic tentacle.
+    e, Everted buccal introvert (proboscis).
+    f, Foot.
+    g, Operculum.
+    h, Penis.
+    i, Under surface of the mantle-skirt forming the roof of the
+      sub-pallial chamber.
+    B, Sole of the foot of _Pyrula tuba_, to show a, the pore usually
+      said to be "aquiferous" but probably the orifice of a gland; b,
+      median line of foot.]
+
+  Other glands opening on or near the foot are: (1) The suprapedal gland
+  opening in the middle line between the snout and the anterior border
+  of the foot. It is most commonly found in sessile forms and in
+  terrestrial genera such as _Cyclostoma_; (2) the anterior pedal gland
+  opening into the anterior groove of the foot, generally present in
+  aquatic species; (3) dorsal posterior mucous glands in certain
+  _Cyclostomatidae_.
+
+  The foot of the Pectinibranchia, unlike the simple muscular disk of
+  the Isopleura and Aspidobranchia, is very often divided into lobes, a
+  fore, middle and hind lobe (pro-, meso- and meta-podium, see figs. 24
+  and 25). Very usually, but not universally, the metapodium carries an
+  operculum. The division of the foot into lobes is a simple case of
+  that much greater elaboration or breaking up into processes and
+  regions which it undergoes in the class Cephalopoda. Even among some
+  Gastropoda (viz. the Opisthobranchia) we find the lobation of the foot
+  still further carried out by the development of lateral lobes, the
+  parapodia, whilst there are many Pectinibranchia, on the other hand,
+  in which the foot has a simple oblong form without any trace of lobes.
+
+  The development of the Pectinibranchia has been followed in several
+  examples, e.g. _Paludina, Purpura, Nassa, Vermetus, Neritina_. As in
+  other Molluscan groups, we find a wide variation in the early process
+  of the formation of the first embryonic cells, and their arrangement
+  as a diblastula, dependent on the greater or less amount of food-yolk
+  which is present in the egg-cell when it commences its embryonic
+  changes. In fig. 26 the early stages of _Paludina vivipara_ are
+  represented. There is but very little food-material in the egg of this
+  Pectinibranch, and consequently the diblastula forms by invagination;
+  the blastopore or orifice of invagination coincides with the anus, and
+  never closes entirely. A well-marked trochosphere is formed by the
+  development of an equatorial ciliated band; and subsequently, by the
+  disproportionate growth of the lower hemisphere, the trochosphere
+  becomes a veliger. The primitive shell-sac or shell-gland is well
+  marked at this stage, and the pharynx is seen as a new ingrowth (the
+  stomodaeum), about to fuse with and open into the primitively
+  invaginated arch-enteron (fig. 26, F).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Animal and shell of _Phorus exutus_.
+
+    a, Snout (not introversible).
+    b, Cephalic tentacles.
+    c, Right eye.
+    d, Pro- and meso-podium; to the right of this is seen the metapodium
+      bearing the sculptured operculum.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Animal and shell of _Rostellaria
+  rectirostris_. (From Owen.)
+
+    a, Snout or rostrum.
+    b, Cephalic tentacle.
+    c, Eye.
+    d, Propodium and mesopodium.
+    e, Metapodium.
+    f, Operculum.
+    h', Prolonged siphonal notch of the shell occupied by the siphon, or
+      trough-like process of the mantle-skirt.]
+
+  In other Pectinibranchia (and such variations are representative for
+  all Mollusca, and not characteristic only of Pectinibranchia) we find
+  that there is a very unequal division of the egg-cell at the
+  commencement of embryonic development, as in _Nassa_. Consequently
+  there is, strictly speaking, no invagination (emboly), but an
+  overgrowth (epiboly) of the smaller cells to enclose the larger. The
+  general features of this process and of the relation of the blastopore
+  to mouth and anus have been explained in treating of the development
+  of Mollusca generally. In such cases the blastopore may entirely
+  close, and both mouth and anus develop as new ingrowths (stomodaeum
+  and proctodaeum), whilst, according to the observations of N.
+  Bobretzky, the closed blastopore may coincide in position with the
+  mouth in some instances (_Nassa_, &c.), instead of with the anus. But
+  in these epibolic forms, just as in the embolic _Paludina_, the embryo
+  proceeds to develop its ciliated band and shell-gland, passing through
+  the earlier condition of a trochosphere to that of the veliger. In the
+  veliger stage many Pectinibranchia (_Purpura, Nassa_, &c.) exhibit, in
+  the dorsal region behind the head, a contractile area of the
+  body-wall. This acts as a larval heart, but ceases to pulsate after a
+  time. Similar rhythmically contractile areas are found on the foot of
+  the embryo Pulmonate _Limax_ and on the yolk-sac (distended
+  foot-surface) of the Cephalopod _Loligo_. The preconchylian
+  invagination or shell-gland is formed in the embryo behind the velum,
+  on the surface opposite the blastopore. It is surrounded by a ridge of
+  cells which gradually extends over the visceral sac and secretes the
+  shell. In forms which are naked in the adult state, the shell falls
+  off soon after the reduction of the velum, but in _Cenia, Runcina_ and
+  _Vaginula_ the shell-gland and shell are not developed, and the young
+  animal when hatched has already the naked form of the adult.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Development of the River-Snail, _Paludina
+  vivipara_. (After Lankester, 17.)
+
+    dc, Directive corpuscle (outcast cell).
+    ae, Arch-enteron or cavity lined by the enteric cell-layer or
+      endoderm.
+    bl, Blastopore.
+    vr, Velum or circlet of ciliated cells.
+    dv, Velar area or cephalic dome.
+    sm, Site of the as yet unformed mouth.
+    f, Foot.
+    mes, Rudiments of the skeleto-trophic tissues.
+    pi, The pedicle of invagination, the future rectum.
+    shgl, The primitive shell-sac or shell-gland.
+    m, Mouth.
+    an, Anus.
+    A, Diblastula phase (optical section).
+    B, The diblastula has become a trochosphere by the development of
+      the ciliated ring vr (optical section).
+    C, Side view of the trochosphere with commencing formation of the
+      foot.
+    D, Further advanced trochosphere (optical section).
+    E, The trochosphere passing to the veliger stage, dorsal view
+      showing the formation of the primitive shell-sac.
+    F, Side view of the same, showing foot, shell-sac (shgl), velum
+      (vr), mouth and anus.
+    N.B.--In this development the blastopore is not elongated; it
+      persists as the anus. The mouth and stomodaeum form independently
+      of the blastopore.]
+
+  One further feature of the development of the Pectinibranchia deserves
+  special mention. Many Gastropoda deposit their eggs, after
+  fertilization, enclosed in capsules; others, as _Paludina_, are
+  viviparous; others, again, as the Zygobranchia, agree with the
+  Lamellibranch Conchifera (the bivalves) in having simple exits for the
+  ova without glandular walls, and therefore discharge their eggs
+  unenclosed in capsules freely into the sea-water; such unencapsuled
+  eggs are merely enclosed each in its own delicate chorion. When
+  egg-capsules are formed they are often of large size, have tough
+  walls, and in each capsule are several eggs floating in a viscid
+  fluid. In some cases all the eggs in a capsule develop; in other cases
+  one egg only in a capsule (_Neritina_), or a small proportion
+  (_Purpura, Buccinum_), advance in development; the rest are arrested
+  either after the first process of cell-division (cleavage) or before
+  that process. The arrested embryos or eggs are then swallowed and
+  digested by those in the same capsule which have advanced in
+  development. This is clearly the same process in essence as that of
+  the formation of a vitellogenous gland from part of the primitive
+  ovary, or of the feeding of an ovarian egg by the absorption of
+  neighbouring potential eggs; but here the period at which the
+  sacrifice of one egg to another takes place is somewhat late. What it
+  is that determines the arrest of some eggs and the progressive
+  development of others in the same capsule is at present unknown.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--_Oxygyrus Keraudrenii_. (From Owen.)
+
+    a, Mouth and odontophore.
+    b, Cephalic tentacles.
+    c, Eye.
+    d, Propodium (B) and mesopodium.
+    e, Metapodium.
+    f, Operculum.
+    h, Mantle-chamber.
+    i, Ctenidium (gill-plume).
+    k, Retractor muscle of foot.
+    l, Optic tentacle.
+    m, Stomach.
+    n, Dorsal surface overhung by the mantle-skirt; the letter is close
+      to the salivary gland.
+    o, Rectum and anus.
+    p, Liver.
+    q, Renal organ (nephridium).
+    s, Ventricle.
+    u, The otocyst attached to the cerebral ganglion.
+    w, Testis.
+    x, Auricle of the heart.
+    y, Vesicle on genital duct.
+    z, Penis.]
+
+  In the tribe of Pectinibranchia called Heteropoda the foot takes the
+  form of a swimming organ. The nervous system and sense organs are
+  highly developed. The odontophore also is remarkably developed, its
+  lateral teeth being mobile, and it serves as an efficient organ for
+  attacking the other pelagic forms on which the Heteropoda prey. The
+  sexes are distinct, as in all Streptoneura; and genital ducts and
+  accessory glands and pouches are present, as in all Pectinibranchia.
+  The Heteropoda exhibit a series of modifications in the form and
+  proportions of the visceral mass and foot, leading from a condition
+  readily comparable with that of a typical Pectinibranch such as
+  _Rostellaria_, with the three regions of the foot strongly marked and
+  a coiled visceral hump of the usual proportions, up to a condition in
+  which the whole body is of a tapering cylindrical shape, the foot a
+  plate-like vertical fin, and the visceral hump almost completely
+  atrophied. Three steps of this modification may be distinguished as
+  three families:--_Atlantidae, Carinariidae_ and _Pterotrachaeidae_.
+  They are true Pectinibranchia which have taken to a pelagic life, and
+  the peculiarities of structure which they exhibit are strictly
+  adaptations consequent upon their changed mode of life. Such
+  adaptations are the transparency and colourlessness of the tissues,
+  and the modifications of the foot, which still shows in _Atlanta_ the
+  form common in Pectinibranchia (compare fig. 27 and fig. 24). The
+  cylindrical body of _Pterotrachaea_ is paralleled by the slug-like
+  forms of Euthyneura. J.W. Spengel has shown that the visceral loop of
+  the Heteropoda is streptoneurous. Special to the Heteropoda is the
+  high elaboration of the lingual ribbon, and, as an agreement with some
+  of the opisthobranchiate Euthyneura, but as a difference from the
+  Pectinibranchia, we find the otocysts closely attached to the cerebral
+  ganglia. This is, however, less of a difference than it was at one
+  time supposed to be, for it has been shown by H. Lacaze-Duthiers, and
+  also by F. Leydig, that the otocysts of Pectinibranchia even when
+  lying close upon the pedal ganglion (as in fig. 21) yet receive their
+  special nerve (which can sometimes be readily isolated) from the
+  cerebral ganglion (see fig. 11). Accordingly the difference is one of
+  position of the otocyst and not of its nerve-supply. The Heteropoda
+  are further remarkable for the high development of their cephalic
+  eyes, and for the typical character of their osphradium (Spengel's
+  olfactory organ). This is a groove, the edges of which are raised and
+  ciliated, lying near the branchial plume in the genera which possess
+  that organ, whilst in _Firoloida_, which has no branchial plume, the
+  osphradium occupies a corresponding position. Beneath the ciliated
+  groove is placed an elongated ganglion (olfactory ganglion) connected
+  by a nerve to the supra-intestinal (therefore the primitively dextral)
+  ganglion of the long visceral nerve-loop, the strands of which cross
+  one another--this being characteristic of Streptoneura (Spengel).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--_Carinaria mediterranea_. (From Owen.)
+
+    A, The animal. B, The shell removed. C, D, Two views of the shell of
+      _Cardiopoda_.
+    a, Mouth and odontophore.
+    b, Cephalic tentacles.
+    c, Eye.
+    d, The fin-like mesopodium.
+    d', Its sucker.
+    e, Metapodium.
+    f, Salivary glands.
+    h, Border of the mantle-flap.
+    i, Ctenidium (gill-plume).
+    m, Stomach.
+    n, Intestine.
+    o, Anus.
+    p, Liver.
+    t, Aorta, springing from the ventricle.
+    u, Cerebral ganglion.
+    v, Pleural and pedal ganglion.
+    w, Testis.
+    x, Visceral ganglion.
+    y, Vesicula seminalis.
+    z, Penis.]
+
+  The Heteropoda belong to the "pelagic fauna" occurring near the
+  surface in the Mediterranean and great oceans in company with the
+  Pteropoda, the Siphonophorous Hydrozoa, Salpae, Leptocephali, and
+  other specially-modified transparent swimming representatives of
+  various groups of the animal kingdom. In development they pass through
+  the typical trochosphere and veliger stages provided with boat-like
+  shell.
+
+  Sub-order 1.--TAENIOGLOSSA. Radula with a median tooth and three teeth
+  on each side of it. Formula 3 : 1 : 3.
+
+  Tribe 1.--PLATYPODA. Normal Taenioglossa of creeping habit. The foot
+  is flattened ventrally, at all events in its anterior part
+  (_Strombidae_). Otocysts situated close to the pedal nerve-centres.
+  Accessory organs are rarely found on the genital ducts, but occur in
+  _Paludina, Cyclostoma, Naticidae, Calyptraeidae_, &c. Mandibles
+  usually present. This is the largest group of Mollusca, including
+  nearly sixty families, some of which are insufficiently known from the
+  anatomical point of view.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Paludinidae_. Pedal centres in the form of ganglionated
+    cords; kidney provided with a ureter; viviparous; fluviatile.
+    _Paludina_. _Neothauma_, from Lake Tanganyika. _Tylopoma_, extinct,
+    Tertiary.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--_Pterotrachea mutica_ seen from the right
+  side. (After Keferstein.)
+
+    a, Pouch for reception of the snout when retracted.
+    c, Pericardium.
+    ph, Pharynx.
+    oc, Cephalic eye.
+    g, Cerebral ganglion.
+    g', Pleuro-pedal ganglion.
+    pr, Foot (mesopodium).
+    v, Stomach.
+    i, Intestine.
+    n, So-called nucleus.
+    br, Branchial plume (ctenidium).
+    w, Osphradium.
+    mt, Foot (metapodium).
+    z, Caudal appendage.]
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Cyclophoridae_. No ctenidium, pallial cavity transformed
+    into a lung; aperture of shell circular; terrestrial. _Pomatias_,
+    shell turriculated. _Diplommatina. Hybocystis. Cyclophorus_, shell
+    umbilicated, with a short spire and horny operculum. Cyclosurus,
+    shell uncoiled. _Dermatocera_, foot with a horn-shaped protuberance
+    at its posterior end. Spiraculum.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Ampullariidae_. To the left of the ctenidium a pulmonary
+    sac, separated from it by an incomplete septum, amphibious.
+    _Ampullaria_, shell dextral, coiled. _Lanistes_, shell sinistral,
+    spire short or obsolete. _Meladomus._
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Littorinidae._ Oesophageal pouches present; pedal
+    nerve-centres concentrated; a pedal penis near the right tentacle.
+    _Littorina_, shell not umbilicated, littoral habit. _Lacuna_, foot
+    with two posterior appendages, marine, entirely aquatic.
+    _Cremnoconchus_, entirely aerial, Indian. _Risella. Tectarius._
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Fossaridae._ Head with two lobes in some Rhipidoglossa.
+    _Fossaria._
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Purpurinidae_, extinct.
+
+    Fam. 7.--_Planaxidae._ Shell with pointed spire; a short pallial
+    siphon. Planaxis.
+
+    Fam. 8.--_Cyclostomatidae._ Pallial cavity transformed into a lung;
+    pedal centres concentrated; a deep pedal groove. _Cyclostoma_, shell
+    turbinated, operculum calcareous, British. _Omphalotropis._
+
+    Fam. 9.--_Aciculidae._ Pallial cavity transformed into a lung;
+    operculum horny; shell narrow and elongated. _Acicula._
+
+    Fam. 10.--_Valvatidae._ Ctenidium bipectinate, free; hermaphrodite;
+    fluviatile. _Valvata_, British.
+
+    Fam. 11.--_Rissoidae._ Epipodial filaments present; one or two
+    pallial tentacles. _Rissoa. Rissoina. Stiva._
+
+    Fam. 12.--_Litiopidae._ An epipodium bearing three pairs of
+    tentacles and an operculigerous lobe with two appendages;
+    inhabitants of the Sargasso weed. _Litiopa._
+
+    Fam. 13.--_Adeorbiidae._ Mantle with two posterior appendages;
+    ctenidium large and capable of protrusion from pallial cavity.
+    _Adeorbis_, British.
+
+    Fam. 14.--_Jeffreysiidae._ Head with two long labial palps; shell
+    ovoid; operculum horny, semicircular, carinated. _Jeffreysia._
+
+    Fam. 15.--_Homalogyridae._ Shell flattened; no cephalic tentacles.
+    _Homalogyra_, British. _Ammoniceras._
+
+    Fam. 16.--_Skeneidae._ Shell depressed, with rounded aperture;
+    cephalic tentacles long. _Skenea_, British.
+
+    Fam. 17.--_Choristidae._ Shell spiral; four cephalic tentacles; eyes
+    absent; two pedal appendages. _Choristes._
+
+    Fam. 18.--_Assimineidae._ Eyes at free extremities of tentacles.
+    Assiminea, estuarine, British.
+
+    Fam. 19.--_Truncatellidae._ Snout very long, bilobed; foot short.
+    _Truncatella._
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 30.--_Valvata cristata_, Mull.
+
+    o, Mouth.
+    op, Operculum.
+    br, Ctenidium (branchial plume).
+    x, Filiform appendage (? rudimentary ctenidium).
+
+    The freely projecting ctenidium of typical form not having its axis
+      fused to the roof of the branchial chamber is the notable
+      character of this genus.]
+
+    Fam. 20.--_Hydrobiidae._ Shell with prominent spire; penis distant
+    from right tentacle, generally appendiculated; brackish water or
+    fluviatile. _Hydrobia_, British. _Baikalia_, from Lake Baikal.
+    _Pomatiopsis. Bithynella. Lithoglyphus. Spekia_, viviparous, from
+    Lake Tanganyika. _Tanganyicia. Limnotrochus_, from Lake Tanganyika.
+    _Chytra. Littorinida. Bithynia_, British, fluviatile. _Stenothyra._
+
+    Fam. 21.--_Melaniidae._ Spire of shell somewhat elongated;
+    mantle-border fringed; viviparous; fluviatile. _Melania. Faunus.
+    Paludomus. Melanopsis. Nassopsis. Bythoceras_, from Lake
+    Tanganyika.
+
+    Fam. 22.--_Typhobiidae._ Foot wide; shell turriculated, with
+    carinated whorls, the carinae tuberculated or spiny. _Typhobia.
+    Bathanalia_, from Lake Tanganyika.
+
+    Fam. 23.--_Pleuroceridae._ Like _Melaniidae_, but mantle-border not
+    fringed and reproduction oviparous. _Pleurocera. Anculotus._
+
+    Fam. 24.--_Pseudomelaniidae._ All extinct.
+
+    Fam. 25.--_Subulitidae._ All extinct.
+
+    Fam. 26.--_Nerineidae._ All extinct.
+
+    Fam. 27.--_Cerithiidae._ Shell with numerous tuberculated whorls;
+    aperture canaliculated anteriorly; short pallial siphon. _Cerithium.
+    Bittium. Potamides. Triforis. Laeocochlis. Cerithiopsis._
+
+    Fam. 28.--_Modulidae._ Shell with short spire; no siphon.
+    _Modulus._
+
+    Fam. 29.--_Vermetidae._ Animal fixed by the shell, the last whorls
+    of which are not in contact with each other; foot small; two
+    anterior pedal tentacles. _Vermetus. Siliquaria._
+
+    Fam. 30.--_Caecidae._ Shell almost completely uncoiled, in one
+    plane, with internal septa. _Caecum_, British.
+
+    Fam. 31.--_Turritellidae._ Shell very long; head large; foot broad.
+    _Turritella_, British. _Mesalia. Mathilda._
+
+    Fam. 32.--_Struthiolariidae._ Shell conical; aperture slightly
+    canaliculated; siphon slightly developed. _Struthiolaria._
+
+    Fam. 33.--_Chenopodidae._ Shell elongated; aperture expanded; siphon
+    very short. _Chenopus_, British. _Alaria, Spinigera, Diartema_,
+    extinct.
+
+    Fam. 34.--_Strombidae._ Foot narrow, compressed, without sole.
+    _Strombus. Pteroceras. Rostellaria. Terebellum._
+
+    Fam. 35.--_Xenophoridae._ Foot transversely divided into two parts.
+    _Xenophorus. Eotrochus_, Silurian.
+
+    Fam. 36.--_Capulidae._ Shell conical, not coiled, but slightly
+    incurved posteriorly; a tongue-shaped projection between snout and
+    foot. _Capulus. Thyca_, parasitic on asterids. _Platyceras_,
+    extinct.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 31.--Shell of _Crucibulum_, seen from below so as
+  to show the inner whorl b, concealed by the cap-like outer whorl a.]
+
+    Fam. 37.--_Hipponycidae._ Shell conical; foot secreting a ventral
+    calcareous plate; animal fixed. _Hipponyx. Mitrularia._
+
+    Fam. 38.--_Calyptraeidae._ Shell with short spire; lateral cervical
+    lobes present; accessory genital glands. _Calyptraea_, British.
+    _Crepidula. Crucibulum._
+
+    Fam. 39.--_Naricidae._ Foot divided into two, posterior half bearing
+    the operculum; a wide epipodial velum; shell turbinated. Narica.
+
+    Fam. 40.--_Naticidae._ Foot large, with aquiferous system; propodium
+    reflected over head; eyes degenerate; burrowing habit. _Natica_,
+    British. _Amaura. Sigaretus._
+
+    Fam. 41.--_Lamellariidae._ Shell thin, more or less covered by the
+    mantle; no operculum. _Lamellaria. Velutina. Marsenina_,
+    _Oncidiopsis_, hermaphrodite.
+
+    Fam. 42.--_Trichotropidae._ Shell with short spire, carinate and
+    pointed. _Trichotropis._
+
+    Fam. 43.--_Seguenziidae._ Shell trochiform, with canaliculated
+    aperture and twisted columella. _Seguenzia_, abyssal.
+
+    Fam. 44.--_Janthinidae._ Shell thin; operculum absent; tentacles
+    bifid; foot secretes a float; pelagic. _Janthina. Recluzia._
+
+    Fam. 45.--_Cypraeidae._ Shell inrolled, solid, polished, aperture
+    very narrow in adult; short siphon; anus posterior; osphradium with
+    three lobes; mantle reflected over shell. _Cypraea. Pustularia.
+    Ovula. Pedicularia_, attached to corals. _Erato_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Animal and shell of _Ovula_.
+
+    b, Cephalic tentacles.
+    d, Foot.
+    h, Mantle-skirt, which is naturally carried in a reflected condition
+      so as to cover the sides of the shell.]
+
+    Fam. 46.--_Tritonidae._ Shell turriculated and siphonated, thick,
+    each whorl with varices; foot broad and truncated anteriorly;
+    pallial siphon well developed; proboscis present. _Triton. Persona._
+    _Ranella._
+
+    Fam. 47.--_Columbellinidae._ All extinct.
+
+    Fam. 48.--_Cassididae._ Shell ventricose, with elongated aperture,
+    and short spire; proboscis and siphon long; operculum with marginal
+    nucleus. _Cassis. Cassidaria. Oniscia._
+
+    Fam. 49--_Oocorythidae._ Shell globular and ventricose; aperture
+    oval and canaliculated; operculum spiral. _Oocorys_, abyssal.
+
+    Fam. 50.--_Doliidae._ Shell ventricose, with short spire, and wide
+    aperture; no varices and no operculum; foot very broad, with
+    projecting anterior angles; siphon long. _Dolium. Pyrula._
+
+    Fam. 51.--_Solariidae. Solarium. Torinia. Fluxina._
+
+    Fam. 52.--_Scalariidae._ Shell turriculated, with elongated spire;
+    proboscis short; siphon rudimentary. _Scalaria. Eglisia._ Crossea.
+    Aclis.
+
+  The three following families have neither radula nor jaws, and are
+  therefore called _Aglossa_. They have a well-developed proboscis which
+  is used as a suctorial organ; some are abyssal, but the majority are
+  either commensals or parasites of Echinoderms.
+
+    Fam. 53.--_Pyramidellidae._ Summit of spire heterostrophic; a
+    projection, the mentum, between head and foot; operculum present.
+    _Pyramidella. Turbonilla. Odostomia_, British. _Myxa._
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Section of the shell of _Triton_, Cuv. (From
+  Owen.)
+
+    a, Apex.
+    ac, Siphonal notch of the mouth of the shell.
+    ac to pc, Mouth of the shell.
+    w, w, Whorls of the shell.
+    s, s. Sutures.
+
+    Occupying the axis, and exposed by the section, is seen the
+      "columella" or spiral pillar. The upper whorls of the shell are
+      seen to be divided into separate chambers by the formation of
+      successively formed "septa."]
+
+    Fam. 54.--_Eulimidae._ Visceral mass still coiled spirally; shell
+    thin and shining. _Eulima_, foot well developed, with an operculum,
+    animal usually free, but some live in the digestive cavity of
+    Holothurians. _Mucronalia_, foot reduced, but still operculate, eyes
+    present, animal fixed by its very long proboscis which is deeply
+    buried in the tissues of an Echinoderm, no pseudopallium.
+    _Stylifer_, the operculum is lost, animal fixed by a large proboscis
+    which forms a pseudopallium covering the whole shell except the
+    extremity of the spire, parasitic on all groups of Echinoderms.
+    _Entosiphon_, visceral mass still coiled; shell much reduced,
+    proboscis very long forming a pseudopallium which covers the whole
+    body and projects beyond in the form of a siphon, foot and nervous
+    system present, eyes, branchia and anus absent, parasite in the
+    Holothurian _Deima blakei_ in the Indian Ocean.
+
+    Fam. 55.--_Entoconchidae._ No shell; visceral mass not coiled; no
+    sensory organs, nervous system, branchia or anus; body reduced to a
+    more or less tubular sac; hermaphrodite and viviparous; parasitic in
+    Holothurians; larvae are veligers, with shell and operculum.
+    _Entocolax_, mouth at free extremity, animal fixed by aboral orifice
+    of pseudopallium, Pacific. _Entoconcha_, body elongated and tubular,
+    animal fixed by the oral extremity, protandric hermaphrodite,
+    parasitic in testes of Holothurians causing their abortion.
+    _Enteroxenos_, no pseudopallium and no intestine, hermaphrodite,
+    larvae with operculum.
+
+  Tribe 2.--HETEROPODA. Pelagic Taenioglossa with foot large and
+  laterally compressed to form a fin.
+
+    Fam. 1. _Atlantidae._ Visceral sac and shell coiled in one plane;
+    foot divided transversely into two parts, posterior part bearing an
+    operculum, anterior part forming a fin provided with a sucker.
+    _Atlanta. Oxygyrus._
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Carinariidae._ Visceral sac and shell small in proportion
+    to the rest of the body, which cannot be withdrawn into the shell;
+    foot elongated, fin-shaped, with sucker, but without operculum.
+    _Carinaria. Cardiopoda._
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Pterotrachaeidae._ Visceral sac very much reduced; without
+    shell or mantle; anus posterior; foot provided with sucker in male
+    only. _Pterotrachaea. Firoloida. Pterosoma._
+
+  Sub-order 2.--STENOGLOSSA. Radula narrow with one lateral tooth on
+  each side, and one median tooth or none.
+
+  Tribe 1.--RACHIGLOSSA. Radula with a median tooth and a single tooth
+  on each side of it. Formula 1 : 1 : 1. Rudimentary jaws present.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Female _Janthina_, with egg-float (a)
+  attached to the foot; b, egg-capsules; c, ctenidium (gill-plume); d,
+  cephalic tentacles.]
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Turbinellidae._ Shell solid, piriform, with thick folded
+    columella; lateral teeth of radula bicuspidate. _Turbinella.
+    Cynodonta. Fulgur. Hemifusus. Tudicla. Strepsidura._
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Fasciolariidae._ Shell elongated, with long siphon;
+    lateral teeth of radula multicuspidate. _Fasciolaria. Fusus.
+    Clavella. Latirus._
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Mitridae._ Shell fusiform and solid, aperture elongated,
+    columella folded; no operculum; eyes on sides of tentacles. _Mitra.
+    Turricula. Cylindromitra. Imbricaria._
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Buccinidae._ Foot large and broad; eyes at base of
+    tentacles; operculum horny. _Buccinum. Chrysodomus. Liomesus.
+    Cominella. Tritonidea. Pisania. Euthria. Phos. Dipsacus._
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Nassidae._ Foot broad, with two slender posterior
+    appendages; operculum unguiculate. _Nassa_, marine, British.
+    _Canidia_, fluviatile. _Bullia._
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Muricidae._ Shell with moderately long spire and canal,
+    ornamented with ribs, often spiny; foot truncated anteriorly.
+    _Murex_, British. _Trophon_, British. _Typhis. Urosalpinx.
+    Lachesis._
+
+    Fam. 7.--_Purpuridae._ Shell thick, with short spire, last whorl
+    large and canal short; aperture wide; operculum horny. _Purpura_,
+    British. _Rapana. Monoceros. Sistrum. Concholepas._
+
+    Fam. 8.--_Haliidae._ Shell ventricose, thin and smooth, with wide
+    aperture; foot large and thick, without operculum. _Halia._
+
+    Fam. 9.--_Cancellariidae._ Shell ovoid, with short spire and folded
+    columella; foot small, no operculum; siphon short. _Cancellaria._
+
+    Fam. 10.--_Columbellidae._ Spire of shell prominent, aperture
+    narrow, canal very short, columella crenelated; foot large.
+    _Columbella._
+
+    Fam. 11.--_Coralliophilidae._ Shell irregular; radula absent; foot
+    and siphon short; sedentary animals, living in corals.
+    _Coralliophila. Rhizochilus. Leptoconchus. Magilus. Rapa._
+
+    Fam. 12.--_Volutidae._ Head much flattened and wide, with eyes on
+    sides; foot broad; siphon with internal appendages. _Valuta.
+    Guivillea. Cymba._
+
+    Fam. 13.--_Olividae._ Foot with anterior transverse groove; a
+    posterior pallial tentacle; generally burrowing. _Olivia. Olivella.
+    Ancillaria. Agaronia._
+
+    Fam. 14.--_Marginellidae._ Foot very large; mantle reflected over
+    shell. _Marginella. Pseudomarginella._
+
+    Fam. 15.--_Harpidae._ Foot very large; without operculum; shell with
+    short spire and longitudinal ribs; siphon long. _Harpa._
+
+  Tribe 2.--TOXIGLOSSA. No jaws. No median tooth in radula. Formula: 1 :
+  0 : 1. Poison-gland present whose duct traverses the nerve-collar.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Pleurotomatidae._ Shell fusiform, with elongated spire;
+    margin of shell and mantle notched. _Pleurotoma. Clavatula.
+    Mangilia. Bela. Pusionella. Pontiothauma._
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Terebridae._ Shell turriculated, with numerous whorls;
+    aperture and operculum oval; eyes at summits of tentacles; siphon
+    long. _Terebra._
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Conidae._ Shell conical, with very short spire, and narrow
+    aperture with parallel borders; operculum unguiform _Conus._
+
+
+Sub-Class II.--EUTHYNEURA
+
+The most important general character of the Euthyneura is the absence of
+torsion in the visceral commissure, and the more posterior position of
+the anus and pallial organs. Comparative anatomy and embryology prove
+that this condition is due, not as formerly supposed to a difference in
+the relations of the visceral commissure which prevented it from being
+included in the torsion of the visceral hump, but to an actual detorsion
+which has taken place in evolution and is repeated to a great extent in
+individual development. In several of the more primitive forms the same
+torsion occurs as in Streptoneura, viz. in _Actaeon_ and _Limacina_
+among Opisthobranchia, and _Chilina_ among Pulmonata. _Actaeon_ is
+proso-branchiate, the visceral commissure is twisted in _Actaeon_ and
+_Chilina_, and even slightly still in _Bulla_ and _Scaphander_; in
+_Actaeon_ and _Limacina_ the osphradium is to the left, innervated by
+the supra-intestinal ganglion. But in the other members of the sub-class
+the detorsion of the visceral mass has carried back the anus and
+circumanal complex from the anterior dorsal region to the right side, as
+in _Bulla_ and _Aplysia_, or even to the posterior end of the body, as
+in _Philine, Oncidium, Doris_, &c. Different degrees of the same
+process of detorsion are, as we have seen, exhibited by the Heteropoda
+among the Streptoneura, and both in them and in the Euthyneura the
+detorsion is associated with degeneration of the shell. Where the
+modification is carried to its extreme degree, not only the shell but
+the pallial cavity, ctenidium and visceral hump disappear, and the body
+acquires a simple elongated form and a secondary external symmetry, as
+in _Pterotrachaea_ and in _Doris, Eolis_, and other Nudibranchia. These
+facts afford strong support to the hypothesis that the weight of the
+shell is the original cause of the torsion of the dorsal visceral mass
+in Gastropods. But this hypothesis leaves the elevation of the visceral
+mass and the exogastric coiling of the shell in the ancestral form
+unexplained. In those Euthyneura in which the shell is entirely absent
+in the adult, it is, except in the three genera _Cenia, Runcina_ and
+_Vaginula_, developed in the larva and then falls off. In other cases
+(Tectibranchs) the reduced shell is enclosed by upgrowths of the edge of
+the mantle and becomes internal, as in many Cephalopods. A few
+Euthyneura in which the shell is not much reduced retain an operculum in
+the adult state, e.g. _Actaeon, Limacina_, and the marine Pulmonate,
+_Amphibola_. The detorted visceral commissure shows a tendency to the
+concentration of all its elements round the oesophagus, so that except
+in the Bullomorpha and in _Aplysia_ the whole nervous system is
+aggregated in the cephalic region, either dorsally or ventrally. The
+radula has a number of uniform teeth on each side of the median tooth in
+each transverse row. The head in most cases bears two pairs of
+tentacles. All the Euthyneura are hermaphrodite.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--_Acera bullata._ A single row of teeth of the
+Radula. (Formula, x.l.x.)]
+
+In the most primitive condition the genital duct is single throughout
+its length and has a single external aperture; it is therefore said to
+be monaulic. The hermaphrodite aperture is on the right side near the
+opening of the pallial cavity, and a ciliated groove conducts the
+spermatozoa to the penis, which is situated more anteriorly. This is the
+condition in the Bullomorpha, the Aplysiomorpha, and in one Pulmonate,
+_Pythia_. In some cases while the original aperture remains undivided,
+the seminal groove is closed and so converted into a canal. This is the
+modification found in _Cavolinia longirostris_ among the Bullomorpha,
+and in all the _Auriculidae_ except _Pythia_. A further degree of
+modification occurs when the male duct takes its origin from the
+hermaphrodite duct above the external opening, so that there are two
+distinct apertures, one male and one female, the latter being the
+original opening. The genital duct is now said to be diaulic, as in
+_Valvata, Oncidiopsis, Actaeon_, and _Lobiger_ among the Bullomorpha, in
+the _Pleurobranchidae_, in the Nudibranchia, except the Doridomorpha and
+most of the Elysiomorpha, and in the Pulmonata. Originally in this
+condition the female aperture is at some distance from the male, as in
+the Basommatophora and in other cases; but in some forms the female
+aperture itself has shifted and come to be contiguous with the male
+opening and penis as in the Stylommatophora. In all these cases the
+female duct bears a bursa copulatrix or receptaculum seminis. In some
+forms this receptacle acquires a separate external opening remaining
+connected with the oviduct internally. There are thus two female
+openings, one for copulation, the other for oviposition, as well as a
+male opening. The genital duct is now trifurcated or triaulic, a
+condition which is confined to certain Nudibranchs, viz. the
+Doridomorpha and most of the Elysiomorpha.
+
+The Pteropoda, formerly regarded as a distinct class of the Mollusca,
+were interpreted by E.R. Lankester as a branch of the Cephalopoda,
+chiefly on account of the protrusible sucker-bearing processes at the
+anterior end of _Pneumonoderma_. These he considered to be homologous
+with the arms of Cephalopods. He fully recognized, however, the
+similarity of Pteropods to Gastropods in their general asymmetry and in
+the torsion of the visceral mass in _Limacinidae_. It is now understood
+that they are Euthyneurous Gastropods adapted to natatory locomotion and
+pelagic life. The sucker-bearing processes of _Pneumonoderma_ are
+outgrowths of the proboscis. The fins of Pteropods are now interpreted
+as the expanded lateral margins of the foot, termed parapodia, not
+homologous with the siphon of Cephalopods which is formed from epipodia.
+The Thecosomatous Pteropoda are allied to _Bulla_, the Gymnosomatous
+forms to _Aplysia_. The Euthyneura comprises two orders, Opisthobranchia
+and Pulmonata.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 36.
+
+    A, Veliger-larva of an Opisthobranch (_Polycera_). f, Foot; op,
+    operculum; mn, anal papilla; ry, dry, two portions of unabsorbed
+    nutritive yolk on either side of the intestine. The right otocyst is
+    seen at the root of the foot.
+
+    B, Trochosphere of an Opisthobranch (_Pleurobranchidium_)
+    showing--shgr, the shell-gland or primitive shell-sac; v, the cilia
+    of the velum; ph, the commencing stomodaeum or oral invagination;
+    ot, the left otocyst; pg, red-coloured pigment spot.
+
+    C, Diblastula of an Opisthobranch (_Polycera_) with elongated
+    blastopore oi.
+
+    (All from Lankester.)]
+
+  Order 1.--OPISTHOBRANCHIA. Marine Euthyneura, the more archaic forms
+  of which have a relatively large foot and a small visceral hump, from
+  the base of which projects on the right side a short mantle-skirt. The
+  anus is placed in such forms far back beyond the mantle-skirt. In
+  front of the anus, and only partially covered by the mantle-skirt, is
+  the ctenidium with its free end turned backwards. The heart lies in
+  front of, instead of to the side of, the attachment of the
+  ctenidium--hence Opisthobranchia as opposed to "Prosobranchia," which
+  correspond to the Streptoneura. A shell is possessed in the adult
+  state by but few Opisthobranchia, but all pass through a veliger
+  larval stage with a nautiloid shell (fig. 36). Many Opisthobranchia
+  have by a process of atrophy lost the typical ctenidium and the
+  mantle-skirt, and have developed other organs in their place. As in
+  some Pectinibranchia, the free margin of the mantle-skirt is
+  frequently reflected over the shell when a shell exists; and, as in
+  some Pectinibranchia, broad lateral outgrowths of the foot (parapodia)
+  are often developed which may be thrown over the shell or naked dorsal
+  surface of the body.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 37.--_Phyllirhoe bucephala_, twice the natural
+  size, a transparent pisciform pelagic Opisthobranch. The internal
+  organs are shown as seen by transmitted light. (After W. Keferstein.)
+
+    a, Mouth.
+    b, Radular sac.
+    c, Oesophagus.
+    d, Stomach.
+    c', Intestine.
+    f', Anus.
+    g, g', g", g"', The four lobes of the liver.
+    h, The heart (auricle and ventricle).
+    l, The renal sac (nephridium).
+    l', The ciliated communication of the renal sac with the pericardium.
+    m, The external opening of the renal sac.
+    n, The cerebral ganglion.
+    o, The cephalic tentacles.
+    f, The genital pore.
+    y, The ovo-testes.
+    w, The parasitic hydromedusa Mnestra, usually found attached in this
+      position by the aboral pole of its umbrella.]
+
+  The variety of special developments of structure accompanying the
+  atrophy of typical organs in the Opisthobranchia and general
+  degeneration of organization is very great. The members of the order
+  present the same wide range of superficial appearance as do the
+  Pectinibranchiate Streptoneura, forms carrying well-developed spiral
+  shells and large mantle-skirts being included in the group, together
+  with flattened or cylindrical slug-like forms. But in respect of the
+  substitution of other parts for the mantle-skirt and for the gill
+  which the more degenerate Opisthobranchia exhibit, this order stands
+  alone. Some Opisthobranchia are striking examples of degeneration
+  (some Nudibranchia), having none of those regions or processes of the
+  body developed which distinguish the archaic Mollusca from such
+  flat-worms as the Dendrocoel Planarians. Indeed, were it not for
+  their retention of the characteristic odontophore we should have
+  little or no indication that such forms as _Phyllirhoe_ and
+  _Limapontia_ really belong to the Mollusca at all. The interesting
+  little _Rhodope veranyii_, which has no odontophore, has been
+  associated by systematists both with these simplified Opisthobranchs
+  and with Rhabdocoel Planarians.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 38.--Three views of _Aplysia sp._, in various
+  conditions of expansion and retraction. (After Cuvier.)
+
+    t, Anterior cephalic tentacles.
+    t^2, Posterior cephalic tentacles.
+    e, Eyes.
+    f, Metapodium.
+    ep, Epipodium.
+    g, Gill-plume (ctenidium).
+    m, Mantle-flap reflected over the thin oval shell.
+    os, s, Orifice formed by the unclosed border of the reflected
+      mantle-skirt, allowing the shell to show.
+    pe, The spermatic groove.]
+
+  In many respects the sea-hare (_Aplysia_), of which several species
+  are known (some occurring on the English coast), serves as a
+  convenient example of the fullest development of the organization
+  characteristic of Opisthobranchia. The woodcut (fig. 38) gives a
+  faithful representation of the great mobility of the various parts of
+  the body. The head is well marked and joined to the body by a somewhat
+  constricted neck. It carries two pairs of cephalic tentacles and a
+  pair of sessile eyes. The visceral hump is low and not drawn out into
+  a spire. The foot is long, carrying the oblong visceral mass upon it,
+  and projecting (as metapodium) a little beyond it (f). Laterally the
+  foot gives rise to a pair of mobile fleshy lobes, the parapodia (ep),
+  which can be thrown up so as to cover in the dorsal surface of the
+  animal. Such parapodia are common, though by no means universal, among
+  Opisthobranchia. The torsion of the visceral hump is not carried out
+  very fully, the consequence being that the anus has a posterior
+  position a little to the right of the median line above the
+  metapodium, whilst the branchial chamber formed by the overhanging
+  mantle-skirt faces the right side of the body instead of lying well to
+  the front as in Streptoneura and as in Pulmonate Euthyneura. The
+  gill-plume, which in _Aplysia_ is the typical Molluscan ctenidium, is
+  seen in fig. 39 projecting from the branchial sub-pallial space. The
+  relation of the delicate shell to the mantle is peculiar, since it
+  occupies an oval area upon the visceral hump, the extent of which is
+  indicated in fig. 38, C, but may be better understood by a glance at
+  the figures of the allied genus _Umbrella_ (fig. 40), in which the
+  margin of the mantle-skirt coincides, just as it does in the limpet,
+  with the margin of the shell. But in _Aplysia_ the mantle is reflected
+  over the edge of the shell, and grows over its upper surface so as to
+  completely enclose it, excepting at the small central area s where the
+  naked shell is exposed. This enclosure of the shell is a permanent
+  development of the arrangement seen in many Streptoneura (e.g.
+  _Pyrula, Ovula_, see figs. 18 and 32), where the border of the mantle
+  can be, and usually is, drawn over the shell, though it is withdrawn
+  (as it cannot be in _Aplysia_) when they are irritated. From the fact
+  that _Aplysia_ commences its life as a free-swimming veliger with a
+  nautiloid shell not enclosed in any way by the border of the mantle,
+  it is clear that the enclosure of the shell in the adult is a
+  secondary process. Accordingly, the shell of _Aplysia_ must not be
+  confounded with a primitive shell in its shell-sac, such as we find
+  realized in the shells of _Chiton_ and in the plugs which form in the
+  remarkable transitory "shell-sac" or "shell-gland" of Molluscan
+  embryos (see figs. 26, 60). _Aplysia_, like other Mollusca, develops a
+  primitive shell-sac in its trochosphere stage of development, which
+  disappears and is succeeded by a nautiloid shell (fig. 36). This forms
+  the nucleus of the adult shell, and, as the animal grows, becomes
+  enclosed by a reflection of the mantle-skirt. When the shell of an
+  _Aplysia_ enclosed in its mantle is pushed well to the left, the
+  sub-pallial space is fully exposed as in fig. 39, and the various
+  apertures of the body are seen. Posteriorly we have the anus, in
+  front of this the lobate gill-plume, between the two (hence
+  corresponding in position to that of the Pectinibranchia) we have the
+  aperture of the renal organ. In front, near the anterior attachment of
+  the gill-plume, is the osphradium (olfactory organ) discovered by J.W.
+  Spengel, yellowish in colour, in the typical position, and overlying
+  an olfactory ganglion with typical nerve-connexion (see fig. 43). To
+  the right of Spengel's osphradium is the opening of a peculiar gland
+  which has, when dissected out, the form of a bunch of grapes; its
+  secretion is said to be poisonous. On the under side of the free edge
+  of the mantle are situated the numerous small cutaneous glands which,
+  in the large _Aplysia camelus_ (not in other species), form the purple
+  secretion which was known to the ancients. In front of the osphradium
+  is the single genital pore, the aperture of the common or
+  hermaphrodite duct. From this point there passes forward to the right
+  side of the head a groove--the spermatic groove--down which the
+  spermatic fluid passes. In other Euthyneura this groove may close up
+  and form a canal. At its termination by the side of the head is the
+  muscular introverted penis. In the hinder part of the foot (not shown
+  in any of the diagrams) is the opening of a large mucus-forming gland
+  very often found in the Molluscan foot.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Aplysia leporina_ (_camelus_, Cuv.), with
+  epipodia and mantle reflected away from the mid-line. (Lankester.)
+
+    a, Anterior cephalic tentacle.
+    b, Posterior cephalic tentacle; between a and b, the eyes.
+    c, Right epipodium.
+    d, Left epipodium.
+    e, Hinder part of visceral hump.
+    fp, Posterior extremity of the foot.
+    fa, Anterior part of the foot underlying the head.
+    g, The ctenidium (branchial plume).
+    h, The mantle-skirt tightly spread over the horny shell and pushed
+      with it towards the left side.
+    i, The spermatic groove.
+    k, The common genital pore (male and female).
+    l, Orifice of the grape-shaped (supposed poisonous) gland.
+    m, The osphradium (olfactory organ of Spengel).
+    n, Outline of part of the renal sac (nephridium) below the surface.
+    o, External aperture of the nephridium.
+    p, Anus.]
+
+  With regard to internal organization we may commence with the
+  disposition of the renal organ (nephridium), the external opening of
+  which has already been noted. The position of this opening and other
+  features of the renal organ were determined by J.T. Cunningham.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 40.--_Umbrella mediterranea_. a, mouth; b,
+  cephalic tentacle; h, gill (ctenidium). The free edge of the mantle is
+  seen just below the margin of the shell (compare with _Aplysia_, fig.
+  39). (From Owen.)]
+
+  There is considerable uncertainty with respect to the names of the
+  species of _Aplysia_. There are two forms which are very common in the
+  Gulf of Naples. One is quite black in colour, and measures when
+  outstretched 8 or 9 in. in length. The other is light brown and
+  somewhat smaller, its length usually not exceeding 7 in. The first is
+  flaccid and sluggish in its movements, and has not much power of
+  contraction; its epipodial lobes are enormously developed and extend
+  far forward along the body; it gives out when handled an abundance of
+  purple liquid, which is derived from cutaneous glands situated on the
+  under side of the free edge of the mantle. According to F. Blochmann
+  it is identical with _A. camelus_ of Cuvier. The other species is _A.
+  depilans_; it is firm to the touch, and contracts forcibly when
+  irritated; the secretion of the mantle-glands is not abundant, and is
+  milky white in appearance. The kidney has similar relations in both
+  species, and is identical with the organ spoken of by many authors as
+  the triangular gland. Its superficial extent is seen when the folds
+  covering the shell are cut away and the shell removed; the external
+  surface forms a triangle with its base bordering the pericardium, and
+  its apex directed posteriorly and reaching the the left-hand posterior
+  corner of the shell-chamber. The dorsal surface of the kidney extends
+  to the left beyond the shell-chamber beneath the skin in the space
+  between the shell-chamber and the left parapodium.
+
+  When the animal is turned on its left-hand side and the mantle-chamber
+  widely opened, the gill being turned over to the left, a part of the
+  kidney is seen beneath the skin between the attachment of the gill and
+  the right parapodium (fig. 39). On examination this is found to be the
+  under surface of the posterior limb of the gland, the upper surface of
+  which has just been described as lying beneath the shell. In the
+  posterior third of this portion, close to that edge which is adjacent
+  to the base of the gill, is the external opening (fig. 39, o).
+
+  When the pericardium is cut open from above in an animal otherwise
+  entire, the anterior face of the kidney is seen forming the posterior
+  wall of the pericardial chamber; on the deep edge of this face, a
+  little to the left of the attachment of the auricle to the floor of
+  the pericardium, is seen a depression; this depression contains the
+  opening from the pericardium into the kidney.
+
+  To complete the account of the relations of the organ: the right
+  anterior corner can be seen superficially in the wall of the
+  mantle-chamber above the gill. Thus the base of the gill passes in a
+  slanting direction across the right-hand side of the kidney, the
+  posterior end being dorsal to the apex of the gland, and the anterior
+  end ventral to the right-hand corner.
+
+  As so great a part of the whole surface of the kidney lies adjacent to
+  external surfaces of the body, the remaining part which faces the
+  internal organs is small; it consists of the left part of the under
+  surface; it is level with the floor of the pericardium, and lies over
+  the globular mass formed by the liver and convoluted intestine.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Gonad, and accessory glands and ducts of
+  _Aplysia_. (Lankester.)
+
+    i, Ovo-testis.
+    h, Hermaphrodite duct.
+    g, Albuminiparous gland.
+    f, Vesicula seminalis.
+    k, Opening of the albuminiparous gland into the hermaphrodite duct.
+    e, Hermaphrodite duct (uterine portion).
+    b, Vaginal portion of the uterine duct.
+    c, Spermatheca.
+    d, Its duct.
+    a, Genital pore.]
+
+  Thus the renal organ of _Aplysia_ is shown to conform to the Molluscan
+  type. The heart lying within the adjacent pericardium has the usual
+  form, a single auricle and ventricle. The vascular system is not
+  extensive, the arteries soon ending in the well-marked spongy tissue
+  which builds up the muscular foot, parapodia, and dorsal body-wall.
+
+  The alimentary canal commences with the usual buccal mass; the lips
+  are cartilaginous, but not armed with horny jaws, though these are
+  common in other Opisthobranchs; the lingual ribbon is
+  multidenticulate, and a pair of salivary glands pour in their
+  secretion. The oesophagus expands into a curious gizzard, which is
+  armed internally with large horny processes, some broad and thick,
+  others spinous, fitted to act as crushing instruments. From this we
+  pass to a stomach and a coil of intestine embedded in the lobes of a
+  voluminous liver; a caecum of large size is given off near the
+  commencement of the intestine. The liver opens by two ducts into the
+  digestive tract.
+
+  The generative organs lie close to the coil of intestine and liver, a
+  little to the left side. When dissected out they appear as represented
+  in fig. 41. The essential reproductive organ or gonad consists of both
+  ovarian and testicular cells (see fig. 42). It is an ovo-testis. From
+  it passes a common or hermaphrodite duct, which very soon becomes
+  entwined in the spire of a gland--the albuminiparous gland. The latter
+  opens into the common duct at the point k, and here also is a small
+  diverticulum of the duct f. Passing on, we find not far from the
+  genital pore a glandular spherical body (the spermatheca c) opening by
+  means of a longish duct into the common duct, and then we reach the
+  pore (fig. 39, k). Here the female apparatus terminates. But when the
+  male secretion of the ovo-testis is active, the seminal fluid passes
+  from the genital pore along the spermatic groove (fig. 39) to the
+  penis, and is by the aid of that eversible muscular organ introduced
+  into the genital pore of a second _Aplysia_, whence it passes into the
+  spermatheca, there to await the activity of the female element of the
+  ovo-testis of this second _Aplysia_. After an interval of some
+  days--possibly weeks--the ova of the second _Aplysia_ commence to
+  descend the hermaphrodite duct; they become enclosed in a viscid
+  secretion at the point where the albuminiparous gland opens into the
+  duct intertwined with it; and on reaching the point where the
+  spermathecal duct debouches they are impregnated by the spermatozoa
+  which escape now from the spermatheca and meet the ova.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 42.--Follicles of the hermaphrodite gonads of
+  Euthyneurous Gastropods. A, of _Helix_; B, of _Eolis_; a, ova; b,
+  developing spermatozoa; c, common efferent duct.]
+
+  The development of _Aplysia_ from the egg presents many points of
+  interest from the point of view of comparative embryology, but in
+  relation to the morphology of the Opisthobranchia it is sufficient to
+  point to the occurrence of a trochosphere and a veliger stage (fig.
+  36), and of a shell-gland or primitive shell-sac (fig. 36, _shgr_),
+  which is succeeded by a nautiloid shell.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 43.--Nervous system of _Aplysia_, as a type of the
+  long-looped Euthyneurous condition. The untwisted visceral loop is
+  lightly shaded. (After Spengel.)
+
+    ce, Cerebral ganglion.
+    pl, Pleural ganglion.
+    pe, Pedal ganglion.
+    ab.sp, Abdominal ganglion which represents also the
+      supra-intestinal ganglion of Streptoneura and gives off the nerve
+      to the osphradium (olfactory organ) o, and another to an unlettered
+      so-called "genital" ganglion. The buccal nerves and ganglia are
+      omitted.]
+
+  In the nervous system of _Aplysia_ the great ganglion-pairs are well
+  developed and distinct. The euthyneurous visceral loop is long, and
+  presents only one ganglion (in _Aplysia camelus_, but two distinct
+  ganglia joined to one another in _Aplysia hybrida_ of the English
+  coast), placed at its extreme limit, representing both the right and
+  left visceral ganglia and the third or abdominal ganglion, which are
+  so often separately present. The diagram (fig. 43) shows the nerve
+  connecting this abdomino-visceral ganglion with the olfactory ganglion
+  of Spengel. It is also seen to be connected with a more remote
+  ganglion--the genital. Such special irregularities in the development
+  of ganglia upon the visceral loop, and on one or more of the main
+  nerves connected with it, are very frequent. Our figure of the nervous
+  system of _Aplysia_ does not give the small pair of buccal ganglia
+  which are, as in all glossophorous Molluscs, present upon the nerves
+  passing from the cerebral region to the odontophore.
+
+  For a comparison of various Opisthobranchs, _Aplysia_ will be found to
+  present a convenient starting-point. It is one of the more typical
+  Opisthobranchs, that is to say, it belongs to the section
+  Tectibranchia, but other members of the suborder, namely, _Bulla_ and
+  _Actaeon_ (figs. 44 and 45), are less abnormal than _Aplysia_ in
+  regard to their shells and the form of the visceral hump. They have
+  naked spirally twisted shells which may be concealed from view in the
+  living animal by the expansion and reflection of the parapodia, but
+  are not enclosed by the mantle, whilst _Actaeon_ is remarkable for
+  possessing an operculum like that of so many Streptoneura.
+
+  The great development of the parapodia seen in _Aplysia_ is usual in
+  Tectibranchiate Opisthobranchs. The whole surface of the body becomes
+  greatly modified in those Nudibranchiate forms which have lost, not
+  only the shell, but also the ctenidium. Many of these have peculiar
+  processes developed on the dorsal surface (fig. 46, A, B), or retain
+  purely negative characters (fig. 46, D). The chief modification of
+  internal organization presented by these forms, as compared with
+  _Aplysia_, is found in the condition of the alimentary canal. The
+  liver is no longer a compact organ opening by a pair of ducts into the
+  median digestive tract, but we find very numerous hepatic diverticula
+  on a shortened axial tract (fig. 47). These diverticula extend usually
+  one into each of the dorsal papillae or "cerata" when these are
+  present. They are not merely digestive glands, but are sufficiently
+  wide to act as receptacles of food, and in them the digestion of food
+  proceeds just as in the axial portion of the canal. A precisely
+  similar modification of the liver or great digestive gland is found in
+  the scorpions, where the axial portion of the digestive canal is short
+  and straight, and the lateral ducts sufficiently wide to admit food
+  into the ramifications of the gland there to be digested; whilst in
+  the spiders the gland is reduced to a series of simple caeca.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 44.--_Bulla vexillum_ (Chemnitz), as seen
+  crawling. a', oral hood (compare with Tethys, fig. 46, B), possibly a
+  continuation of the epipodia; b, b', cephalic tentacles. (From Owen.)]
+
+  The typical character is retained by the heart, pericardium, and the
+  communicating nephridium or renal organ in all Opisthobranchs. An
+  interesting example of this is furnished by the fish-like transparent
+  _Phyllirhoe_ (fig. 37), in which it is possible most satisfactorily to
+  study in the living animal, by means of the microscope, the course of
+  the blood-stream, and also the reno-pericardial communication. In many
+  of the Nudibranchiate Opisthobranchs the nervous system presents a
+  concentration of the ganglia (fig. 48), contrasting greatly with what
+  we have seen in _Aplysia_. Not only are the pleural ganglia fused to
+  the cerebral, but also the visceral to these (see in further
+  illustration the condition attained by the Pulmonate _Limnaeus_, fig.
+  59), and the visceral loop is astonishingly short and insignificant
+  (fig. 48, e'). That the parts are rightly thus identified is
+  probable from J.W. Spengel's observation of the osphradium and its
+  nerve-supply in these forms; the nerve to that organ, which is placed
+  somewhat anteriorly--on the dorsal surface--being given off from the
+  hinder part (visceral) of the right compound ganglion--the fellow to
+  that marked A in fig. 48. The Eolid-like Nudibranchs, amongst other
+  specialities of structure, possess (in some cases at any rate)
+  apertures at the apices of the "cerata" or dorsal papillae, which lead
+  from the exterior into the hepatic caeca. Some amongst them
+  (_Tergipes, Eolis_) are also remarkable for possessing peculiarly
+  modified cells placed in sacs (cnidosacs) at the apices of these same
+  papillae, which resemble the "thread-cells" of the Coelentera.
+  According to T.S. Wright and J.H. Grosvenor these nematocysts are
+  derived from the hydroids on which the animals feed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 45.--_Actaeon._ h, shell; b, oral hood; d, foot;
+  f, operculum.]
+
+  The development of many Opisthobranchia has been examined--e.g.
+  _Aplysia, Pleurobranchidium, Elysia, Polycera, Doris, Tergipes_. All
+  pass through trochosphere and veliger stages, and in all a nautiloid
+  or boat-like shell is developed, preceded by a well-marked
+  "shell-gland" (see fig. 36). The transition from the free-swimming
+  veliger larva with its nautiloid shell (fig. 36) to the adult form has
+  not been properly observed, and many interesting points as to the true
+  nature of folds (whether parapodia or mantle or velum) have yet to be
+  cleared up by a knowledge of such development in forms like _Tethys,
+  Doris, Phyllidia_, &c. As in other Molluscan groups, we find even in
+  closely-allied genera (for instance, in _Aplysia_ and
+  _Pleurobranchidium_, and other genera), the greatest differences as to
+  the _amount_ of food-material by which the egg-shell is encumbered.
+  Some form their diblastula by emboly, others by epiboly; and in the
+  later history of the further development of the enclosed cells
+  (arch-enteron) very marked variations occur in closely-allied forms,
+  due to the influence of a greater or less abundance of food-material
+  mixed with the protoplasm of the egg.
+
+  Sub-order 1.--TECTIBRANCHIA. Opisthobranchs provided in the adult
+  state with a shell and a mantle, except _Runcina, Pleurobranchaea,
+  Cymbuliidae_, and some Aplysiomorpha. There is a ctenidium, except in
+  some Thecosomata and Gymnosomata, and an osphradium.
+
+  Tribe 1.--BULLOMORPHA. The shell is usually well developed, except in
+  _Runcina_ and _Cymbuliidae_, and may be external or internal. No
+  operculum, except in _Actaeonidae_ and _Limacinidae_. The pallial
+  cavity is always well developed, and contains the ctenidium, at least
+  in part; ctenidium, except in _Lophocercidae_, of folded type. With
+  the exception of the _Aplustridae, Lophocercidae_ and _Thecosomata_,
+  the head is devoid of tentacles, and its dorsal surface forms a
+  digging disk or shield. The edges of the foot form parapodia, often
+  transformed into fins. Posteriorly the mantle forms a large pallial
+  lobe under the pallial aperture. Stomach generally provided with
+  chitinous or calcified masticatory plates. Visceral commissure fairly
+  long, except in _Runcina, Lobiger_ and _Thecosomata_. Hermaphrodite
+  genital aperture, connected with the penis by a ciliated groove,
+  except in _Actaeon, Lobiger_ and _Cavolinia longirostris_, in which
+  the spermiduct is a closed tube. Animals either swim or burrow.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 46.
+
+    A, _Eolis papillosa_ (Lin.), dorsal view.
+    a, b, Posterior and anterior cephalic tentacles.
+    c, The dorsal "cerata."
+    B, _Tethys leporina_, dorsal view.
+    a, The cephalic hood.
+    b, Cephalic tentacles.
+    c, Neck.
+    d, Genital pore.
+    e, Anus.
+    f, Large cerata.
+    g, Smaller cerata.
+    h, Margin of the foot.
+    C, _Doris (Actinocyclus) tuberculatus_ (Cuv.), seen from the pedal
+      surface.
+    m, Mouth.
+    b, Margin of the head.
+    f, Sole of the foot.
+    sp, The mantle-like epipodium.
+    D, E, Dorsal and lateral view of _Elysia (Actaeon) viridis_.
+    ep, epipodial outgrowths. (After Keferstein.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 47.--Enteric Canal of _Eolis papillosa_. (From
+  Gegenbaur, after Alder and Hancock.)
+
+    ph, Pharynx.
+    m, Midgut, with its hepatic appendages h, all of which are not
+      figured.
+    e, Hind gut.
+    an, Anus.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 48.--Central Nervous System of _Fiona_ (one of the
+  Nudibranchia), showing a tendency to fusion of the great ganglia.
+  (From Gegenbaur, after Bergh.)
+
+    A, Cerebral, pleural and visceral ganglia united.
+    B, Pedal ganglion.
+    C, Buccal ganglion.
+    D, Oesophageal ganglion connected with, the Buccal.
+    a, Nerve to superior cephalic tentacle.
+    b, Nerves to inferior cephalic tentacles.
+    c, Nerve to generative organs.
+    d, Pedal nerve.
+    e, Pedal commissure.
+    e', Visceral loop or commissure (?).]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 49.--_Cavolinia tridentata_, Forsk. from the
+  Mediterranean, magnified two diameters. (From Owen.)
+
+    a, Mouth.
+    b, Pair of cephalic tentacles.
+    C, C, Pteropodial lobes of the foot.
+    d, Median web connecting these.
+    e, e, Processes of the mantle-skirt reflected over the surface of
+      the shell.
+    g, The shell enclosing the visceral hump.
+    h. The median spine of the shell.]
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Actaeonidae._ Cephalic shield bifid posteriorly; margins
+    of foot slightly developed; genital duct diaulic; visceral
+    commissure streptoneurous; shell thick, with prominent spire and
+    elongated aperture; a horny operculum. _Actaeon_, British.
+    _Solidula. Tornatellaea_, extinct. _Adelactaeon. Bullina.
+    Bullinula._
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Ringiculidae._ Cephalic disk enlarged anteriorly, forming
+    an open tube posteriorly; shell external, thick, with prominent
+    spire; no operculum. _Ringicula. Pugnus._
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Tornatinidae._ Margins of foot not prominent; no radula;
+    shell external, with inconspicuous spire. _Tornatina_, British.
+    _Retusa. Volvula._
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Scaphandridae._ Cephalic shield short, truncated
+    posteriorly; eyes deeply embedded; three calcareous stomachal
+    plates; shell external, with reduced spire. _Scaphander_, British.
+    _Atys. Smaragdinella. Cylichna_, British. _Amphisphyra_, British.
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Bullidae._ Margins of foot well developed; eyes
+    superficial; three chitinous stomachal plates; shell external, with
+    reduced spire. Bulla, British. _Haminea_, British.
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Aceratidae._ Cephalic shield continuous with neck; twelve
+    to fourteen stomachal plates; a posterior pallial filament passing
+    through a notch in shell. _Acera_, British. _Cylindrobulla.
+    Volutella._
+
+    Fam. 7.--_Aplustridae._ Foot very broad; cephalic shield with four
+    tentacles; shell external, thin, without prominent spire.
+    _Aplustrum. Hydatina. Micromelo._
+
+    Fam. 8.--_Philinidae._ Cephalic shield broad, thick and simple;
+    shell wholly internal, thin, spire much reduced, aperture very
+    large. _Philine_, British. _Cryptophthalmus. Chelinodura.
+    Phanerophthalmus. Colpodaspis_, British. _Colobocephalus._
+
+    Fam. 9.--_Doridiidae._ Cephalic shield ending posteriorly in a
+    median point; shell internal, largely membranous; no radula or
+    stomachal plates. _Doridium. Navarchus._
+
+    Fam. 10.--_Gastropteridae._ Cephalic shield pointed behind; shell
+    internal, chiefly membranous, with calcified nucleus, nautiloid;
+    parapodia forming fins. _Gastropteron._
+
+    Fam. 11.--_Runcinidae._ Cephalic shield continuous with dorsal
+    integument; no shell; ctenidium projecting from mantle cavity.
+    _Runcina._
+
+    Fam. 12.--_Lophocercidae._ Shell external, globular or ovoid; foot
+    elongated, parapodia separate from ventral surface; genital duct
+    diaulic. _Lobiger. Lophocercus._
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 50.--Shell of _Cavolinia tridentata_, seen from
+  the side.
+
+    f, Postero-dorsal surface.
+    g, Antero-ventral surface.
+    h, Median dorsal spine.
+    i, Mouth of the shell.]
+
+  The next three families form the group formerly known as Thecosomatous
+  Pteropods. They are all pelagic, the foot being entirely transformed
+  into a pair of anterior fins; eyes are absent, and the nerve centres
+  are concentrated on the ventral side of the oesophagus.
+
+    Fam. 13.--_Limacinidae._ Dextral animals, with shell coiled
+    pseudo-sinistrally; operculum with sinistral spiral; pallial cavity
+    dorsal. _Limacina_, British. _Peraclis_, ctenidium present.
+
+    Fam. 14.--_Cymbuliidae._ Adult without shell; a sub-epithelial
+    pseudoconch formed by connective tissue; pallial cavity ventral.
+    _Cymbulia. Cymbuliopsis. Gleba. Desmopterus._
+
+    Fam. 15.--_Cavoliniidae._ Shell not coiled, symmetrical; pallial
+    cavity ventral. _Cavolinia. Clio. Cuvierina._
+
+  Tribe 2.--APLYSIOMORPHA. Shell more or less internal, much reduced or
+  absent. Head bears two pairs of tentacles. Parapodia separate from
+  ventral surface, and generally transformed into swimming lobes.
+  Visceral commissure much shortened, except in _Aplysia_. Genital duct
+  monaulic; hermaphrodite duct connected with penis by a ciliated
+  groove. Animals either swim or crawl.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Aplysiidae_. Shell partly or wholly internal, or absent;
+    foot long, with well-developed ventral surface. _Aplysia. Dolabella.
+    Dolabrifer. Aplysiella. Phyllaplysia. Notarchus_.
+
+  The next six families include the animals formerly known as
+  Gymnosomatous Pteropods, characterized by the absence of mantle and
+  shell, the reduction of the ventral surface of the foot, and the
+  parapodial fins at the anterior end of the body. They are all pelagic.
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Pneumonodermatidae_. Pharynx evaginable, with suckers.
+    _Pneumonoderma. Dexiobranchaea. Spongiobranchaea. Schizobrachium_.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Clionopsidae_. No buccal appendages or suckers; a very
+    long evaginable proboscis; a quadriradiate terminal branchia.
+    _Clionopsis_.
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Notobranchaeidae_. Posterior branchia triradiate.
+    Notobranchaea.
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Thliptodontidae_. Head very large, not marked off from the
+    body; neither branchia nor suckers; fins situated near the middle of
+    the body. _Thliptodon_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 51.--Embryo of _Cavolinia tridentata_. (From
+  Balfour, after Fol.)
+
+    a, Anus.
+    f, Median portion of the foot.
+    pn, Pteropodial lobe of the foot.
+    h, Heart.
+    i, Intestine.
+    m. Mouth.
+    ot, Otocyst.
+    q, Shell.
+    r, Nephridium.
+    s, Oesophagus.
+    [sigma], Sac containing nutritive yolk.
+    mb, Mantle-skirt.
+    mc, Sub-pallial chamber.
+    Kn, Contractile sinus.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 52.--_Styliola acicula_, Rang. sp. enlarged. (From
+  Owen.)
+
+    C, C, The wing-like lobes of the foot.
+    d, Median fold of same.
+    e, Copulatory organ.
+    h, Pointed extremity of the shell.
+    i, Anterior margin of the shell.
+    n, Stomach.
+    o, Liver.
+    u. Hermaphrodite gonad.]
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Clionidae_. No branchia of any kind; a short evaginable
+    pharynx, bearing paired conical buccal appendages or "cephalocones."
+    _Clione. Paraclione. Fowlerina_.
+
+    Fam. 7.--_Halopsychidae_. No branchia; two long and branched buccal
+    appendages. _Halopsyche_.
+
+  Tribe 3.--PLEUROBRANCHOMORPHA. Two pairs of tentacles. Foot without
+  parapodia; no pallial cavity, but always a single ctenidium situated
+  on the right side between mantle and foot. Genital duct diaulic,
+  without open seminal groove; male and female apertures contiguous.
+  Visceral commissure short, tendency to concentration of all ganglia in
+  dorsal side of oesophagus.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Tylodinidae_. Shell external and conical; anterior
+    tentacles form a frontal veil; ctenidium extending only over right
+    side; a distinct osphradium. _Tylodina_.
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Umbrellidae_. Shell external, conical, much flattened;
+    anterior tentacles very small, and situated with the mouth in a
+    notch of the foot below the head; ctenidium very large. _Umbrella_.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Pleurobranchidae_. Shell covered by mantle, or absent;
+    anterior tentacles form a frontal veil; mantle contains spicules.
+    _Pleurobranchus. Berthella. Haliotinella. Oscanius_, British.
+    _Oscaniella. Oscaniopsis. Pleurobranchaea._
+
+  Sub-order 2.--NUDIBRANCHIA. Shell absent in the adult; no ctenidium or
+  osphradium. Body generally slug-like, and externally symmetrical.
+  Visceral mass not marked off from the foot, except in _Hedylidae._
+  Dorsal respiratory appendages frequently present. Visceral commissure
+  reduced; nervous system concentrated on dorsal side of oesophagus.
+  Marine; generally carnivorous, and brightly coloured, affording many
+  instances of protective resemblance.
+
+  Tribe 1.--TRITONIOMORPHA. Liver wholly or partially contained in the
+  visceral mass. Anus lateral, on the right side. Usually two rows of
+  ramified dorsal appendages. Genital duct diaulic; male and female
+  apertures contiguous.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Tritoniidae._ Anterior tentacles form a frontal veil; foot
+    rather broad. _Tritonia_, British. _Marionia._
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Scyllaeidae._ No anterior tentacles; dorsal appendages
+    broad and foliaceous; foot very narrow; stomach with horny plates.
+    _Scyllaea_, pelagic.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Phyllirhoidae._ No anterior tentacles, and no dorsal
+    appendages; body laterally compressed, transparent; pelagic.
+    _Phyllirhoe._
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Tethyidae._ Head broad, surrounded by a funnel-shaped
+    velum or hood; no radula; dorsal appendages foliaceous. _Tethys.
+    Melibe._
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Dendronotidae._ Anterior tentacles forming a scalloped
+    frontal veil; dorsal appendages and tentacles similarly ramified.
+    _Dendronotus. Campaspe._
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Bornellidae._ Dorsum furnished on either side with
+    papillae, at the base of which are ramified appendages. _Bornella._
+
+    Fam. 7.--_Lomanotidae._ Body flattened, the two dorsal borders
+    prominent and foliaceous. _Lomanotus_, British.
+
+  Tribe 2.--DORIDOMORPHA. Body externally symmetrical; anus median,
+  posterior, and generally dorsal, surrounded by ramified pallial
+  appendages, constituting a secondary branchia. Liver not ramified in
+  the integuments. Genital duct triaulic. Spicules present in the
+  mantle.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 53.--_Halopsyche gaudichaudii_, Soul. (From Owen.)
+  Much enlarged; the body-wall removed.
+
+    a, The mouth.
+    c, The pteropodial lobes of the foot.
+    f, The centrally-placed hind-foot.
+    d, l, e, Three pairs of tentacle-like processes placed at the sides
+      of the mouth, and developed (in all probability) from the
+      fore-foot.
+    o', Anus.
+    y, Genital pore.
+    k, Retractor muscles.
+    o and p, The liver.
+    u, v, w, Genitalia.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 54.--_Ancula cristata_, one of the pygobranchiate
+  Opisthobranchs (dorsal view). (From Gegenbaur, after Alder and
+  Hancock.)
+
+    a, Anus.
+    br, Secondary branchia surrounding the anus.
+    t, Cephalic tentacles.
+
+    External to the branchia are seen ten club-like processes of the
+      dorsal wall, these are the "cerata" which are characteristically
+      developed in another suborder of Opisthobranchs.]
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Polyceratidae._ A more or less prominent frontal veil;
+    branchiae non-retractile. _Euplocamus. Polycera_, British.
+    _Thecacera_, British. _Aegirus_, British. _Plocamopherus. Palio.
+    Crimora. Triopa_, British. _Triopella._
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Goniodorididae._ Mantle-border projecting; frontal veil
+    reduced, and often covered by the anterior border of the mantle.
+    _Goniodoris_, British. _Acanthodoris_, British. _Idalia_, British.
+    _Ancula_, British. _Doridunculus_. _Lamellidoris. Ancylodoris_,
+    the only fresh-water Nudibranch, from Lake Baikal.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Heterodorididae_. No branchia. _Heterodoris_.
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Dorididae_. Mantle oval, covering the head and the greater
+    part of the body; anterior tentacles, ill-developed; branchiae
+    generally retractile. _Doris_, British. _Hexabranchus_.
+    _Chromodoris_.
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Doridopsidae_. Pharynx suctorial; no radula; branchial
+    rosette on the dorsal surface, above the mantle-border.
+    _Doridopsis_.
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Corambidae_. Anus and branchia posterior, below the
+    mantle-border. _Corambe_.
+
+    Fam. 7.-_-Phyllidiidae_. Pharynx suctorial; branchiae surrounding
+    the body, between the mantle and foot. _Phyllidia. Fryeria_.
+
+  The last three families constitute the sub-tribe Porostomata,
+  characterized by the reduction of the buccal mass, which is modified
+  into a suctorial apparatus.
+
+  Tribe 3.--EOLIDOMORPHA (_Cladohepatica_). The whole of the liver
+  contained in the integuments and tegumentary papillae. Genital duct
+  diaulic; male and female apertures contiguous. The anus is
+  antero-lateral, except in the _Proctonotidae_, in which it is median.
+  Tegumentary papillae not ramified, and containing cnidosacs with
+  nematocysts.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Eolididae_. Dorsal papillae spindle-shaped or club-shaped.
+    _Eolis_, British. _Facelina_, British. _Tergipes_, British.
+    _Gonieolis. Cuthona. Embletonia. Galvina. Calma. Hero_.
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Glaucidae_. Body furnished with three pairs of lateral
+    lobes, bearing the tegumentary papillae; foot very narrow; pelagic.
+    _Glaucus_.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Hedylidae_. Body elongated; visceral mass marked off from
+    foot posteriorly; dorsal appendages absent, or reduced to a single
+    pair; spicules in the integument. _Hedyle_.
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Pseudovermidae_. Head without tentacles; body elongated;
+    anus on right side. _Pseudovermis_.
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Proctonotidae_. Anus posterior, median; anterior
+    tentacles, atrophied; foot broad. _Janus_, British. _Proctonotus_,
+    British.
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Dotonidae_. Bases of the rhinophores surrounded by a
+    sheath; dorsal papillae tuberculated and club-shaped, in a single
+    row on either side of the dorsum; no cnidosacs. _Doto_, British.
+    _Gellina. Heromorpha_.
+
+    Fam. 7.--_Fionidae_. Dorsal papillae with a membranous expansion;
+    male and female apertures at some distance from each other; pelagic.
+    _Fiona_.
+
+    Fam. 8.--_Pleurophyllidae_. Anterior tentacles in the form of a
+    digging shield; mantle without appendages, but respiratory papillae
+    beneath the mantle-border. _Pleurophyllidia_.
+
+    Fam. 9.--_Dermatobranchidae_. Like the last, but wholly without
+    branchiae. _Dermatobranchus_.
+
+  Tribe 4.--ELYSIOMORPHA. Liver ramifies in integuments and extends into
+  dorsal papillae, but there are no cnidosacs. Genital duct always
+  triaulic, and male and female apertures distant from each other. No
+  mandibles, and radula uniserial. Never more than one pair of
+  tentacles, and these are absent in _Alderia_ and some species of
+  _Limapontia_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 55.--Dorsal and Ventral View of _Pleurophyllidia
+  lineata_ (Otto), one of the Eolidomorph Nudibranchs. (After
+  Keferstein.)
+
+    b, The mouth.
+    l, The lamelliform sub-pallial gills, which (as in Patella) replace
+      the typical Molluscan ctenidium.]
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Hermaeidae_. Foot narrow; dorsal papillae linear or
+    fusiform, in several series. _Hermaea_, British. _Stiliger_.
+    _Alderia_, British.
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Phyllobranchidae_. Foot broad; dorsal papillae flattened
+    and foliaceous. _Phyllobranchus. Cyerce_.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Plakobranchidae_. Body depressed, without dorsal papillae,
+    but with two very large lateral expansions, with dorsal plications.
+    _Plakobranchus_.
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Elysiidae_. Body elongated, with lateral expansions;
+    tentacles large; foot narrow. _Elysia_, British. _Tridachia_.
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Limapontiidae_. No lateral expansions, and no dorsal
+    papillae; body planariform; anus dorsal, median and posterior.
+    _Limapontia_, British. _Actaeonia_, British. _Cenia_.
+
+  Order 2 (of the Euthyneura).--PULMONATA. Euthyneurous Gastropoda,
+  probably derived from ancestral forms similar to the Tectibranchiate
+  Opisthobranchia by adaptation to a terrestrial life. The ctenidium is
+  atrophied, and the edge of the mantle-skirt is fused to the dorsal
+  integument by concrescence, except at one point which forms the
+  aperture of the mantle-chamber, thus converted into a nearly closed
+  sac. Air is admitted to this sac for respiratory and hydrostatic
+  purposes, and it thus becomes a lung. An operculum is present only in
+  _Amphibola_; a contrast being thus afforded with the operculate
+  pulmonate Streptoneura (_Cyclostoma_, &c.), which differ in other
+  essential features of structure from the Pulmonata. The Pulmonata are,
+  like the other Euthyneura, hermaphrodite, with elaborately developed
+  copulatory organs and accessory glands. Like other Euthyneura, they
+  have very numerous small denticles on the lingual ribbon. In aquatic
+  Pulmonata the osphradium is retained.
+
+  In some Pulmonata (snails) the foot is extended at right angles to the
+  visceral hump, which rises from it in the form of a coil as in
+  Streptoneura; in others the visceral hump is not elevated, but is
+  extended with the foot, and the shell is small or absent (slugs).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 56.--A Series of Stylommatophorous Pulmonata,
+  showing transitional forms between snail and slug.
+
+    A, _Helix pomatia_. (From Keferstein.)
+    B, _Helicophanta brevipes_. (From Keferstein, after Pfeiffer.)
+    C, _Testacella haliotidea_. (From Keferstein.)
+    D, _Arion ater_, the great black slug. (From Keferstein.)
+    a, Shell in A, B, C, shell-sac (closed) in D; b, orifice leading
+      into the sub-pallial chamber (lung).]
+
+  Pulmonata are widely distinguished from a small number of Streptoneura
+  at one time associated with them on account of their mantle-chamber
+  being converted, as in Pulmonata, into a lung, and the ctenidium or
+  branchial plume aborted. The terrestrial Streptoneura (represented in
+  England by the common genus _Cyclostoma_) have a twisted visceral
+  nerve-loop, an operculum on the foot, a complex rhipidoglossate or
+  taenio-glossate radula, and are of distinct sexes. The Pulmonata have
+  a straight visceral nerve-loop, usually no operculum even in the
+  embryo, and a multidenticulate radula, the teeth being equi-formal;
+  and they are hermaphrodite. Some Pulmonata (_Limnaea_, &c.) live in
+  fresh waters although breathing air. The remarkable discovery has been
+  made that in deep lakes such _Limnaei_ do not breathe air, but admit
+  water to the lung-sac and live at the bottom. The lung-sac serves
+  undoubtedly as a hydrostatic apparatus in the aquatic Pulmonata, as
+  well as assisting respiration.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 57.--_Ancylus fluviatilis_, a patelliform aquatic
+  Pulmonate.]
+
+  The same general range of body-form is shown in Pulmonata as in the
+  Heteropoda and in the Opisthobranchia; at one extreme we have snails
+  with coiled visceral hump, at the other cylindrical or flattened slugs
+  (see fig. 56). Limpet-like forms are also found (fig. 57, _Ancylus_).
+  The foot is always simple, with its flat crawling surface extending
+  from end to end, but in the embryo _Limnaea_ it shows a bilobed
+  character, which leads on to the condition characteristic of
+  Pteropoda.
+
+  The adaptation of the Pulmonata to terrestrial life has entailed
+  little modification of the internal organization. In one genus
+  (_Planorbis_) the plasma of the blood is coloured red by haemoglobin,
+  this being the only instance of the presence of this body in the blood
+  of Glossophorous Mollusca, though it occurs in corpuscles in the blood
+  of the bivalves _Arca_ and _Solen_ (Lankester).
+
+  [Illustration: _Fig. 58._--Hermaphrodite Reproductive Apparatus of the
+  Garden Snail (_Helix hortensis_).
+
+    [tau], Ovo-testis.
+    ve, Hermaphrodite duct.
+    Ed, Albuminiparous gland.
+    u, Uterine dilatation of the hermaphrodite duct.
+    d, Digitate accessory glands on the female duct.
+    ps, Calciferous gland or dart-sac on the female duct.
+    Rf, Spermatheca or receptacle of the sperm in copulation, opening
+      into the female duct.
+    vd, Male duct (vas deferens).
+    p, Penis.
+    fl, Flagellum.]
+
+  The generative apparatus of the snail (_Helix_) may serve as an
+  example of the hermaphrodite apparatus common to the Pulmonata and
+  Opisthobranchia (fig. 58). From the ovo-testis, which lies near the
+  apex of the visceral coil, a common hermaphrodite duct ve proceeds,
+  which receives the duct of the compact white albuminiparous gland, Ed,
+  and then becomes much enlarged, the additional width being due to the
+  development of glandular folds, which are regarded as forming a uterus
+  u. Where these folds cease the common duct splits into two portions, a
+  male and a female. The male duct vd becomes fleshy and muscular near
+  its termination at the genital pore, forming the penis p. Attached to
+  it is a diverticulum fl, in which the spermatozoa which have descended
+  from the ovo-testis are stored and modelled into sperm ropes or
+  spermatophores. The female portion of the duct is more complex. Soon
+  after quitting the uterus it is joined by a long duct leading from a
+  glandular sac, the spermatheca (Rf). In this duct and sac the
+  spermatophores received in copulation from another snail are lodged.
+  In _Helix hortensis_ the spermatheca is simple. In other species of
+  _Helix_ a second duct (as large in _Helix aspersa_ as the chief one)
+  is given off from the spermathecal duct, and in the natural state is
+  closely adherent to the wall of the uterus. This second duct has
+  normally no spermathecal gland at its termination, which is simple and
+  blunt. But in rare cases in _Helix aspersa_ a second spermatheca is
+  found at the end of this second duct. Tracing the widening female duct
+  onwards we now come to the openings of the digitate accessory glands
+  d, d, which probably assist in the formation of the egg-capsule. Close
+  to them is the remarkable dart-sac ps, a thick-walled sac, in the
+  lumen of which a crystalline four-fluted rod or dart consisting of
+  carbonate of lime is found. It is supposed to act in some way as a
+  stimulant in copulation, but possibly has to do with the calcareous
+  covering of the egg-capsule. Other Pulmonata exhibit variations of
+  secondary importance in the details of this hermaphrodite apparatus.
+
+  The nervous system of _Helix_ is not favourable as an example on
+  account of the fusion of the ganglia to form an almost uniform ring of
+  nervous matter around the oesophagus. The pond-snail (_Limnaeus_)
+  furnishes, on the other hand, a very beautiful case of distinct
+  ganglia and connecting cords (fig. 59). The demonstration which it
+  affords of the extreme shortening of the Euthyneurous visceral
+  nerve-loop is most instructive and valuable for comparison with and
+  explanation of the condition of the nervous centres in Cephalopoda, as
+  also of some Opisthobranchia. The figure (fig. 59) is sufficiently
+  described in the letterpress attached to it; the pair of buccal
+  ganglia joined by the connectives to the cerebrals are, as in most of
+  our figures, omitted. Here we need only further draw attention to the
+  osphradium, discovered by Lacaze-Duthiers, and shown by Spengel to
+  agree in its innervation with that organ in all other Gastropoda. On
+  account of the shortness of the visceral loop and the proximity of the
+  right visceral ganglion to the oesophageal nerve-ring, the nerve to
+  the osphradium and olfactory ganglion is very long. The position of
+  the osphradium corresponds more or less closely with that of the
+  vanished right ctenidium, with which it is normally associated. In
+  _Helix_ and _Limax_ the osphradium has not been described, and
+  possibly its discovery might clear up the doubts which have been
+  raised as to the nature of the mantle-chamber of those genera. In
+  _Planorbis_, which is sinistral (as are a few other genera or
+  exceptional varieties of various Anisopleurous Gastropods), instead of
+  being dextral, the osphradium is on the left side, and receives its
+  nerve from the left visceral ganglion, the whole series of unilateral
+  organs being reversed. This is, as might be expected, what is found
+  to be the case in all "reversed" Gastropods.
+
+  The shell of the Pulmonata, though always light and delicate, is in
+  many cases a well-developed spiral "house" into which the creature can
+  withdraw itself; and, although the foot possesses no operculum, yet in
+  _Helix_ the aperture of the shell is closed in the winter by a
+  complete lid, the "hybernaculum" more or less calcareous in nature,
+  which is secreted by the foot. In _Clausilia_ a peculiar modification
+  of this lid exists permanently in the adult, attached by an elastic
+  stalk to the mouth of the shell, and known as the "clausilium." In
+  _Limnaeus_ the permanent shell is preceded in the embryo by a
+  well-marked shell-gland or primitive shell-sac (fig. 60), at one time
+  supposed to be the developing anus, but shown by Lankester to be
+  identical with the "shell-gland" discovered by him in other Mollusca
+  (_Pisidium, Pleurobranchidium, Neritina_, &c.). As in other Gastropoda
+  Anisopleura, this shell-sac may abnormally develop a plug of chitinous
+  matter, but normally it flattens out and disappears, whilst the
+  cap-like rudiment of the permanent shell is shed out from the
+  dome-like surface of the visceral hump, in the centre of which the
+  shell-sac existed for a brief period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 59.--Nervous System of the Pond-Snail, _Limnaeus
+  stagnalis_, as a type of the short-looped euthyneurous condition. The
+  short visceral "loop" with its three ganglia is lightly-shaded.
+
+    ce, Cerebral ganglion.
+    pe, Pedal ganglion.
+    pl, Pleural ganglion.
+    ab, Abdominal ganglion.
+    sp, Visceral ganglion of the left side; opposite to it is the
+      visceral ganglion of the right side, which gives off the long nerve
+      to the olfactory ganglion and osphradium o.
+
+    In _Planorbis_ and in _Auricula_ (Pulmonata, allied to _Limnaeus_)
+    the olfactory organ is on the _left_ side and receives its nerve
+    from the _left_ visceral ganglion. (After Spengel.)]
+
+  In _Clausilia_, according to the observations of C. Gegenbaur, the
+  primitive shell-sac does not flatten out and disappear, but takes the
+  form of a flattened closed sac. Within this closed sac a plate of
+  calcareous matter is developed, and after a time the upper wall of the
+  sac disappears, and the calcareous plate continues to grow as the
+  nucleus of the permanent shell. In the slug _Testacella_ (fig. 56, C)
+  the shell-plate never attains a large size, though naked. In other
+  slugs, namely, _Limax_ and _Arion_, the shell-sac remains permanently
+  closed over the shell-plate, which in the latter genus consists of a
+  granular mass of carbonate of lime. The permanence of the primitive
+  shell-sac in these slugs is a point of considerable interest. It is
+  clear enough that the sac is of a different origin from that of
+  _Aplysia_ (described in the section treating of Opisthobranchia),
+  being primitive instead of secondary. It seems probable that it is
+  identical with one of the open sacs in which each shell-plate of a
+  _Chiton_ is formed, and the series of plate-like imbrications which
+  are placed behind the single shell-sac on the dorsum of the curious
+  slug, _Plectrophorus_, suggest the possibility of the formation of a
+  series of shell-sacs on the back of that animal similar to those which
+  we find in _Chiton_. Whether the closed primitive shell-sac of the
+  slugs (and with it the transient embryonic shell-gland of all other
+  Mollusca) is precisely the same thing as the closed sac in which the
+  calcareous pen or shell of the Cephalopod _Sepia_ and its allies is
+  formed, is a further question which we shall consider when dealing
+  with the Cephalopoda. It is important here to note that _Clausilia_
+  furnishes us with an exceptional instance of the _continuity_ of the
+  shell or secreted product of the primitive shell-sac with the adult
+  shell. In most other Mollusca (Anisopleurous Gastropods, Pteropods and
+  Conchifera) there is a want of such continuity; the primitive
+  shell-sac contributes no factor to the permanent shell, or only a very
+  minute knob-like particle (_Neritina_ and _Paludina_). It flattens out
+  and disappears before the work of forming the permanent shell
+  commences. And just as there is a break at this stage, so (as observed
+  by A. Krohn in _Marsenia_ = _Echinospira_) there _may_ be a break at a
+  later stage, the nautiloid shell formed on the larva being cast, and a
+  new shell of a different form being formed afresh on the surface of
+  the visceral hump. It is, then, in this sense that we may speak of
+  primary, secondary and tertiary shells in Mollusca recognizing the
+  fact that they _may_ be merely phases fused by continuity of growth so
+  as to form but one shell, or that in other cases they _may_ be
+  presented to us as separate individual things, in virtue of the
+  non-development of the later phases, or in virtue of sudden changes in
+  the activity of the mantle-surface causing the shedding or
+  disappearance of one phase of shell-formation before a later one is
+  entered upon.
+
+  The development of the aquatic Pulmonata from the egg offers
+  considerable facilities for study, and that of _Limnaeus_ has been
+  elucidated by E.R. Lankester, whilst H. Rabl has with remarkable skill
+  applied the method of sections to the study of the minute embryos of
+  _Planorbis_. The chief features in the development of _Limnaeus_ are
+  exhibited in fig. 60. There is not a very large amount of
+  food-material present in the egg of this snail, and accordingly the
+  cells resulting from division are not so unequal as in many other
+  cases. The four cells first formed are of equal size, and then four
+  smaller cells are formed by division of these four so as to lie at one
+  end of the first four (the pole corresponding to that at which the
+  "directive corpuscles" are extruded and remain). The smaller cells now
+  divide and spread over the four larger cells; at the same time a
+  space--the cleavage cavity or blastocoel--forms in the centre of the
+  mulberry-like mass. Then the large cells recommence the process of
+  division and sink into the hollow of the sphere, leaving an elongated
+  groove, the blastopore, on the surface. The invaginated cells (derived
+  from the division of the four big cells) form the endoderm or
+  arch-enteron; the outer cells are the ectoderm. The blastopore now
+  closes along the middle part of its course, which coincides in
+  position with the future "foot." One end of the blastopore becomes
+  nearly closed, and an ingrowth of ectoderm takes place around it to
+  form the stomodaeum or fore-gut and mouth. The other extreme end
+  closes, but the invaginated endoderm cells remain in continuity with
+  this extremity of the blastopore, and form the "rectal peduncle" or
+  "pedicle of invagination" of Lankester, although the endoderm cells
+  retain no contact with the middle region of the now closed-up
+  blastopore. The anal opening forms at a late period by a very short
+  ingrowth or proctodaeum coinciding with the blind termination of the
+  rectal peduncle (fig. 60, pi).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 60.--Embryo of _Limnaeus stagnalis_, at a stage
+  when the Trochosphere is developing foot and shell-gland and becoming
+  a Veliger, seen as a transparent object under slight pressure.
+  (Lankester.)
+
+    ph, Pharynx (stomodaeal invagination).
+    v, v, The ciliated band marking out the velum.
+    ng, Cerebral nerve-ganglion.
+    re, Stiebel's canal (left side), probably an evanescent embryonic
+      nephridium.
+    sh, The primitive shell-sac or shell-gland.
+    pi, The rectal peduncle or pedicle of invagination; its attachment
+      to the ectoderm is coincident with the hindmost extremity of the
+      elongated blastopore of fig. 3, C.
+    tge, Mesoblastic (skeleto-trophic and muscular) cells investing
+      gs, the bilobed arch-enteron or lateral vesicles of invaginated
+      endoderm, which will develop into liver.
+    f, The foot.]
+
+  The body-cavity and the muscular, fibrous and vascular tissues are
+  traced partly to two symmetrically disposed "mesoblasts," which bud
+  off from the invaginated arch-enteron, partly to cells derived from
+  the ectoderm, which at a very early stage is connected by long
+  processes with the invaginated endoderm. The external form of the
+  embryo goes through the same changes as in other Gastropods, and is
+  not, as was held previously to Lankester's observations, exceptional.
+  When the middle and hinder regions of the blastopore are closing in,
+  an equatorial ridge of ciliated cells is formed, converting the embryo
+  into a typical trochosphere.
+
+  The foot now protrudes below the mouth, and the post-oral hemisphere
+  of the trochosphere grows more rapidly then the anterior or velar
+  area. The young foot shows a bilobed form. Within the velar area the
+  eyes and the cephalic tentacles commence to rise up, and on the
+  surface of the post-oral region is formed a cap-like shell and an
+  encircling ridge, which gradually increases in prominence and becomes
+  the freely depending mantle-skirt. The outline of the velar area
+  becomes strongly emarginated and can be traced through the more mature
+  embryos to the cephalic lobes or labial processes of the adult
+  _Limnaeus_ (fig. 61).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 61.--A, B, C. Three views of _Limnaeus stagnalis_,
+  in order to show the persistence of the larval velar area v, as the
+  circum-oral lobes of the adult. m, Mouth; f, foot; v, velar area, the
+  margin v corresponding with the ciliated band which demarcates the
+  velar area or velum of the embryo Gastropod (see fig. 4, D, E, F, H,
+  I, v). (Original.)]
+
+  The increase of the visceral dome, its spiral twisting, and the
+  gradual closure of the space overhung by the mantle-skirt so as to
+  convert it into a lung-sac with a small contractile aperture, belong
+  to stages in the development later than any represented in our
+  figures.
+
+  We may now revert briefly to the internal organization at a period
+  when the trochosphere is beginning to show a prominent foot growing
+  out from the area where the mid-region of the elongated blastopore was
+  situated, and having therefore at one end of it the mouth and at the
+  other the anus. Fig. 60 represents such an embryo under slight
+  compression as seen by transmitted light. The ciliated band of the
+  left side of the velar area is indicated by a line extending from v to
+  v; the foot f is seen between the pharynx ph and the pedicle of
+  invagination pi. The mass of the arch-enteron or invaginated
+  endodermal sac has taken on a bilobed form, and its cells are swollen
+  (gs and tge). This bilobed sac becomes _entirely_ the liver in the
+  adult; the intestine and stomach are formed from the pedicle of
+  invagination, whilst the pharynx, oesophagus and crop form from the
+  stomodaeal invagination ph. To the right (in the figure) of the rectal
+  peduncle is seen the deeply invaginated shell-gland ss, with a
+  secretion sh protruding from it. The shell-gland is destined in
+  _Limnaeus_ to become very rapidly stretched out, and to disappear.
+  Farther up, within the velar area, the rudiments of the cerebral
+  nerve-ganglion ng are seen separating from the ectoderm. A remarkable
+  cord of cells having a position just below the integument occurs on
+  each side of the head. In the figure the cord of the left side is
+  seen, marked re. This paired organ consists of a string of cells which
+  are perforated by a duct opening to the exterior and ending internally
+  in a flame-cell. Such cannulated cells are characteristic of the
+  nephridia of many worms, and the organs thus formed in the embryo
+  _Limnaeus_ are embryonic nephridia. The most important fact about them
+  is that they disappear, and are in no way connected with the typical
+  nephridium of the adult. In reference to their first observer they
+  were formerly called "Stiebel's canals." Other Pulmonata possess, when
+  embryos, Stiebel's canals in a more fully developed state, for
+  instance, the common slug _Limax_. Here too they disappear during
+  embryonic life. Similar larval nephridia occur in other Gastropoda. In
+  the marine Streptoneura they are ectodermic projections which
+  ultimately fall off; in the Opisthobranchs they are closed pouches; in
+  _Paludina_ and _Bithynia_ they are canals as in Pulmonata.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 62.--_Oncidium tonganum_, a littoral Pulmonate,
+  found on the shores of the Indian and Pacific Oceans (Mauritius,
+  Japan).]
+
+  _Marine Pulmonata._--Whilst the Pulmonata are essentially a
+  terrestrial and fresh-water group, there is one genus of slug-like
+  Pulmonates which frequent the sea-coast (_Oncidium_, fig. 62). Karl
+  Semper has shown that these slugs have, in addition to the usual pair
+  of cephalic eyes, a number of eyes developed upon the dorsal
+  integument. These dorsal eyes are very perfect in elaboration,
+  possessing lens, retinal nerve-end cells, retinal pigment and optic
+  nerve. Curiously enough, however, they differ from the cephalic
+  Molluscan eye in the fact that, as in the vertebrate eye, the
+  filaments of the optic nerve penetrate the retina, and are connected
+  with the surfaces of the nerve-end cells nearer the lens instead of
+  with the opposite end. The significance of this arrangement is not
+  known, but it is important to note, as shown by V. Henson, S.J.
+  Hickson and others, that in the bivalves _Pecten_ and _Spondylus_,
+  which also have eyes upon the mantle quite distinct from typical
+  cephalic eyes, there is the same relationship as in Oncidiidae of the
+  optic nerve to the retinal cells. In both Oncidiidae and _Pecten_ the
+  pallial eyes have probably been developed by the modification of
+  tentacles, such as coexist in an unmodified form with the eyes. The
+  Oncidiidae are, according to K. Semper, pursued as food by the leaping
+  fish _Periophthalmus_, and the dorsal eyes are of especial value to
+  them in aiding them to escape from this enemy.
+
+  Sub-order 1.--BASOMMATOPHORA. Pulmonata with an external shell. The
+  head bears a single pair of contractile but not invaginable tentacles,
+  at the base of which are the eyes. Penis at some distance from the
+  female aperture, except in _Amphibola_ and _Siphonaria_. All have an
+  osphradium, except the _Auriculidae_, which are terrestrial, and it is
+  situated outside the pallial cavity in those forms in which water is
+  not admitted into the lung. There is a veliger stage in development,
+  but the velum is reduced.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Auriculidae_. Terrestrial and usually littoral; genital
+    duct monaulic, the penis being connected with the aperture by an
+    open or closed groove; shell with a prominent spire, the internal
+    partitions often absorbed and the aperture denticulated. _Auricula.
+    Cassidula. Alexia. Melampus. Carychium_, terrestrial, British.
+    _Scarabus. Leuconia_, British. _Blauneria. Pedipes_.
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Otinidae_. Shell with short spire, and wide oval aperture;
+    tentacles short. _Otina_, British. _Camptonyx_, terrestrial.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Amphibolidae_. Shell spirally coiled; head broad, without
+    prominent tentacles; foot short, operculated; marine. _Amphibola_.
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Siphonariidae_. Visceral mass and shell conical; tentacles
+    atrophied; head expanded; genital apertures contiguous; marine
+    animals, with an aquatic pallial cavity containing secondary
+    branchial laminae. _Siphonaria_.
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Gadiniidae_. Visceral mass and shell conical; head
+    flattened; pallial cavity aquatic, but without a branchia; genital
+    apertures separated. _Gadinia_.
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Chilinidae_. Shell ovoid, with short spire, wide aperture
+    and folded columella; inferior pallial lobe thick; visceral
+    commissure still twisted. _Chilina_.
+
+    Fam. 7.--_Limnaeidae_. Shell thin, dextral, with prominent spire and
+    oval aperture; no inferior pallial lobe. _Limnaea_, British.
+    _Amphipeplea_, British.
+
+    Fam. 8.--_Pompholygidae_. Shell dextral, hyperstrophic, animal
+    sinistral. _Pompholyx. Choanomphalus_.
+
+    Fam. 9.--_Planorbidae_. Visceral mass and shell sinistral; inferior
+    pallial lobe very prominent, and transformed into a branchia.
+    _Planorbis_, British. _Bulinus. Miratesta_.
+
+    Fam. 10.--_Ancylidae_. Shell conical, not spiral; inferior pallial
+    lobe transformed into a branchia. _Ancylus_, British. _Latia.
+    Grundlachia_.
+
+    Fam. 11.--_Physidae_. Visceral mass and shell sinistrally coiled;
+    shell thin, with narrow aperture; no inferior pallial lobe. _Physa_,
+    British. _Aplexa_, British.
+
+  Sub-order 2.--STYLOMMATOPHORA. Pulmonata with two pairs of tentacles,
+  except _Janellidae_ and _Vertigo_; these tentacles are invaginable,
+  and the eyes are borne on the summits of the posterior pair. Male and
+  female genital apertures open into a common vestibule, except in
+  _Vaginulidae_ and _Oncidiidae_. Except in _Oncidium_, there is no
+  longer a veliger stage in development.
+
+  Tribe 1.--HOLOGNATHA. Jaw simple, without a superior appendage.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Selenitidae_. Radula with elongated and pointed teeth,
+    like those of the Agnatha; a jaw present. _Plutonia.
+    Trigonochlamys_.
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Zonitidae_. Shell external, smooth, heliciform or
+    flattened; radula with pointed marginal teeth. _Zonites_, British.
+    _Ariophanta. Orpiella. Vitrina. Helicarion_.
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Limacidae_. Shell internal. _Limax_, British. _Parmacella.
+    Urocyclus. Parmarion. Amalia. Agriolimax. Mesolimax. Monochroma.
+    Paralimax. Metalimax_.
+
+    Fam. 4.--_Philomycidae_. No shell; mantle covers the whole surface
+    of the body; radula with squarish teeth. _Philomycus_.
+
+    Fam. 5.--_Ostracolethidae_. Shell largely chitinous, not spiral, its
+    calcareous apex projecting through a small hole in the mantle.
+    _Ostracolethe_.
+
+    Fam. 6.--_Arionidae_. Shell internal, or absent; mantle restricted
+    to the anterior and middle part of the body; radula with squarish
+    teeth. _Arion_, British. _Geomalacus. Ariolimax. Anadenus_.
+
+    Fam. 7.--_Helicidae_. Shell with medium spire, external or partly
+    covered by the mantle; genital aperture below the right posterior
+    tentacle; genital apparatus generally provided with a dart-sac and
+    multifid vesicles. _Helix_, British. _Bulimus. Hemphillia.
+    Berendtia. Cochlostyla. Rhodea_.
+
+    Fam. 8.--_Endodontidae_. Shell external, spiral, generally
+    ornamented with ribs; borders of aperture thin and not reflected;
+    radula with square teeth; genital ducts without accessory organs.
+    _Endodonta. Punctum. Sphyradium. Laoma. Pyramidula._
+
+    Fam. 9.--_Orthalicidae._ Shell external, ovoid, the last whorl
+    swollen, aperture oval with a simple border; radular teeth in
+    oblique rows. _Orthalicus._
+
+    Fam. 10.--_Bulimulidae._ Jaw formed of folds imbricated externally
+    and meeting at an acute angle near the base. _Bulimulus. Peltella.
+    Amphibulimus._
+
+    Fam. 11.--_Cylindrellidae._ Shell turriculated, with numerous
+    whorls, the last more or less detached. _Cylindrella._
+
+    Fam. 12.--_Pupidae._ Shell external, with elongated spire and
+    numerous whorls, aperture generally narrow; male genital duct
+    without multifid vesicles. _Pupa_, British. _Eucalodium. Vertigo_,
+    British. _Buliminus_, British. _Clausilia_, British. _Balea.
+    Zospeum. Megaspira. Strophia. Anostoma._
+
+    Fam. 13.--_Stenogyridae._ Shell elongated, with a more or less
+    obtuse summit; aperture with a simple border. _Achatina. Stenogyra.
+    Ferussacia_, British. _Cionella. Caecilianella. Azeca. Opeas._
+
+    Fam. 14.--_Helicteridae._ Shell bulimoid, dextral or sinistral;
+    radular teeth, expanded at their extremities and multicuspidate.
+    _Helicter. Tornatellina._
+
+  Tribe 2.--AGNATHA. No jaws; teeth narrow and pointed; carnivorous.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Oleacinidae._ Shell oval, elongated, with narrow aperture;
+    neck very long; labial palps prominent. _Oleacina (Glandina).
+    Streptostyla._
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Testacellidae._ Shell globular or auriform, external or
+    partly covered by the mantle. _Streptaxis. Gibbulina. Aerope.
+    Rhytida. Daudebardia. Testacella. Chlamydophorus. Schizoglossa._
+
+    Fam. 3.--_Rathouisiidae._ No shell, a carinated mantle covering the
+    whole body; male and female apertures distant, the female near the
+    anus. _Rathouisia. Atopos._
+
+  Tribe 3.--ELASMOGNATHA. Jaw with a well-developed dorsal appendage.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Succineidae._ Anterior tentacles much reduced; male and
+    female apertures contiguous but distinct; shell thin, spiral, with
+    short spire. _Succinea_, British. _Homalonyx. Hyalimax.
+    Neohyalimax._
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Janellidae._ Limaciform, with internal rounded shell;
+    mantle very small and triangular; pulmonary chamber with tracheae;
+    no anterior tentacles. _Janella. Aneitella. Aneitea.
+    Triboniophorus._
+
+  Tribe 4.--DITREMATA. Male and female apertures distant.
+
+    Fam. 1.--_Vaginulidae._ No shell; limaciform; terrestrial; female
+    aperture on right side in middle of body; anus posterior.
+    _Vaginula._
+
+    Fam. 2.--_Oncidiidae._ No shell; limaciform; littoral; female
+    aperture posterior, near anus; a reduced pulmonary cavity with a
+    distinct aperture. _Oncidium. Oncidiella_, British. _Peronia._
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--L. Boutan, "La Cause principale de l'asymetrie des
+  mollusques gasteropodes," _Arch. de zool. exper._ (3), vii. (1899); A.
+  Lang, "Versuch einer Erklarung der Asymmetrie der Gastropoder,"
+  _Vierteljahrsschr. naturforsch. Gesellschaft_, Zurich, 36 (1892); A.
+  Robert, "Recherches sur le developpement des Troques," _Arch. de zool.
+  exper._ (3), x. (1903); P. Pelseneer, "Report on the Pteropoda,"
+  _Zool. "Challenger" Expedit._ pts. lviii., lxv., lxvi. (1887, 1888);
+  P. Pelseneer, "Protobranches aeriens et Pulmones branchiferes," _Arch.
+  de biol._ xiv. (1895); W.A. Herdman, "On the Structure and Functions
+  of the Cerata or Dorsal Papillae in some Nudibranchiate Mollusca,"
+  _Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci._ (1892); J.T. Cunningham, "On the Structure
+  and Relations of the Kidney in Aplysia," _Mitt. Zool. Stat. Neapel_,
+  iv. (1883); Bohmig, "Zur feineren Anatomie von _Rhodope veranyi_,
+  Kolliker," _Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool._ vol. lvi. (1893).
+
+  TREATISES.--S.P. Woodward, _Manual of the Mollusca_ (2nd ed., with
+  appendix, London, 1869); E. Forbes and S. Hanley, _History of British
+  Mollusca_ (4 vols., London, 1853); Alder and Hancock, _Monograph of
+  British Nudibranchiate Mollusca_ (London, Roy. Society, 1845); P.
+  Pelseneer, _Mollusca. Treatise on Zool._, edited by E. Ray Lankester,
+  pt. v. (1906); E. Ray Lankester, "Mollusca," in 9th ed. of this
+  Encyclopaedia, to which this article is much indebted.     (J. T. C)
+
+
+
+
+GASTROTRICHA, a small group of fairly uniform animals which live among
+Rotifers and Protozoa at the bottom of ponds and marshes, biding amongst
+the recesses of the algae and sphagnum and other fresh-water plants and
+eating organic debris and Infusoria. They are of minute size varying
+from one-sixtieth to one-three-hundredth of an inch, and they move by
+means of long cilia. Two ventral bands composed of regular transverse
+rows of cilia are usually found. The head bears some especially large
+cilia. The cuticle which covers the body is here and there raised into
+overlapping scales which may be prolonged into bristles. An enlarged,
+frontal scale may cover the head, and a row of scales separates the
+ventral ciliated areas from one another, whilst two series of
+alternating rows cover the back and side. The body, otherwise circular
+in section, is slightly flattened ventrally. The mouth is anterior and
+slightly ventral; it leads into a protrusible pharynx armed with
+recurved teeth that can be everted. This leads to a muscular oesophagus
+with a triradiate lumen, which acts as a sucking pump and ends in a
+funnel-valve projecting into the stomach. The last named is oval and
+formed of four rows of large cells; it is separated by a sphincter from
+the rectum, which opens posteriorly and dorsally. The nitrogenous
+excretory apparatus consists of a coiled tube on each side of the
+stomach; internally the tubes end in large flame-cells, and externally
+by small pores which lie on the edges of the ventral row of scales. A
+cerebral ganglion rests on the oesophagus and supplies the cephalic
+cilia and hairs; it is continued some way back as two dorsal nerve
+trunks. The sense organs are the hairs and bristles and in some species
+eyes. The muscles are simple and unstriated and for the most part run
+longitudinally.
+
+[Illustration: From _Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaft Zoologie_, vol. xlix.
+p. 209, by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann.
+
+  _Chaetonotus maximus_, Ehrb., ventral side. (After Zelinka.)
+  Bo, Bristles surrounding the mouth.
+  ds, Dorsal bristles.
+  hCi, Posterior lateral cilia.
+  Ke, Cuticular dome.
+  Mr, Oral cavity.
+  lT, Lateral sensory hairs.
+  Pl, Cuticular plates.
+  Sa, Dorsal bristle of the basal part.
+  Sch, Plates.
+  Se, Lateral bristles.
+  Vb, Point of union of ciliated tract.
+  vCi, Anterior group of cilia.
+  vS, Ventral bristles of the basal part.]
+
+The two ovaries lie at the level of the juncture of the stomach and
+rectum. The eggs become very large, sometimes half the length of the
+mother; they are laid amongst water weeds. The male reproductive system
+is but little known, a small gland lying between the ovaries has been
+thought to be a testis, and if it be, the Gastrotricha are
+hermaphrodite.
+
+  Zelinka classifies the group as follows:--
+
+  Sub-order 1.--EUICHTHYDINA with a forked tail.
+
+  (i.) Fam. Ichthydidae, without bristles. Genera: _Ichthydium,
+  Lepidoderma_.
+
+  (ii.) Fam. Chaetonotidae, with bristles. Genera: _Chaetonotus,
+  Chaetura_.
+
+  Sub-order 2.--APODINA, tail not forked. Genera: _Dasydytes, Gossea,
+  Stylochaeta_.
+
+  The genus _Aspidiophorus_ recently described by Voigt seems in some
+  respects intermediate between _Lepidoderma_ and _Chaetonotus_.
+  _Zelinkia_ and _Philosyrtis_ are two slightly aberrant forms described
+  by Giard from certain diatomaceous sands. Altogether there must be
+  some forty to fifty described species.
+
+  The group is an isolated one and shows no clear affinities with any of
+  the great phyla. Those that are usually dwelt on are treated with the
+  Rotifers and Nematoda and Turbellaria.
+
+  LITERATURE.--A.C. Stokes, _The Microscope_ (Detroit, 1887-1888); C.
+  Zelinka, _Zeitschr. wiss. Zool._ xlix., 1890, p. 209; M. Voigt,
+  _Forschber. Plon._ Th. ix., 1904, p. 1; A. Giard, _C. R. Soc. Biol._
+  lvi. pp. 1061 and 1063; E. Daday, _Termes. Fuzetek._ xxiv. p. 1; F.
+  Zschokke, _Denk. Schweiz. Ges._ xxxvii. p. 109; S. Hlava, _Zool. Anz._
+  xxviii., 1905, p. 331.     (A. E. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GATAKER, THOMAS (1574-1654), English divine, was born in London in
+September 1574, and educated at St John's College, Cambridge. From 1601
+to 1611 he held the appointment of preacher to the society of Lincoln's
+Inn, which he resigned on accepting the rectory of Rotherhithe. In 1642
+he was chosen a member of the assembly of divines at Westminster, and
+annotated for that assembly the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and
+Lamentations. He disapproved of the introduction of the Covenant, and
+declared himself in favour of episcopacy. He was one of the forty-seven
+London clergymen who disapproved of the trial of Charles I. He was
+married four times, and died in July 1654.
+
+  His principal works, besides some volumes of sermons are--_On the
+  Nature and Use of Lots_ (1619), a curious treatise which led to his
+  being accused of favouring games of chance; _Dissertatio de stylo Novi
+  Testamenti_ (1648); _Cinnus, sive Adversaria miscellanea, in quibus
+  Sacrae Scripturae primo, deinde aliorum scriptorum, locis aliquam
+  multis lux redditur_ (1651), to which was afterwards subjoined
+  _Adversaria Posthuma_; and his edition of _Marcus Antoninus_ (1652),
+  which, according to Hallam, is the "earliest edition of any classical
+  writer published in England with original annotations," and, for the
+  period at which it was written, possesses remarkable merit. His
+  collected works were published at Utrecht in 1698.
+
+
+
+
+GATCHINA, a town of Russia, in the government of St Petersburg, 29 m. by
+rail S. of the city of St Petersburg, in 59 deg. 34' N. and 30 deg. 6'
+E. Pop. (1860) 9184; (1897) 14,735. It is situated in a flat,
+well-wooded, and partly marshy district, and on the south side of the
+town are two lakes. Among its more important buildings are the imperial
+palace, which was founded in 1770 by Prince Orlov, and constructed
+according to the plans of the Italian architect Rinaldi; a military
+orphanage, founded in 1803; and a school for horticulture. Among the few
+industrial establishments is a porcelain factory. At Gatchina an
+alliance was concluded between Russia and Sweden on the 29th of October
+1799.
+
+
+
+
+GATE, an opening into any enclosure for entrance or exit, capable of
+being closed by a barrier at will. The word is of wide application,
+embracing not only the defensive entrance ways into a fortified place,
+with which this article mainly deals, or the imposing architectural
+features which form the main entrances to palaces, colleges, monastic
+buildings, &c., but also the common five-barred barrier which closes an
+opening into a field. The most general distinction that can be made
+between "door" and "gate" is that of size, the greater entrance into a
+court containing other buildings being the "gate," the smaller entrances
+opening directly into the particular buildings the "doors," or that of
+construction, the whole entrance way being a "gate" or gateway, the
+barrier which closes it a "door." A further distinction is drawn by
+applying "door" to the solid barriers or "valves" of wood, metal, &c.,
+made in panels and fitted to a framework, and "gate" to an openwork
+structure, whether of metal or wood (see further DOOR and METAL-WORK).
+The ultimate origin of the word is obscure; the early forms appear with
+a palatalized initial letter, still surviving in such dialectical forms
+as "yate," or in Scots "yett." It is probably connected with the root of
+"get," in the sense either of "means of access" or of "holding,"
+"receptacle"; cf. Dutch _gat_, hole. There may be a connexion, however,
+with "gate," now usually spelled "gait," a manner of walking,[1] but
+originally a way, passage; cf. Ger. _Gasse_, narrow street, lane.
+
+The entrance through the enclosing walls of a city or fortification has
+been from the earliest times a place of the utmost importance,
+considered architecturally, socially or from the point of view of the
+military engineer. In the East the "gate" was and still is in many
+Mahommedan countries the central place of civic life. Here was the seat
+of justice and of audience, the most important market-place, the spot
+where men gathered to receive and exchange news. The references in the
+Bible to the gates of the city in all these varied aspects are
+innumerable (cf. Gen. xix. 1; Deut. xxv. 7; Ruth iv. 1; 2 Sam. xix. 8; 2
+Kings vii. 1). Later the seat of justice and of government is
+transferred to the gate of the palace of the king (cf. Dan. ii. 49, and
+Esther ii. 19), and this use is preserved to-day in the official title
+of the seat of government of the Turkish empire at Constantinople, the
+"Sublime Porte," a translation of the Turkish _Bab Aliy_ (_bab_, gate,
+and _aliy_, high). A full account with many modern instances of Eastern
+customs will be found in Sir Charles Warren's article "Gate" in
+Hastings's _Dict. of Bible_. For the "pylon," the typical gate of
+Egyptian architecture, see ARCHITECTURE.
+
+The gates into a walled town or other fortified place were necessarily
+in early times the chief points on which the attack concentrated, and
+the features, common throughout the ages, of flanking or surmounting
+towers and of galleries over the entrance way, are found in the Assyrian
+gate at Khorsabad (cf. 2 Chron. xxvi. 9; 2 Sam. xviii. 24). With the
+coming of peaceful times to a city or the removal of the fear of sudden
+attack, the gateways would take a form adapted more for ready exit and
+entrance than for defence, though the possibility of defending them was
+not forgotten. Such city gates often had separate openings for entrance
+and exit, and again for foot passengers and for vehicles. The
+Gallo-Roman gate at Autun has four entrances, two just wide enough to
+admit carriages, and two narrow alleys for foot passengers. A fine
+example of a Roman city gate, dating from the time of Constantine, is at
+Treves. It is four storeys high, with ornamental windows, and decorated
+with columns on each storey. The two outer wings project beyond the
+central part, the two entrance ways are 14 ft. wide, and could be closed
+by doors and a portcullis. The chambers in the storeys above were used
+for the purposes of civil administration. In more modern times city
+gateways have often followed the type of the Roman triumphal arch, with
+a single wide opening and purely ornamental superstructure. On the other
+hand, the defensive gate formed by an archway entering as it were
+through a tower has been constantly followed as a type of entrance to
+buildings of an entirely peaceful character. A fine example of such a
+gateway, originally built for defence, is at Battle Abbey; this was
+built by Abbot Retlynge in 1338, when Edward III. granted a licence to
+fortify and crenellate the abbey. Such gateways are typical of Tudor
+palaces, as at St James's or at Hampton Court, and are the most common
+form in the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge. The Tom Gate at Christ
+Church, Oxford, with its surmounted domed bell tower, or the cupola
+resting on columns at Queen's College, Oxford, are further examples of
+the gate architecturally considered.
+
+The changes the fortified gateway has undergone in construction and the
+varying relative importance it has held in the scheme of defence follow
+the lines of development taken by the history of FORTIFICATION AND
+SIEGECRAFT (q.v.). The following is a short sketch of the main stages in
+its history. A good example of the Roman fortified city gate still
+remains at Pompeii. Here there is one passage way for vehicles, 14 ft.
+wide; this is open to the sky. The two footways on either side are
+arched, with openings in the centre on to the central way. The doors of
+the gate are on the city side, but a portcullis (_cataracta_) closed it
+on the country side. The gateways of the Roman permanent camps (_castra
+stativa_) were four in number, the _porta praetoria_ and _Decumana_ at
+either end, with _principalis dextra_ and _sinistra_ on the side (see
+also CAMP). At Pevensey (_Anderida_) a small postern on the north side
+of the Roman walls was laid bare in 1906-1907, in which the passage
+curves in the thickness of the wall, and from a width admitting two men
+abreast narrows so that one alone could block it. Flanking towers or
+bastions guarded the main entrances, while in front were built outworks,
+of palisades, &c., to protect it; these were known as _procastra_ or
+_antemuralia_, and the entrances to these were placed so that they could
+be flanked from the main walls.
+
+In the defence of a fortified place the gate had not only to be
+protected from sudden surprise, but also had to undergo protracted
+attacks concentrated upon it during a siege. Thus until the coming of
+gunpowder, the ingenuity of military engineers was exhausted in
+accumulating the most complicated defences round the gateways, and the
+strength of a fortified place could be estimated by the fewness of its
+gates. Viollet-le-Duc (_Dict. de l'arch. du moyen age_, s.v. _Porte_)
+takes the Narbonne and Aude gates (E. and W.) of Carcassonne as typical
+instances of this complication. The following brief account of the
+Narbonne Gate (fig. 1), one of the principal parts of the work on the
+fortifications begun by Philip the Bold in 1285, will give some idea of
+the varied means of defence, which may be found individually if not
+always in such collective abundance in the fortified gateways of the
+middle ages. Two massive towers flanked the actual entrance and were
+linked across by an iron chain; over the entrance (E) was a
+machicolation, further added to in time of war by a hoarding of timber;
+and an outer portcullis fell in front of the heavy iron-lined doors. On
+to the passage way between the first and second doors opened a square
+machicolation (G) from which the defenders in the upper chambers of the
+gate could attack an enemy that had succeeded in breaking through the
+first entrance or had been trapped by the falling of the first
+portcullis. Another machicolation (I) opened from the roof in front of
+the second portcullis and second door. So much for the gate itself; but
+before an attack could reach that point, the following defences had to
+be passed: an immense circular barbican (A) protected the entrance
+across the moat and through the outer _enceinte_ of the city. This
+entrance was flanked by a masked return of the wall (C), while palisades
+(P) still further hampered the assailant in his passage across the
+"lists" to the foot of the gate towers. Here sappers would find
+themselves exposed to a fire from the loopholes and from the
+machicolated hoardings above them, while the projecting horns with which
+the face of the towers terminated forced them to uncover themselves to a
+flanking fire from the indents in the main curtain on either side of the
+towers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Plan of the Narbonne Gate of the city of
+Carcassonne.]
+
+The later history of the gateway is merged in that of modern
+fortification. The more elaborate the gate defences the greater was the
+inducement for the besieger to attack the walls, and improvements in
+methods of siegecraft ultimately compelled the defender to develop the
+_enceinte_ from its medieval form of a ring wall with flanking towers to
+the 17th century form of bastions, curtains, tenailles and ravelins, all
+intimately connected in one general scheme of defence. By Vauban's time
+there is little to distinguish the position and defences of the gateways
+from the rest of the fortifications surrounding a town. A road from the
+country usually entered one of the ravelins, sinking into the glacis,
+crossing the ditch of the ravelin and piercing the parapet almost at
+right angles to its proper direction (see fig. 2, which also shows a
+typical arrangement of minor communications such as ramps and
+staircases). From the interior of the ravelin it passed across the main
+ditch to a gate in the curtain of the enceinte. The road was in fact
+artificially made to wind in such a way that it was kept under fire from
+the defences throughout, while the part of it inside the works was bent
+so as to place a covering mass between the enemy's fire and troops using
+the road for a sortie. Thus the gate itself was merely a barrier against
+a _coup de main_ and to keep out unauthorized persons. In conditions
+precluding the making of a breach in the walls, i.e. in surprises and
+assaults _de vive force_, the gateway and accompanying drawbridge
+continue to play their part in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, but
+they seldom or never appear as the objectives of a siege _en regle_. In
+Vauban's works, and those of most other engineers, there was generally a
+postern giving access to the floor of the main ditch, in the centre of
+the curtain escarp. The gates of Vauban's and later fortresses are
+strong heavy wooden doors, and the gateways more or less ornamental
+archways, exactly as in many private mansions of castellar form. In
+modern fortresses the gate of a detached fort or an _enceinte de surete_
+is intended purely as a defence against an unexpected rush. The usual
+method is to have two gates, the outer one a lattice or portcullis of
+iron bars and the inner one a plate of half-inch steel armour, backed by
+wood and loopholed. The defenders of the gate can by this arrangement
+fire from the inner loopholes through the outer gate upon the
+approaches, and also keep the enemy under fire whilst he is trying to
+force the outer gate itself. The ditches are crossed either by
+drawbridges or by ramps leading the road down to the floor of the ditch.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Plan of Gate Arrangements of an 18th Century
+Fortress.]
+
+The "gate" as a barrier to be removed and as an entrance to be passed is
+of constant occurrence in figurative language and in symbolical usage.
+The gates of the temple of Janus (q.v.) at Rome stood open in war and
+closed in peace. The _pylon_ of ancient Egypt had a symbolical meaning
+in the Book of the Dead, and religious significance attaches to the
+_torii_, one of the outward signs of the Shinto religion in Japan, the
+Buddhist _toran_, and to the Chinese _pai-loo_, the honorific gateways
+erected to ancestors. The gates of heaven and hell, the gates of death
+and darkness, the wide and narrow gates that lead to destruction and
+life (Matt. vii. 13 and 14), are familiar metaphorical phrases in the
+Bible. In Greek and Roman legend dreams pass through gates of
+transparent horn if true, if deceptive and false through opaque gates of
+ivory (Hom. _Od_. xix. 560 sq.; Virg. _Aen_. vi. 893).     (C. We.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The spelling "gait" is confined to this meaning--the only
+    literary one surviving. In the form "gate" it appears dialectally in
+    this sense and in such particular meanings as a right to run cattle
+    on common or private ground or as a passage way in mines. The
+    principal survival is in names of streets in the north and midlands
+    of England and in Scotland, e.g. Briggate at Leeds, Wheeler Gate and
+    Castle Gate at Nottingham, Gallow Tree Gate at Leicester, and
+    Canongate and Cowgate at Edinburgh.
+
+
+
+
+GATEHOUSE. In the second half of the 16th century in England the
+entrance gateway, which formed part of the principal front of the
+earlier feudal castles, became a detached feature attached to the
+mansions only by a wall enclosing the entrance court. The gatehouse then
+constituted a structure of some importance, and included sometimes many
+rooms as at Stanway Hall, Gloucestershire, where it measures 44 ft. by
+22 ft. and has three storeys; at Westwood, Worcestershire, it had a
+frontage of 54 ft. with two storeys; and at Burton Agnes, Yorkshire, it
+was still larger and was flanked by great octagonal towers at the angles
+and had three storeys. At a later period smaller accommodation was
+provided so that it virtually became a lodge, but being designed to
+harmonize with the mansion it presented sometimes a monumental
+structure. On the continent of Europe the gatehouse forms a much more
+important building, as it formed part of the town fortifications, where
+it sometimes defended the passage of a bridge across the stream or moat.
+There are numerous examples in France and Germany.
+
+
+
+
+GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806), American general, was born at Maldon in
+Essex, England, in 1728. He entered the English army at an early age,
+and was rapidly promoted. He accompanied General Braddock in his
+disastrous expedition against Fort Duquesne in 1755, and was severely
+wounded in the battle of July 9; and he saw other active service in the
+Seven Years' War. After the peace of 1763 he purchased an estate in
+Virginia, where he lived till the outbreak of the War of Independence
+in 1775, when he was named by Congress adjutant-general. In 1776 he was
+appointed to command the troops which had lately retreated from Canada,
+and in August 1777, as a result of a successful intrigue, was appointed
+to supersede General Philip Schuyler in command of the Northern
+Department. In the two battles of Saratoga (q.v.) his army defeated
+General Burgoyne, who, on the 17th of October, was forced to surrender
+his whole army. This success was, however, largely due to the previous
+manoeuvres of Schuyler and to Gates's subordinate officers. The
+intrigues of the Conway Cabal to have Washington superseded by Gates
+completely failed, but Gates was president for a time of the Board of
+War, and in 1780 was placed in chief command in the South. He was
+totally defeated at Camden, S. C., by Cornwallis on the 17th of August
+1780, and in December was superseded by Greene, though an investigation
+into his conduct terminated in acquittal (1782). He then retired to his
+Virginian estate, whence he removed to New York in 1790, after
+emancipating his slaves and providing for those who needed assistance.
+He died in New York on the 10th of April 1806.
+
+
+
+
+GATESHEAD, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Durham,
+England; on the S. bank of the Tyne opposite Newcastle, and on the North
+Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 85,692; (1901) 109,888. Though one of the
+largest towns in the county, neither its streets nor its public
+buildings, except perhaps its ecclesiastical buildings, have much claim
+to architectural beauty. The parish church of St Mary is an ancient
+cruciform edifice surmounted by a lofty tower; but extensive restoration
+was necessitated by a fire in 1854 which destroyed a considerable part
+of the town. The town-hall, public library and mechanic's institute are
+noteworthy buildings. Education is provided by a grammar school, a large
+day school for girls, and technical and art schools. There is a service
+of steam trams in the principal streets, and three fine bridges connect
+the town with Newcastle-upon-Tyne. There are large iron works (including
+foundries and factories for engines, boilers, chains and cables),
+shipbuilding yards, glass manufactories, chemical, soap and candle
+works, brick and tile works, breweries and tanneries. The town also
+contains a depot of the North Eastern railway, with large stores and
+locomotive works. Extensive coal mines exist in the vicinity; and at
+Gateshead Fell are large quarries for grindstones, which are much
+esteemed and are exported to all parts of the world. Large gas-works of
+the Newcastle and Gateshead Gas Company are also situated in the
+borough. The parliamentary borough returns one member. The corporation
+consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen, and 27 councillors. Area, 3132 acres.
+
+Gateshead (Gateshewed) probably grew up during late Saxon times, the
+mention of the church there in which Bishop Walcher was murdered in 1080
+being the first evidence of settlement. The borough probably obtained
+its charter during the following century, for Hugh de Puiset, bishop of
+Durham (1153-1195), confirmed to his burgesses similar rights to those
+of the burgesses of Newcastle, freedom of toll within the palatinate and
+other privileges. The bishop had a park here in 1348, and in 1438 Bishop
+Nevill appointed a keeper of the "tower." The position of the town led
+to a struggle with Newcastle over both fishing and trading rights. An
+inquisition of 1322 declared that the water of the Tyne was divided into
+three parts: the northern, belonging to Northumberland; the southern to
+Durham; and the central, common to all. At another inquisition held in
+1336 the men of Gateshead claimed liberty of trading and fishing along
+the coast of Durham, and freedom to sell their fish where they would. In
+1552, on the temporary extinction of the diocese of Durham, Gateshead
+was attached to Newcastle, but in 1554 was regranted to Bishop Tunstall.
+As compensation the bishop granted to Newcastle, at a nominal rent, the
+Gateshead salt-meadows, with rights of way to the High Street, thus
+abolishing the toll previously paid to the bishop. During the next
+century Bishop Tunstall's successors incorporated nearly all the various
+trades of Gateshead, and Cromwell continued this policy. The town
+government during this period was by the bishop's bailiff, and the
+holders of the burgages composed the juries of the bishop's courts leet
+and baron. No charter of incorporation is extant, but in 1563 contests
+were carried on under the name of the bailiffs, burgesses and
+commonalty, and a list of borough accounts exists for 1696. The bishop
+appointed the last borough bailiff in 1681, and though the inhabitants
+in 1772 petitioned for a bailiff the town remained under a steward and
+grassmen until the 19th century. As part of the palatinate of Durham,
+Gateshead was not represented in parliament until 1832. At the
+inquisition of 1336 the burgesses claimed an annual fair on St Peter's
+Day, and depositions in 1577 mention a borough market held on Tuesday
+and Friday, but these were apparently extinct in Camden's day, and no
+grant of them is extant. The medieval trade seems to have centred round
+the fisheries and the neighbouring coal mines which are mentioned in
+1364 and also by Leland.
+
+
+
+
+GATH, one of the five chief cities of the Philistines. It is frequently
+mentioned in the historical books of the Old Testament, and from Amos
+vi. 2 we conclude that, like Ashdod, it fell to Sargon in 711. Its site
+appears to have been known in the 4th century, but the name is now lost.
+Eusebius (in the _Onomasticon_) places it near the road from
+Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrin) to Diospolis (Ludd) about five Roman miles
+from the former. The Roman road between these two towns is still
+traceable, and its milestones remain in places. East of the road at the
+required distance rises a white cliff, almost isolated, 300 ft. high and
+full of caves. On the top is the little mud village of Tell es-Safi
+("the shining mound"), and beside the village is the mound which marks
+the site of the Crusaders' castle of Blanchegarde (Alba Custodia), built
+in 1144. Tell es-Safi was known by its present name as far back as the
+12th century; but it appears not improbable that the strong site here
+existing represents the ancient Gath. The cliff stands on the south side
+of the mouth of the Valley of Elah, and Gath appears to have been near
+this valley (1 Sam. xvii. 2, 52). This identification is not certain,
+but it is at least much more probable than the theory which makes Gath,
+Eleutheropolis, and Beit Jibrin one and the same place. The site was
+partially excavated by the Palestine Exploration Fund in 1899, and
+remains extending in date back to the early Canaanite period were
+discovered.
+
+
+
+
+GATLING, RICHARD JORDAN (1818-1903), American inventor, was born in
+Hertford county, North Carolina, on the 12th of September 1818. He was
+the son of a well-to-do planter and slave-owner, from whom he inherited
+a genius for mechanical invention and whom he assisted in the
+construction and perfecting of machines for sowing cotton seeds, and for
+thinning the plants. He was well educated and was successively a school
+teacher and a merchant, spending all his spare time in developing new
+inventions. In 1839 he perfected a practical screw propeller for
+steamboats, only to find that a patent had been granted to John Ericsson
+for a similar invention a few months earlier. He established himself in
+St Louis, Missouri, and taking the cotton-sowing machine as a basis he
+adapted it for sowing rice, wheat and other grains, and established
+factories for its manufacture. The introduction of these machines did
+much to revolutionize the agricultural system in the country. Becoming
+interested in the study of medicine through an attack of smallpox, he
+completed a course at the Ohio Medical College, taking his M.D. degree
+in 1850. In the same year he invented a hemp-breaking machine, and in
+1857 a steam plough. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was living in
+Indianapolis, and devoted himself at once to the perfecting of
+fire-arms. In 1861 he conceived the idea of the rapid fire machine-gun
+which is associated with his name. By 1862 he had succeeded in
+perfecting a gun that would discharge 350 shots per minute; but the war
+was practically over before the Federal authorities consented to its
+official adoption. From that time, however, the success of the invention
+was assured, and within ten years it had been adopted by almost every
+civilized nation. Gatling died in New York City on the 26th of February
+1903.
+
+
+
+
+GATTY, MARGARET (1809-1873), English writer, daughter of the Rev.
+Alexander Scott (1768-1840), chaplain to Lord Nelson, was born at
+Burnham, Essex, in 1809. She early began to draw and to etch on copper,
+being a regular visitor to the print-room of the British Museum from the
+age of ten. She also illuminated on vellum, copying the old strawberry
+borders and designing initials. In 1839 Margaret Scott married the Rev.
+Alfred Gatty, D.D., vicar of Ecclesfield near Sheffield, subdean of York
+cathedral, and the author of various works both secular and religious.
+In 1842 she published in association with her husband a life of her
+father; but her first independent work was _The Fairy Godmother and
+other Tales_, which appeared in 1851. This was followed in 1855 by the
+first of five volumes of _Parables from Nature_, the last being
+published in 1871. It was under the _nom de plume_ of Aunt Judy, as a
+pleasant and instructive writer for children, that Mrs Gatty was most
+widely known. Before starting _Aunt Judy's Magazine_ in May 1866, she
+had brought out _Aunt Judy's Tales_ (1858) and _Aunt Judy's Letters_
+(1862), and among the other children's books which she subsequently
+published were _Aunt Judy's Song Book for Children_ and _The Mother's
+Book of Poetry_. "Aunt Judy" was the nickname given by her daughter
+Juliana Horatia Ewing (q.v.). The editor of the magazine was on the
+friendliest terms with her young correspondents and subscribers, and her
+success was largely due to the sympathy which enabled her to look at
+things from the child's point of view. Besides other excellences her
+children's books are specially characterized by wholesomeness of
+sentiment and cheerful humour. Her miscellaneous writings include, in
+addition to several volumes of tales, _The Old Folks from Home_, an
+account of a holiday ramble in Ireland; _The Travels and Adventures of
+Dr Wolff the Missionary_ (1861), an autobiography edited by her;
+_British Sea Weeds_ (1862); _Waifs and Strays of Natural History_
+(1871); _A Book of Emblems_ and _The Book of Sun-Dials_ (1872). She died
+at Ecclesfield vicarage on the 4th of October 1873.
+
+
+
+
+GAU, JOHN (c. 1495-? 1553), Scottish translator, was born at Perth
+towards the close of the 15th century. He was educated in St Salvator's
+College at St Andrews. He appears to have been in residence at Malmo in
+1533, perhaps as chaplain to the Scots community there. In that year
+John Hochstraten, the exiled Antwerp printer, issued a book by Gau
+entitled: _The Richt vay to the Kingdome of Heuine_, of which the chief
+interest is that it is the first Scottish book written on the side of
+the Reformers. It is a translation of Christiern Pedersen's _Den rette
+vey till Hiemmerigis Rige_ (Antwerp, 1531), for the most part direct,
+but showing intimate knowledge in places of the German edition of
+Urbanus Rhegius. Only one copy of Gau's text is extant, in the library
+of Britwell Court, Bucks. It has been assumed that all the copies were
+shipped from Malmo to Scotland, and that the cargo was intercepted by
+the Scottish officers on the look out for the heretical works which were
+printed abroad in large numbers. This may explain the silence of all the
+historians of the Reformed Church--Knox, Calderwood and Spottiswood. Gau
+married in 1536 a Malmo citizen's daughter, bearing the Christian name
+Birgitta. She died in 1551, and he in or about 1553.
+
+  The first reference to the _Richt Vay_ appeared in Chalmers's
+  _Caledonia_, ii. 616. Chalmers, who was the owner of the unique volume
+  before it passed into the Britwell Court collection, considered it to
+  be an original work. David Laing printed extracts for the Bannatyne
+  Club (_Miscellany_, iii., 1855). The evidence that the book is a
+  translation was first given by Sonnenstein Wendt in a paper "Om
+  Reformatorerna i Malmo," in Rordam's _Ny Kirkehistoriske Samlinger_,
+  ii. (Copenhagen, 1860). A complete edition was edited by A.F. Mitchell
+  for the Scottish Text Society (1888). See also Lorimer's _Patrick
+  Hamilton_.
+
+
+
+
+GAUDEN, JOHN (1605-1662), English bishop and writer, reputed author of
+the _Eikon Basilike_, was born in 1605 at Mayland, Essex, where his
+father was vicar of the parish. Educated at Bury St Edmunds school and
+at St John's College, Cambridge, he took his M.A. degree in 1625/6. He
+married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir William Russell of Chippenham,
+Cambridgeshire, and was tutor at Oxford to two of his wife's brothers.
+He seems to have remained at Oxford until 1630, when he became vicar of
+Chippenham. His sympathies were at first with the parliamentary party.
+He was chaplain to Robert Rich, second earl of Warwick, and preached
+before the House of Commons in 1640. In 1641 he was appointed to the
+rural deanery of Bocking. Apparently his views changed as the
+revolutionary tendency of the Presbyterian party became more pronounced,
+for in 1648/9 he addressed to Lord Fairfax _A Religious and Loyal
+Protestation_ ... against the proceedings of the parliament. Under the
+Commonwealth he faced both ways, keeping his ecclesiastical preferment,
+but publishing from time to time pamphlets on behalf of the Church of
+England. At the Restoration he was made bishop of Exeter. He immediately
+began to complain to Hyde, earl of Clarendon, of the poverty of the see,
+and based claims for a better benefice on a certain secret service,
+which he explained on the 20th of January 1661 to be the sole invention
+of the _Eikon Basilike, The Pourtraicture of his sacred Majestie in his
+Solitudes and Sufferings_ put forth within a few hours after the
+execution of Charles I. as written by the king himself. To which
+Clarendon replied that he had been before acquainted with the secret and
+had often wished he had remained ignorant of it. Gauden was advanced in
+1662, not as he had wished to the see of Winchester, but to Worcester.
+He died on the 23rd of May of the same year.
+
+The evidence in favour of Gauden's authorship rests chiefly on his own
+assertions and those of his wife (who after his death sent to her son
+John a narrative of the claim), and on the fact that it was admitted by
+Clarendon, who should have had means of being acquainted with the truth.
+Gauden's letters on the subject are printed in the appendix to vol. iii.
+of the _Clarendon Papers_. The argument is that Gauden had prepared the
+book to inspire sympathy with the king by a representation of his pious
+and forgiving disposition, and so to rouse public opinion against his
+execution. In 1693 further correspondence between Gauden, Clarendon, the
+duke of York, and Sir Edward Nicholas was published by Mr Arthur North,
+who had found them among the papers of his sister-in-law, a
+daughter-in-law of Bishop Gauden; but doubt has been thrown on the
+authenticity of these papers. Gauden stated that he had begun the book
+in 1647 and was entirely responsible for it. But it is contended that
+the work was in existence at Naseby,[1] and testimony to Charles's
+authorship is brought forward from various witnesses who had seen
+Charles himself occupied with it at various times during his
+imprisonment. It is stated that the MS. was delivered by one of the
+king's agents to Edward Symmons, rector of Raine, near Bocking, and that
+it was in the handwriting of Oudart, Sir Edward Nicholas's secretary.
+The internal evidence has, as is usual in such cases, been brought
+forward as a conclusive argument in favour of both contentions. Doubt
+was thrown on Charles's authorship in Milton's _Eikonoklastes_ (1649),
+which was followed almost immediately by a royalist answer, _The
+Princely Pelican. Royall Resolves--Extracted from his Majesty's Divine
+Meditations, with satisfactory reasons ... that his Sacred Person was
+the only Author of them_ (1649). The history of the whole controversy,
+which has been several times renewed, was dealt with in Christopher
+Wordsworth's tracts in a most exhaustive way. He eloquently advocated
+Charles's authorship. Since he wrote in 1829, some further evidence has
+been forthcoming in favour of the Naseby copy. A correspondence relating
+to the French translation of the work has also come to light among the
+papers of Sir Edward Nicholas. None of the letters show any doubt that
+King Charles was the author. S.R. Gardiner (_Hist. of the Great Civil
+War_, iv. 325) regards Mr Doble's articles in the _Academy_ (May and
+June 1883) as finally disposing of Charles's claim to the authorship,
+but this is by no means the attitude of other recent writers. If Gauden
+was the author, he may have incorporated papers, &c., by Charles, who
+may have corrected the work and thus been joint-author. This theory
+would reconcile the conflicting evidence, that of those who saw Charles
+writing parts and read the MS. before publication, and the deliberate
+statements of Gauden.
+
+  See also the article by Richard Hooper in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._;
+  Christopher Wordsworth, _Who wrote Eikon Basilike?_ two letters
+  addressed to the archbishop of Canterbury (1824), and _King Charles
+  the First, the Author of Icon Basilike_ (1828); H.J. Todd, _A Letter
+  to the Archbishop of Canterbury concerning Eikon Basilike_ (1825);
+  _Bishop Gauden, The Author of the Icon Basilike_ (1829); W.G.
+  Broughton, _A Letter to a Friend_ (1826), _Additional Reasons ..._
+  (1829), supporting the contention in favour of Dr Gauden; Mr E.J.L.
+  Scott's introduction to his reprint (1880) of the original edition;
+  articles in the _Academy_, May and June 1883, by Mr C.E. Doble;
+  another reprint edited by Mr Edward Almack for the King's Classics
+  (1904); and Edward Almack, _Bibliography of the King's Book_ (1896).
+  This last book contains a summary of the arguments on either side, a
+  full bibliography of works on the subject, and facsimiles of the title
+  pages, with full descriptions of the various extant copies.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See a note in Archbishop Tenison's handwriting in his copy of the
+    _Eikon Basilike_ preserved at Lambeth Palace, and quoted in Almack's
+    _Bibliography_, p. 15.
+
+
+
+
+GAUDICHAUD-BEAUPRE, CHARLES (1789-1854), French botanist, was born at
+Angouleme on the 4th of September 1789. He studied pharmacy first in the
+shop of a brother-in-law at Cognac, and then under P.J. Robiquet at
+Paris, where from R.L. Desfontaines and L.C. Richard he acquired a
+knowledge of botany. In April 1810 he was appointed dispenser in the
+military marine, and from July 1811 to the end of 1814 he served at
+Antwerp. In 1817 he joined the corvette "Uranie" as pharmaceutical
+botanist to the circumpolar expedition commanded by D. de Freycinet. The
+wreck of the vessel on the Falkland Isles, at the close of 1819,
+deprived him of more than half the botanical collections he had made in
+various parts of the world. In 1830-1833 he visited Chile, Peru and
+Brazil, and in 1836-1837 he acted as botanist to "La Bonite" during its
+circumnavigation of the globe. His theory accounting for the growth of
+plants by the supposed coalescence of elementary "phytons" involved him,
+during the latter years of his life, in much controversy with his
+fellow-botanists, more especially C.F.B. de Mirbel. He died in Paris on
+the 16th of January 1854.
+
+  Besides accounts of his voyages round the world, Gaudichaud-Beaupre
+  wrote "Lettres sur l'organographie et la physiologie," _Arch. de
+  botanique_, ii., 1883; "Recherches generales sur l'organographie," &c.
+  (prize essay, 1835), _Mem. de l'Academie des Sciences_, t. viii. and
+  kindred treatises, with memoirs on the potato-blight, the
+  multiplication of bulbous plants, the increase in diameter of
+  dicotyledonous plants, and other subjects; and _Refutation de toutes
+  les objections contre les nouveaux principes physiologiques_ (1852).
+
+
+
+
+GAUDRY, JEAN ALBERT (1827-1908), French geologist and palaeontologist,
+was born at St Germain-en-Laye on the 16th of September 1827, and was
+educated at the college, Stanislas. At the age of twenty-five he made
+explorations in Cyprus and Greece, residing in the latter country from
+1855 to 1860. He then investigated the rich deposit of fossil vertebrata
+at Pikermi and brought to light a remarkable mammalian fauna, Miocene in
+age, and intermediate in its forms between European, Asiatic and African
+types. He also published an account of the geology of the island of
+Cyprus (_Mem. Soc. Geol. de France_, 1862). In 1853, while still in
+Cyprus, he was appointed assistant to A. d'Orbigny, who was the first to
+hold the chair of palaeontology in the museum of natural history at
+Paris. In 1872 he succeeded to this important post; in 1882 he was
+elected member of the Academy of Sciences; and in 1900 he presided over
+the meetings of the eighth International Congress of Geology then held
+in Paris. He died on the 27th of November 1908. He is distinguished for
+his researches on fossil mammalia, and for the support which his studies
+have rendered to the theory of evolution.
+
+  PUBLICATIONS.--_Animaux fossiles et geologie de l'Attique_ (2 vols.,
+  1862-1867); _Cours de paleontologie_ (1873); _Animaux fossiles du Mont
+  Leberon_ (1873); _Les Enchainements du monde animal dans les temps
+  geologiques_ (_Mammiferes Tertiaires_, 1878; _Fossiles primaires_,
+  1883; _Fossiles secondaires_, 1890); _Essai de paleontologie
+  philosophique_ (1896). Brief memoir with portrait in _Geol. Mag._
+  (1903), p. 49.     (H. B. W.)
+
+
+
+
+GAUDY, an adjective meaning showy, very bright, gay, especially with a
+sense of tasteless or vulgar extravagance, of colour or ornament. The
+accurate origin of the various senses which this word and the
+substantive "gaud" have taken are somewhat difficult to trace. They are
+all ultimately to be referred to the Lat. _gaudere_, to rejoice,
+_gaudium_, joy, some of them directly, others to the French derivative
+_gaudir_, to rejoice, and O. Fr. _gaudie_. As a noun, in the sense of
+rejoicing or feast, "gaudy" is still used of a commemoration dinner at a
+college at the university of Oxford. "Gaud," meaning generally a toy, a
+gay adornment, a piece of showy jewelry, is more specifically applied to
+larger and more decorative beads in a rosary.
+
+
+
+
+GAUERMANN, FRIEDRICH (1807-1862), Austrian painter, son of the landscape
+painter Jacob Gauermann (1773-1843), was born at Wiesenbach near
+Gutenstein in Lower Austria on the 20th of September 1807. It was the
+intention of his father that he should devote himself to agriculture,
+but the example of an elder brother, who, however, died early, fostered
+his inclination towards art. Under his father's direction he began
+studies in landscape, and he also diligently copied the works of the
+chief masters in animal painting which were contained in the academy and
+court library of Vienna. In the summer he made art tours in the
+districts of Styria, Tirol and Salzburg. Two animal pieces which he
+exhibited at the Vienna Exhibition of 1824 were regarded as remarkable
+productions for his years, and led to his receiving commissions in 1825
+and 1826 from Prince Metternich and Caraman, the French ambassador. His
+reputation was greatly increased by his picture "The Storm," exhibited
+in 1829, and from that time his works were much sought after and
+obtained correspondingly high prices. His "Field Labourer" was regarded
+by many as the most noteworthy picture in the Vienna exhibition of 1834,
+and his numerous animal pieces have entitled him to a place in the first
+rank of painters of that class of subjects. The peculiarity of his
+pictures is the representation of human and animal figures in connexion
+with appropriate landscapes and in characteristic situations so as to
+manifest nature as a living whole, and he particularly excels in
+depicting the free life of animals in wild mountain scenery. Along with
+great mastery of the technicalities of his art, his works exhibit
+patient and keen observation, free and correct handling of details, and
+bold and clear colouring. He died at Vienna on the 7th of July 1862.
+
+  Many of his pictures have been engraved, and after his death a
+  selection of fifty-three of his works was prepared for this purpose by
+  the Austrian _Kunstverein_ (Art Union).
+
+
+
+
+GAUGE, or GAGE (Med. Lat. _gauja, jaugia_, Fr. _jauge_, perhaps
+connected with Fr. _jale_, a bowl, _galon_, gallon), a standard of
+measurement, and also the name given to various instruments and
+appliances by which measurement is effected. The word seems to have been
+primarily used in connexion with the process of ascertaining the
+contents of wine casks; the name gauger is still applied to certain
+custom-house officials in the United States, and in Scotland it means an
+exciseman. Thence it was extended to other measurements, and used of the
+instruments used in making them or of the standards to which they were
+referred. In the mechanical arts gauges are employed in great variety to
+enable the workmen to ascertain whether the object he is making is of
+the proper dimensions (see TOOL), and similar gauges of various forms
+are employed to ascertain and to specify the sizes of manufactured
+articles such as wire and screws. A rain gauge is an apparatus for
+measuring the amount of the rainfall at any locality, and a wind gauge
+indicates the pressure and force of the wind. The boilers of steam
+engines are provided with a water gauge and a steam or pressure gauge.
+The purpose of the former is to enable the attendant to see whether or
+not there is a sufficient quantity of water in the boiler. It consists
+of two cocks or taps communicating with the interior, one being placed
+at the lowest point to which it is permissible for the water to fall,
+and the other at the point above which it should not rise; a glass tube
+connects the two cocks, and when they are both open the water in this
+stands at the same level as in the boiler. The steam gauge shows the
+pressure of the steam in the boiler. One of the commonest forms, known
+as the Bourdon gauge, depends on the fact that a curved tube tends to
+straighten itself if the pressure within it is greater than that outside
+it. This gauge therefore consists of a curved or coiled tube of elastic
+material, and preferably of elliptic section, connected with the boiler
+and arranged with a multiplying gear so that its bending or unbending
+actuates a pointer moving over a graduated scale. If the pressure within
+the tube is less than that outside it, the tube tends to bend or coil
+itself up further; with a pointer arranged as before, the gauge then
+becomes a vacuum gauge, indicating how far the pressure in the vessel to
+which it is attached is below that of the atmosphere. In railway
+engineering the gauge of a line is the distance between the two rails
+(see RAILWAY). In nautical language, a ship is said to have the weather
+gage when she is to windward of another, and similarly the lee gage when
+to leeward of another; in this sense the word is usually spelt "gage," a
+spelling which prevails in America for all senses.
+
+
+
+
+GAUHATI, a town of British India, in the Kamrup district of Eastern
+Bengal and Assam, mainly on the left or south, but partly on the right
+bank of the Brahmaputra. Pop. (1901) 14,244. It is beautifully situated,
+with an amphitheatre of wooded hills to the south, but is not very
+healthy. There are many evidences, such as ancient earthworks and tanks,
+of its historical importance. During the 17th century it was taken and
+retaken by Mahommedans and Ahoms eight times in fifty years, but in 1681
+it became the residence of the Ahom governor of lower Assam, and in 1786
+the capital of the Ahom raja. On the cession of Assam to the British in
+1826 it was made the seat of the British administration of Assam, and so
+continued till 1874, when the headquarters were removed to Shillong in
+the Khasi hills, 67 m. distant, with which Gauhati is connected by an
+excellent cart-road. Two much-frequented places of Hindu pilgrimage are
+situated in the immediate vicinity, the temple of Kamakhya on a hill 2
+m. west of the town, and the rocky island of Umananda in the mid-channel
+of the Brahmaputra. Gauhati is still the headquarters of the district
+and of the Brahmaputra Valley division, though no longer a military
+cantonment. It is the river terminus of a section of the Assam-Bengal
+railway. There are a second-grade college, a government high school, a
+law class and a training school for masters. Gauhati is an important
+centre of river trade, and the largest seat of commerce in Assam.
+Cotton-ginning, flour-milling, and an export trade in mustard seed,
+cotton, silk and forest produce are carried on. Gauhati suffered very
+severely from the earthquake of the 12th of June 1897.
+
+
+
+
+GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855-   ), American artist, was born in Jersey
+City, New Jersey, on the 31st of March 1855. He was a pupil of J.G.
+Brown and L.E. Wilmarth, and he became a painter of military pictures,
+portraying incidents of the American Civil War. He was elected an
+associate of the National Academy of Design in 1880, and in 1882 a full
+academician, and in the latter year became a member of the Society of
+American Artists. His important works include: "Charging the Battery,"
+"News from Home," "Cold Comfort on the Outpost," "Silenced," "On the
+Look-out," and "Guerillas returning from a Raid."
+
+
+
+
+GAUL, the modern form of the Roman _Gallia_, the name of the two chief
+districts known to the Romans as inhabited by Celtic-speaking peoples,
+(a) _Gallia Cisalpina_ (or _Citerior_, "Hither"), i.e. north Italy
+between Alps and Apennines and (b) the far more important _Gallia
+Transalpina_ (or _Ulterior_, "Further"), usually called _Gallia_ (Gaul)
+simply, the land bounded by the Alps, the Mediterranean, the Pyrenees,
+the Atlantic, the Rhine, i.e. modern France and Belgium with parts of
+Holland, Germany and Switzerland. The Greek form of _Gallia_ was [Greek:
+Galatia], but Galatia in Latin denoted another Celtic region in central
+Asia Minor, sometimes styled _Gallograecia_.
+
+(a) Gallia Cisalpina was mainly conquered by Rome by 222 B.C.; later it
+adopted Roman civilization; about 42 B.C. it was united with Italy and
+its subsequent history is merged in that of the peninsula. Its chief
+distinctions are that during the later Republic and earlier Empire it
+yielded excellent soldiers, and thus much aided the success of Caesar
+against Pompey and of Octavian against Antony, and that it gave Rome the
+poet Virgil (by origin a Celt), the historian Livy, the lyrist Catullus,
+Cornelius Nepos, the elder and the younger Pliny and other distinguished
+writers.[1]
+
+(b) Gaul proper first enters ancient history when the Greek colony of
+Massilia was founded (? 600 B.C.). Roman armies began to enter it about
+218 B.C. In 121 B.C. the coast from Montpellier to the Pyrenees (i.e.
+all that was not Massiliot) with its port of Narbo (mod. _Narbonne_) and
+its trade route by Toulouse to the Atlantic, was formed into the
+province of Gallia Narbonensis and Narbo itself into a Roman
+municipality. Commercial motives prompted the step, and Roman traders
+and land speculators speedily flocked in. Gradually the province was
+extended north of Massilia, up the Rhone, while the Greek town itself
+became weak and dependent on Rome.
+
+It is not, however, until the middle of the 1st century B.C. that we
+have any detailed knowledge of pre-Roman Gaul. The earliest account is
+that contained in the _Commentaries_ of Julius Caesar. According to this
+authority, Gaul was at that time divided among three peoples, more or
+less distinct from one another, the Aquitani, the Gauls, who called
+themselves Celts, and the Belgae. The first of these extended from the
+Pyrenees to the Garumna (Garonne); the second, from that river to the
+Sequana (Seine) and its chief tributary the Matrona (Marne), reaching
+eastward presumably as far as the Rhenus (Rhine); and the third, from
+this bounding line to the mouth of the last-named river, thus bordering
+on the Germans. By implication Caesar recognizes as a fourth division
+the province of Gallia Narbonensis. By far the greater part of the
+country was a plain watered by numerous rivers, the chief of which have
+already been mentioned, with the exception of its great central stream,
+the Liger or Ligeris (Loire). Its principal mountain ranges were Cebenna
+or Gebenna (Cevennes) in the south, and Jura, with its continuation
+Vosegus or Vogesus (Vosges), in the east. The tribes inhabiting Gaul in
+Caesar's time, and belonging to one or other of the three races
+distinguished by him, were numerous. Prominent among them, and dwelling
+in the division occupied by the Celts, were the Helvetii, the Sequani
+and the Aedui, in the basins of the Rhodanus and its tributary the Arar
+(Saone), who, he says, were reckoned the three most powerful nations in
+all Gaul; the Arverni in the mountains of Cebenna; the Senones and
+Carnutes in the basin of the Liger; the Veneti and other Armorican
+tribes between the mouths of the Liger and Sequana. The Nervii,
+Bellovaci, Suessiones, Remi, Morini, Menapii and Aduatuci were Belgic
+tribes; the Tarbelli and others were Aquitani; while the Allobroges
+inhabited the north of the Provincia, having been conquered in 121 B.C.
+The ethnological divisions thus set forth by Caesar have been much
+discussed (see CELT, and articles on the chief tribes).
+
+The Gallic Wars (58-51) of Caesar (q.v.) added all the rest of Gaul,
+north-west of the Cevennes, to the Rhine and the Ocean, and in 49 also
+annexed Massilia. All Gaul was now Roman territory. Now the second
+period of her history opens; it remained for Roman territory to become
+romanized.
+
+Caesar had no time to organize his conquest; this work was left to
+Augustus. As settled by him, and in part perhaps also by his successor
+Tiberius, it fell into the following five administrative areas.
+
+(i) _Narbonensis_, that is, the land between Alps, sea and Cevennes,
+extending up the Rhone to Vienne, was as Augustus found it, distinct in
+many ways from the rest of Gaul. By nature it is a sun-steeped southern
+region, the home of the vine and olive, of the minstrelsy of the
+Provencal and the exuberance of Tartarin, distinct from the colder and
+more sober north. By history it had already (in the time of Augustus)
+been Roman for from 80 to 100 years and was familiar with Roman ways. It
+was ready to be Italianized and it was civilized enough to need no
+garrison. Accordingly, it was henceforward governed by a proconsul
+(appointed by the senate) and freed from the burden of troops, while its
+local government was assimilated to that of Italy. The old Celtic tribes
+were broken up: instead, municipalities of Roman citizens were founded
+to rule their territories. Thus the Allobroges now disappear and the
+_colonia_ of Vienna takes their place: the Volcae vanish and we find
+Nemausus (Nimes). Thus thrown into Italian fashion, the province took
+rapidly to Italian ways. By A.D. 70 it was "Italia verius quam
+provincia" (Pliny). The Gauls obviously had a natural bias towards the
+Italian civilization, and there soon became no difference between Italy
+and southern Gaul. But though education spread, the results were
+somewhat disappointing. Trade flourished; the corporations of bargemen
+and the like on the Rhone made money; the many towns grew rich and could
+afford splendid public buildings. But no great writer and no great
+administrator came from Narbonensis; itinerant lecturers and journalists
+alone were produced in plenty, and at times minor poets.
+
+(ii.-iv.) Across the Cevennes lay Caesar's conquests, Atlantic in
+climate, new to Roman ways. The whole area, often collectively styled
+"Gallia Comata," often "Tres Provinciae," was divided into three
+provinces, each under a _legatus pro praetore_ appointed by the emperor,
+with a common capital at Lugudunum (Lyons). The three provinces were:
+_Aquitania_, reaching from the Pyrenees almost to the Loire;
+_Lugudunensis_, the land between Loire and Seine, reaching from Brittany
+in the west to Lyons in the south-east; and _Belgica_ in the north. The
+boundaries, it will be observed, were wholly artificial. Here also it
+was found possible to dispense with garrisons, not because the provinces
+were as peaceful as Narbonensis, but because the Rhine army was close at
+hand. As befitted an unromanized region, the local government was unlike
+that of Italy or Narbonensis. Roman municipalities were not indeed
+unknown, but very few: the local authorities were the magistrates of the
+old tribal districts. Local autonomy was here carried to an extreme. But
+the policy succeeded. The Gauls of the Three Provinces, or some of them,
+revolted in A.D. 21 under Florus and Sacrovir, in 68 under Vindex, and
+in 70 under Classicus and Tutor (see CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS). But all five
+leaders were romanized nobles, with Roman names and Roman citizenship,
+and their risings were directed rather against the Roman government than
+the Roman empire. In general, the Gauls of these provinces accepted
+Roman civilization more or less rapidly, and in due course became hardly
+distinguishable from the Italian. In particular, they eagerly accepted
+the worship of "Augustus and Rome," devised by the first emperor as a
+bond of state religion connecting the provinces with Rome. Each August,
+despite the heat, representatives from the 60 (or 64) tribes of Gallia
+Comata met at Lyons, elected a priest, "sacerdos ad aram Augusti et
+Romae," and held games. The post of representative, and still more that
+of priest, was eagerly coveted and provided a scope for the ambitions
+which despotism usually crushes. It agrees with the vigorous development
+of this worship that the Three Provinces, though romanized, retained
+their own local feeling. Even in the 3rd century the cult of Celtic
+deities (Hercules Magusanus, Deusoniensis, &c.) were revived, the Celtic
+_leuga_ reintroduced instead of the Roman mile on official milestones,
+and a brief effort made to establish an independent, though romanized,
+Gaul under Postumus and his short-lived successors (A.D. 250-273). Not
+only was the area too large and strong to lose its individuality: it was
+also too rural and too far from the Mediterranean to be romanized as
+fully and quickly as Narbonensis. It is even probable that Celtic was
+spoken in forest districts into the 4th century A.D. Town life, however,
+grew. The _chefs-lieux_ of the tribes became practically, though not
+officially, municipalities, and many of these towns reached considerable
+size and magnificence of public buildings. But they attest their tribal
+relations by their appellations, which are commonly drawn from the name
+of the tribe and not of the town itself. Thus the capitals of the Remi
+and Parisii were actually Durocortorum and Lutetia: the appellations in
+use were Remis or Remus, Parisiis or Parisius--these forms being
+indeclinable nouns formed from a sort of locative of the tribe names.
+Literature also flourished. In the latest empire Ausonius, Symmachus,
+Apollinaris, Sidonius and other Gaulish writers, chiefly of Gallia
+Comata, kept alive the classical literary tradition, not only for Gaul
+but for the world.
+
+(v.) The fifth division of Gaul was the Rhenish military frontier.
+Augustus had planned the conquest of Germany up to the Elbe. His plans
+were foiled by the courage of Arminius and the inability of the Roman
+exchequer to pay a larger army. Instead, his successor Tiberius
+organized the Rhine frontier in two military districts. The northern one
+was the valley of the Meuse and that of the Rhine to a point just south
+of Bonn: the southern was the rest of the Rhine valley to Switzerland.
+Each district was garrisoned at first by four, later by fewer legions,
+which were disposed at various times in some of the following
+fortresses: Vetera (Xanten), Novaesium (Neuss), Bonne (Bonn),
+Moguntiacum (Mainz), Argentorate (Strassburg) and Vindonissa (Windisch
+in Switzerland). At first the districts were purely military, were
+called, after the garrisons, "exercitus Germanicus superior" (south) and
+"inferior" (north). Later one or two municipalities were
+founded--Colonia Agrippinensis at Cologne (A.D. 51), Colonia Augusta
+Treverorum at Trier (date uncertain), Colonia Ulpia Traiana outside
+Vetera--and about 80-90 A.D. the two "Exercitus" were turned into the
+two provinces of Upper and Lower Germany. The armies in these districts
+formed the defence of Gaul against German invaders. They also helped to
+keep Gaul itself in order and their presence explains why the four
+provinces of Gaul proper contained no troops.
+
+These provincial divisions were modified by Diocletian but without
+seriously affecting the life of Gaul. The whole country, indeed,
+continued Roman and fairly safe from barbarian invasions till after 400.
+In 407 a multitude of Franks, Vandals, &c., burst over Gaul: Roman rule
+practically ceased and the three kingdoms of the Visigoths, Burgundians
+and Franks began to form. There were still a Roman general and Roman
+troops when Attila was defeated in the _campi Catalaunici_ in A.D. 451,
+but the general, Aetius, was "the last of the Romans," and in 486 Clovis
+the Frank ended the last vestige of Roman rule in Gaul.
+
+  For Roman antiquities in Gaul see, beside articles on the modern towns
+  (ARLES, NIMES, ORANGE &c.), BIBRACTE, ALESIA, ITIUS PORTUS, AQUEDUCT,
+  ARCHITECTURE, AMPHITHEATRE, &c.; for religion see DRUIDISM; for the
+  famous schools of Autun, Lyons, Toulouse, Nimes, Vienne, Marseilles
+  and Narbonne, see J.E. Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_ (ed.
+  1906-1908), i. pp. 247-250; for the Roman provinces, Th. Mommsen,
+  _Provinces of the Roman Empire_ (trans. 1886), vol. i. chap. iii. See
+  also Desjardins, _Geographie historique et administrative de la Gaule
+  romaine_ (Paris, 1877); Fustel de Coulanges, _Histoire des
+  institutions politiques de l'ancienne France_ (Paris, 1877); for
+  Caesar's campaigns, article CAESAR, JULIUS, and works quoted; for
+  coins, art. NUMISMATICS and articles in the _Numismatische
+  Zeitschrift_ and _Revue numismatique_ (e.g. Blanchet, 1907, pp. 461
+  foll.).     (F. J. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] When Cisalpine Gaul became completely Romanized, it was often
+    known as "Gallia Togata," while the Province was distinguished as
+    "Gallia Bracata" (_bracae_, incorrectly _braccae_, "trousers"), from
+    the long trousers worn by the inhabitants, and the rest of Gaul as
+    "Gallia Comata," from the inhabitants wearing their hair long.
+
+
+
+
+GAULT, in geology, one of the members of the Lower Cretaceous System.
+The name is still employed provincially in parts of England for a stiff
+blue clay of any kind; by the earlier writers it was sometimes spelt
+"Galt" or "Golt."
+
+The formation now known as Gault in England has been variously
+designated "Blue Marle," "Brick Earth," "Golt Brick Earth" and
+"Oak-tree-soil." In certain parts of the south of England the Gault
+appears as a well-marked deposit of clay, lying between two sandy
+formations; the one above came to be known as the "Upper Greensand," the
+one below being the "Lower Greensand" (see GREENSAND). Since the typical
+clayey Gault is continually taking on a sandy facies as it is traced
+both horizontally and vertically; and since the fossils of the Upper
+Greensand and Gault are inseparably related, it has been proposed by
+A.J. Jukes-Browne that these two series of beds should be regarded as
+the arenaceous and argillaceous phases of a single formation, to which
+he has given the name "Selbornian" (from the village of Selborne where
+the beds are well developed). Lithologically, then, the Selbornian
+includes the blue and grey clays and marls of the Gault proper; the
+glauconitic sands of the Upper Greensand, and their local equivalent,
+the "malm," "malm rock" or "firestone," which in places passes into the
+micaceous sandstone containing sponge spicules and globules of silica,
+the counterpart of the rock called "gaize" on the same horizon in
+northern France. In Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and parts of Norfolk the
+Selbornian is represented by the Red Chalk. The malm is a ferruginous
+siliceous rock, the silica being mainly in the colloidal condition in
+the form of globules and sponge spicules; some quartz grains, mica and
+glauconite are usually present along with from 2 to 25% of calcareous
+matter. Chert-bands and nodules are common in the Upper Greensand of
+certain districts; and calcareous concretions, locally recognized as
+cowstones (Lyme Regis), doggers or buhrstones, are not infrequent.
+
+The principal divisions of the Selbornian stage with their
+characteristic zonal fossils are as follows:--
+
+
+    Warminster Beds   _Pecten asper_ and _Cardiaster fossarius_.
+
+    Upper Gault       Devizes Beds or Merstham Beds with
+                        _Schloenbachia rostralus_.
+
+                    / _Hoplites lautus._
+    Lower Gault    <  _H. interruptus._
+                    \ _Acanthoceras mammillatum._
+
+  The Gault (with Upper Greensand) crops out all round the Wealden area;
+  it extends beneath the London basin and reappears from beneath the
+  northern scarp of the Chalk along the foot of the Chiltern Hills to
+  near Tring. In the south of England the Gault clay is fairly constant
+  in the lower part, with the Greensand above; the clay, however, passes
+  into sand as it is followed westward and, as already pointed out, the
+  clay and sand appear to pass into a red chalk towards the north-east.
+  The Gault overlaps the Lower Greensand towards the east, where it
+  rests upon the old Paleozoic axis; it also overlaps the same formation
+  towards the west about Frome, and thence passes unconformably across
+  the Portlandian beds, Kimeridge Clay, Corallian beds and Oxford Clay;
+  in south Dorsetshire it rests upon the Wealden Series. The Gault (with
+  Upper Greensand) passes on to the Jurassic and Rhaetic rocks near
+  Axmouth, and oversteps farther westward, in the Haldon Hills, on to
+  the Permian. A large outlier occurs on the Blackdown Hills of
+  Devonshire. Good localities for fossils are Folkestone--where many of
+  the shells are preserved with their original pearly nacre,--Burnham,
+  Merstham, Isle of Wight, the Blackdown and Haldon Hills, Warminster,
+  Hunstanton and Speeton, Black Venn near Lyme Regis, and Devizes
+  (malmstone and gaize). The beds are well developed in the vale of
+  Wardour, and in the Isle of Wight; the Gault forms the so-called "blue
+  slipper" at Ventnor which has been the cause of the landslip or
+  undercliff.
+
+  The Gault of north France is very similar to that in the south of
+  England, but the French term _Albien_ includes only a portion of the
+  Selbornian formation. The Gault of north-west Germany embraces beds
+  that would be classed as _Albien_ and _Aptien_ by French authors; it
+  comprises the "Flammenmergel"--a pale siliceous marl shot with
+  flame-shaped darker patches--a clay with _Belemnites minimus_, and the
+  "Gargasmergel" (Aptian). In the Diester and Teutoberger Wald, and in
+  the region of Halberstadt, the clays and marls are replaced by
+  sandstones, the so-called _Gault-Quader_. Continental writers usually
+  place the Gault or Albian at the summit of the Lower Cretaceous; while
+  with English geologists the practice is to commence the Upper
+  Cretaceous with this formation. In addition to the fossils already
+  noticed, the following may be mentioned: _Acanthoceras Desmoceras
+  Beaudanti, Hoplites splendens, Hamites, Scaphites, Turrilites,
+  Aporrhais retusa, Trigonia aliforme_, also _Ichthyosaurus_ and
+  _Ornithocheirus_ (Pterodactyl). From the clays, bricks and tiles are
+  made at Burham, Barnwell, Dunton Green, Arlesey, Hitchin, &c. The
+  cherts in the Greensand portion are used for road metal, and in the
+  Blackdown Hills, for scythe stones; hearthstone is obtained about
+  Merstham; phosphatic nodules occur at several horizons.
+
+  See CRETACEOUS SYSTEM; ALBIAN; APTIAN; also A.J. Jukes-Browne, "The
+  Gault and Upper Greensand of England." vol. i., _Cretaceous Rocks of
+  Britain_; _Mem. Geol. Survey_, 1900.
+
+
+
+
+GAUNTLET (a diminutive of the Fr. _gant_, glove), a large form of glove,
+and especially the steel-plated glove of medieval armour. To "run the
+gauntlet," i.e. to run between two rows of men who, armed with sticks,
+rope-ends or other weapons, beat and strike at the person so running,
+was formerly a punishment for military and naval offences. It was
+abolished in the Prussian army by Scharnhorst. As a method of torturing
+prisoners, it was employed among the North American Indians. "Gauntlet"
+(earlier "gantlet") in this expression is a corruption of "gantlope,"
+from a Swedish _gatlope_, from _gata_, lane, and _lopp_, a course (cf.
+Ger. _gassenlaufen_, to run the gauntlet). According to the _New English
+Dictionary_ the word became familiar in England at the time of the
+Thirty Years' War.
+
+
+
+
+GAUR, or LAKHNAUTI, a ruined city of British India, in Malda district of
+Eastern Bengal and Assam. The ruins are situated about 8 m. to the south
+of English Bazar, the civil station of the district of Malda, and on the
+eastern bank of the Bhagirathi, an old channel of the Ganges. It is said
+to have been founded by Lakshman, and its most ancient name was
+Lakshmanavati, corrupted into Lakhnauti. Its known history begins with
+its conquest in A.D. 1198 by the Mahommedans, who retained it as the
+chief seat of their power in Bengal for more than three centuries. When
+the Afghan kings of Bengal established their independence, they
+transferred their seat of government (about 1350) to Pandua (q.v.), also
+in Malda district, and to build their new capital they plundered Gaur of
+every monument that could be removed. When Pandua was in its turn
+deserted (A.D. 1453), Gaur once more became the capital under the name
+of Jannatabad; it remained so as long as the Mahommedan kings retained
+their independence. In A.D. 1564 Sulaiman Kirani, a Pathan adventurer,
+abandoned it for Tanda, a place somewhat nearer the Ganges. Gaur was
+sacked by Sher Shah in 1539, and was occupied by Akbar's general in
+1575, when Daud Shah, the last of the Afghan dynasty, refused to pay
+homage to the Mogul emperor. This occupation was followed by an outbreak
+of the plague, which completed the downfall of the city, and since then
+it has been little better than a heap of ruins, almost overgrown with
+jungle.
+
+The city in its prime measured 7-1/2 m. from north to south, with a
+breadth of 1 to 2 m. With suburbs it covered an area of 20 to 30 sq. m.,
+and in the 16th century the Portuguese historian Faria y Sousa described
+it as containing 1,200,000 inhabitants. The ramparts of this walled
+city, which was surrounded by extensive suburbs, still exist; they were
+works of vast labour, and were on the average about 40 ft. high, and 180
+to 200 ft. thick at the base. The facing of masonry and the buildings
+with which they were covered have now disappeared, and the embankments
+themselves are overgrown with dense jungle. The western side of the city
+was washed by the Ganges, and within the space enclosed by these
+embankments and the river stood the city of Gaur proper, with the fort
+containing the palace in its south-west corner. Radiating north, south
+and east from the city, other embankments are to be traced running
+through the suburbs and extending in certain directions for 30 or 40 m.
+Surrounding the palace is an inner embankment of similar construction to
+that which surrounds the city, and even more overgrown with jungle. A
+deep moat protects it on the outside. To the north of the outer
+enbankment lies the Sagar Dighi, a great reservoir, 1600 yds. by 800
+yds., dating from A.D. 1126.
+
+Fergusson in his _History of Eastern Architecture_ thus describes the
+general architectural style of Gaur:--"It is neither like that of Delhi
+nor Jaunpore, nor any other style, but one purely local and not without
+considerable merit in itself; its principal characteristic being heavy
+short pillars of stone supporting pointed arches and vaults in
+brick--whereas at Jaunpore, for instance, light pillars carried
+horizontal architraves and flat ceilings." Owing to the lightness of the
+small, thin bricks, which were chiefly used in the making of Gaur, its
+buildings have not well withstood the ravages of time and the weather;
+while much of its enamelled work has been removed for the ornamentation
+of the surrounding cities of more modern origin. Moreover, the ruins
+long served as a quarry for the builders of neighbouring towns and
+villages, till in 1900 steps were taken for their preservation by the
+government. The finest ruin in Gaur is that of the Great Golden Mosque,
+also called Bara Darwaza, or twelve-doored (1526). An arched corridor
+running along the whole front of the original building is the principal
+portion now standing. There are eleven arches on either side of the
+corridor and one at each end of it, from which the mosque probably
+obtained its name. These arches are surmounted by eleven domes in fair
+preservation; the mosque had originally thirty-three.
+
+The Small Golden or Eunuch's mosque, in the ancient suburb of Firozpur,
+has fine carving, and is faced with stone fairly well preserved. The
+Tantipara mosque (1475-1480) has beautiful moulding in brick, and the
+Lotan mosque of the same period is unique in retaining its glazed tiles.
+The citadel, of the Mahommedan period, was strongly fortified with a
+rampart and entered through a magnificent gateway called the Dakhil
+Darwaza (?1459-1474). At the south-east corner was a palace, surrounded
+by a wall of brick 66 ft. high, of which a part is standing. Near by
+were the royal tombs. Within the citadel is the Kadam Rasul mosque
+(1530), which is still used, and close outside is a tall tower called
+the Firoz Minar (perhaps signifying "tower of victory"). There are a
+number of Mahommedan buildings on the banks of the Sagar Dighi,
+including, notably, the tomb of the saint Makhdum Shaikh Akhi Siraj (d.
+1357), and in the neighbourhood is a burning ghat, traditionally the
+only one allowed to the use of the Hindus by their Mahommedan
+conquerors, and still greatly venerated and frequented by them. Many
+inscriptions of historical importance have been found in the ruins.
+
+  See M. Martin (Buchanan Hamilton), _Eastern India_, vol. iii. (1831);
+  G.H. Ravenshaw, _Gaur_ (1878); James Fergusson, _History of Indian and
+  Eastern Architecture_ (1876); _Reports of the Archaeological Surveyor,
+  Bengal Circle_ (1900-1904).
+
+
+
+
+GAUR, the native name of the wild ox, _Bos (Bibos) gaurus_, of India,
+miscalled bison by sportsmen. The gaur, which extends into Burma and the
+Malay Peninsula, where it is known as seladang, is the typical
+representative of an Indo-Malay group of wild cattle characterized by
+the presence of a ridge on the withers, the compressed horns, and the
+white legs. The gaur, which reaches a height of nearly 6 ft. at the
+shoulder, is specially characterized by the forward curve and great
+elevation of the ridge between the horns. The general colour is
+blackish-grey. Hill-forests are the resort of this species.
+
+
+
+
+GAUSS, KARL FRIEDRICH (1777-1855), German mathematician, was born of
+humble parents at Brunswick on the 30th of April 1777, and was indebted
+for a liberal education to the notice which his talents procured him
+from the reigning duke. His name became widely known by the publication,
+in his twenty-fifth year (1801), of the _Disquisitiones arithmeticae_.
+In 1807 he was appointed director of the Gottingen observatory, an
+office which he retained to his death: it is said that he never slept
+away from under the roof of his observatory, except on one occasion,
+when he accepted an invitation from Baron von Humboldt to attend a
+meeting of natural philosophers at Berlin. In 1809 he published at
+Hamburg his _Theoria motus corporum coelestium_, a work which gave a
+powerful impulse to the true methods of astronomical observation; and
+his astronomical workings, observations, calculations of orbits of
+planets and comets, &c., are very numerous and valuable. He continued
+his labours in the theory of numbers and other analytical subjects, and
+communicated a long series of memoirs to the Royal Society of Sciences
+(_Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_) at Gottingen. His first
+memoir on the theory of magnetism, _Intensitas vis magneticae terrestris
+ad mensuram absolutam revocata_, was published in 1833, and he shortly
+afterwards proceeded, in conjunction with Wilhelm Weber, to invent new
+apparatus for observing the earth's magnetism and its changes; the
+instruments devised by them were the declination instrument and the
+bifilar magnetometer. With Weber's assistance he erected in 1833 at
+Gottingen a magnetic observatory free from iron (as Humboldt and F.J.D.
+Arago had previously done on a smaller scale), where he made magnetic
+observations, and from this same observatory he sent telegraphic signals
+to the neighbouring town, thus showing the practicability of an
+electromagnetic telegraph. He further instituted an association
+(_Magnetischer Verein_), composed at first almost entirely of Germans,
+whose continuous observations on fixed term-days extended from Holland
+to Sicily. The volumes of their publication, _Resultate am den
+Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins_, extend from 1836 to 1839; and
+in those for 1838 and 1839 are contained the two important memoirs by
+Gauss, _Allgemeine Theorie des Erdmagnetismus, and the Allgemeine
+Lehrsatze_--on the theory of forces attracting according to the inverse
+square of the distance. The instruments and methods thus due to him are
+substantially those employed in the magnetic observatories throughout
+the world. He co-operated in the Danish and Hanoverian measurements of
+an arc and trigonometrical operations (1821-1848), and wrote (1843,
+1846) the two memoirs _Uber Gegenstande der hoheren Geodasie_. Connected
+with observations in general we have (1812-1826) the memoir _Theoria
+combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxia_, with a second
+part and a supplement. Another memoir of applied mathematics is the
+_Dioptrische Untersuchungen_ (1840). Gauss was well versed in general
+literature and the chief languages of modern Europe, and was a member of
+nearly all the leading scientific societies in Europe. He died at
+Gottingen on the 23rd of February 1855. The centenary of his birth was
+celebrated (1877) at his native place, Brunswick.
+
+  Gauss's collected works were published by the Royal Society of
+  Gottingen, in 7 vols. 4to (Gott., 1863-1871), edited by E.J.
+  Schering--(1) the _Disquisitiones arithmeticae_, (2) _Theory of
+  Numbers_, (3) _Analysis_, (4) _Geometry and Method of Least Squares_,
+  (5) _Mathematical Physics_, (6) _Astronomy_, and (7) the _Theoria
+  motus corporum coelestium_. Additional volumes have since been
+  published, _Fundamente der Geometrie usw_. (1900), and _Geodatische
+  Nachtrage zu Band iv_. (1903). They include, besides his various works
+  and memoirs, notices by him of many of these, and of works of other
+  authors in the _Gottingen gelehrte Anzeigen_, and a considerable
+  amount of previously unpublished matter, _Nachlass_. Of the memoirs in
+  pure mathematics, comprised for the most part in vols, ii., iii. and
+  iv. (but to these must be added those on _Attractions_ in vol. v.), it
+  may be safely said there is not one which has not signally contributed
+  to the progress of the branch of mathematics to which it belongs, or
+  which would not require to be carefully analysed in a history of the
+  subject. Running through these volumes in order, we have in the second
+  the memoir, _Summatio quarundam serierum singularium_, the memoirs on
+  the theory of biquadratic residues, in which the notion of complex
+  numbers of the form a + _bi_ was first introduced into the theory of
+  numbers; and included in the _Nachlass_ are some valuable tables. That
+  for the conversion of a fraction into decimals (giving the complete
+  period for all the prime numbers up to 997) is a specimen of the
+  extraordinary love which Gauss had for long arithmetical calculations;
+  and the amount of work gone through in the construction of the table
+  of the number of the classes of binary quadratic forms must also have
+  been tremendous. In vol. iii. we have memoirs relating to the proof of
+  the theorem that every numerical equation has a real or imaginary
+  root, the memoir on the _Hypergeometric Series_, that on
+  _Interpolation_, and the memoir _Determinatio attractionis_--in which
+  a planetary mass is considered as distributed over its orbit according
+  to the time in which each portion of the orbit is described, and the
+  question (having an implied reference to the theory of secular
+  perturbations) is to find the attraction of such a ring. In the
+  solution the value of an elliptic function is found by means of the
+  _arithmetico-geometrical mean_. The _Nachlass_ contains further
+  researches on this subject, and also researches (unfortunately very
+  fragmentary) on the lemniscate-function, &., showing that Gauss was,
+  even before 1800, in possession of many of the discoveries which have
+  made the names of N.H. Abel and K.G.J. Jacobi illustrious. In vol. iv.
+  we have the memoir _Allgemeine Auflosung_, on the graphical
+  representation of one surface upon another, and the _Disquisitiones
+  generales circa superficies curvas_. (An account of the treatment of
+  surfaces which he originated in this paper will be found in the
+  article SURFACE.) And in vol. v. we have a memoir _On the Attraction
+  of Homogeneous Ellipsoids_, and the already mentioned memoir
+  _Allgemeine Lehrsatze_, on the theory of forces attracting according
+  to the inverse square of the distance.     (A. Ca.)
+
+
+
+
+GAUSSEN, FRANCOIS SAMUEL ROBERT LOUIS (1790-1863), Swiss Protestant
+divine, was born at Geneva on the 25th of August 1790. His father, Georg
+Markus Gaussen, a member of the council of two hundred, was descended
+from an old Languedoc family which had been scattered at the time of the
+religious persecutions in France. At the close of his university career
+at Geneva, Louis was in 1816 appointed pastor of the Swiss Reformed
+Church at Satigny near Geneva, where he formed intimate relations with
+J.E. Cellerier, who had preceded him in the pastorate, and also with the
+members of the dissenting congregation at Bourg-de-Four, which, together
+with the Eglise du temoignage, had been formed under the influence of
+the preaching of James and Robert Haldane in 1817. The Swiss revival was
+distasteful to the pastors of Geneva (_Venerable Compagnie des
+Pasteurs_), and on the 7th of May 1817 they passed an ordinance hostile
+to it. As a protest against this ordinance, in 1819 Gaussen published in
+conjunction with Cellerier a French translation of the Second Helvetic
+Confession, with a preface expounding the views he had reached upon the
+nature, use and necessity of confessions of faith; and in 1830, for
+having discarded the official catechism of his church as being
+insufficiently explicit on the divinity of Christ, original sin and the
+doctrines of grace, he was censured and suspended by his ecclesiastical
+superiors. In the following year he took part in the formation of a
+_Societe Evangelique_ (_Evangelische Gesellschaft_). When this society
+contemplated, among other objects, the establishment of a new
+theological college, he was finally deprived of his charge. After some
+time devoted to travel in Italy and England, he returned to Geneva and
+ministered to an independent congregation until 1834, when he joined
+Merle d'Aubigne as professor of systematic theology in the college which
+he had helped to found. This post he continued to occupy until 1857,
+when he retired from the active duties of the chair. He died at Les
+Grottes, Geneva, on the 18th of June 1863.
+
+His best-known work, entitled _La Theopneustie ou pleine inspiration des
+saintes ecritures_, an elaborate defence of the doctrine of "plenary
+inspiration," was originally published in Paris in 1840, and rapidly
+gained a wide popularity in France, as also, through translations, in
+England and America. It was followed in 1860 by a supplementary treatise
+on the canon (_Le Canon des saintes ecritures au double point de vue de
+la science et de la foi_), which, though also popular, has hardly been
+so widely read.
+
+  See the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (1899).
+
+
+
+
+GAUTIER, EMILE THEODORE LEON (1832-1897), French literary historian, was
+born at Havre on the 8th of August 1832. He was educated at the Ecole
+des Chartes, and became successively keeper of the archives of the
+department of Haute-Marne and of the imperial archives at Paris under
+the empire. In 1871 he became professor of palaeography at the Ecole des
+Chartes. He was elected member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1887,
+and became chief of the historical section of the national archives in
+1893. Leon Gautier rendered great services to the study of early French
+literature, the most important of his numerous works on medieval
+subjects being a critical text (Tours, 1872) with translation and
+introduction of the _Chanson de Roland_, and _Les Epopees francaises_ (3
+vols., 1866-1867; 2nd ed., 5 vols., 1878-1897, including a
+_Bibliographie des chansons de geste_). He died in Paris on the 25th of
+August 1897.
+
+
+
+
+GAUTIER, THEOPHILE (1811-1872), French poet and miscellaneous writer,
+was born at Tarbes on the 31st of August 1811. He was educated at the
+grammar school of that town, and afterwards at the College Charlemagne
+in Paris, but was almost as much in the studios. He very early devoted
+himself to the study of the older French literature, especially that of
+the 16th and the early part of the 17th century. This study qualified
+him well to take part in the Romantic movement, and enabled him to
+astonish Sainte-Beuve by the phraseology and style of some literary
+essays which, when barely eighteen years old, he put into the critic's
+hands. In consequence of this introduction he at once came under the
+influence of the great Romantic _cenacle_, to which, as to Victor Hugo
+in particular, he was also introduced by his gifted but ill-starred
+schoolmate Gerard de Nerval. With Gerard, Petrus Borel, Corot, and many
+other less known painters and poets whose personalities he has
+delightfully sketched in the articles collected under the titles of
+_Histoire du Romantisme_, &c., he formed a minor romantic clique who
+were distinguished for a time by the most extravagant eccentricity. A
+flaming crimson waistcoat and a great mass of waving hair were the
+outward signs which qualified Gautier for a chief rank among the
+enthusiastic devotees who attended the rehearsals of _Hernani_ with red
+tickets marked "Hierro," performed mocking dances round the bust of
+Racine, and were at all times ready to exchange word or blow with the
+_perruques_ and _grisatres_ of the classical party. In Gautier's case
+these freaks were not inconsistent with real genius and real devotion to
+sound ideals of literature. He began (like Thackeray, to whom he
+presents in other ways some striking points of resemblance) as an
+artist, but soon found that his true powers lay in another direction.
+
+His first considerable poem, _Albertus_ (1830), displayed a good deal of
+the extravagant character which accompanied rather than marked the
+movement, but also gave evidence of uncommon command both of language
+and imagery, and in particular of a descriptive power hardly to be
+excelled. The promise thus given was more than fulfilled in his
+subsequent poetry, which, in consequence of its small bulk, may well be
+noticed at once and by anticipation. The _Comedie de la mort_, which
+appeared soon after (1832), is one of the most remarkable of French
+poems, and though never widely read has received the suffrage of every
+competent reader. Minor poems of various dates, published in 1840,
+display an almost unequalled command over poetical form, an advance even
+over _Albertus_ in vigour, wealth and appropriateness of diction, and
+abundance of the special poetical essence. All these good gifts reached
+their climax in the _Emaux et camees_, first published in 1856, and
+again, with additions, just before the poet's death in 1872. These poems
+are in their own way such as cannot be surpassed. Gautier's poetical
+work contains in little an expression of his literary peculiarities.
+There are, in addition to the peculiarities of style and diction already
+noticed, an extraordinary feeling and affection for beauty in art and
+nature, and a strange indifference to anything beyond this range, which
+has doubtless injured the popularity of his work.
+
+But it was not, after all, as a poet that Gautier was to achieve either
+profit or fame. For the theatre, he had but little gift, and his
+dramatic efforts (if we except certain masques or ballets in which his
+exuberant and graceful fancy came into play) are by far his weakest. It
+was otherwise with his prose fiction. His first novel of any size, and
+in many respects his most remarkable work, was _Mademoiselle de Maupin_
+(1835). Unfortunately this book, while it establishes his literary
+reputation on an imperishable basis, was unfitted by its subject, and in
+parts by its treatment, for general perusal, and created, even in
+France, a prejudice against its author which he was very far from really
+deserving. During the years from 1833 onwards, his fertility in novels
+and tales was very great. _Les Jeunes-France_ (1833), which may rank as
+a sort of prose _Albertus_ in some ways, displays the follies of the
+youthful Romantics in a vein of humorous and at the same time
+half-pathetic satire. _Fortunio_ (1838) perhaps belongs to the same
+class. _Jettatura_, written somewhat later, is less extravagant and more
+pathetic. A crowd of minor tales display the highest literary qualities,
+and rank with Merimee's at the head of all contemporary works of the
+class. First of all must be mentioned the ghost-story of _La Morte
+amoureuse_, a gem of the most perfect workmanship. For many years
+Gautier continued to write novels. _La Belle Jenny_ (1864) is a not very
+successful attempt to draw on his English experience, but the earlier
+_Militona_ (1847) is a most charming picture of Spanish life. In
+_Spirite_ (1866) he endeavoured to enlist the fancy of the day for
+supernatural manifestations, and a _Roman de la momie_ (1856) is a
+learned study of ancient Egyptian ways. His most remarkable effort in
+this kind, towards the end of his life, was _Le Capitaine Fracasse_
+(1863), a novel, partly of the picaresque school, partly of that which
+Dumas was to make popular, projected nearly thirty years earlier, and
+before Dumas himself had taken to the style. This book contains some of
+the finest instances of his literary power.
+
+Yet neither in poems nor in novels did the main occupation of Gautier as
+a literary man consist. He was early drawn to the more lucrative task of
+feuilleton-writing, and for more than thirty years he was among the most
+expert and successful practitioners of this art. Soon after the
+publication of _Mademoiselle de Maupin_, in which he had not been too
+polite to journalism, he became irrevocably a journalist. He was
+actually the editor of _L'Artiste_ for a time: but his chief newspaper
+connexions were with _La Presse_ from 1836 to 1854 and with the
+_Moniteur_ later. His work was mainly theatrical and art criticism. The
+rest of his life was spent either at Paris or in travels of considerable
+extent to Spain, the Netherlands, Italy, Turkey, England, Algeria and
+Russia, all undertaken with a more or less definite purpose of
+book-making. Having absolutely no political opinions, he had no
+difficulty in accepting the Second Empire, and received from it
+considerable favours, in return for which, however, he in no way
+prostituted his pen, but remained a literary man pure and simple. He
+died on the 23rd of December 1872.
+
+Accounts of his travels, criticisms of the theatrical and literary works
+of the day, obituary notices of his contemporaries and, above all, art
+criticism occupied him in turn. It has sometimes been deplored that this
+engagement in journalism should have diverted Gautier from the
+performance of more capital work in literature. Perhaps, however, this
+regret springs from a certain misconception. Gautier's power was
+literary power pure and simple, and it is as evident in his slightest
+sketches and criticisms as in _Emaux et camees or La Morte amoureuse_.
+On the other hand, his weakness, if he had a weakness, lay in his almost
+total indifference to the matters which usually supply subjects for art
+and therefore for literature. He has thus been accused of "lack of
+ideas" by those who have not cleared their own minds of cant; and in the
+recent set-back of the critical current against form and in favour of
+"philosophic" treatment, comment upon him has sometimes been
+unfavourable. But this injustice will, beyond all question, be redressed
+again. He was neither immoral, irreligious nor unduly subservient to
+despotism, but morals, religion and politics (to which we may add
+science and material progress) were matters of no interest to him. He
+was to all intents a humanist, as the word was understood in the 15th
+century. But he was a humorist as well, and this combination, joined to
+his singularly kindly and genial nature, saved him from some dangers and
+depravations as well as some absurdities to which the humanist temper is
+exposed. As time goes on it may be predicted that, though Gautier may
+not be widely read, yet his writings will never cease to be full of
+indescribable charm and of very definite instruction to men of letters.
+Besides those of his works which have been already cited, we may notice
+_Une Larme du diable_ (1839), a charming mixture of humour and
+tenderness; _Les Grotesques_ (1844), a volume of early criticisms on
+some oddities of 17th-century literature; _Caprices et zigzags_ (1845),
+miscellanies dealing in part with English life; _Voyage en Espagne_
+(1845), _Constantinople_ (1854), _Voyage en Russie_ (1866), brilliant
+volumes of travel; _Menagerie intime_ (1869) and _Tableaux de siege_
+(1872), his two latest works, which display his incomparable style in
+its quietest but not least happy form.
+
+  There is no complete edition of Gautier's works, and the vicomte
+  Spoelberch de Lovenjoul's _Histoire des oeuvres de Theophile Gautier_
+  (1887) shows how formidable such an undertaking would be. But since
+  his death numerous further collections of articles have been made:
+  _Fusains et eaux-fortes_ and _Tableaux a la plume_ (1880); _L'Orient_
+  (2 vols., 1881); _Les Vacances du lundi_ (new ed., 1888); _La Nature
+  chez elle_ (new ed., 1891). In 1879 his son-in-law, E. Bergerat, who
+  had married his younger daughter Estelle (the elder, Mme Judith
+  Gautier--herself a writer of distinction--was at one time Mme Catulle
+  Mendes), issued a biography, _Theophile Gautier_, which has been often
+  reprinted. With it should be compared Maxime du Camp's volume in the
+  _Grands Ecrivains francais_ (1890) and the numerous references in the
+  _Journal des Goncourt_. Critical eulogies, from Sainte-Beuve
+  (repeatedly in the _Causeries_) and Baudelaire (two articles in _L'Art
+  romantique_) downwards, are numerous. The chief of the decriers is
+  Emile Faguet in his _Etudes litteraires sur le XIX^e siecle_. In 1902
+  and 1903 there appeared two respectable academic _eloges_ by H. Menai
+  and H. Potez.     (G. Sa.)
+
+
+
+
+GAUTIER D'ARRAS, French _trouvere_, flourished in the second half of the
+12th century. Nothing is known of his biography except what may be
+gleaned from his works. He dedicated his romance of _Eracle_ to Theobald
+V., count of Blois (d. 1191); among his other patrons were Marie,
+countess of Champagne, daughter of Louis VII. and Eleanor of Guienne and
+Baldwin IV., count of Hainaut. _Eracle_, the hero of which becomes
+emperor of Constantinople as Heraclius, is purely a _roman d'aventures_
+and enjoyed great popularity. His second romance, _Ille et Galeron_,
+dedicated to Beatrix, the second wife of Frederick Barbarossa, treats of
+a similar situation to that outlined in the lay of "_Eliduc_" by Marie
+de France.
+
+  See the _Oeuvres de Gautier d'Arras_, ed. E. Loseth (2 vols., Paris,
+  1890); _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. xxii. (1852); A. Dinaux, _Les
+  Trouveres_ (1833-1843), vol. iii.
+
+
+
+
+GAUZE, a light, transparent fabric, originally of silk, and now
+sometimes made of linen or cotton, woven in an open manner with very
+fine yarn. It is said to have been originally made at Gaza in Palestine,
+whence the name. Some of the gauzes from eastern Asia were brocaded with
+flowers of gold or silver. In the weaving of gauze the warp threads, in
+addition to being crossed as in plain weaving, are twisted in pairs from
+left to right and from right to left alternately, after each shot of
+weft, thereby keeping the weft threads at equal distances apart, and
+retaining them in their parallel position. The textures are woven either
+plain, striped or figured; and the material receives many designations,
+according to its appearance and the purposes to which it is devoted. A
+thin cotton fabric, woven in the same way, is known as leno, to
+distinguish it from muslin made by plain weaving. Silk gauze was a
+prominent and extensive industry in the west of Scotland during the
+second half of the 18th century, but on the introduction of
+cotton-weaving it greatly declined. In addition to its use for dress
+purposes silk gauze is much employed for bolting or sifting flour and
+other finely ground substances. The term gauze is applied generally to
+transparent fabrics of whatever fibre made, and to the fine-woven
+wire-cloth used in safety-lamps, sieves, window-blinds, &c.
+
+
+
+
+GAVARNI, the name by which SULPICE GUILLAUME CHEVALIER (1801-1866),
+French caricaturist, is known. He is said to have taken the _nom de
+plume_ from the place where he made his first published sketch. He was
+born in Paris of poor parents, and started in life as a workman in an
+engine-building factory. At the same time he attended the free school of
+drawing. In his first attempts to turn his abilities to some account he
+met with many disappointments, but was at last entrusted with the
+drawing of some illustrations for a journal of fashion. Gavarni was then
+thirty-four years of age. His sharp and witty pencil gave to these
+generally commonplace and unartistic figures a life-likeness and an
+expression which soon won for him a name in fashionable circles.
+Gradually he gave greater attention to this more congenial work, and
+finally ceased working as an engineer to become the director of the
+journal _Les Gens du monde_. His ambition rising in proportion to his
+success, Gavarni from this time followed the real bent of his
+inclination, and began a series of lithographed sketches, in which he
+portrayed the most striking characteristics, foibles and vices of the
+various classes of French society. The letterpress explanations attached
+to his drawings were always short, but were forcible and highly
+humorous, if sometimes trivial, and were admirably adapted to the
+particular subjects. The different stages through which Gavarni's talent
+passed, always elevating and refining itself, are well worth being
+noted. At first he confined himself to the study of Parisian manners,
+more especially those of the Parisian youth. To this vein belong _Les
+Lorettes_, _Les Actrices_, _Les Coulisses_, _Les Fashionables_, _Les
+Gentilshommes bourgeois_, _Les Artistes_, _Les Debardeurs_, _Clichy_,
+_Les Etudiants de Paris_, _Les Baliverneries parisiennes_, _Les Plaisirs
+champetres_, _Les Bals masques_, _Le Carnaval_, _Les Souvenirs du
+carnaval_, _Les Souvenirs du bal Chicard_, _La Vie des jeunes hommes_,
+_Les Patois de Paris_. He had now ceased to be director of _Les Gens du
+monde_; but he was engaged as ordinary caricaturist of _Le Charivari_,
+and, whilst making the fortune of the paper, he made his own. His name
+was exceedingly popular, and his illustrations for books were eagerly
+sought for by publishers. _Le Juif errant_, by Eugene Sue (1843, 4 vols.
+8vo), the French translation of Hoffman's tales (1843, 8vo), the first
+collective edition of Balzac's works (Paris, Houssiaux, 1850, 20 vols.
+8vo), _Le Diable a Paris_ (1844-1846, 2 vols. 4to), _Les Francais peints
+par eux-memes_ (1840-1843, 9 vols. 8vo), the collection of
+_Physiologies_ published by Aubert in 38 vols. 18mo (1840-1842),--all
+owed a great part of their success at the time, and are still sought
+for, on account of the clever and telling sketches contributed by
+Gavarni. A single frontispiece or vignette was sometimes enough to
+secure the sale of a new book. Always desiring to enlarge the field of
+his observations, Gavarni soon abandoned his once favourite topics. He
+no longer limited himself to such types as the _lorette_ and the
+Parisian student, or to the description of the noisy and popular
+pleasures of the capital, but turned his mirror to the grotesque sides
+of family life and of humanity at large. _Les Enfants terribles_, _Les
+Parents terribles_, _Les Fourberies des femmes_, _La Politique des
+femmes_, _Les Maris venges_, _Les Nuances du sentiment_, _Les Reves_,
+_Les Petits Jeux de societe_, _Les Petits Malheurs du bonheur_, _Les
+Impressions de menage_, _Les Interjections_, _Les Traductions en langue
+vulgaire_, _Les Propos de Thomas Vireloque_, &c., were composed at this
+time, and are his most elevated productions. But whilst showing the same
+power of irony as his former works, enhanced by a deeper insight into
+human nature, they generally bear the stamp of a bitter and even
+sometimes gloomy philosophy. This tendency was still more strengthened
+by a visit to England in 1849. He returned from London deeply impressed
+with the scenes of misery and degradation which he had observed among
+the lower classes of that city. In the midst of the cheerful atmosphere
+of Paris he had been struck chiefly by the ridiculous aspects of
+vulgarity and vice, and he had laughed at them. But the debasement of
+human nature which he saw in London appears to have affected him so
+forcibly that from that time the cheerful caricaturist never laughed or
+made others laugh again. What he had witnessed there became the almost
+exclusive subject of his drawings, as powerful, as impressive as ever,
+but better calculated to be appreciated by cultivated minds than by the
+public, which had in former years granted him so wide a popularity. Most
+of these last compositions appeared in the weekly paper
+_L'Illustration_. In 1857 he published in one volume the series entitled
+_Masques et visages_ (1 vol. 12mo), and in 1869, about two years after
+his death, his last artistic work, _Les Douze Mois_ (1 vol. fol.), was
+given to the world. Gavarni was much engaged, during the last period of
+his life, in scientific pursuits, and this fact must perhaps be
+connected with the great change which then took place in his manner as
+an artist. He sent several communications to the Academie des Sciences,
+and till his death on the 23rd of November 1866 he was eagerly
+interested in the question of aerial navigation. It is said that he made
+experiments on a large scale with a view to find the means of directing
+balloons; but it seems that he was not so successful in this line as his
+fellow-artist, the caricaturist and photographer, Nadar.
+
+  Gavarni's _Oeuvres choisies_ were edited in 1845 (4 vols. 4to) with
+  letterpress by J. Janin, Th. Gautier and Balzac, followed in 1850 by
+  two other volumes named _Perles et parures_; and some essays in prose
+  and in verse written by him were collected by one of his biographers,
+  Ch. Yriarte, and published in 1869. See also E. and J. de Goncourt,
+  _Gavarni, l'homme et l'oeuvre_ (1873, 8vo). J. Claretie has also
+  devoted to the great French caricaturist a curious and interesting
+  essay. A catalogue _raisonne_ of Gavarni's works was published by J.
+  Armelhault and E. Bocher (Paris, 1873, 8vo).
+
+
+
+
+GAVAZZI, ALESSANDRO (1809-1889), Italian preacher and patriot, was born
+at Bologna on the 21st of March 1809. He at first became a monk (1825),
+and attached himself to the Barnabites at Naples, where he afterwards
+(1829) acted as professor of rhetoric. In 1840, having already expressed
+liberal views, he was removed to Rome to fill a subordinate position.
+Leaving his own country after the capture of Rome by the French, he
+carried on a vigorous campaign against priests and Jesuits in England,
+Scotland and North America, partly by means of a periodical, the
+_Gavazzi Free Word_. While in England he gradually went over (1855) to
+the Evangelical church, and became head and organizer of the Italian
+Protestants in London. Returning to Italy in 1860, he served as
+army-chaplain with Garibaldi. In 1870 he became head of the Free Church
+(_Chiesa libera_) of Italy, united the scattered Congregations into the
+"Unione delle Chiese libere in Italia," and in 1875 founded in Rome the
+theological college of the Free Church, in which he himself taught
+dogmatics, apologetics and polemics. He died in Rome on the 9th of
+January 1889.
+
+  Amongst his publications are _No Union with Rome_ (1871); _The Priest
+  in Absolution_ (1877); _My Recollections of the Last Four Popes_, &c.,
+  in answer to Cardinal Wiseman (1858); _Orations_, 2 decades (1851).
+
+
+
+
+GAVELKIND,[1] a peculiar system of tenure associated chiefly with the
+county of Kent, but found also in other parts of England. In Kent all
+land is presumed to be holden by this tenure until the contrary is
+proved, but some lands have been disgavelled by particular statutes. It
+is more correctly described as socage tenure, subject to the custom of
+gavelkind. The chief peculiarities of the custom are the following. (1)
+A tenant can alienate his lands by feoffment at fifteen years of age.
+(2) There is no escheat on attainder for felony, or as it is expressed
+in the old rhyme--
+
+  "The father to the bough,
+   The son to the plough."
+
+(3) Generally the tenant could always dispose of his lands by will. (4)
+In case of intestacy the estate descends not to the eldest son but to
+all the sons (or, in the case of deceased sons, their representatives)
+in equal shares. "Every son is as great a gentleman as the eldest son
+is." It is to this remarkable peculiarity that gavelkind no doubt owes
+its local popularity. Though females claiming in their own right are
+postponed to males, yet by representation they may inherit together with
+them. (5) A wife is dowable of one-half, instead of one-third of the
+land. (6) A widower may be tenant by courtesy, without having had any
+issue, of one-half, but only so long as he remains unmarried. An act of
+1841, for commuting manorial rights in respect of lands of copyhold and
+customary tenure, contained a clause specially exempting from the
+operation of the act "the custom of gavelkind as the same now exists and
+prevails in the county of Kent." Gavelkind is one of the most
+interesting examples of the customary law of England; it was, previous
+to the Conquest, the general custom of the realm, but was then
+superseded by the feudal law of primogeniture. Its survival in this
+instance in one part of the country is regarded as a concession extorted
+from the Conqueror by the superior bravery of the men of Kent. _Irish
+gavelkind_ was a species of tribal succession, by which the land,
+instead of being divided at the death of the holder amongst his sons,
+was thrown again into the common stock, and redivided among the
+surviving members of the sept. The equal division amongst children of an
+inheritance in land is of common occurrence outside the United Kingdom
+and is discussed under SUCCESSION.
+
+  See INHERITANCE; TENURE. Also Robinson, _On Gavelkind_; Digby,
+  _History of the Law of Real Property_; Pollock and Maitland, _History
+  of English Law_; Challis, _Real Property_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This word is generally taken to represent in O. Eng.
+    _gafolgecynd_, from _gafol_, payment, tribute, and _gecynd_, species,
+    kind, and originally to have meant tenure by payment of rent or
+    non-military services, cf. gafol-land, and thence to have been
+    applied to the particular custom attached to such tenure in Kent.
+    _Gafol_ apparently is derived from the Teutonic root seen in "to
+    give"; the Med. Lat. _gabulum, gablum_ gives the Fr. _gabelle_, tax.
+
+
+
+
+GAVESTON, PIERS (d. 1312), earl of Cornwall, favourite of the English
+king Edward II., was the son of a Gascon knight, and was brought up at
+the court of Edward I. as companion to his son, the future king. Strong,
+talented and ambitious, Gaveston gained great influence over young
+Edward, and early in 1307 he was banished from England by the king; but
+he returned after the death of Edward I. a few months later, and at once
+became the chief adviser of Edward II. Made earl of Cornwall, he
+received both lands and money from the king, and added to his wealth and
+position by marrying Edward's niece, Margaret, daughter of Gilbert de
+Clare, earl of Gloucester (d. 1295). He was regent of the kingdom during
+the king's short absence in France in 1308, and took a very prominent
+part at Edward's coronation in February of this year. These proceedings
+aroused the anger and jealousy of the barons, and their wrath was
+diminished neither by Gaveston's superior skill at the tournament, nor
+by his haughty and arrogant behaviour to themselves. They demanded his
+banishment; and the king, forced to assent, sent his favourite to
+Ireland as lieutenant, where he remained for about a year. Returning to
+England in July 1309, Edward persuaded some of the barons to sanction
+this proceeding; but as Gaveston was more insolent than ever the old
+jealousies soon broke out afresh. In 1311 the king was forced to agree
+to the election of the "ordainers," and the ordinances they drew up
+provided _inter alia_ for the perpetual banishment of his favourite.
+Gaveston then retired to Flanders, but returned secretly to England at
+the end of 1311. Soon he was publicly restored by Edward, and the barons
+had taken up arms. Deserted by the king he surrendered to Aymer de
+Valence, earl of Pembroke (d. 1324), at Scarborough in May 1312, and was
+taken to Deddington in Oxfordshire, where he was seized by Guy de
+Beauchamp, earl of Warwick (d. 1315). Conveyed to Warwick castle he was
+beheaded on Blacklow Hill near Warwick on the 19th of June 1312.
+Gaveston, whose body was buried in 1315 at King's Langley, left an only
+daughter.
+
+  See W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1896); and
+  _Chronicles of the Reigns of Edward I. and Edward II._, edited by W.
+  Stubbs. Rolls series (London, 1882-1883).
+
+
+
+
+GAVOTTE (a French word adopted from the Provencal _gavoto_), properly
+the dance of the Gavots or natives of Gap, a district in the Upper Alps,
+in the old province of Dauphine. It is a dance of a brisk and lively
+character, somewhat resembling the minuet, but quicker and less stately
+(see DANCE); hence also the use of this name for a corresponding form of
+musical composition.
+
+
+
+
+GAWAIN (Fr. _Walwain (Brut), Gauvain, Gaugain_; Lat. _Walganus_,
+_Walwanus_; Dutch, _Walwein_, Welsh, _Gwalchmei_), son of King Loth of
+Orkney, and nephew to Arthur on his mother's side, the most famous hero
+of Arthurian romance. The first mention of his name is in a passage of
+William of Malmesbury, recording the discovery of his tomb in the
+province of Ros in Wales. He is there described as "_Walwen qui fuit
+haud degener Arturis ex sorore nepos_." Here he is said to have reigned
+over Galloway; and there is certainly some connexion, the character of
+which is now not easy to determine, between the two. In the later
+_Historia_ of Geoffrey of Monmouth, and its French translation by Wace,
+Gawain plays an important and "pseudo-historic" role. On the receipt by
+Arthur of the insulting message of the Roman emperor, demanding tribute,
+it is he who is despatched as ambassador to the enemy's camp, where his
+arrogant and insulting behaviour brings about the outbreak of
+hostilities. On receipt of the tidings of Mordred's treachery, Gawain
+accompanies Arthur to England, and is slain in the battle which ensues
+on their landing. Wace, however, evidently knew more of Gawain than he
+has included in his translation, for he speaks of him as
+
+  Li quens Walwains
+  Qui tant fu preudom de ses mains (11. 9057-58).
+
+and later on says
+
+  Prous fu et de mult grant mesure,
+  D'orgoil et de forfait n'ot qure
+  Plus vaut faire qu'il ne dist
+  Et plus doner qu'il ne pramist (10. 106-109).
+
+The English Arthurian poems regard him as the type and model of
+chivalrous courtesy, "the fine father of nurture," and as Professor
+Maynadier has well remarked, "previous to the appearance of Malory's
+compilation it was Gawain rather than Arthur, who was the typical
+English hero." It is thus rather surprising to find that in the earliest
+preserved MSS. of Arthurian romance, i.e. in the poems of Chretien de
+Troyes, Gawain, though generally placed first in the list of knights, is
+by no means the hero _par excellence_. The latter part of the _Perceval_
+is indeed devoted to the recital of his adventures at the _Chastel
+Merveilleus_, but of none of Chretien's poems is he the protagonist. The
+anonymous author of the _Chevalier a l'epee_ indeed makes this apparent
+neglect of Gawain a ground of reproach against Chretien. At the same
+time the majority of the short episodic poems connected with the cycle
+have Gawain for their hero. In the earlier form of the prose romances,
+e.g. in the _Merlin_ proper, Gawain is a dominant personality, his feats
+rivalling in importance those ascribed to Arthur, but in the later forms
+such as the _Merlin_ continuations, the _Tristan_, and the final
+_Lancelot_ compilation, his character and position have undergone a
+complete change, he is represented as cruel, cowardly and treacherous,
+and of indifferent moral character. Most unfortunately our English
+version of the romances, Malory's _Morte Arthur_, being derived from
+these later forms (though his treatment of Gawain is by no means
+uniformly consistent), this unfavourable aspect is that under which the
+hero has become known to the modern reader. Tennyson, who only knew the
+Arthurian story through the medium of Malory, has, by exaggeration,
+largely contributed to this misunderstanding. Morris, in _The Defence of
+Guinevere_, speaks of "gloomy Gawain"; perhaps the most absurdly
+misleading epithet which could possibly have been applied to the "gay,
+gratious, and gude" knight of early English tradition.
+
+The truth appears to be that Gawain, the Celtic and mythic origin of
+whose character was frankly admitted by the late M. Gaston Paris,
+belongs to the very earliest stage of Arthurian tradition, long
+antedating the crystallization of such tradition into literary form. He
+was certainly known in Italy at a very early date; Professor Rajna has
+found the names of Arthur and Gawain in charters of the early 12th
+century, the bearers of those names being then grown to manhood; and
+Gawain is figured in the architrave of the north doorway of Modena
+cathedral, a 12th-century building. Recent discoveries have made it
+practically certain that there existed, prior to the extant romances, a
+collection of short episodic poems, devoted to the glorification of
+Arthur's famous nephew and his immediate kin (his brother Ghaeris, or
+Gareth, and his son Guinglain), the authorship of which was attributed
+to a Welshman, Bleheris; fragments of this collection have been
+preserved to us alike in the first continuation of Chretien de Troyes
+_Perceval_, due to Wauchier de Denain, and in our vernacular _Gawain_
+poems. Among these "Bleheris" poems was one dealing with Gawain's
+adventures at the Grail castle, where the Grail is represented as
+non-Christian, and presents features strongly reminiscent of the ancient
+Nature mysteries. There is good ground for believing that as Grail
+quester and winner, Gawain preceded alike Perceval and Galahad, and that
+the solution of the mysterious Grail problem is to be sought rather in
+the tales connected with the older hero than in those devoted to the
+glorification of the younger knights. The explanation of the very
+perplexing changes which the character of Gawain has undergone appears
+to lie in a misunderstanding of the original sources of that character.
+Whether or no Gawain was a sun-hero, and he certainly possessed some of
+the features--we are constantly told how his strength waxed with the
+waxing of the sun till noontide, and then gradually decreased; he owned
+a steed known by a definite name le Gringalet; and a light-giving sword,
+Escalibur (which, as a rule, is represented as belonging to Gawain, not
+to Arthur)--all traits of a sun-hero--he certainly has much in common
+with the primitive Irish hero Cuchullin. The famous head-cutting
+challenge, so admirably told in _Syr Gawayne and the Grene Knighte_, was
+originally connected with the Irish champion. Nor was the lady of
+Gawain's love a mortal maiden, but the queen of the other-world. In
+Irish tradition the other-world is often represented as an island,
+inhabited by women only; and it is this "Isle of Maidens" that Gawain
+visits in _Diu Crone_; returning therefrom dowered with the gift of
+eternal youth. The Chastel Merveilleus adventure, related at length by
+Chretien and Wolfram is undoubtedly such an "other-world" story. It
+seems probable that it was this connexion which won for Gawain the title
+of the "Maidens' Knight," a title for which no satisfactory explanation
+is ever given. When the source of the name was forgotten its meaning was
+not unnaturally misinterpreted, and gained for Gawain the reputation of
+a facile morality, which was exaggerated by the pious compilers of the
+later Grail romances into persistent and aggravated wrong-doing; at the
+same time it is to be noted that Gawain is never like Tristan and
+Lancelot, the hero of an illicit connexion maintained under
+circumstances of falsehood and treachery. Gawain, however, belonged to
+the pre-Christian stage of Grail tradition, and it is not surprising
+that writers, bent on spiritual edification, found him somewhat of a
+stumbling-block. Chaucer, when he spoke of Gawain coming "again out of
+faerie," spoke better than he knew; the home of that very gallant and
+courteous knight is indeed Fairy-land, and the true Gawain-tradition is
+informed with fairy glamour and grace.
+
+  See _Syr Gawayne_, the English poems relative to that hero, edited by
+  Sir Frederick Madden for the Bannatyne Club, 1839 (out of print and
+  difficult to procure); _Histoire litteraire de la France_, vol. xxx.;
+  introduction and summary of episodic "Gawain" poems by Gaston Paris;
+  _The Legend of Sir Gawain_, by Jessie L. Weston, Grimm Library, vol.
+  vii.; _The Legend of Sir Perceval_, by Jessie L. Weston, Grimm
+  Library, vol. xvii.; "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight," "Sir Gawain at
+  the Grail Castle" and "Sir Gawain and the Lady of Lys," vols. i., vi
+  and vii. of _Arthurian Romances_ (Nutt).
+
+
+
+
+GAWLER, a town of Gawler county, South Australia, on the Para river,
+24-3/4 m. by rail N.E. of Adelaide. It is one of the most thriving
+places in the colony, being the centre of a large wheat-growing
+district; it has also engineering works, foundries, flour-mills,
+breweries and saw-mills, while gold, silver, copper and lead are found
+in the neighbouring hills. The inhabitants of the town and its extensive
+suburbs number about 7000; though the population of the town itself in
+1901 was 1996.
+
+
+
+
+GAY, JOHN (1685-1732), English poet, was baptized on the 16th of
+September 1685 at Barnstaple, where his family had long been settled. He
+was educated at the grammar school of the town under Robert Luck, who
+had published some Latin and English poems. On leaving school he was
+apprenticed to a silk mercer in London, but being weary, according to Dr
+Johnson, "of either the restraint or the servility of his occupation,"
+he soon returned to Barnstaple, where he spent some time with his uncle,
+the Rev. John Hanmer, the Nonconformist minister of the town. He then
+returned to London, and though no details are available for his
+biography until the publication of _Wine_ in 1708, the account he gives
+in _Rural Sports_ (1713), of years wasted in attending on courtiers who
+were profuse in promises never kept, may account for his occupations.
+Among his early literary friends were Aaron Hill and Eustace Budgell. In
+_The Present State of Wit_ (1711) Gay attempted to give an account of
+"all our periodical papers, whether monthly, weekly or diurnal." He
+especially praised the _Tatler_ and the _Spectator_, and Swift, who knew
+nothing of the authorship of the pamphlet, suspected it to be inspired
+by Steele and Addison. To Lintot's _Miscellany_ (1712) Gay contributed
+"An Epistle to Bernard Lintot," containing some lines in praise of Pope,
+and a version of the story of Arachne from the sixth book of the
+_Metamorphoses_ of Ovid. In the same year he was received into the
+household of the duchess of Monmouth as secretary, a connexion which
+was, however, broken before June 1714.
+
+The dedication of his _Rural Sports_ (1713) to Pope was the beginning of
+a lasting friendship. Gay could have no pretensions to rivalry with
+Pope, who seems never to have tired of helping his friend. In 1713 he
+produced a comedy, _The Wife of Bath_, which was acted only three
+nights, and _The Fan_, one of his least successful poems; and in 1714
+_The Shepherd's Week_, a series of six pastorals drawn from English
+rustic life. Pope had urged him to undertake this last task in order to
+ridicule the Arcadian pastorals of Ambrose Philips, who had been praised
+by the _Guardian_, to the neglect of Pope's claims as the first pastoral
+writer of the age and the true English Theocritus. Gay's pastorals
+completely achieved this object, but his ludicrous pictures of the
+English swains and their loves were found to be abundantly entertaining
+on their own account. Gay had just been appointed secretary to the
+British ambassador to the court of Hanover through the influence of
+Jonathan Swift, when the death of Queen Anne three months later put an
+end to all his hopes of official employment. In 1715, probably with some
+help from Pope, he produced _What d'ye call it?_ a dramatic skit on
+contemporary tragedy, with special reference to Otway's _Venice
+Preserved_. It left the public so ignorant of its real meaning that
+Lewis Theobald and Benjamin Griffin (1680-1740) published a _Complete
+Key to what d'ye call it_ by way of explanation. In 1716 appeared his
+_Trivia, or the Art of Walking the Streets of London_, a poem in three
+books, for which he acknowledged having received several hints from
+Swift. It contains graphic and humorous descriptions of the London of
+that period. In January 1717 he produced the comedy of _Three Hours
+after Marriage_, which was grossly indecent without being amusing, and
+was a complete failure. There is no doubt that in this piece he had
+assistance from Pope and Arbuthnot, but they were glad enough to have it
+assumed that Gay was the sole author.
+
+Gay had numerous patrons, and in 1720 he published _Poems on Several
+Occasions_ by subscription, realizing L1000 or more. In that year James
+Craggs, the secretary of state, presented him with some South Sea stock.
+Gay, disregarding the prudent advice of Pope and other of his friends,
+invested his all in South Sea stock, and, holding on to the end, he lost
+everything. The shock is said to have made him dangerously ill. As a
+matter of fact Gay had always been a spoilt child, who expected
+everything to be done for him. His friends did not fail him at this
+juncture. He had patrons in William Pulteney, afterwards earl of Bath,
+in the third earl of Burlington, who constantly entertained him at
+Chiswick or at Burlington House, and in the third earl of Queensberry.
+He was a frequent visitor with Pope, and received unvarying kindness
+from Congreve and Arbuthnot. In 1724 he produced a tragedy called _The
+Captives_. In 1727 he wrote for Prince William, afterwards duke of
+Cumberland, his famous _Fifty-one Fables in Verse_, for which he
+naturally hoped to gain some preferment, although he has much to say in
+them of the servility of courtiers and the vanity of court honours. He
+was offered the situation of gentleman-usher to the Princess Louisa, who
+was still a child. He refused this offer, which all his friends seem to
+have regarded, for no very obvious reason, as an indignity. As the
+_Fables_ were written for the amusement of one royal child, there would
+appear to have been a measure of reason in giving him a sinecure in the
+service of another. His friends thought him unjustly neglected by the
+court, but he had already received (1722) a sinecure as lottery
+commissioner with a salary of L150 a year, and from 1722 to 1729 he had
+lodgings in the palace at Whitehall. He had never rendered any special
+services to the court.
+
+He certainly did nothing to conciliate the favour of the government by
+his next production, the _Beggars' Opera_, a lyrical drama produced on
+the 29th of January 1728 by Rich, in which Sir Robert Walpole was
+caricatured. This famous piece, which was said to have made "Rich gay
+and Gay rich," was an innovation in many respects, and for a time it
+drove Italian opera off the English stage. Under cover of the thieves
+and highwaymen who figured in it was disguised a satire on society, for
+Gay made it plain that in describing the moral code of his characters he
+had in mind the corruptions of the governing class. Part of the success
+of the _Beggars' Opera_ may have been due to the acting of Lavinia
+Fenton, afterwards duchess of Bolton, in the part of Polly Peachum. The
+play ran for sixty-two nights, though the representations, four of which
+were "benefits" of the author, were not, as has sometimes been stated,
+consecutive. Swift is said to have suggested the subject, and Pope and
+Arbuthnot were constantly consulted while the work was in progress, but
+Gay must be regarded as the sole author. He wrote a sequel, _Polly_, the
+representation of which was forbidden by the lord chamberlain, no doubt
+through the influence of Walpole. This act of "oppression" caused no
+loss to Gay. It proved an excellent advertisement for _Polly_, which was
+published by subscription in 1729, and brought its author more than
+L1000. The duchess of Queensberry was dismissed from court for enlisting
+subscribers in the palace. The duke of Queensberry gave him a home, and
+the duchess continued her affectionate patronage until Gay's death,
+which took place on the 4th of December 1732. He was buried in
+Westminster Abbey. The epitaph on his tomb is by Pope, and is followed
+by Gay's own mocking couplet:--
+
+  "Life is a jest, and all things show it,
+   I thought so once, and now I know it."
+
+_Acis and Galatea_, an English pastoral opera, the music of which was
+written by Handel, was produced at the Haymarket in 1732. The profits of
+his posthumous opera of _Achilles_ (1733), and a new volume of _Fables_
+(1738) went to his two sisters, who inherited from him a fortune of
+L6000. He left two other pieces, _The Distressed Wife_ (1743), a comedy,
+and _The Rehearsal at Goatham_ (1754), a farce. The _Fables_, slight as
+they may appear, cost him more labour than any of his other works. The
+narratives are in nearly every case original, and are told in clear and
+lively verse. The moral which rounds off each little story is never
+strained. They are masterpieces in their kind, and the very numerous
+editions of them prove their popularity. They have been translated into
+Latin, French and Italian, Urdu and Bengali.
+
+  See his _Poetical Works_ (1893) in the Muses' Library, with an
+  introduction by Mr John Underhill; also Samuel Johnson's _Lives of the
+  Poets_, John Gay's _Singspiele_ (1898), edited by G. Sarrazin
+  (_Englische Textbibliothek II._); and an article by Austin Dobson in
+  vol. 21 of the _Dictionary of National Biography_; _Gay's Chair_
+  (1820), edited by Henry Lee, a fellow-townsman, contained a
+  biographical sketch by his nephew, the Rev. Joseph Baller.
+
+
+
+
+GAY, MARIE FRANCOISE SOPHIE (1776-1852), French author, was born in
+Paris on the 1st of July 1776. Madame Gay was the daughter of M.
+Nichault de la Valette and of Francesca Peretti, an Italian lady. In
+1793 she was married to M. Liottier, an exchange broker, but she was
+divorced from him in 1799, and shortly afterwards was married to M. Gay,
+receiver-general of the department of the Roer or Ruhr. This union
+brought her into intimate relations with many distinguished personages;
+and her salon came to be frequented by all the distinguished
+litterateurs, musicians, actors and painters of the time, whom she
+attracted by her beauty, her vivacity and her many amiable qualities.
+Her first literary production was a letter written in 1802 to the
+_Journal de Paris_, in defence of Madame de Stael's novel, _Delphine_;
+and in the same year she published anonymously her first novel _Laure
+d'Estell_. _Leonie de Montbreuse_, which appeared in 1813, is considered
+by Sainte-Beuve her best work; but _Anatole_ (1815), the romance of a
+deaf-mute, has perhaps a higher reputation. Among her other works,
+_Salons celebres_ (2 vols., 1837) may be especially mentioned. Madame
+Gay wrote several comedies and opera libretti which met with
+considerable success. She was also an accomplished musician, and
+composed both the words and music of a number of songs. She died in
+Paris on the 5th of March 1852. For an account of her daughter, Delphine
+Gay, Madame de Girardin, see GIRARDIN.
+
+  See her own _Souvenirs d'une vieille femme_ (1834); also Theophile
+  Gautier, _Portraits contemporains_; and Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du
+  lundi_, vol. vi.
+
+
+
+
+GAY, WALTER (1856-   ), American artist, was born at Hingham,
+Massachusetts, on the 22nd of January 1856. In 1876 he became a pupil of
+Leon Bonnat in Paris. He received an honourable mention in the Salon of
+1885; a gold medal in 1888, and similar awards at Vienna (1894), Antwerp
+(1895), Berlin (1896) and Munich (1897). He became an officer of the
+Legion of Honour and a member of the Society of Secession, Munich. Works
+by him are in the Luxembourg, the Tate Gallery (London), and the Boston
+and Metropolitan (New York) Museums of Art. His compositions are mainly
+figure subjects portraying French peasant life.
+
+
+
+
+GAYA, a city and district of British India, in the Patna division of
+Bengal. The city is situated 85 m. S. of Patna by rail. Pop. (1901)
+71,288. It consists of two distinct parts, adjoining each other; the
+part containing the residences of the priests is Gaya proper; and the
+other, which is the business quarter, is called Sahibganj. The civil
+offices and residences of the European inhabitants are situated here.
+Gaya derives its sanctity from incidents in the life of Buddha. But a
+local legend also exists concerning a pagan monster of great sanctity,
+named Gaya, who by long penance had become holy, so that all who saw or
+touched him were saved from perdition. Yama, the lord of hell, appealed
+to the gods, who induced Gaya to lie down in order that his body might
+be a place of sacrifice; and once down, Yama placed a large stone on him
+to keep him there. The tricked demon struggled violently, and, in order
+to pacify him, Vishnu promised that the gods should take up their
+permanent residence in him, and that any one who made a pilgrimage to
+the spot where he lay should be delivered from the terrors of the Hindu
+place of torment. This may possibly be a Brahmanic rendering of Buddha's
+life and work. There are forty-five sacred spots (of which the temple of
+Vishnupada is the chief) in and around the city, and these are visited
+by thousands of pilgrims annually. During the Mutiny the large store of
+treasure here was conveyed safely to Calcutta by Mr A. Money. The city
+contains a government high school and an hospital, with a Lady Elgin
+branch for women.
+
+The DISTRICT OF GAYA comprises an area of 4712 sq. m. Generally
+speaking, it consists of a level plain, with a ridge of prettily wooded
+hills along the southern boundary, whence the country falls with a
+gentle slope towards the Ganges. Rocky hills occasionally occur, either
+detached or in groups, the loftiest being Maher hill about 12 m. S.E. of
+Gaya city, with an elevation of 1620 ft. above sea-level. The eastern
+part of the district is highly cultivated; the portions to the north and
+west are less fertile; while in the south the country is thinly peopled
+and consists of hills, the jungles on which are full of wild animals.
+The principal river is the Son, which marks the boundary between Gaya
+and Shahabad, navigable by small boats throughout the year, and by craft
+of 20-tons burden in the rainy season. Other rivers are the Punpun,
+Phalgu and Jamuna. Two branches of the Son canal system, the eastern
+main canal and the Patna canal, intersect the district. In 1901 the
+population was 2,059,933, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. Among
+the higher castes there is an unusually large proportion of Brahmans, a
+circumstance due to the number of sacred places which the district
+contains. The Gayawals, or priests in charge of the holy places, are
+held in high esteem by the pilgrims; but they are not pure Brahmans, and
+are looked down upon by those who are. They live an idle and dissolute
+life, but are very wealthy, from contributions extorted from the
+pilgrims. Buddh Gaya, about 6 m. S. of Gaya city, is one of the holiest
+sites of Buddhism, as containing the tree under which Sakyamuni attained
+enlightenment. In addition to many ruins and sculptures, there is a
+temple restored by the government in 1881. Another place of religious
+interest is a temple of great antiquity, which crowns the highest peak
+of the Barabar hills, and at which a religious fair is held each
+September, attended by 10,000 to 20,000 pilgrims. At the foot of the
+hill are numerous rock caves excavated about 200 B.C. The opium poppy is
+largely cultivated. There are a number of lac factories. Manufactures
+consist of common brass utensils, black stone ornaments, pottery,
+tussur-silk and cotton cloth. Formerly paper-making was an important
+manufacture in the district, but it has entirely died out. The chief
+exports are food grains, oil seeds, indigo, crude opium (sent to Patna
+for manufacture), saltpetre, sugar, blankets, brass utensils, &c. The
+imports are salt, piece goods, cotton, timber, bamboos, tobacco, lac,
+iron, spices and fruits. The district is traversed by four branches of
+the East Indian railway. In 1901 it suffered severely from the plague.
+
+  See _District Gazetteer_ (1906); Sir A. Cunningham, _Mahabodhi_
+  (1892).
+
+
+
+
+GAYAL, a domesticated ox allied to the Gaur, but distinguished, among
+other features, by the more conical and straighter horns, and the
+straight line between them. Gayal are kept by the natives of the
+hill-districts of Assam and parts of Tenasserim and Upper Burma.
+Although it has received a distinct name, _Bos (Bibos) frontalis_, there
+can be little doubt that the gayal is merely a domesticated breed of the
+gaur, many gayal-skulls showing characters approximating to those of the
+gaur.
+
+
+
+
+GAYANGOS Y ARCE, PASCUAL DE (1809-1897), Spanish scholar and
+Orientalist, was born at Seville on the 21st of June 1809. At the age of
+thirteen he was sent to be educated at Pont-le-Voy near Blois, and in
+1828 began the study of Arabic under Silvestre de Sacy. After a visit to
+England, where he married, he obtained a post in the Spanish treasury,
+and was transferred to the foreign office as translator in 1833. In 1836
+he returned to England, wrote extensively in English periodicals, and
+translated Almakkari's _History of the Mahommedan Dynasties in Spain_
+(1840-1843) for the Royal Asiatic Society. In England he also made the
+acquaintance of Ticknor, to whom he was very serviceable. In 1843 he
+returned to Spain as professor of Arabic at the university of Madrid,
+which post he held until 1881, when he was made director of public
+instruction. This office he resigned upon being elected senator for the
+district of Huelva. His latter years were spent in cataloguing the
+Spanish manuscripts in the British Museum; he had previously continued
+Bergenroth's catalogue of the manuscripts relating to England in the
+Simancas archives. His best-known original work is his dissertation on
+Spanish romances of chivalry in Rivadeneyra's _Biblioteca de autores
+espanoles_. He died in London on the 4th of October 1897.
+
+
+
+
+GAYARRE, CHARLES ETIENNE ARTHUR (1805-1895), American historian, was
+born in New Orleans, Louisiana, on the 9th of January 1805. After
+studying at the College d'Orleans he began, in 1826, to study law in
+Philadelphia, and three years later was admitted to the bar. In 1830 he
+was elected a member of the House of Representatives of Louisiana, in
+1831 was appointed deputy attorney-general of his state, in 1833 became
+presiding judge of the city court of New Orleans, and in 1834 was
+elected as a Jackson Democrat to the United States Senate. On account of
+ill-health, however, he immediately resigned without taking his seat,
+and for the next eight years travelled in Europe and collected
+historical material from the French and the Spanish archives. In
+1844-1845 and in 1856-1857 he was again a member of the state House of
+Representatives, and from 1845 to 1853 was secretary of state of
+Louisiana. He supported the Southern Confederacy during the Civil War,
+in which he lost a large fortune, and after its close lived chiefly by
+his pen. He died in New Orleans on the 11th of February 1895. He is best
+known as the historian of Louisiana. He wrote _Histoire de la Louisiane_
+(1847); _Romance of the History of Louisiana_ (1848); _Louisiana: its
+Colonial History and Romance_ (1851), reprinted in _A History of
+Louisiana_; _History of Louisiana: the Spanish Domination_ (1854);
+_Philip II. of Spain_ (1866); and _A History of Louisiana_ (4 vols.,
+1866), the last being a republication and continuation of his earlier
+works in this field, the whole comprehending the history of Louisiana
+from its earliest discovery to 1861. He wrote also several dramas and
+romances, the best of the latter being _Fernando de Lemos_ (1872).
+
+
+
+
+GAY-LUSSAC, JOSEPH LOUIS (1778-1850), French chemist and physicist, was
+born at St Leonard, in the department of Haute Vienne, on the 6th of
+December 1778. He was the elder son of Antoine Gay, _procureur du roi_
+and judge at Pont-de-Noblac, who assumed the name Lussac from a small
+property he had in the neighbourhood of St Leonard. Young Gay-Lussac
+received his early education at home under the direction of the abbe
+Bourdieux and other masters, and in 1794 was sent to Paris to prepare
+for the Ecole Polytechnique, into which he was admitted at the end of
+1797 after a brilliant examination. Three years later he was transferred
+to the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees, and shortly afterwards was assigned
+to C.L. Berthollet, who wanted an able student to help in his
+researches. The new assistant scarcely came up to expectations in
+respect of confirming certain theoretical views of his master's by the
+experiments set him to that end, and appears to have stated the
+discrepancy without reserve; but Berthollet nevertheless quickly
+recognized the ability displayed, and showed his appreciation not only
+by desiring to be Gay-Lussac's "father in science," but also by making
+him in 1807 an original member of the Societe d'Arcueil. In 1802 he was
+appointed demonstrator to A.F. Fourcroy at the Ecole Polytechnique,
+where subsequently (1809) he became professor of chemistry, and from
+1808 to 1832 he was professor of physics at the Sorbonne, a post which
+he only resigned for the chair of chemistry at the Jardin des Plantes.
+In 1831 he was elected to represent Haute Vienne in the chamber of
+deputies, and in 1839 he entered the chamber of peers. He died in Paris
+on the 9th of May 1850.
+
+Gay-Lussac's earlier researches were mostly physical in character and
+referred mainly to the properties of gases, vapour-tensions, hygrometry,
+capillarity, &c. In his first memoir (_Ann. de Chimie_, 1802) he showed
+that different gases are dilated in the same proportion when heated from
+0 deg. to 100 deg. C. Apparently he did not know of Dalton's experiments
+on the same point, which indeed were far from accurate; but in a note he
+explained that "le cit. Charles avait remarque depuis 15 ans la meme
+propriete dans ces gaz; mais n'ayant jamais publie ses resultats, c'est
+par le plus grand hasard que je les ai connus." In consequence of his
+candour in thus rescuing from oblivion the observation which his
+fellow-citizen did not think worth publishing, his name is sometimes
+dissociated from this law, which instead is known as that of Charles. In
+1804 he had an opportunity of prosecuting his researches on air in
+somewhat unusual conditions, for the French Academy, desirous of
+securing some observations on the force of terrestrial magnetism at
+great elevations above the earth, through Berthollet and J.E. Chaptal
+obtained the use of the balloon which had been employed in Egypt, and
+entrusted the task to him and J.B. Biot. In their first ascent from the
+garden of the Conservatoire des Arts on the 24th of August 1804 an
+altitude of 4000 metres (about 13,000 ft.) was attained. But this
+elevation was not considered sufficient by Gay-Lussac, who therefore
+made a second ascent by himself oh the 16th of September, when the
+balloon rose 7016 metres (about 23,000 ft.) above sea-level. At this
+height, with the thermometer marking 9-1/2 degrees below freezing, he
+remained for a considerable time, making observations not only on
+magnetism, but also on the temperature and humidity of the air, and
+collecting several samples of air at different heights. The magnetic
+observations, though imperfect, led him to the conclusion that the
+magnetic effect at all attainable elevations above the earth's surface
+remains constant; and on analysing the samples of air he could find no
+difference of composition at different heights. (For an account of both
+ascents see _Journ. de phys._ for 1804.) On the 1st of October in the
+same year, in conjunction with Alexander von Humboldt, he read a paper
+on eudiometric analysis (_Ann. de Chim._, 1805), which contained the
+germ of his most important generalization, the authors noting that when
+oxygen and hydrogen combine together by volume, it is in the proportion
+of one volume of the former to two volumes of the latter. But his law of
+combination by volumes was not enunciated in its general form until
+after his return from a scientific journey through Switzerland, Italy
+and Germany, on which with Humboldt he started from Paris in March 1805.
+This journey was interrupted in the spring of 1806 by the news of the
+death of M.J. Brisson, and Gay-Lussac hurried back to Paris in the hope,
+which was gratified, that he would be elected to the seat thus vacated
+in the Academy. In 1807 an account of the magnetic observations made
+during the tour with Humboldt was published in the first volume of the
+_Memoires d'Arcueil_, and the second volume, published in 1809,
+contained the important memoir on gaseous combination (read to the
+Societe Philomathique on the last day of 1808), in which he pointed out
+that gases combining with each other in volume do so in the simplest
+proportions--1 to 1, 1 to 2, 1 to 3--and that the volume of the compound
+formed bears a simple ratio to that of the constituents.
+
+About this time Gay-Lussac's work, although he by no means entirely
+abandoned physical questions, became of a more chemical character; and
+in three instances it brought him into direct rivalry with Sir Humphry
+Davy. In the first case Davy's preparation of potassium and sodium by
+the electric current spurred on Gay-Lussac and his collaborator L.J.
+Thenard, who had no battery at their disposal, to search for a chemical
+method of obtaining those metals, and by the action of red-hot iron on
+fused potash--a method of which Davy admitted the advantages--they
+succeeded in 1808 in preparing potassium, going on to make a full study
+of its properties and to use it, as Davy also did, for the reduction of
+boron from boracic acid in 1809. The second concerned the nature of
+"oxymuriatic acid" (chlorine). While admitting the possibility that it
+was an elementary body, after many experiments they finally declared it
+to be a compound (_Mem. d'Arcueil_, 1809). Davy, on the other hand,
+could see no reason to suppose it contained oxygen, as they surmised,
+and ultimately they had to accept his view of its elementary character.
+The third case roused most feeling of all. Davy, passing through Paris
+on his way to Italy at the end of 1813, obtained a few fragments of
+iodine, which had been discovered by Bernard Courtois (1777-1838) in
+1811, and after a brief examination by the aid of his limited portable
+laboratory perceived its analogy to chlorine and inferred it to be an
+element. Gay-Lussac, it is said, was nettled at the idea of a foreigner
+making such a discovery in Paris, and vigorously took up the study of
+the new substance, the result being the "Memoire sur l'iode," which
+appeared in the _Ann. de chim._ in 1814. He too saw its resemblance to
+chlorine, and was obliged to agree with Davy's opinion as to its simple
+nature, though not without some hesitation, due doubtless to his
+previous declaration about chlorine. Davy on his side seems to have felt
+that the French chemist was competing with him, not altogether fairly,
+in trying to appropriate the honour of discovering the character of the
+substance and of its compound, hydriodic acid.
+
+In 1810 he published a paper which contains some classic experiments on
+fermentation, a subject to which he returned in a second paper published
+in 1815. At the same time he was working with Thenard at the improvement
+of the methods of organic analysis, and by combustion with oxidizing
+agents, first potassium chlorate and subsequently copper oxide, he
+determined the composition of a number of organic substances. But his
+last great piece of pure research was on prussic acid. In a note
+published in 1811 he described the physical properties of this acid, but
+he said nothing about its chemical composition till 1815, when he
+described cyanogen as a compound radicle, prussic acid as a compound of
+that radicle with hydrogen alone, and the prussiates (cyanides) as
+compounds of the radicle with metals. The proof that prussic acid
+contains hydrogen but no oxygen was a most important support to the
+hydrogen-acid theory, and completed the downfall of Lavoisier's oxygen
+theory; while the isolation of cyanogen was of equal importance for the
+subsequent era of compound radicles in organic chemistry.
+
+After this research Gay-Lussac's attention began to be distracted from
+purely scientific investigation. He had now secured a leading if not the
+foremost place among the chemists of the French capital, and the demand
+for his services as adviser in technical problems and matters of
+practical interest made great inroads on his available time. He had been
+a member of the consultative committee on arts and manufactures since
+1805; he was attached to the "administration des poudres et salpetres"
+in 1818, and in 1829 he received the lucrative post of assayer to the
+mint. In these new fields he displayed the powers so conspicuous in his
+scientific inquiries, and he was now to introduce and establish
+scientific accuracy where previously there had been merely practical
+approximations. His services to industry included his improvements in
+the processes for the manufacture of sulphuric acid (1818) and oxalic
+acid (1829); methods of estimating the amount of real alkali in potash
+and soda by the volume of standard acid required for neutralization, and
+for estimating the available chlorine in bleaching powder by a solution
+of arsenious acid; directions for the use of the centesimal
+alcoholometer published in 1824 and specially commended by the
+Institute; and the elaboration of a method of assaying silver by a
+standard solution of common salt, a volume on which was published in
+1833. Among his research work of this period may be mentioned the
+improvements in organic analysis and the investigation of fulminic acid
+made with the help of Liebig, who gained the privilege of admission to
+his private laboratory in 1823-1824.
+
+Gay-Lussac was patient, persevering, accurate to punctiliousness,
+perhaps a little cold and reserved, and not unaware of his great
+ability. But he was also bold and energetic, not only in his work but
+also in support and defence of his friends. His early childish
+adventures, as told by Arago, herald the fearless aeronaut and the
+undaunted investigator of volcanic eruptions (Vesuvius was in full
+eruption when he visited it during his tour in 1805); and the endurance
+he exhibited under the laboratory accidents that befell him shows the
+power of will with which he would face the prospect of becoming blind
+and useless for the prosecution of the science which was his very life,
+and of which he was one of the most distinguished ornaments. Only at the
+very end, when the disease from which he was suffering left him no hope,
+did he complain with some bitterness of the hardship of leaving this
+world where the many discoveries being made pointed to yet greater
+discoveries to come.
+
+  The most complete list of Gay-Lussac's papers is contained in the
+  Royal Society's _Catalogue of Scientific Papers_, which enumerates
+  148, exclusive of others written jointly with Humboldt, Thenard,
+  Welter and Liebig. Many of them were published in the _Annales de
+  chimie_, which after it changed its title to _Annales de chimie et
+  physique_ he edited, with Arago, up to nearly the end of his life; but
+  some are to be found in the _Memoires d'Arcueil_ and the _Comptes
+  rendus_, and in the _Recherches physiques et chimiques_, published
+  with Thenard in 1811.
+
+
+
+
+GAZA, THEODORUS (c. 1400-1475), one of the Greek scholars who were the
+leaders of the revival of learning in the 15th century, was born at
+Thessalonica. On the capture of his native city by the Turks in 1430 he
+fled to Italy. During a three years' residence in Mantua he rapidly
+acquired a competent knowledge of Latin under the teaching of Vittorino
+da Feltre, supporting himself meanwhile by giving lessons in Greek, and
+by copying manuscripts of the ancient classics.[1] In 1447 he became
+professor of Greek in the newly founded university of Ferrara, to which
+students in great numbers from all parts of Italy were soon attracted by
+his fame as a teacher. He had taken some part in the councils which were
+held in Siena (1423), Ferrara (1438), and Florence (1439), with the
+object of bringing about a reconciliation between the Greek and Latin
+Churches; and in 1450, at the invitation of Pope Nicholas V., he went to
+Rome, where he was for some years employed by his patron in making Latin
+translations from Aristotle and other Greek authors. After the death of
+Nicholas (1455), being unable to make a living at Rome, Gaza removed to
+Naples, where he enjoyed the patronage of Alphonso the Magnanimous for
+two years (1456-1458). Shortly afterwards he was appointed by Cardinal
+Bessarion to a benefice in Calabria, where the later years of his life
+were spent, and where he died about 1475. Gaza stood high in the opinion
+of most of his learned contemporaries, but still higher in that of the
+scholars of the succeeding generation. His Greek grammar (in four
+books), written in Greek, first printed at Venice in 1495, and
+afterwards partially translated by Erasmus in 1521, although in many
+respects defective, especially in its syntax, was for a long time the
+leading text-book. His translations into Latin were very numerous,
+including the _Problemata_, _De partibus animalium_ and _De generatione
+animalium_ of Aristotle; the _Historia plantarum_ of Theophrastus; the
+_Problemata_ of Alexander Aphrodisias; the _De instruendis aciebus_ of
+Aelian; the _De compositione verborum_ of Dionysius of Halicarnassus;
+and some of the _Homilies_ of John Chrysostom. He also turned into Greek
+Cicero's _De senectute_ and _Somnium Scipionis_--with much success, in
+the opinion of Erasmus; with more elegance than exactitude, according to
+the colder judgment of modern scholars. He was the author also of two
+small treatises entitled _De mensibus_ and _De origine Turcarum_.
+
+  See G. Voigt, _Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums_ (1893),
+  and article by C.F. Bahr in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine
+  Encyklopadie_. For a complete list of his works, see Fabricius,
+  _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (ed. Harles), x.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] According to Voigt, Gaza came to Italy some ten years later from
+    Constantinople, where he had been a teacher or held some clerical
+    office.
+
+
+
+
+GAZA (or 'AZZAH, mod. _Ghuzzeh_), the most southerly of the five
+princely Philistine cities, situated near the sea, at the point where
+the old trade routes from Egypt, Arabia and Petra to Syria met. It was
+always a strong border fortress and a place of commercial importance, in
+many respects the southern counterpart of Damascus. The earliest notice
+of it is in the Tell el-Amarna tablets, in a letter from the local
+governor, who then held it for Egypt, with which country it always stood
+in close connexion. It never passed for long into Israelite hands,
+though subject for a while to Hezekiah of Judah; from him it passed to
+Assyria. In Amos i. 6 the city is denounced for giving up Hebrew slaves
+to Edom. To Herodotus (iii. 5) the place seemed as important as Sardis.
+The city withstood Alexander the Great for five months (332 B.C.), and
+in 96 B.C. was razed to the ground by Alexander Jannaeus. It was rebuilt
+by Aulus Gabinius, 57 B.C., but on a new site; the old site was
+remembered and spoken of as "Old" or "Desert Gaza": compare Acts viii.
+26. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries Gaza was a thriving Greek city, with
+good schools and famous temples, especially one to the local god Marna
+(i.e. "Lord" or "Our Lord"). A statue of this god has been found near
+Gaza; it much resembles the Greek representation of Zeus. The struggle
+with Christianity here was long and intense. Egyptian monks gradually
+won over the country folk, and in 402, under the influence of Theodosius
+and Porphyry the local bishop, the Marneion was destroyed and the cross
+made politically supreme. In the 5th and 6th centuries Gaza was held in
+high repute as a place of learning. But after it passed into Moslem
+hands (635) it gradually lost all save commercial importance, and even
+the Crusaders did little to revive its old military glory. It finally
+was captured by the Moslems in 1244. Napoleon captured it in 1799.
+
+The modern town (pop. 16,000) is divided into four quarters, one of
+which is built on a low hill. A magnificent grove of very ancient olives
+forms an avenue 4 m. long to the north. There are many lofty minarets in
+various parts of the town, and a fine mosque built of ancient materials.
+A 12th century church towards the south side of the hill has also been
+converted into a mosque. On the east is shown the tomb of Samson (an
+erroneous tradition dating back to the middle ages). The ancient walls
+are now covered up beneath green mounds of rubbish. The water-supply is
+from wells sunk through the sandy soil to the rock; of these there are
+more than twenty--an unusual number for a Syrian town. The land for the
+3 m. between Gaza and the sea consists principally of sand dunes. There
+is no natural harbour, but traces of ruins near the shore mark the site
+of the old Maiuma Gazae or Port of Gaza, now called el Mineh, which in
+the 5th century was a separate town and episcopal see, under the title
+Constantia or Limena Gaza. Hashem, an ancestor of Mahomet, lies buried
+in the town. On the east are remains of a race-course, the corners
+marked by granite shafts with Greek inscriptions on them. To the south
+is a remarkable hill, quite isolated and bare, with a small mosque and a
+graveyard. It is called el Muntar, "the watch tower," and is supposed to
+be the mountain "before (or facing) Hebron," to which Samson carried the
+gates of Gaza (Judg. xvi. 3). The bazaars of Gaza are considered good.
+An extensive pottery exists in the town, and black earthenware peculiar
+to the place is manufactured there. The climate is dry and comparatively
+healthy, but the summer temperature often exceeds 110 deg. Fahr. The
+surrounding country is partly cornland, partly waste, and is inhabited
+by wandering Arabs. The prosperity of Ghuzzeh has partially revived
+through the growing trade in barley, of which the average annual export
+to Great Britain for 1897-1899 was over 30,000 tons. The dress of the
+people is Egyptian rather than Syrian. Gaza is an episcopal see both of
+the Greek and the Armenian church. The Church Missionary Society
+maintains a mission, with schools for both sexes, and a hospital.
+
+
+
+
+GAZALAND, a district of Portuguese East Africa, extending north from the
+Komati or Manhissa river, Delagoa Bay, to the Pungwe river. It is a
+well-watered, fertile country. Gazaland is one of the chief recruiting
+grounds for negro labour in the Transvaal gold mines. The country
+derives its name from a Swazi chief named Gaza, a contemporary of Chaka,
+the Zulu king. Refugees from various clans oppressed by Dingaan (Chaka's
+successor) were welded into one tribe by Gaza's son Manikusa, who took
+the name of Sotshangana, his followers being known generally as
+Matshangana. A section of them was called Maviti or Landeens (i.e.
+couriers), a designation which persists as a tribal name. Between 1833
+and 1836 Manikusa made himself master of the country as far north as the
+Zambezi and captured the Portuguese posts at Delagoa Bay, Inhambane,
+Sofala and Sena, killing nearly all the inhabitants. The Portuguese
+reoccupied their posts, but held them with great difficulty, while in
+the interior the Matshangana continued their ravages unchecked,
+depopulating large regions. Manikusa died about 1860, and his son
+Umzila, receiving some help from the Portuguese at Delagoa Bay in a
+struggle against a brother for the chieftainship, ceded to them the
+territory south of the Manhissa river. North of that stream as far as
+the Zambezi and inland to the continental plateau Umzila established
+himself in independence, a position he maintained till his death (c.
+1884). His chief rival was a Goanese named Gouveia, who came to Africa
+about 1850. Having obtained possession of a _prazo_ in the Gorongoza
+district, he ruled there as a feudal lord while acknowledging himself a
+Portuguese subject. Gouveia recovered from the Matshangana and other
+troublers of the peace much of the country in the Zambezi valley, and
+was appointed by the Portuguese captain-general of a large region. From
+1868 onward the country began to be better known. Probably the first
+European to penetrate any distance inland from the Sofala coast since
+the Portuguese gold-seekers of the 16th century was St Vincent W.
+Erskine, who explored the region between the Limpopo and Pungwe
+(1868-1875). Portugal's hold on the coast had been more firmly
+established at the time of Umzila's death, and Gungunyana, his
+successor, was claimed as a vassal, while efforts were made to open up
+the interior. This led in 1890-1891 to collisions on the borderland of
+the plateau with the newly established British South Africa Company, and
+to the arrest by the company's agents of Gouveia, who was, however, set
+at liberty and returned to Mozambique via Cape Town. An offer made by
+Gungunyana (1891) to come under British protection was not accepted. In
+1892 Gouveia was killed in a war with a native chief. Gungunyana
+maintained his independence until 1895, when he was captured by a
+Portuguese force and exiled, first to Lisbon and afterwards to Angola,
+where he died in 1906. With the capture of Gungunyana opposition to
+Portuguese rule largely ceased.
+
+In flora, fauna and commerce Gazaland resembles the neighbouring regions
+of Portuguese East Africa. (q.v.).
+
+  See G. McCall Theal, _History of South Africa since 1795_, vol. v.
+  (London, 1908).
+
+
+
+
+GAZEBO (usually explained as a comic Latinism, for "I will gaze"; the
+_New English Dictionary_ suggests a possible oriental origin now lost),
+a term used in the 18th century for a structure on the outer wall of a
+garden, having an upper storey with windows on each side so as to
+overlook the road. Similar buildings are found in Holland on the borders
+of the canals, which in some cases form very picturesque features.
+
+
+
+
+GAZETTE, a name given to news-sheets or newspapers having an abstract of
+current events (see NEWSPAPERS). The _London Gazette_ is the title of
+the English official organ for announcements by the government, and is
+published every Tuesday and Friday. It contains all proclamations,
+orders of council, promotions and appointments to commissions in the
+army and navy, all appointments to offices of state, and such other
+orders, rules and regulations as are directed by act of parliament to be
+published therein. It also contains notices of proceedings in
+bankruptcy, dissolutions of partnership, &c. By the Documentary Evidence
+Act 1868 the production of a copy of the _Gazette_ is prima facie
+evidence of royal proclamations and government orders and regulations.
+Similar gazettes are also published in Edinburgh and Dublin. Most
+countries (the United States excepted) have official journals containing
+information more or less similar to that of the _London Gazette_, as the
+French _Journal officiel_, the German _Deutscher Reichs-und Kgl. Preuss.
+Staats-Anzeiger_, &c. The word "gazetteer" was originally applied to one
+who wrote for "gazettes," but is now only used for a geographical
+dictionary arranged on an alphabetical plan.
+
+
+
+
+GEAR (connected with "garb," properly elegance, fashion, especially of
+dress, and with "gar," to cause to do, only found in Scottish and
+northern dialects; the root of the word is seen in the Old Teut.
+_garwjan_, to make ready), an outfit, applied to the wearing apparel of
+a person, or to the harness and trappings of a horse or any draft
+animal, as riding-gear, hunting-gear, &c.; also to household goods or
+stuff. The phrase "out of gear," though now connected with the
+mechanical application of the word, was originally used to signify "out
+of harness" or condition, not ready to work, not fit. The word is also
+used of apparatus generally, and especially of the parts collectively in
+a machine by which motion is transmitted from one part to another by a
+series of cog-wheels, continuous bands, &c. It is used in a special
+sense in reference to a bicycle, meaning the diameter of an imaginary
+wheel, the circumference of which is equal to the distance accomplished
+by one revolution of the pedals (see BICYCLE).
+
+
+
+
+GEBER. The name Geber has long been used to designate the author of a
+number of Latin treatises on alchemy, entitled _Summa perfectionis
+magisterii, De investigatione perfectionis, De inventione veritatis,
+Liber fornacum, Testamentum Geberi Regis Indiae and Alchemia Geberi_,
+and these writings were generally regarded as translations from the
+Arabic originals of Abu Abdallah Jaber ben Hayyam (Haiyan) ben Abdallah
+al-Kufi, who is supposed to have lived in the 8th or 9th century of the
+Christian era. About him, however, there is considerable uncertainty.
+According to the _Kitab-al-Fihrist_ (10th century), which gives his name
+as above, the authorities disagree, some asserting him to have been a
+writer on philosophy and rhetoric, and others claiming for him the first
+place among the adepts of his time in the art of making gold and silver.
+The writer of the _Kitab-al-Fihrist_ says he had been assured that Jaber
+only wrote one book and even that he never existed at all, but these
+statements he scouts as ridiculous, and expressing the conviction that
+Jaber really did exist, and that his works were numerous and important,
+goes on to quote the titles of some 500 treatises attributed to him. He
+is said to have resided most frequently at Kufa, where he prepared the
+"elixir," but, according to others, he never spent long in one place,
+having reason to keep his whereabouts unknown. His patron or master is
+variously given as Ja'far ben Yahya, and as Ja'far es-Sadiq; in the
+Arabic _Book of Royalty_, professedly written by him, he addresses the
+last-named as his master. In addition to these details the Fihrist
+mentions a tradition that he originally came from Khorasan. Another
+story given by d'Herbelot (_Bibliotheque orientale_, s.v. "Giaber")
+makes him a native of Harran in Mesopotamia and a Sabaean. Leo
+Africanus, who in 1526 gave an account of the Alchemists of Fez in
+Africa (see the English translation of his _Africae descriptio_ by John
+Pory, _A Geographical History of Africa_, London, 1600, p. 155), states
+that their principal authority was Geber, a Greek who had apostatized to
+Mahommedanism and lived a century after Mahomet. In Albertus Magnus the
+name Geber occurs only once and then with the epithet "of Seville";
+doubtless the reference is to the Arabian Jabir ben Aflah, who lived in
+that city in the 11th century, and wrote an astronomy in 9 books which
+is of importance in the history of trigonometry.
+
+The great puzzle connected with the name Geber lies in the character of
+the writings attributed to him, their style and matter differentiating
+them strongly from those of even the best authors of the later
+alchemical period, and making it difficult to account for their
+existence at all. The researches of M.P.E. Berthelot threw a great deal
+of light on this question. Taking the six treatises enumerated above he
+concluded, after critical examination, that the two last may be
+disregarded as of later date than the others, and that the _De
+investigatione perfectionis_, the _De inventione_ and the _Liber
+fornacum_ are merely extracts from or summaries of the _Summa
+perfectionis_ with later additions. The _Summa_ he therefore regarded as
+representative of the work of the Latin Geber, and study of it convinced
+him that it contains no indication of an Arabic origin, either in its
+method, which is conspicuous for clearness of reasoning and logical
+co-ordination of material, or in its facts, or in the words and persons
+quoted. Without going so far as to deny that some words and phrases may
+be taken from the writings of the Arabian Jaber, he was disposed to hold
+that it is the original work of some unknown Latin author, who wrote it
+in the second half of the 13th century and put it under the patronage of
+the venerated name of Geber. The MS. of this work in the Bibliotheque
+Nationale at Paris dates from about the year 1300. Berthelot further
+investigated Arabic MSS. existing in the Paris library and in the
+university of Leiden, and containing works attributed to Jaber, and had
+translations made of six treatises--two, of which he gives the titles as
+_Livre de la royaute_ and _Petit Livre de la misericorde_,--from Paris,
+and four--_Livre des balances, Livre de la misericorde, Livre de la
+concentration_ and _Livre de la mercure orientale_--from Leiden.
+Berthelot was not prepared to assert that these treatises were actually
+written by Jaber, but he held it certain that they are works written in
+Arabic between the 9th and 12th centuries, at a period anterior to the
+relations of the Latins with the Arabs. In style these treatises are
+entirely different from the _Summa_ of Geber. Their language is vague
+and allegorical, full of allusions and pious Mussulman invocations; the
+author continually announces that he is about to speak without mystery
+or reserve, but all the same never gives any precise details of the
+secrets he professes to reveal. He holds the doctrine that everything
+endowed with an apparent quality possesses an opposite occult quality in
+much the same terms as it is found in Latin writers of the middle ages,
+but he makes no allusion to the theory of the generation of the metals
+by sulphur and mercury, a theory generally attributed to Geber, who also
+added arsenic to the list. Again he fully accepts the influence of the
+stars on the production of the metals, whereas the Latin Geber disputes
+it, and in general the chemical knowledge of the two is on a different
+plane. Here again the inference is that the Latin treatises printed from
+the 15th century onwards as the work of Geber are not authentic,
+regarded as translations of the Arabic author Jaber, always supposing
+that the Arabic MSS. transcribed and translated for Berthelot are
+really, as they profess to be, the work of Jaber, and as representative
+of his opinions and attainments.
+
+But while Berthelot thus deprived the world of what were long regarded
+as genuine Latin versions of Jaber's works, he also gave it something in
+their place, for among the Paris MSS. he found a mutilated treatise,
+hitherto unpublished, entitled _Liber de Septuaginta (Johannis),
+translatus a Magistro Renaldo Cremonensi_, which he considered the only
+known Latin work that can be regarded as a translation from the Arabic
+Jaber. The latter states in the Arabic works referred to above that
+under that title he collected 70 of the 500 little treatises or tracts
+of which he was the author, and the titles of those tracts enumerated in
+the _Kitab-al-Fihrist_ as forming the chapters of the _Liber de
+Septuaginta_ correspond in general with those of the Latin work, which
+further is written in a style similar to that of the Arabic Jaber and
+contains the same doctrines. Hence Berthelot felt justified in assigning
+it to Jaber, although no Arabic original is known.
+
+The evidence collected by Berthelot has an important bearing on the
+history of chemistry. Most of the chemical knowledge attributed to the
+Arabs has been attributed to them on the strength of the reputed Latin
+writings of Geber. If, therefore, these are original works rather than
+translations, and contain facts and doctrines which are not to be found
+in the Arabian Jaber, it follows that, on the one hand, the chemical
+knowledge of the Arabs has been overestimated and, on the other, that
+more progress was made in the middle ages than has generally been
+supposed.
+
+  See M.P.E. Berthelot's works on the history of alchemy and especially
+  his _Chimie au moyen age_ (3 vols., Paris, 1893), the third volume of
+  which contains a French translation of Jaber's works together with the
+  Arabic text.
+
+
+
+
+GEBHARD TRUCHSESS VON WALDBURG (1547-1601), elector and archbishop of
+Cologne, was the second son of William, count of Waldburg, and nephew of
+Otto, cardinal bishop of Augsburg (1514-1573). Belonging thus to an old
+and distinguished Swabian family, he was born on the 10th of November
+1547, and after studying at the universities of Ingolstadt, Perugia,
+Louvain and elsewhere began his ecclesiastical career at Augsburg.
+Subsequently he held other positions at Strassburg, Cologne and
+Augsburg, and in December 1577 was chosen elector of Cologne after a
+spirited contest. Gebhard is chiefly noted for his conversion to the
+reformed doctrines, and for his marriage with Agnes, countess of
+Mansfeld, which was connected with this step. After living in
+concubinage with Agnes he decided, perhaps under compulsion, to marry
+her, doubtless intending at the same time to resign his see. Other
+counsels, however, prevailed. Instigated by some Protestant supporters
+he declared he would retain the electorate, and in December 1582 he
+formally announced his conversion to the reformed faith. The marriage
+with Agnes was celebrated in the following February, and Gebhard
+remained in possession of the see. This affair created a great stir in
+Germany, and the clause concerning ecclesiastical reservation in the
+religious peace of Augsburg was interpreted in one way by his friends,
+and in another way by his foes; the former holding that he could retain
+his office, the latter that he must resign. Anticipating events Gebhard
+had collected some troops, and had taken measures to convert his
+subjects to Protestantism. In April 1583 he was deposed and
+excommunicated by Pope Gregory XIII.; a Bavarian prince, Ernest, bishop
+of Liege, Freising and Hildesheim, was chosen elector, and war broke out
+between the rivals. The cautious Lutheran princes of Germany, especially
+Augustus I., elector of Saxony, were not enthusiastic in support of
+Gebhard, whose friendly relations with the Calvinists were not to their
+liking; and although Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. of France,
+tried to form a coalition to aid the deposed elector, the only
+assistance which he obtained came from John Casimir, administrator of
+the Palatinate of the Rhine. The inhabitants of the electorate were
+about equally divided on the question, and Ernest, supported by Spanish
+troops, was too strong for Gebhard. John Casimir, who acted as
+commander-in-chief, returned to the Palatinate in October 1583, and
+early in the following year Gebhard was driven from Bonn and took refuge
+in the Netherlands. The electorate was soon completely in the possession
+of Ernest, and the defeat of Gebhard was a serious blow to
+Protestantism, and marks a stage in the history of the Reformation.
+Living in the Netherlands he became very intimate with Elizabeth's
+envoy, Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, but he failed to get
+assistance for renewing the war either from the English queen or in any
+other quarter. In 1589 Gebhard took up his residence at Strassburg,
+where he had held the office of dean of the cathedral since 1574. Before
+his arrival some trouble had arisen in the chapter owing to the fact
+that three excommunicated canons persisted in retaining their offices.
+He joined this party, which was strongly supported in the city, took
+part in a double election to the bishopric in 1592, and in spite of some
+opposition retained his office until his death at Strassburg on the 31st
+of May 1601. Gebhard was a drunken and licentious man, who owes his
+prominence rather to his surroundings than to his abilities.
+
+  See M. Lossen, _Der kolnische Krieg_ (Gotha, 1882), and the article on
+  Gebhard in band viii. of the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_
+  (Leipzig, 1878); J.H. Hennes, _Der Kampf um das Erzstift Koln_
+  (Cologne, 1878); L. Ennen, _Geschichte der Stadt Koln_ (Cologne,
+  1863-1880); and _Nuntiaturberichte aus Deutschland_. _Der Kampf um
+  Koln_, edited by J. Hansen (Berlin, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+GEBWEILER (Fr. _Guebwiller_), a town of Germany in the imperial province
+of Alsace-Lorraine, at the foot of the Vosges, on the Lauch, 13 m. S. of
+Colmar, on the railway Bollweiler-Lautenbach. Pop. (1905) 13,259. Among
+the principal buildings are the Roman Catholic church of St Leodgar,
+dating from the 12th century, the Evangelical church, the synagogue, the
+town-house, and the old Dominican convent now used as a market and
+concert hall. The chief industries are spinning and dyeing, and the
+manufacture of cloth and of machinery; quarrying is carried on and the
+town is celebrated for its white wines.
+
+Gebweiler is mentioned as early as 774. It belonged to the religious
+foundation of Murbach, and in 1759 the abbots chose it for their
+residence. In 1789, at the outbreak of the Revolution, the monastic
+buildings were laid in ruins, and, though the archives were rescued and
+removed to Colmar, the library perished.
+
+
+
+
+GECKO,[1] the common name applied to all the species of the _Geckones_,
+one of the three sub-orders of the _Lacertilia_. The geckoes are small
+creatures, seldom exceeding 8 in. in length including the tail. With the
+head considerably flattened, the body short and thick, the legs not high
+enough to prevent the body dragging somewhat on the ground, the eyes
+large and almost destitute of eyelids, and the tail short and in some
+cases nearly as thick as the body, the geckoes altogether lack the
+litheness and grace characteristic of most lizards. Their colours also
+are dull, and to the weird and forbidding aspect thus produced the
+general prejudice against those creatures in the countries where they
+occur, which has led to their being classed with toads and snakes, is no
+doubt to be attributed. Their bite was supposed to be venomous, and
+their saliva to produce painful cutaneous eruptions; even their touch
+was thought sufficient to convey a dangerous taint. It is needless to
+say that in this instance the popular mind was misled by appearances.
+The geckoes are not only harmless, but are exceedingly useful creatures,
+feeding on insects, which, owing to the great width of their oesophagus,
+they are enabled to swallow whole, and in pursuit of which they do not
+hesitate to enter human dwellings, where they are often killed on
+suspicion. The structure of the toes in these lizards forms one of
+their most characteristic anatomical features.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf-tailed Gecko (_Gymnodactylus platurus_) of
+Australia.]
+
+[Illustration: Lower Surface of the Toe of (a) _Gecko_, (b)
+_Hemidactylus_--enlarged.]
+
+Most geckoes have adhesive digits and toes, by means of which they are
+enabled not only to climb absolutely smooth and vertical surfaces, for
+instance a window-pane, but to run along a white-washed ceiling, back
+downwards. The adhesion is not produced by sticky matter but by numerous
+transverse lamellae, each of which is further beset with tiny hair-like
+excrescences. The arrangement of the lamellae and pads differs much in
+the various genera and is used for classificatory purposes. Those which
+live on sandy ground have narrow digits without the adhesive apparatus.
+Most species have sharp, curved claws, often retractile between some of
+the lamellae or into a special sheath. The tail is very brittle and can
+be quickly regenerated; it varies much in size and shape; the most
+extraordinary is that of the leaf-tailed gecko. _Ptychozoon
+homalocephalon_ of the Malay countries has membranous expansions on the
+sides of the head, body, limbs and tail, which look like parachutes, but
+more probably they aid in concealing the creature when it is closely
+pressed to the similarly coloured bark of a tree. Most geckoes are dull
+coloured, yellow to brown, and they soon change colour from lighter to
+dark tints. They are insectivorous and chiefly nocturnal, but are fond
+of basking in the sun, motionless on the bark of a tree, or on a rock
+the colour of which is then imitated to a nicety. Some species are more
+or less transparent.
+
+Geckoes, of which about 270 species are known, subdivided into about 50
+genera, are cosmopolitan within the warmer zones, including New Zealand,
+and even the remotest volcanic islands. This wide distribution is due
+partly to the great age of the suborder (although fossils are unknown),
+partly to their being able to exist for several months without food so
+that, concealed in hollow trunks of trees, they may float about for a
+very long time. Ships, also, act as distributors. In south Europe occur
+only _Hemidactylus turcicus_, _Tarentola mauritanica (Platydactylus
+facetanus)_ and _Phyllodactylus europaeus_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The Malay name _ge-koq_ imitates the animal's cry.
+
+
+
+
+GED, WILLIAM (1690-1749), the inventor of stereotyping, was born at
+Edinburgh in 1690. In 1725 he patented his invention, developed from the
+simple process of soldering together loose types of Van der Mey. Ged,
+although he succeeded in obtaining a cast in similar metal, of a type
+page, could not persuade Edinburgh printers to take up his invention,
+and finally entered into partnership with a London stationer named
+Jenner and Thomas James, a typefounder. The partnership, however, turned
+out very ill; and Ged, broken-hearted at his want of success due to
+trade jealousy and the compositors' dislike of the innovation, died in
+poverty on the 19th of October 1749. Two prayer-books for the university
+of Cambridge and an edition of Sallust were printed from his stereotype
+plates. In his time the best type was imported from Holland, and Ged's
+daughter reports that he had repeated offers from the Dutch which, from
+patriotic motives, he refused. His sons tried to carry out his patent,
+and it was eventually perfected by Andrew Wilson.
+
+
+
+
+GEDDES, ALEXANDER (1737-1802), Scottish Roman Catholic theologian, was
+born in Rathven, Banffshire, on the 14th of September 1737. He was
+trained at the Roman Catholic seminary at Scalan and at the Scottish
+College in Paris, where he studied biblical philology, school divinity
+and modern languages. In 1764 he officiated as a priest in Dundee, but
+in May 1765 accepted an invitation to live with the earl of Traquair;
+where, with abundance of leisure and the free use of an adequate
+library, he made further progress in his favourite biblical studies.
+After a second visit to Paris, which was employed by him in reading and
+making extracts from rare books and manuscripts, he was appointed in
+1769 priest of Auchinhalrig and Preshome in his native county. The
+freedom with which he fraternized with his Protestant neighbours called
+forth the rebuke of his bishop (George Hay), and ultimately, for hunting
+and for occasionally attending the parish church of Cullen, where one of
+his friends was minister, he was deprived of his charge and forbidden
+the exercise of ecclesiastical functions within the diocese. This
+happened in 1779; and in 1780 he went with his friend Lord Traquair to
+London, where he spent the rest of his life. Before leaving Scotland he
+had received the honorary degree of LL.D. from the university of
+Aberdeen, and had been made an honorary member of the Society of
+Antiquaries, in the institution of which he had taken a very active
+part. In London Geddes soon received an appointment in connexion with
+the chapel of the imperial ambassador, and was also helped by Lord Petre
+in his scheme for a new Catholic version of the Bible. In 1786,
+supported also by such scholars as Benjamin Kennicott and Robert Lowth,
+Geddes published a _Prospectus of a new Translation of the Holy Bible_,
+a considerable quarto volume, in which the defects of previous
+translations were fully pointed out, and the means indicated by which
+these might be removed. It was well received, and led to the publication
+in 1788 of _Proposals for Printing_, with a specimen, and in 1790 of a
+_General Answer to Queries, Counsels and Criticisms_. The first volume
+of the translation itself, which was entitled _The Holy Bible ...
+faithfully translated from corrected Texts of the Originals, with
+various Readings, explanatory Notes and critical Remarks_, appeared in
+1792, and was the signal for a storm of hostility on the part of both
+Catholics and Protestants. It was obvious enough--no small offence in
+the eyes of some--that as a critic Geddes had identified himself with
+C.F. Houbigant (1686-1783), Kennicott and J.D. Michaelis, but others did
+not hesitate to stigmatize him as the would-be "corrector of the Holy
+Ghost." Three of the vicars-apostolic almost immediately warned all the
+faithful against the "use and reception" of his translation, on the
+ostensible ground that it had not been examined and approved by due
+ecclesiastical authority; and by his own bishop (Douglas) he was in 1793
+suspended from the exercise of his orders in the London district. The
+second volume of the translation, completing the historical books,
+published in 1797, found no more friendly reception; but this
+circumstance did not discourage him from giving forth in 1800 the volume
+of _Critical Remarks on the Hebrew Scriptures_, which presented in a
+somewhat brusque manner the then novel and startling views of Eichhorn
+and his school on the primitive history and early records of mankind.
+
+Geddes was engaged on a critical translation of the Psalms (published in
+1807) when he was seized with an illness of which he died on the 26th of
+February 1802. Although under ecclesiastical censures, he had never
+swerved from a consistent profession of faith as a Catholic; and on his
+death-bed he duly received the last rites of his communion.
+
+  Besides pamphlets on the Catholic and slavery questions, as well as
+  several fugitive _jeux d'esprit_, and a number of unsigned articles in
+  the _Analytical Review_, Geddes also published a free metrical version
+  of _Select Satires of Horace_ (1779), and a verbal rendering of the
+  _First Book of the Iliad of Homer_ (1792). The _Memoirs_ of his life
+  and writings by his friend John Mason Good appeared in 1803.
+
+
+
+
+GEDDES, ANDREW (1783-1844), British painter, was born at Edinburgh.
+After receiving a good education in the high school and in the
+university of that city, he was for five years in the excise office, in
+which his father held the post of deputy auditor. After the death of his
+father, who had opposed his desire to become an artist, he came to
+London and entered the Royal Academy schools. His first contribution to
+the exhibitions of the Royal Academy, a "St John in the Wilderness,"
+appeared at Somerset House in 1806, and from that year onwards Geddes
+was a fairly constant exhibitor of figure-subjects and portraits. His
+well-known portrait of Wilkie, with whom he was on terms of intimacy,
+was at the Royal Academy in 1816. He alternated for some years between
+London and Edinburgh, with some excursions on the Continent, but in 1831
+settled in London, and was elected associate of the Royal Academy in
+1832; and he died in London of consumption in 1844. A very able
+executant, a good colourist, and a close student of character, he made
+his chief success as a portrait-painter, but he produced occasional
+figure subjects and landscapes, and executed some admirable copies of
+the old masters as well. He was also a good etcher. His portrait of his
+mother, and a portrait study, called "Summer," are in the National
+Gallery of Scotland, and his portrait of Sir Walter Scott is in the
+Scottish National Portrait Gallery.
+
+  See _Art in Scotland: its Origin and Progress_, by Robert Brydall
+  (1889); _The Scottish School of Painting_, by William D. McKay, R.S.A.
+  (1906).
+
+
+
+
+GEDDES, JAMES LORRAINE (1827-1887), American soldier and writer, was
+born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on the 19th of March 1827. In his boyhood
+he was taken to Canada, but in 1843 he returned to Scotland; then
+studied at Calcutta in the military academy, entered the army, and after
+distinguishing himself in the Punjab campaign, returned to Canada,
+whence in 1857 he removed to Vinton, Iowa. In the American Civil War he
+served in the Federal army first as lieutenant-colonel and after
+February 1862 as colonel of volunteers, taking part in the fighting at
+Shiloh, Vicksburg and Corinth. He was captured at Shiloh and was
+imprisoned for a time at Madison, Ga., and in Libby prison, Richmond,
+Va., and in 1865 was brevetted brigadier-general of volunteers. He was
+principal of the College for the Blind at Vinton after the war, and
+until his death was connected with the Iowa College of Agriculture at
+Ames, being military instructor and cashier in 1870-1882, acting
+president in 1876-1877, librarian in 1877-1875, vice-president and
+professor of military tactics in 1880-1882, and treasurer in 1884-1887.
+He died at Ames on the 21st of February 1887. He wrote a number of war
+songs, including "The Soldiers' Battle Prayer" and "The Stars and
+Stripes."
+
+
+
+
+GEDDES, SIR WILLIAM DUGUID (1828-1900), Scottish scholar and
+educationist, was born in Aberdeenshire. He was educated at Elgin
+academy and university and King's College, Aberdeen, and after having
+held various scholastic posts he was appointed in 1860 professor of
+Greek and in 1885 principal of the (united) university of Aberdeen. He
+was knighted in 1892. He died in Aberdeen on the 9th of February 1900.
+It is chiefly as a teacher that Geddes will be remembered, and in his
+enthusiastic and successful efforts to raise the standard of Greek at
+the Scottish universities he has been compared with the humanists of the
+Renaissance. Amongst other works he was the author of _A Greek Grammar_
+(1855; 17th edition, 1883; new and revised edition, 1893); a meritorious
+edition of the _Phaedo_ of Plato (2nd ed., 1885); and _The Problem of
+the Homeric Poems_ (1878), in which, while supporting Grote's view that
+the _Iliad_ consisted of an original Achilleis with insertions or
+additions by later hands, he maintains that these insertions are due to
+the author of the _Odyssey_.
+
+
+
+
+GEDYMIN (d. 1342), grand-duke of Lithuania, was supposed by the earlier
+chroniclers to have been the servant of Witen, prince of Lithuania, but
+more probably he was Witen's younger brother and the son of Lutuwer,
+another Lithuanian prince. Gedymin inherited a vast domain, comprising
+Lithuania proper, Samogitia, Red Russia, Polotsk and Minsk; but these
+possessions were environed by powerful and greedy foes, the most
+dangerous of them being the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian knights of
+the Sword. The systematic raiding of Lithuania by the knights under the
+pretext of converting it had long since united all the Lithuanian tribes
+against the common enemy; but Gedymin aimed at establishing a dynasty
+which should make Lithuania not merely secure but mighty, and for this
+purpose he entered into direct diplomatic negotiations with the Holy
+See. At the end of 1322 he sent letters to Pope John XXII. soliciting
+his protection against the persecution of the knights, informing him of
+the privileges already granted to the Dominicans and the Franciscans in
+Lithuania for the preaching of God's Word, and desiring that legates
+should be sent to receive him also into the bosom of the church. On
+receiving a favourable reply from the Holy See, Gedymin issued circular
+letters, dated 25th of January 1325, to the principal Hanse towns,
+offering a free access into his domains to men of every order and
+profession from nobles and knights to tillers of the soil. The
+immigrants were to choose their own settlements and be governed by their
+own laws. Priests and monks were also invited to come and build churches
+at Vilna and Novogrodek. Similar letters were sent to the Wendish or
+Baltic cities, and to the bishops and landowners of Livonia and
+Esthonia. In short Gedymin, recognizing the superiority of western
+civilization, anticipated Ivan the Terrible and Peter the Great by
+throwing open the semi-savage Russian lands to influences of culture.
+
+In October 1323 representatives of the archbishop of Riga, the bishop of
+Dorpat, the king of Denmark, the Dominican and Franciscan orders, and
+the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order assembled at Vilna, when Gedymin
+confirmed his promises and undertook to be baptized as soon as the papal
+legates arrived. A compact was then signed at Vilna, "in the name of the
+whole Christian World," between Gedymin and the delegates, confirming
+the promised privileges. But the christianizing of Lithuania was by no
+means to the liking of the Teutonic Knights, and they used every effort
+to nullify Gedymin's far-reaching design. This, unfortunately, it was
+easy to do. Gedymin's chief object was to save Lithuania from
+destruction at the hands of the Germans. But he was still a pagan
+reigning over semi-pagan lands; he was equally bound to his pagan
+kinsmen in Samogitia, to his orthodox subjects in Red Russia, and to his
+Catholic allies in Masovia. His policy, therefore, was necessarily
+tentative and ambiguous, and might very readily be misinterpreted. Thus
+his raid upon Dobrzyn, the latest acquisition of the knights on Polish
+soil, speedily gave them a ready weapon against him. The Prussian
+bishops, who were devoted to the knights, at a synod at Elbing
+questioned the authority of Gedymin's letters and denounced him as an
+enemy of the faith; his orthodox subjects reproached him with leaning
+towards the Latin heresy; while the pagan Lithuanians accused him of
+abandoning the ancient gods. Gedymin disentangled himself from his
+difficulties by repudiating his former promises; by refusing to receive
+the papal legates who arrived at Riga in September 1323; and by
+dismissing the Franciscans from his territories. These apparently
+retrogressive measures simply amounted to a statesmanlike recognition of
+the fact that the pagan element was still the strongest force in
+Lithuania, and could not yet be dispensed with in the coming struggle
+for nationality. At the same time Gedymin through his ambassadors
+privately informed the papal legates at Riga that his difficult position
+compelled him for a time to postpone his steadfast resolve of being
+baptized, and the legates showed their confidence in him by forbidding
+the neighbouring states to war against Lithuania for the next four
+years, besides ratifying the treaty made between Gedymin and the
+archbishop of Riga. Nevertheless in 1325 the Order, disregarding the
+censures of the church, resumed the war with Gedymin, who had in the
+meantime improved his position by an alliance with Wladislaus Lokietek,
+king of Poland, whose son Casimir now married Gedymin's daughter Aldona.
+
+While on his guard against his northern foes, Gedymin from 1316 to 1340
+was aggrandizing himself at the expense of the numerous Russian
+principalities in the south and east, whose incessant conflicts with
+each other wrought the ruin of them all. Here Gedymin's triumphal
+progress was irresistible; but the various stages of it are impossible
+to follow, the sources of its history being few and conflicting, and the
+date of every salient event exceedingly doubtful. One of his most
+important territorial accretions, the principality of Halicz-Vladimir,
+was obtained by the marriage of his son Lubart with the daughter of the
+Haliczian prince; the other, Kiev, apparently by conquest. Gedymin also
+secured an alliance with the grand-duchy of Muscovy by marrying his
+daughter, Anastasia, to the grand-duke Simeon. But he was strong enough
+to counterpoise the influence of Muscovy in northern Russia, and
+assisted the republic of Pskov, which acknowledged his overlordship, to
+break away from Great Novgorod. His internal administration bears all
+the marks of a wise ruler. He protected the Catholic as well as the
+orthodox clergy, encouraging them both to civilize his subjects; he
+raised the Lithuanian army to the highest state of efficiency then
+attainable; defended his borders with a chain of strong fortresses; and
+built numerous towns including Vilna, the capital (c. 1321). Gedymin
+died in the winter of 1342 of a wound received at the siege of Wielowa.
+He was married three times, and left seven sons and six daughters.
+
+  See Teodor Narbutt, _History of the Lithuanian nation_ (Pol.) (Vilna,
+  1835); Antoni Prochaska, _On the Genuineness of the Letters of
+  Gedymin_ (Pol.) (Cracow, 1895); Vladimir Bonifatovich Antonovich,
+  _Monograph concerning the History of Western and South-western Russia_
+  (Rus.) (Kiev, 1885).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GEE, THOMAS (1815-1898), Welsh Nonconformist preacher and journalist,
+was born at Denbigh on the 24th of January 1815. At the age of fourteen
+he went into his father's printing office, but continued to attend the
+grammar school in the afternoons. In 1837 he went to London to improve
+his knowledge of printing, and on his return to Wales in the following
+year ardently threw himself into literary, educational and religious
+work. Among his publications were the well-known quarterly magazine _Y
+Traethodydd_ ("The Essayist"), _Gwyddoniadur Cymreig_ ("Encyclopaedia
+Cambrensis"), and Dr Silvan Evans's _English-Welsh Dictionary_ (1868),
+but his greatest achievement in this field was the newspaper _Baner
+Cymru_ ("The Banner of Wales"), founded in 1857 and amalgamated with _Yr
+Amserau_ ("The Times") two years later. This paper soon became an oracle
+in Wales, and played a great part in stirring up the nationalist
+movement in the principality. In educational matters he waged a long and
+successful struggle on behalf of undenominational schools and for the
+establishment of the intermediate school system. He was an enthusiastic
+advocate of church disestablishment, and had a historic newspaper duel
+with Dr John Owen (afterwards bishop of St David's) on this question.
+The Eisteddfod found in him a thorough friend and a wise counsellor. His
+commanding presence, mastery of diction, and resonant voice made him an
+effective platform speaker. He was ordained to the Calvinistic Methodist
+ministry at Bala in 1847, and gave his time and talents ungrudgingly to
+Sunday school and temperance work. Throughout his life he believed in
+the itinerant unpaid ministry rather than in the settled pastorate. He
+died on the 28th of September 1898, and his funeral was the most
+imposing ever seen in North Wales.
+
+
+
+
+GEEL, JACOB (1789-1862), Dutch scholar and critic, was born at Amsterdam
+on the 12th of November 1789. In 1823 he was appointed sub-librarian,
+and in 1833 chief librarian and honorary professor at Leiden, where he
+died on the 11th of November 1862. Geel materially contributed to the
+development of classical studies in Holland. He was the author of
+editions of Theocritus (1820), of the Vatican fragments of Polybius
+(1829), of the [Greek: 'Olumpiakos] of Dio Chrysostom (1840) and of
+numerous essays in the _Rheinisches Museum_ and _Bibliotheca critica
+nova_, of which he was one of the founders. He also compiled a valuable
+catalogue of the MSS. in the Leiden library, wrote a history of the
+Greek sophists, and translated various German works into Dutch.
+
+
+
+
+GEELONG, a seaport of Grant county, Victoria, Australia, situated on an
+extensive land-locked arm of Port Phillip known as Corio Bay, 45 m. by
+rail S.W. of Melbourne. Pop. of the city proper (1901) 12,399; with the
+adjacent boroughs of Geelong West, and Newton-and-Chilwell, 23,311.
+Geelong slopes to the bay on the north and to the Barwon river on the
+south, and its position in this respect, as well as the shelter it
+obtains from the Bellarine hills, renders it one of the healthiest towns
+in Victoria. As a manufacturing centre it is of considerable importance.
+The first woollen mill in the colony was established here, and the
+tweeds, cloths and other woollen fabrics of the town are noted
+throughout Australia. There are extensive tanneries, flour-mills and
+salt works, while at Fyansford, 3 m. distant, there are important cement
+works and paper-mills. The extensive vineyards in the neighbourhood of
+the town were destroyed under the Phylloxera Act, but replanting
+subsequently revived this industry. Corio Bay, a safe and commodious
+harbour, is entered by two channels across its bar, one of which has a
+depth of 23-1/2 ft. There is extensive quayage, and the largest wool
+ships are able to load alongside the wharves, which are connected by
+rail with all parts of the colony. The facilities given for shipping
+wool direct to England from this port have caused a very extensive
+wool-broking trade to grow up in the town. The country surrounding
+Geelong is agricultural, but there are large limestone quarries east of
+the town, and in the Otway Forest, 23 m. distant, coal is worked.
+Geelong was incorporated in 1849.
+
+
+
+
+GEESTEMUNDE, a seaport town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Hanover, on the right bank of the Weser, at the mouth of the Geeste,
+which separates it from Bremerhaven, 32 m. N. from Bremen by rail. Pop.
+(1905) 23,625. The interest of the place is purely naval and commercial,
+its origin dating no farther back than 1857, when the construction of
+the harbour was begun. The great basin, which can accommodate large
+sea-going vessels, was completed in 1863, the petroleum basin was opened
+in 1874, and additional wharves have been constructed for the reception
+of vessels engaged in the fishing industry. The fish market of
+Geestemunde is the most important in Germany, and the auction hall
+practically determines the price of fish throughout the empire. The
+whole port is protected by powerful fortifications. Among the industrial
+establishments of the town are shipbuilding yards, foundries,
+engineering works and saw-mills.
+
+
+
+
+GEFFCKEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH (1830-1896), German diplomatist and jurist,
+was born on the 9th of December 1830 at Hamburg, of which city his
+father was senator. After studying law at Bonn, Gottingen and Berlin, he
+was attached in 1854 to the Prussian legation at Paris. For ten years
+(1856-1866) he was the diplomatic representative of Hamburg in Berlin,
+first as charge d'affaires, and afterwards as minister-resident, being
+afterwards transferred in a like capacity to London. Appointed in 1872
+professor of constitutional history and public law in the reorganized
+university of Strassburg, Geffcken became in 1880 a member of the
+council of state of Alsace-Lorraine. Of too nervous a temperament to
+withstand the strain of the responsibilities of his position, he retired
+from public service in 1882, and lived henceforth mostly at Munich,
+where he died, suffocated by an accidental escape of gas into his
+bedchamber, on the 1st of May 1896. Geffcken was a man of great
+erudition and wide knowledge and of remarkable legal acumen, and from
+these qualities proceeded the personal influence he possessed. He was
+moreover a clear writer and made his mark as an essayist. He was one of
+the most trusted advisers of the Prussian crown prince, Frederick
+William (afterwards the emperor Frederick), and it was he (it is said,
+at Bismarck's suggestion) who drew up the draft of the New German
+federal constitution, which was submitted to the crown prince's
+headquarters at Versailles during the war of 1870-71. It was also
+Geffcken who assisted in framing the famous document which the emperor
+Frederick, on his accession to the throne in 1888, addressed to the
+chancellor. This memorandum gave umbrage, and on the publication by
+Geffcken in the _Deutsche Rundschau_ (Oct. 1888) of extracts from the
+emperor Frederick's private diary during the war of 1870-71, he was, at
+Bismarck's instance, prosecuted for high treason. The Reichsgericht
+(supreme court), however, quashed the indictment, and Geffcken was
+liberated after being under arrest for three months. Publications of
+various kinds proceeded from his pen. Among these are _Zur Geschichte
+des orientalischen Krieges 1853-1856_ (Berlin, 1881); _Frankreich,
+Russland und der Dreibund_ (Berlin, 1894); and _Staat und Kirche_
+(1875), English translation by E.F. Fairfax (1877). His writings on
+English history have been translated by S.J. Macmullan and published as
+_The British Empire, with essays on Prince Albert, Palmerston,
+Beaconsfield, Gladstone, and reform of the House of Lords_ (1889).
+
+
+
+
+GEFFROY, MATHIEU AUGUSTE (1820-1895), French historian, was born in
+Paris. After studying at the Ecole Normale Superieure he held history
+professorships at various lycees. His French thesis for the doctorate of
+letters, _Etude sur les pamphlets politiques et religieux de Milton_
+(1848), showed that he was attracted towards foreign history, a study
+for which he soon qualified himself by mastering the Germanic and
+Scandinavian languages. In 1851 he published a _Histoire des etats
+scandinaves_, which is especially valuable for clear arrangement and for
+the trustworthiness of its facts. Later, a long stay in Sweden
+furnished him with valuable documents for a political and social history
+of Sweden and France at the end of the 18th century. In 1864 and 1865 he
+published in the _Revue des deux mondes_ a series of articles on
+Gustavus III. and the French court, which were republished in book form
+in 1867. To the second volume he appended a critical study on _Marie
+Antoinette et Louis XVI apocryphes_, in which he proved, by evidence
+drawn from documents in the private archives of the emperor of Austria,
+that the letters published by Feuillet de Conches (_Louis XVI, Marie
+Antoinette et Madame Elisabeth_, 1864-1873) and Hunolstein (_Corresp.
+inedite de Marie Antoinette_, 1864) are forgeries. With the
+collaboration of Alfred von Arneth, director of the imperial archives at
+Vienna, he edited the _Correspondance secrete entre Marie-Therese et le
+comte de Mercy-Argenteau_ (3 vols., 1874), the first account based on
+trustworthy documents of Marie Antoinette's character, private conduct
+and policy. The Franco-German War drew Geffroy's attention to the
+origins of Germany, and his _Rome et les Barbares: etude sur la Germanie
+de Tacite_ (1874) set forth some of the results of German scholarship.
+He was then appointed to superintend the opening of the French school of
+archaeology at Rome, and drew up two useful reports (1877 and 1884) on
+its origin and early work. But his personal tastes always led him back
+to the study of modern history. When the Paris archives of foreign
+affairs were thrown open to students, it was decided to publish a
+collection of the instructions given to French ambassadors since 1648
+(_Recueil des instructions donnees aux ambassadeurs et ministres de
+France depuis le traite de Westphalie_), and Geffroy was commissioned to
+edit the volumes dealing with Sweden (vol. ii., 1885) and Denmark (vol.
+xiii., 1895). In the interval he wrote _Madame de Maintenon d'apres sa
+correspondance authentique_ (2 vols., 1887), in which he displayed his
+penetrating critical faculty in discriminating between authentic
+documents and the additions and corrections of arrangers like La
+Beaumelle and Lavallee. His last works were an _Essai sur la formation
+des collections d'antiques de la Suede_ and _Des institutions et des
+moeurs du paganisme scandinave: l'Islande avant le Christianisme_, both
+published posthumously. He died at Bievre on the 16th of August 1895.
+
+
+
+
+GEFLE, a seaport of Sweden on an inlet of the Gulf of Bothnia, chief
+town of the district (_lan_) of Gefleborg, 112 m. N.N.W. of Stockholm by
+rail. Pop. (1900) 29,522. It is the chief port of the district of
+Kopparberg, with its iron and other mines and forests. The exports
+consist principally of timber and wood-pulp, iron and steel. The
+harbour, which has two entrances about 20 ft. deep, is usually ice-bound
+in mid-winter. Large vessels generally load in the roads at Graberg, 6
+m. distant. There are slips and shipbuilding yards, and a manufacture of
+sail-cloth. The town is an important industrial centre, having tobacco
+and leather factories, electrical and other mechanical works, and
+breweries. At Skutskar at the mouth of the Dal river are wood-pulp and
+saw mills, dealing with the large quantities of timber floated down the
+river; and there are large wood-yards in the suburb of Bomhus. Gefle was
+almost destroyed by fire in 1869, but was rebuilt in good style, and has
+the advantage of a beautiful situation. The principal buildings are a
+castle, founded by King John III. (1568-1592), but rebuilt later, a
+council-house erected by Gustavus III., who held a diet here in 1792, an
+exchange, and schools of commerce and navigation.
+
+
+
+
+GEGENBAUR, CARL (1826-1903), German anatomist, was born on the 21st of
+August 1826 at Wurzburg, the university of which he entered as a student
+in 1845. After taking his degree in 1851 he spent some time in
+travelling in Italy and Sicily, before returning to Wurzburg as
+_Privatdocent_ in 1854. In 1855 he was appointed extraordinary professor
+of anatomy at Jena, where after 1865 his fellow-worker, Ernst Haeckel,
+was professor of zoology, and in 1858 he became the ordinary professor.
+In 1873 he was appointed to Heidelberg, where he was professor of
+anatomy and director of the Anatomical Institute until his retirement in
+1901. He died at Heidelberg on the 14th of June 1903. The work by which
+perhaps he is best known is his _Grundriss der vergleichenden Anatomie_
+(Leipzig, 1874; 2nd edition, 1878). This was translated into English by
+W.F. Jeffrey Bell (_Elements of Comparative Anatomy_, 1878), with
+additions by E. Ray Lankester. While recognizing the importance of
+comparative embryology in the study of descent, Gegenbaur laid stress on
+the higher value of comparative anatomy as the basis of the study of
+homologies, i.e. of the relations between corresponding parts in
+different animals, as, for example, the arm of man, the foreleg of the
+horse and the wing of a fowl. A distinctive piece of work was effected
+by him in 1871 in supplementing the evidence adduced by Huxley in
+refutation of the theory of the origin of the skull from expanded
+vertebrae, which, formulated independently by Goethe and Oken, had been
+championed by Owen. Huxley demonstrated that the skull is built up of
+cartilaginous pieces; Gegenbaur showed that "in the lowest (gristly)
+fishes, where hints of the original vertebrae might be most expected,
+the skull is an unsegmented gristly brain-box, and that in higher forms
+the vertebral nature of the skull cannot be maintained, since many of
+the bones, notably those along the top of the skull, arise in the skin."
+Other publications by Gegenbaur include a _Text-book of Human Anatomy_
+(Leipzig, 1883, new ed. 1903), the _Epiglottis_ (1892) and _Comparative
+Anatomy of the Vertebrates in relation to the Invertebrates_ (Leipzig, 2
+vols., 1898-1901). In 1875 he founded the _Morphologisches Jahrbuch_,
+which he edited for many years. In 1901 he published a short
+autobiography under the title _Erlebtes und Erstrebtes_.
+
+  See Furbringer in _Heidelberger Professoren aus dem 19ten Jahrhundert_
+  (Heidelberg, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+GEGENSCHEIN (Ger. _gegen_, opposite, and _schein_, shine), an extremely
+faint luminescence of the sky, seen opposite the direction of the sun.
+Germany was the country in which it was first discovered and described.
+The English rendering "counterglow" is also given to it. Its faintness
+is such that it can be seen only by a practised eye under favourable
+conditions. It is invisible during the greater part of June, July,
+December and January, owing to its being then blotted out by the
+superior light of the Milky Way. It is also invisible during moonlight
+and near the horizon, and the neighbourhood of a bright star or planet
+may interfere with its recognition. When none of these unfavourable
+conditions supervene it may be seen at nearly any time when the air is
+clear and the depression of the sun below the horizon more than 20 deg.
+(See ZODIACAL LIGHT.)
+
+
+
+
+GEIBEL, EMANUEL (1815-1884), German poet, was born at Lubeck on the 17th
+of October 1815, the son of a pastor in the city. He was originally
+intended for his father's profession, and studied at Bonn and Berlin, but
+his real interests lay not in theology but in classical and romance
+philology. In 1838 he accepted a tutorship at Athens, where he remained
+until 1840. In the same year he brought out, in conjunction with his
+friend Ernst Curtius, a volume of translations from the Greek. His first
+poems, _Zeitstimmen_, appeared in 1841; a tragedy, _Konig Roderich_,
+followed in 1843. In the same year he received a pension from the king of
+Prussia, which he retained until his invitation to Munich by the king of
+Bavaria in 1851 as honorary professor at the university. In the interim he
+had produced _Konig Sigurds Brautfahrt_ (1846), an epic, and
+_Juniuslieder_ (1848, 33rd ed. 1901), lyrics in a more spirited and
+manlier style than his early poems. A volume of _Neue Gedichte_, published
+at Munich in 1857, and principally consisting of poems on classical
+subjects, denoted a further considerable advance in objectivity, and the
+series was worthily closed by the _Spatherbstblatter_, published in 1877.
+He had quitted Munich in 1869 and returned to Lubeck, where he died on the
+6th of April 1884. His works further include two tragedies, _Brunhild_
+(1858, 5th ed. 1890), and _Sophonisbe_ (1869), and translations of French
+and Spanish popular poetry. Beginning as a member of the group of
+political poets who heralded the revolution of 1848, Geibel was also the
+chief poet to welcome the establishment of the Empire in 1871. His
+strength lay not, however, in his political songs but in his purely lyric
+poetry, such as the fine cycle _Ada_ and his still popular love-songs. He
+may be regarded as the leading representative of German lyric poetry
+between 1848 and 1870.
+
+  Geibel's _Gesammelte Werke_ were published in 8 vols. (1883, 4th ed.
+  1906); his _Gedichte_ have gone through about 130 editions. An
+  excellent selection in one volume appeared in 1904. For biography and
+  criticism, see K. Goedeke, _E. Geibel_ (1869); W. Scherer's address on
+  Geibel (1884); K.T. Gaedertz, _Geibel-Denkwurdigkeiten_ (1886); C.C.T.
+  Litzmann, _E. Geibel, aus Erinnerungen, Briefen und Tagebuchern_
+  (1887), and biographies by C. Leimbach (2nd ed., 1894), and K.T.
+  Gaedertz (1897).
+
+
+
+
+GEIGE (O. Fr. _gigue_, _gige_; O. Ital. and Span. _giga_; Prov. _gigua_;
+O. Dutch _gighe_), in modern German the violin; in medieval German the
+name applied to the first stringed instruments played with a bow, in
+contradistinction to those whose strings were plucked by fingers or
+plectrum such as the cithara, rotta and fidula, the first of these terms
+having been very generally used to designate various instruments whose
+strings were plucked. The name _gige_ in Germany, of which the origin is
+uncertain,[1] and its derivatives in other languages, were in the middle
+ages applied to rebecs having fingerboards. As the first bowed
+instruments in Europe were, as far as we know, those of the rebab type,
+both boat-shaped and pear-shaped, it seems probable that the name clung
+to them long after the bow had been applied to other stringed
+instruments derived from the cithara, such as the fiddle (videl) or
+vielle. In the romances of the 12th and 13th centuries the _gige_ is
+frequently mentioned, and generally associated with the rotta. Early in
+the 16th century we find definite information concerning the Geige in
+the works of Sebastian Virdung (1511), Hans Judenkunig (1523), Martin
+Agricola (1532), Hans Gerle (1533); and from the instruments depicted,
+of two distinct types and many varieties, it would appear that the
+principal idea attached to the name was still that of the bow used to
+vibrate the strings. Virdung qualifies the word _Geige_ with _Klein_
+(small) and _Gross_ (large), which do not represent two sizes of the
+same instrument but widely different types, also recognized by Agricola,
+who names three or four sizes of each, discant, alto, tenor and bass.
+Virdung's _Klein Geige_ is none other than the rebec with two C-shaped
+soundholes and a raised fingerboard cut in one piece with the vaulted
+back and having a separate flat soundboard glued over it, a change
+rendered necessary by the arched bridge. Agricola's _Klein Geige_ with
+three strings was of a totally different construction, having ribs and
+wide incurvations but no bridge; there was a rose soundhole near the
+tailpiece and two C-shaped holes in the shoulders. Agricola (_Musica
+instrumentalis_) distinctly mentions three kinds of _Geigen_ with three,
+four and five strings. From him we learn that only one position was as
+yet used on these instruments, one or two higher notes being
+occasionally obtained by sliding the little finger along. A century
+later Agricola's _Geige_ was regarded as antiquated by Praetorius, who
+reproduces one of the bridgeless ones with five strings, a rose and two
+C-shaped soundholes, and calls it an old fiddle; under _Geige_ he gives
+the violins.     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The words _gige_, _gigen_, _geic_ appear suddenly in the M. H.
+    German of the 12th century, and thence passed apparently into the
+    Romance languages, though some would reverse the process (e.g.
+    Weigand, _Deutsches Worterbuch_). An elaborate argument in the
+    _Deutsches Worterbuch_ of J. and W. Grimm (Leipzig, 1897) connects
+    the word with an ancient common Teut. root _gag_--meaning to sway to
+    and fro, as preserved in numerous forms: e.g. M.H.G _gagen_, _gugen_,
+    "to sway to and fro" (_gugen_, _gagen_, the rocking of a cradle), the
+    Swabian _gigen_, _gagen_, in the same sense, the Tirolese _gaiggern_,
+    to sway, doubt, or the old Norse _geiga_, to go astray or crooked.
+    The reference is to the swaying motion of the violin bow. The English
+    "jig" is derived from _gige_ through the O. Fr. _gigue_ (in the sense
+    of a stringed instrument); the modern French gigue (a dance) is the
+    English "jig" re-imported (Hatzfeld and Darmesteter, _Dictionnaire_).
+    This opens up another possibility, of the origin of the name of the
+    instrument in the dance which it accompanied.     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+
+
+GEIGER, ABRAHAM (1810-1874), Jewish theologian and orientalist, was born
+at Frankfort-on-Main on the 24th of May 1810, and educated at the
+universities of Heidelberg and Bonn. As a student he distinguished
+himself in philosophy and in philology, and at the close of his course
+wrote on the relations of Judaism and Mahommedanism a prize essay which
+was afterwards published in 1833 under the title _Was hat Mohammed aus
+dem Judentum aufgenommen?_ (English trans. _Judaism and Islam_, Madras,
+1898). In November 1832 he went to Wiesbaden as rabbi of the synagogue,
+and became in 1835 one of the most active promoters of the _Zeitschrift
+fur judische Theologie_ (1835-1839 and 1842-1847). From 1838 to 1863 he
+lived in Breslau, where he organized the reform movement in Judaism and
+wrote some of his most important works, including _Lehr- und Lesebuch
+zur Sprache der Mischna_ (1845), _Studien_ from Maimonides (1850),
+translation into German of the poems of Juda ha-Levi (1851), and
+_Urschrift und Ubersetzungen der Bibel in ihrer Abhangigkeit von der
+innern Entwickelung des Judentums_ (1857). The last-named work attracted
+little attention at the time, but now enjoys a great reputation as a new
+departure in the methods of studying the records of Judaism. The
+_Urschrift_ has moreover been recognized as one of the most original
+contributions to biblical science. In 1863 Geiger became head of the
+synagogue of his native town, and in 1870 he removed to Berlin, where,
+in addition to his duties as chief rabbi, he took the principal charge
+of the newly established seminary for Jewish science. The _Urschrift_
+was followed by a more exhaustive handling of one of its topics in _Die
+Sadducaer und Pharisaer_ (1863), and by a more thorough application of
+its leading principles in an elaborate history of Judaism (_Das Judentum
+und seine Geschichte_) in 1865-1871. Geiger also contributed frequently
+on Hebrew, Samaritan and Syriac subjects to the _Zeitschrift der
+deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft_, and from 1862 until his death
+(on the 23rd of October 1874) he was editor of a periodical entitled
+_Judische Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaft und Leben_. He also published a
+Jewish prayerbook (_Israelitisches Gebetbuch_) and a variety of minor
+monographs on historical and literary subjects connected with the
+fortunes of his people.     (I. A.)
+
+An _Allgemeine Einleitung_ and five volumes of _Nachgelassene Schriften_
+were edited in 1875 by his son LUDWIG GEIGER (b. 1848), who in 1880 became
+extraordinary professor in the university of Berlin. Ludwig Geiger
+published a large number of biographical and literary works and made a
+special study of German humanism. He edited the _Goethe-Jahrbuch_ from
+1880, _Vierteljahrsschrift fur Kultur und Litteratur der Renaissance_
+(1885-1886), _Zeitschr. fur die Gesch. der Juden im Deutschland_
+(1886-1891), _Zeitschr. fur vergleichende Litteraturgeschichte und
+Renaissance-Litteratur_ (1887-1891). Among his works are _Johann Reuchlin,
+sein Leben und seine Werke_ (Leipzig, 1871); and _Johann Reuchlin's
+Briefwechsel_ (Tubingen, 1875); _Renaissance und Humanismus in Italien und
+Deutschland_ (1882, 2nd ed. 1901); _Gesch. des geistigen Lebens der
+preussischen Hauptstadt_ (1892-1894); _Berlin's geistiges Leben_
+(1894-1896).
+
+  See also J. Derenbourg in _Jud. Zeitschrift_, xi. 299-308; E.
+  Schrieber, _Abraham Geiger als Reformator des Judentums_ (1880), art.
+  (with portrait) in _Jewish Encyclopedia_.
+
+Abraham Geiger's nephew LAZARUS GEIGER (1829-1870), philosopher and
+philologist, born at Frankfort-on-Main, was destined to commerce, but
+soon gave himself up to scholarship and studied at Marburg, Bonn and
+Heidelberg. From 1861 till his sudden death in 1870 he was professor in
+the Jewish high school at Frankfort. His chief aim was to prove that the
+evolution of human reason is closely bound up with that of language. He
+further maintained that the origin of the Indo-Germanic language is to
+be sought not in Asia but in central Germany. He was a convinced
+opponent of rationalism in religion. His chief work was his _Ursprung
+und Entwickelung der menschlichen Sprache und Vernunft_ (vol. i.,
+Stuttgart, 1868), the principal results of which appeared in a more
+popular form as _Der Ursprung der Sprache_ (Stuttgart, 1869 and 1878).
+The second volume of the former was published in an incomplete form
+(1872, 2nd ed. 1899) after his death by his brother Alfred Geiger, who
+also published a number of his scattered papers as _Zur Entwickelung der
+Menschheit_ (1871, 2nd ed. 1878; Eng. trans. D. Asher, _Hist. of the
+Development of the Human Race_, Lond., 1880).
+
+  See L.A. Rosenthal, _Laz. Geiger: seine Lehre vom Ursprung d. Sprache
+  und Vernunft und sein Leben_ (Stuttgart, 1883); E. Peschier, _L.
+  Geiger, sein Leben und Denken_ (1871); J. Keller, _L. Geiger und d.
+  Kritik d. Vernunft_ (Wertheim, 1883) and _Der Ursprung d. Vernunft_
+  (Heidelberg, 1884).
+
+
+
+
+GEIJER, ERIK GUSTAF (1783-1847), Swedish historian, was born at Ransater
+in Varmland, on the 12th of January 1783, of a family that had
+immigrated from Austria in the 17th century. He was educated at the
+university of Upsala, where in 1803 he carried off the Swedish Academy's
+great prize for his _Areminne ofver Sten Sture den aldre_. He graduated
+in 1806, and in 1810 returned from a year's residence in England to
+become _docent_ in his university. Soon afterwards he accepted a post in
+the public record office at Stockholm, where, with some friends, he
+founded the "Gothic Society," to whose organ _Iduna_ he contributed a
+number of prose essays and the songs _Manhem_, _Vikingen_, _Den siste
+kampen_, _Den siste skalden_, _Odalbonden_, _Kolargossen_, which he set
+to music. About the same time he issued a volume of hymns, of which
+several are inserted in the Swedish Psalter.
+
+Geijer's lyric muse was soon after silenced by his call to be assistant
+to Erik Michael Fant, professor of history at Upsala, whom he succeeded
+in 1817. In 1824 he was elected a member of the Swedish Academy. A
+single volume of a great projected work, _Svea Rikes Hafder_, itself a
+masterly critical examination of the sources of Sweden's legendary
+history, appeared in 1825. Geijer's researches in its preparation had
+severely strained his health, and he went the same year on a tour
+through Denmark and part of Germany, his impressions from which are
+recorded in his _Minnen_. In 1832-1836 he published three volumes of his
+_Svenska folkets historia_ (Eng. trans. by J.H. Turner, 1845), a clear
+view of the political and social development of Sweden down to 1654. The
+acute critical insight, just thought, and finished historical art of
+these incomplete works of Geijer entitle him to the first place among
+Swedish historians. His chief other historical and political writings
+are his _Teckning af Sveriges tillsand_ 1718-1772 (Stockholm, 1838), and
+_Feodalism och republikanism, ett bidrag till Samhallsforfattningens
+historia_ (1844), which led to a controversy with the historian Anders
+Fryxell regarding the part played in history by the Swedish aristocracy.
+Geijer also edited, with the aid of J.H. Schroder, a continuation of
+Fant's _Scriptores rerum svecicarum medii aevi_ (1818-1828), and, by
+himself, Thomas Thorild's _Samlade skrifter_ (1819-1825), and _Konung
+Gustaf III_.'s _efterlemnade Papper_ (4 vols., 1843-1846). Geijer's
+academic lectures, of which the last three, published in 1845 under the
+title _Om var tids inre samhallsforhallanden, i synnerhet med afseende
+pa Faderneslandet_, involved him in another controversy with Fryxell,
+but exercised a great influence over his students, who especially
+testified to their attachment after the failure of a prosecution against
+him for heresy. A number of his extempore lectures, recovered from
+notes, were published in 1856. He also wrote a life of Charles XIV.
+(Stockholm, 1844). Failing health forced Geijer to resign his chair in
+1846, after which he removed to Stockholm for the purpose of completing
+his _Svenska folkets historia_, and died there on the 23rd of April
+1847. His _Samlade skrifter_ (13 vols., 1840-1855; new ed., 1873-1877)
+include a large number of philosophical and political essays contributed
+to reviews, particularly to _Litteraturbladet_ (1838-1839), a periodical
+edited by himself, which attracted great attention in its day by its
+pronounced liberal views on public questions, a striking contrast to
+those he had defended in 1828-1830, when, as again in 1840-1841, he
+represented Upsala University in the Swedish diet. His poems were
+collected and published as _Skaldestycken_ (Upsala, 1835 and 1878).
+
+Geijer's style is strong and manly. His genius bursts out in sudden
+flashes that light up the dark corners of history. A few strokes, and a
+personality stands before us instinct with life. His language is at once
+the scholar's and the poet's; with his profoundest thought there beats
+in unison the warmest, the noblest, the most patriotic heart. Geijer
+came to the writing of history fresh from researches in the whole field
+of Scandinavian antiquity, researches whose first-fruits are garnered in
+numerous articles in _Iduna_, and his masterly treatise _Om den gamla
+nordiska folkvisan_, prefixed to the collection of Svenska folkvisor
+which he edited with A.A. Afzelius (3 vols., 1814-1816). The development
+of freedom is the idea that gives unity to all his historical writings.
+
+  For Geijer's biography, see his own _Minnen_ (1834), which contains
+  copious extracts from his letters and diaries; B.E. Malmstrom,
+  _Minnestal ofver E.G. Geijer_, addressed to the Upsala students (June
+  6, 1848), and printed among his _Tal och esthetiska afhandlingar_
+  (1868), and _Grunddragen af Svenska vitterhetens hafder_ (1866-1868);
+  and S.A. Hollander, _Minne af E.G. Geijer_ (Orebro, 1869). See also
+  lives of Geijer by J. Hellstenius (Stockholm, 1876) and J. Niekson
+  (Odense, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD (1835-   ), Scottish geologist, was born at
+Edinburgh on the 28th of December 1835. He was educated at the high
+school and university of Edinburgh, and in 1855 was appointed an
+assistant on the Geological Survey. Wielding the pen with no less
+facility than the hammer, he inaugurated his long list of works with
+_The Story of a Boulder; or, Gleanings from the Note-Book of a
+Geologist_ (1858). His ability at once attracted the notice of his
+chief, Sir Roderick Murchison, with whom he formed a lifelong
+friendship, and whose biographer he subsequently became. With Murchison
+some of his earliest work was done on the complicated regions of the
+Highland schists; and the small geological map of Scotland published in
+1862 was their joint work: a larger map was issued by Geikie in 1892. In
+1863 he published an important essay "On the Phenomena of the Glacial
+Drift of Scotland," _Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow_, in which the effects of
+ice action in that country were for the first time clearly and
+connectedly delineated. In 1865 appeared Geikie's _Scenery of Scotland_
+(3rd edition, 1901), which was, he claimed, "the first attempt to
+elucidate in some detail the history of the topography of a country." In
+the same year he was elected F.R.S. At this time the Edinburgh school of
+geologists--prominent among them Sir Andrew Ramsay, with his _Physical
+Geology and Geography of Great Britain_--were maintaining the supreme
+importance of denudation in the configuration of land-surfaces, and
+particularly the erosion of valleys by the action of running water.
+Geikie's book, based on extensive personal knowledge of the country, was
+an able contribution to the doctrines of the Edinburgh school, of which
+he himself soon began to rank as one of the leaders.
+
+In 1867, when a separate branch of the Geological Survey was established
+for Scotland, he was appointed director. On the foundation of the
+Murchison professorship of geology and mineralogy at the university of
+Edinburgh in 1871, he became the first occupant of the chair. These two
+appointments he continued to hold till 1881, when he succeeded Sir
+Andrew Ramsay in the joint offices of director-general of the Geological
+Survey of the United Kingdom and director of the museum of practical
+geology, London, from which he retired in February 1901. A feature of
+his tenure of office was the impetus given to microscopic petrography, a
+branch of geology to which he had devoted special study, by a splendid
+collection of sections of British rocks. Later he wrote two important
+and interesting Survey Memoirs, _The Geology of Central and Western Fife
+and Kinross_ (1900), and _The Geology of Eastern Fife_ (1902).
+
+From the outset of his career, when he started to investigate the
+geology of Skye and other of the Western Isles, he took a keen interest
+in volcanic geology, and in 1871 he brought before the Geological
+Society of London an outline of the Tertiary volcanic history of
+Britain. Many difficult problems, however, remained to be solved. Here
+he was greatly aided by his extensive travels, not only throughout
+Europe, but in western America. While the canyons of the Colorado
+confirmed his long-standing views on erosion, the eruptive regions of
+Wyoming, Montana and Utah supplied him with valuable data in explanation
+of volcanic phenomena. The results of his further researches were given
+in an elaborate and charmingly written essay on "The History of Volcanic
+Action during the Tertiary Period in the British Isles," _Trans. Roy.
+Soc. Edin._, (1888). His mature views on volcanic geology were given to
+the world in his presidential addresses to the Geological Society in
+1891 and 1892, and afterwards embodied in his great work on _The Ancient
+Volcanoes of Great Britain_ (1897). Other results of his travels are
+collected in his _Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad_ (1882).
+
+His experience as a field geologist resulted in an admirable text-book,
+_Outlines of Field Geology_ (5th edition, 1900). After editing and
+practically re-writing Jukes's _Student's Manual of Geology_ in 1872, he
+published in 1882 a _Text-Book_ and in 1886 a _Class-Book_ of geology,
+which have taken rank as standard works of their kind. A fourth edition
+of his _Text-Book_, in two vols., was issued in 1903. His writings are
+marked in a high degree by charm of style and power of vivid
+description. His literary ability has given him peculiar qualifications
+as a writer of scientific biography, and the _Memoir of Edward Forbes_
+(with G. Wilson), and those of his old chiefs, Sir R.I. Murchison (2
+vols., 1875) and Sir Andrew Crombie Ramsay (1895), are models of what
+such works should be. His _Founders of Geology_ consists of the
+inaugural course of Lectures (founded by Mrs G.H. Williams) at Johns
+Hopkins University, Baltimore, delivered in 1897. In 1897 he issued an
+admirable _Geological Map of England and Wales, with Descriptive Notes_.
+In 1898 he delivered the Romanes Lectures, and his address was published
+under the title of _Types of Scenery and their Influence on Literature_.
+The study of geography owes its improved position in Great Britain
+largely to his efforts. Among his works on this subject is _The Teaching
+of Geography_ (1887). His _Scottish Reminiscences_ (1904) and _Landscape
+in History and other Essays_ (1905) are charmingly written and full of
+instruction. He was foreign secretary of the Royal Society from 1890 to
+1894, joint secretary from 1903 to 1908, president in 1909, president of
+the Geological Society in 1891 and 1892, and president of the British
+Association, 1892. He received the honour of knighthood in 1891.
+
+
+
+
+GEIKIE, JAMES (1839-   ), Scottish geologist, younger brother of Sir
+Archibald Geikie, was born at Edinburgh on the 23rd of August 1839. He
+was educated at the high school and university of Edinburgh. He served
+on the Geological Survey from 1861 until 1882, when he succeeded his
+brother as Murchison professor of geology and mineralogy at the
+university of Edinburgh. He took as his special subject of investigation
+the origin of surface-features, and the part played in their formation
+by glacial action. His views are embodied in his chief work, _The Great
+Ice Age and its Relation to the Antiquity of Man_ (1874; 3rd ed., 1894).
+He was elected F.R.S. in 1875. James Geikie became the leader of the
+school that upholds the all-important action of land-ice, as against
+those geologists who assign chief importance to the work of pack-ice and
+icebergs. Continuing this line of investigation in his _Prehistoric
+Europe_ (1881), he maintained the hypothesis of five inter-Glacial
+periods in Great Britain, and argued that the palaeolithic deposits of
+the Pleistocene period were not post- but inter- or pre-Glacial. His
+_Fragments of Earth Lore: Sketches and Addresses, Geological and
+Geographical_ (1893) and _Earth Sculpture_ (1898) are mainly concerned
+with the same subject. His _Outlines of Geology_ (1886), a standard
+text-book of its subject, reached its third edition in 1896; and in 1905
+he published an important manual on _Structural and Field Geology_. In
+1887 he displayed another side of his activity in a volume of _Songs and
+Lyrics by H. Heine and other German Poets, done into English Verse_.
+From 1888 he was honorary editor of the _Scottish Geographical
+Magazine_.
+
+
+
+
+GEIKIE, WALTER (1795-1837), Scottish painter, was born at Edinburgh on
+the 9th of November 1795. In his second year he was attacked by a
+nervous fever by which he permanently lost the faculty of hearing, but
+through the careful attention of his father he was enabled to obtain a
+good education. Before he had the advantage of the instruction of a
+master he had attained considerable proficiency in sketching both
+figures and landscapes from nature, and in 1812 he was admitted into the
+drawing academy of the board of Scottish manufactures. He first
+exhibited in 1815, and was elected an associate of the Royal Scottish
+Academy in 1831, and a fellow in 1834. He died on the 1st of August
+1837, and was interred in the Greyfriars churchyard, Edinburgh. Owing to
+his want of feeling for colour, Geikie was not a successful painter in
+oils, but he sketched in India ink with great truth and humour the
+scenes and characters of Scottish lower-class life in his native city. A
+series of etchings which exhibit very high excellence were published by
+him in 1829-1831, and a collection of eighty-one of these was
+republished posthumously in 1841, with a biographical introduction by
+Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, Bart.
+
+
+
+
+GEILER (or GEYLER) VON KAISERSBERG, JOHANN (1445-1510), "the German
+Savonarola," one of the greatest of the popular preachers of the 15th
+century, was born at Schaffhausen on the 16th of March 1445, but from
+1448 passed his childhood and youth at Kaisersberg in Upper Alsace, from
+which place his current designation is derived. In 1460 he entered the
+university of Freiburg in Baden, where, after graduation, he lectured
+for some time on the _Sententiae_ of Peter Lombard, the commentaries of
+Alexander of Hales, and several of the works of Aristotle. A living
+interest in theological subjects, awakened by the study of John Gerson,
+led him in 1471 to the university of Basel, a centre of attraction to
+some of the most earnest spirits of the time. Made a doctor of theology
+in 1475, he received a professorship at Freiburg in the following year;
+but his tastes, no less than the spirit of the age, began to incline him
+more strongly to the vocation of a preacher, while his fervour and
+eloquence soon led to his receiving numerous invitations to the larger
+towns. Ultimately he accepted in 1478 a call to the cathedral of
+Strassburg, where he continued to work with few interruptions until
+within a short time of his death on the 10th of March 1510. The
+beautiful pulpit erected for him in 1481 in the nave of the cathedral,
+when the chapel of St Lawrence had proved too small, still bears witness
+to the popularity he enjoyed as a preacher in the immediate sphere of
+his labours, and the testimonies of Sebastian Brant, Beatus Rhenanus,
+Johann Reuchlin, Melanchthon and others show how great had been the
+influence of his personal character. His sermons--bold, incisive,
+denunciatory, abounding in quaint illustrations and based on texts by no
+means confined to the Bible,--taken down as he spoke them, and
+circulated (sometimes without his knowledge or consent) by his friends,
+told perceptibly on the German thought as well as on the German speech
+of his time.
+
+  Among the many volumes published under his name only two appear to
+  have had the benefit of his revision, namely, _Der Seelen Paradies von
+  waren und volkomnen Tugenden_, and that entitled _Das irrig Schaf_. Of
+  the rest, probably the best-known is a series of lectures on his
+  friend Seb. Brant's work, _Das Narrenschiff_ or the _Navicula_ or
+  _Speculum fatuorum_, of which an edition was published at Strassburg
+  in 1511 under the following title:--_Navicula sive speculum fatuorum
+  praestantissimi sacrarum literarum doctoris Joannis Geiler
+  Keysersbergii_.
+
+  See F.W. von Ammon, _Geyler's Leben, Lehren und Predigten_ (1826); L.
+  Dacheux, _Un Reformateur catholique a la fin du XV^e siecle_, J.G. de
+  K. (Paris, 1876); R. Cruel, _Gesch. der deutschen Predigt_, pp.
+  538-576 (1879); P. de Lorenzi, _Geiler's ausgewahlte Schriften_ (4.
+  vols., 1881); T.M. Lindsay, _History of the Reformation_, i. 118
+  (1906); and G. Kawerau in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, vi. 427.
+
+
+
+
+GEINITZ, HANS BRUNO (1814-1900), German geologist, was born at
+Altenburg, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, on the 16th of
+October 1814. He was educated at the universities of Berlin and Jena,
+and gained the foundations of his geological knowledge under F.A.
+Quenstedt. In 1837 he took the degree of Ph.D. with a thesis on the
+Muschelkalk of Thuringia. In 1850 he became professor of geology and
+mineralogy in the Royal Polytechnic School at Dresden, and in 1857 he
+was made director of the Royal Mineralogical and Geological Museum; he
+held these posts until 1894. He was distinguished for his researches on
+the Carboniferous and Cretaceous rocks and fossils of Saxony, and in
+particular for those relating to the fauna and flora of the Permian or
+Dyas formation. He described also the graptolites of the local Silurian
+strata; and the flora of the Coal-formation of Altai and Nebraska. From
+1863 to 1878 he was one of the editors of the _Neues Jahrbuch_. He was
+awarded the Murchison medal by the Geological Society of London in 1878.
+He died at Dresden on the 28th of January 1900. His son FRANZ EUGENE
+GEINITZ (b. 1854), professor of geology in the university of Rostock,
+became distinguished for researches on the geology of Saxony,
+Mecklenburg, &c.
+
+  H.B. Geinitz's publications were _Das Quadersandsteingebirge oder
+  Kreidegebirge in Deutschland_ (1849-1850); _Die Versteinerungen der
+  Steinkohlenformation in Sachsen_ (1855); _Dyas, oder die
+  Zechsteinformation und das Rothliegende_ (1861-1862); _Das
+  Elbthalgebirge in Sachsen_ (1871-1875).
+
+
+
+
+GEISHA (a Chino-Japanese word meaning "person of pleasing
+accomplishments"), strictly the name of the professional dancing and
+singing girls of Japan. The word is, however, often loosely used for the
+girls and women inhabiting Shin Yoshiwara, the prostitutes' quarter of
+Tokyo. The training of the true Geisha or singing girl, which includes
+lessons in dancing, begins often as early as her seventh year. Her
+apprenticeship over, she contracts with her employer for a number of
+years, and is seldom able to reach independence except by marriage.
+There is a capitation fee of two _yen_ per month on the actual singing
+girls, and of one _yen_ on the apprentices.
+
+  See Jukichi Inouye, _Sketches of Tokyo Life_.
+
+
+
+
+GEISLINGEN, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, on the
+Thierbach, 38 m. by rail E.S.E. of Stuttgart. Pop. (1905) 7050. It has
+shops for the carving and turning of bone, ivory, wood and horn, besides
+iron-works, machinery factories, glass-works, brewing and bleaching
+works, &c. The church of St Mary contains wood-carving by Jorg Syrlin
+the Younger. Above the town lie the ruins of the castle of Helfenstein,
+which was destroyed in 1552. Having been for a few years in the
+possession of Bavaria, the town passed to Wurttemberg in 1810.
+
+  See Weitbrecht, _Wanderungen durch Geislingen und seine Umgebung_
+  (Stuttgart, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+GEISSLER, HEINRICH (1814-1879), German physicist, was born at the
+village of Igelshieb in Saxe-Meiningen on the 26th of May 1814 and was
+educated as a glass-blower. In 1854 he settled at Bonn, where he
+speedily gained a high reputation for his skill and ingenuity of
+conception in the fabrication of chemical and physical apparatus. With
+Julius Plucker, in 1852, he ascertained the maximum density of water to
+be at 3.8 deg. C. He also determined the coefficient of expansion for
+ice between -24 deg. and -7 deg., and for water freezing at 0 deg. In
+1869, in conjunction with H.P.J. Vogelsang, he proved the existence of
+liquid carbon dioxide in cavities in quartz and topaz, and later he
+obtained amorphous from ordinary phosphorus by means of the electric
+current. He is best known as the inventor of the sealed glass tubes
+which bear his name, by means of which are exhibited the phenomena
+accompanying the discharge of electricity through highly rarefied
+vapours and gases. Among other apparatus contrived by him were a
+vaporimeter, mercury air-pump, balances, normal thermometer, and
+areometer. From the university of Bonn, on the occasion of its jubilee
+in 1868, he received the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. He
+died at Bonn on the 24th of January 1879.
+
+  See A.W. Hofmann, _Ber. d. deut. chem. Ges._ p. 148 (1879).
+
+
+
+
+GELA, a city of Sicily, generally and almost certainly identified with
+the modern Terranova (q.v.). It was founded by Cretan and Rhodian
+colonists in 688 B.C., and itself founded Acragas (see AGRIGENTUM) in
+582 B.C. It also had a treasure-house at Olympia. The town took its name
+from the river to the east (Thucydides vi. 2), which in turn was so
+called from its winter frost ([gamma][epsilon][lambda][alpha] in the
+Sicel dialect; cf. Lat. _gelidus_). The Rhodian settlers called it
+Lindioi (see LINDUS). Gela enjoyed its greatest prosperity under
+Hippocrates (498-491 B.C.), whose dominion extended over a considerable
+part of the island. Gelon, who seized the tyranny on his death, became
+master of Syracuse in 485 B.C., and transferred his capital thither with
+half the inhabitants of Gela, leaving his brother Hiero to rule over the
+rest. Its prosperity returned, however, after the expulsion of
+Thrasybulus in 466 B.C.,[1] but in 405 it was besieged by the
+Carthaginians and abandoned by Dionysius' order, after his failure
+(perhaps due to treachery) to drive the besiegers away (E.A. Freeman,
+_Hist. of Sic._ iii. 562 seq.). The inhabitants later returned and
+rebuilt the town, but it never regained its position. In 311 B.C.
+Agathocles put to death 5000 of its inhabitants; and finally, after its
+destruction by the Mamertines about 281 B.C., Phintias of Agrigentum
+transferred the remainder to the new town of Phintias (now Licata,
+q.v.). It seems that in Roman times they still kept the name of Gelenses
+or Geloi in their new abode (Th. Mommsen in _C.I.L._ x., Berlin, 1883,
+p. 737).     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Aeschylus died there in 456 B.C.
+
+
+
+
+GELADA, the Abyssinian name of a large species of baboon, differing from
+the members of the genus _Papio_ (see BABOON) by the nostrils being
+situated some distance above the extremity of the muzzle, and hence made
+the type of a separate genus, under the name of _Theropithecus gelada_.
+In the heavy mantle of long brown hair covering the fore-quarters of the
+old males, with the exception of the bare chest, which is reddish
+flesh-colour, the gelada recalls the Arabian baboon (_Papio hamadryas_),
+and from this common feature it has been proposed to place the two
+species in the same genus. The gelada inhabits the mountains of
+Abyssinia, where, like other baboons, it descends in droves to pillage
+cultivated lands. A second species, or race, _Theropithecus obscurus_,
+distinguished by its darker hairs and the presence of a bare
+flesh-coloured ring round each eye, inhabits the eastern confines of
+Abyssinia.     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+GELASIUS, the name of two popes.
+
+GELASIUS I., pope from 492 to 496, was the successor of Felix III. He
+confirmed the estrangement between the Eastern and Western churches by
+insisting on the removal of the name of Acacius, bishop of
+Constantinople, from the diptychs. He is the author of _De duabus in
+Christo naturis adversus Eutychen et Nestorium_. A great number of his
+letters has also come down to us. His name has been attached to a _Liber
+Sacramentorum_ anterior to that of St Gregory, but he can have composed
+only certain parts of it. As to the so-called _Decretum Gelasii de
+libris recipiendis et non recipiendis_, it also is a compilation of
+documents anterior to Gelasius, and it is difficult to determine
+Gelasius's contributions to it. At all events, as we know it, it is of
+Roman origin, and 6th-century or later. (L. D.*)
+
+GELASIUS II. (Giovanni Coniulo), pope from the 24th of January 1118 to
+the 29th of January 1119, was born at Gaeta of an illustrious family. He
+became a monk of Monte Cassino, was taken to Rome by Urban II., and made
+chancellor and cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria in Cosmedin. Shortly after
+his unanimous election to succeed Paschal II. he was seized by Cencius
+Frangipane, a partisan of the emperor Henry V., but freed by a general
+uprising of the Romans in his behalf. The emperor drove Gelasius from
+Rome in March, pronounced his election null and void, and set up
+Burdinus, archbishop of Braga, as antipope under the name of Gregory
+VIII. Gelasius fled to Gaeta, where he was ordained priest on the 9th of
+March and on the following day received episcopal consecration. He at
+once excommunicated Henry and the antipope and, under Norman protection,
+was able to return to Rome in July; but the disturbances of the
+imperialist party, especially of the Frangipani, who attacked the pope
+while celebrating mass in the church of St Prassede, compelled Gelasius
+to go once more into exile. He set out for France, consecrating the
+cathedral of Pisa on the way, and arrived at Marseilles in October. He
+was received with great enthusiasm at Avignon, Montpellier and other
+cities, held a synod at Vienne in January 1119, and was planning to hold
+a general council to settle the investiture contest when he died at
+Cluny. His successor was Calixtus II.
+
+  His letters are in J.P. Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ vol. 163. The original
+  life by Pandulf is in J.M. Watterich, _Pontif. Roman. vitae_ (Leipzig,
+  1862), and there is an important digest of his bulls and official acts
+  in Jaffe-Wattenbach, _Regesta pontif. Roman._ (1885-1888).
+
+  See J. Langen, _Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis
+  Innocenz III._ (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle
+  Ages_, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G.W. Hamilton (London, 1896); A. Wagner,
+  _Die unteritalischen Normannen und das Papsttum, 1086-1150_ (Breslau,
+  1885); W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Bd.
+  iii. (Brunswick, 1890); G. Richter, _Annalen der deutschen Geschichte
+  im Mittelalter_, iii. (Halle, 1898); H.H. Milman, _Latin
+  Christianity_, vol. 4 (London, 1899).     (C. H. Ha.)
+
+
+
+
+GELATI, a Georgian monastery in Russian Transcaucasia, in the government
+of Kutais, 11 m. E. of the town of Kutais, standing on a rocky spur (705
+ft. above sea-level) in the valley of the Rion. It was founded in 1109
+by the Georgian king David the Renovator. The principal church, a
+sandstone cathedral, dates from the end of the preceding century, and
+contains the royal crown of the former Georgian kingdom of Imeretia,
+besides ancient MSS., ecclesiological furniture, and fresco portraits of
+the kings of Imeretia. Here also, in a separate chapel, is the tomb of
+David the Renovator (1089-1125) and part of the iron gate of the town of
+Ganja (now Elisavetpol), which that monarch brought away as a trophy of
+his capture of the place.
+
+
+
+
+GELATIN, or GELATINE, the substance which passes into solution when
+"collagen," the ground substance of bone, cartilage and white fibrous
+tissue, is treated with boiling water or dilute acids. It is especially
+characterized by its property of forming a jelly at ordinary
+temperature, becoming liquid when heated, and resolidifying to a jelly
+on cooling. The word is derived from the Fr. _gelatine_, and Ital.
+_gelatina_, from the Lat. _gelata_, that which is frozen, congealed or
+stiff. It is, therefore, in origin cognate with "jelly," which came
+through the Fr. _gelee_ from the same Latin original.
+
+The "collagen," obtained from tendons and connective tissues, also
+occurs in the cornea and sclerotic coat of the eye, and in fish scales.
+Cartilage was considered to be composed of a substance chondrigen, which
+gave chondrin or cartilage-glue on boiling with water. Recent researches
+make it probable that cartilage contains (1) chondromucoid, (2)
+chondroitin-sulphuric acid, (3) collagen, (4) an albumoid present in old
+but not in young cartilage; whilst chondrin is a mixture of gelatin and
+mucin. "Bone collagen," or "ossein," constitutes, with calcium salts,
+the ground substance of bones. Gelatin consists of two substances,
+glutin and chondrin; the former is the main constituent of skin-gelatin,
+the latter of bone-gelatin.
+
+True gelatigenous tissue occurs in all mature vertebrates, with the
+single exception, according to E.F.I. Hoppe-Seyler, of the _Amphioxus
+lanceolatus_. Gelatigenous tissue was discovered by Hoppe-Seyler in the
+cephalopods _Octopus_ and _Sepiola_, but in an extension of his
+experiments to other invertebrates, as cockchafers and _Anodon_ and
+_Unio_, no such tissue could be detected. Neither glutin nor chondrin
+occurs ready formed in the animal kingdom, but they separate when the
+tissues are boiled with water. A similar substance, vegetable gelatin,
+is obtained from certain mosses.
+
+Pure gelatin is an amorphous, brittle, nearly transparent substance,
+faintly yellow, tasteless and inodorous, neutral in reaction and
+unaltered by exposure to dry air. Its composition is in round numbers C
+= 50, H = 7, N = 18, O = 25%; sulphur is also present in an amount
+varying from 0.25 to 0.7%.
+
+  Nothing is known with any certainty as to its chemical constitution,
+  or of the mode in which it is formed from albuminoids. It exhibits in
+  a general way a connexion with that large and important class of
+  animal substances called _proteids_, being, like them, amorphous,
+  soluble in acids and alkalis, and giving in solution a left-handed
+  rotation of the plane of polarization. Nevertheless, the ordinary
+  well-recognized reactions for proteids are but faintly observed in the
+  case of gelatin, and the only substances which at once and freely
+  precipitate it from solution are mercuric chloride, strong alcohol and
+  tannic acid.
+
+  Although gelatin in a dry state is unalterable by exposure to air, its
+  solution exhibits, like all the proteids, a remarkable tendency to
+  putrefaction; but a characteristic feature of this process in the case
+  of gelatin is that the solution assumes a transient acid reaction. The
+  ultimate products of this decomposition are the same as are produced
+  by prolonged boiling with acid. It has been found that oxalic acid,
+  over and above the action common to all dilute acids of preventing the
+  solidification of gelatin solutions, has the further property of
+  preventing in a large measure this tendency to putrefy when the
+  gelatin is treated with hot solutions of this acid, and then freed
+  from adhering acid by means of calcium carbonate. Gelatin so treated
+  has been called _metagelatin_.
+
+  In spite of the marked tendency of gelatin solutions to develop
+  ferment-organisms and undergo putrefaction, the stability of the
+  substance in the dry state is such that it has even been used, and
+  with some success, as a means of preserving perishable foods. The
+  process, invented by Dr Campbell Morfit, consists in impregnating the
+  foods with gelatin, and then drying them till about 10% or less of
+  water is present. Milk gelatinized in this way is superior in several
+  respects to the products of the ordinary condensation process, more
+  especially in the retention of a much larger proportion of
+  albuminoids.
+
+  Gelatin has a marked affinity for water, abstracting it from admixture
+  with alcohol, for example. Solid gelatin steeped for some hours in
+  water absorbs a certain amount and swells up, in which condition a
+  gentle heat serves to convert it into a liquid; or this may be readily
+  produced by the addition of a trace of alkali or mineral acid, or by
+  strong acetic acid. In the last case, however, or if we use the
+  mineral acids in a more concentrated form, the solution obtained has
+  lost its power of solidifying, though not that of acting as a glue.
+  This property is utilized in the preparation of liquid glue (see
+  GLUE). By prolonged boiling of strong aqueous solutions at a high, or
+  of weak solutions at a lower temperature, the characteristic
+  properties of gelatin are impaired and ultimately destroyed. After
+  this treatment it acts less powerfully as a glue, loses its tendency
+  to solidify, and becomes increasingly soluble in cold water;
+  nevertheless the solutions yield on precipitation with alcohol a
+  substance identical in composition with gelatin.
+
+  By prolonged boiling in contact with hydrolytic agents, such as
+  sulphuric acid or caustic alkali, it yields quantities of leucin and
+  glycocoll (so-called "sugar of gelatin," this being the method by
+  which glycocoll was first prepared), but no tyrosin. In this last
+  respect it differs from the great body of proteids, the characteristic
+  solid products of the decomposition of which are leucin and tyrosin.
+
+Gelatin occurs in commerce in varying degrees of purity; the purer form
+obtained from skins and bones (to which this article is restricted) is
+named gelatin; a preparation of great purity is "patent isinglass,"
+while isinglass (q.v.) itself is a fish-gelatin; less pure forms
+constitute glue (q.v.), while a dilute aqueous solution appears in
+commerce as size (q.v.). The manufacture follows much the same lines as
+that of glue; but it is essential that the raw materials must be
+carefully selected, and in view of the consumption of most of the
+gelatin in the kitchen--for soups, jellies, &c.--great care must be
+taken to ensure purity and cleanliness.
+
+  In the manufacture of bone-gelatin the sorted bones are degreased as
+  in the case of glue manufacture, and then transferred to vats
+  containing a dilute hydrochloric acid, by which means most of the
+  mineral matter is dissolved out, and the bones become flexible.
+  Instead of hydrochloric acid some French makers use phosphoric acid.
+  After being well washed with water to remove all traces of
+  hydrochloric acid, the bones are bleached by leading in sulphur
+  dioxide. They are now transferred to the extractors, and heated by
+  steam, care being taken that the temperature does not exceed 85 deg.
+  C. The digestion is repeated, and the runnings are clarified,
+  concentrated, re-bleached and jellied as with glue. Skin-gelatin is
+  manufactured in the same way as skin-glue. After steeping in lime pits
+  the selected skins are digested three times; the first and second
+  runnings are worked up for gelatin, while the third are filtered for
+  "size."
+
+  Vegetable gelatin is manufactured from a seaweed, genus _Laminaria_;
+  from the tengusa, an American seaweed, and from Irish moss. The
+  _Laminaria_ is first extracted with water, and the residue with sodium
+  carbonate; the filtrate is acidified with hydrochloric acid and the
+  precipitated alginic acid washed and bleached. It is then dissolved in
+  an alkali, the solution concentrated, and cooled down by running over
+  horizontal glass plates. Flexible colourless sheets resembling animal
+  gelatin are thus obtained. In America the weed is simply boiled with
+  water, the solution filtered, and cooled to a thick jelly. Irish moss
+  is treated in the same way. Both tengusa and Irish moss yield a
+  gelatin suitable for most purposes; tengusa gelatin clarifies liquids
+  in the same way as isinglass, and forms a harder and firmer jelly than
+  ordinary gelatin.
+
+  _Applications of Gelatin._--First and foremost is the use of gelatin
+  as a food-stuff--in jellies, soups, &c. Referring to the articles
+  GLUE, ISINGLASS and SIZE for the special applications of these forms
+  of gelatin, we here enumerate the more important uses of ordinary
+  gelatin. In photography it is employed in carbon-processes, its use
+  depending on the fact that when treated with potassium bichromate and
+  exposed to light, it is oxidized to insoluble compounds; it plays a
+  part in many other processes. A solution of gelatin containing readily
+  crystallized salts--alum, nitre, &c.--solidifies with the formation of
+  pretty designs; this is the basis of the so-called "crystalline glass"
+  used for purposes of ornamentation. It is also used for coating pills
+  to prevent them adhering together and to make them tasteless.
+  Compounded with various mineral salts, the carbonates and phosphates
+  of calcium, magnesium and aluminium, it yields a valuable ivory
+  substitute. It also plays a part in the manufacture of artificial
+  leather, of India inks, and of artificial silk (the Vanduara Company
+  processes).
+
+
+
+
+GELDERLAND, GELDERS, or GUELDERS, formerly a duchy of the Empire, on the
+lower Rhine and the Yssel, bounded by Friesland, Westphalia, Brabant,
+Holland and the Zuider Zee; part of which has become the province of
+Holland, dealt with separately below. The territory of the later duchy
+of Gelderland was inhabited at the beginning of the Christian era by the
+Teutonic tribes of the Sicambri and the Batavi, and later, during the
+period of the decline of the Roman empire, by the Chamavi and other
+Frank peoples. It formed part of the Caroling kingdom of Austrasia, and
+was divided into _pagi_ or _gauen_, ruled by official counts
+(_comites-graven_). In 843, by the treaty of Verdun, it became part of
+Lotharingia (Lorraine), and in 879 was annexed to the kingdom of East
+Francia (Germany) by the treaty of Meerssen. The nucleus of the later
+county and duchy was the _gau_ or district surrounding the town of
+Gelder or Gelre, lying between the Meuse and the Niers, and since 1715
+included in Rhenish Prussia.
+
+The early history is involved in much obscurity. There were in the 11th
+century a number of counts ruling in various parts of what was
+afterwards known as Gelderland. Towards the close of that century Gerard
+of Wassenburg, who besides the county of Gelre ruled over portions of
+Hamalant and Teisterbant, acquired a dominant position amongst his
+neighbours. He is generally reckoned as the first hereditary count of
+Gelderland (d. 1117/8). His son, Gerard II.--the Long--(d. 1131),
+married Irmingardis, daughter and heiress of Otto, count of Zutphen, and
+their son, Henry I. (d. 1182), inherited both countships. His successors
+Otto I. (1182-1207) and Gerard III. (1207-1229) were lovers of peace and
+strong supporters of the Hohenstaufen emperors, through whose favour
+they were able to increase their territories by acquisitions in the
+districts of Veluwe and Betuwe. He acted as guardian to his nephew
+Floris IV. of Holland during his minority. Otto II., the Lame
+(1220-1271), fortified several towns and bestowed privileges upon them
+for the purpose of encouraging trade. He became a person of so much
+importance that he was urged to be a candidate for the dignity of
+emperor. He preferred to support the claims of his cousin, William II.
+of Holland. In return for the loan of a considerable sum of money
+William gave to him the city of Nijmwegen in pledge. His son Reinald I.
+(d. 1326) married Irmingardis, heiress of Limburg, and in right of his
+wife laid claim to the duchy against Adolf of Berg, who had sold his
+rights to John I. of Brabant. War followed, and on the 5th of June 1288
+Reinald, who meantime had also sold his rights to the count of
+Luxemburg, was defeated and taken prisoner at the battle of Woeringen.
+In this battle the count of Luxemburg was slain, and Reinald had to
+surrender his claims as the price of his defeat to John of Brabant. In
+1310, in return for his support, Reinald received from the emperor Henry
+VII. for all his territories _privilegium de non evocando_, i.e. the
+exemption of his subjects from the liability to be sued before any court
+outside his jurisdiction. In 1317 he was made a prince of the Empire. A
+wound received at the battle of Woeringen had affected his brain, and an
+insurrection against him was in 1316 headed by his son Reinald, who
+assumed the government under the title of "Son of the Count." Reinald I.
+was finally in 1320 immured in prison, where he died in 1326.
+
+Reinald II., the Black (1326-1343), was one of the foremost princes in
+the Netherlands of his day. He married (1) Sophia, heiress of Mechlin,
+and (2) in 1331 Eleanor, sister of Edward III. of England. By purchase
+or conquest he added considerably to his territories. He did much to
+improve the condition of the country, to foster trade, to promote the
+prosperity of the towns, and to maintain order and security in his lands
+by wise laws and firm administration. In 1338 the title of duke was
+bestowed upon him by the emperor Louis the Bavarian, who at the same
+time granted to him the fief of East Friesland. He died in 1343, leaving
+three daughters by his first marriage, and two sons, Reinald and Edward,
+both minors, by Eleanor of England. His elder son was ten years of age,
+and succeeded to the duchy under the guardianship of his mother Eleanor.
+Declared of age two years later, the youthful Reinald III. found himself
+involved in many difficulties through the struggles between the rival
+factions named after the two noble families of Bronkhorst and Hekeren.
+What was the quarrel between them, and what the causes they represented,
+cannot now be ascertained with certainty. There is good reason, however,
+to believe that they were the counterparts of the contemporary Cod and
+Hook parties in Holland, and of the Schieringers and Vetkoopers in
+Friesland. In Gelderland the quarrel between them was converted into a
+dynastic struggle, the Hekeren recognizing Duke Reinald, while the
+Bronkhorsten set up his younger brother Edward. At the battle of Tiel
+(1361) Reinald was defeated and taken prisoner, and Edward held the
+duchy till 1371. He was a good and successful ruler, and his death by an
+arrow wound, after a brilliant victory over the duke of Brabant near
+Baesweller (August 1371), was a loss to his country. He was in his
+thirty-fifth year and left no heirs. Reinald was now taken from the
+prison in which he had been confined to reign once more, but his health
+was broken and he died childless three years afterwards. The war of
+factions again broke out, the half-sisters of Reinald III. and Edward
+both claiming the inheritance; the elder, Matilda (Machteld), in her
+own right, the younger Maria on behalf of her seven-year-old boy William
+of Julich, as the only male representative of the family. The Hekeren
+supported Matilda, the Bronkhorsten William of Julich. The war of
+succession lasted till 1379, and ended in William's favour, the emperor
+Wenceslas (Wenzel) recognizing him as duke four years later.
+
+Duke William was able, restless and adventurous, an ideal knight of the
+palmy days of chivalry. He took part in no less than five crusades with
+the Teutonic order against the heathen Lithuanians and Prussians. In
+1393 he inherited the duchy of Julich, and died in 1402. He was
+succeeded by his brother, Reinald IV. (d. 1423), in the united
+sovereignty of Gelderland, Zutphen and Julich, who, in accordance with a
+promise made before his accession, ceded the town of Emmerich to Duke
+Adolf of Cleves. He took the part of his brother-in-law, John of Arkel,
+against William VI. of Holland, and in a war of several years' duration
+was not successful in preventing the Arkel territory being incorporated
+in Holland. On his death without legitimate issue, Gelderland passed to
+the young Arnold of Egmont, grandson of his sister Johanna, who had
+married John, lord of Arkel, their daughter Maria (d. 1415) being the
+wife of John, count of Egmont (d. 1451). Arnold was recognized as duke
+in 1424 by the emperor Sigismund, but in the following year the emperor
+revoked his decision and bestowed the duchy upon Adolf of Berg. Arnold
+in retaliation laid claim to the duchy of Julich, which had likewise
+been granted to Adolf by Sigismund, and a war followed in which the
+cities and nobles of Gelderland stood by Arnold; it ended in Arnold
+retaining Gelderland and Zutphen, and Gerard, the son of Adolf (d.
+1437), being acknowledged as duke of Julich. To gain the support of the
+estates of Gelderland in this war of succession, Arnold had been
+compelled to make many concessions limiting the ducal prerogatives, and
+granting large powers to a council consisting of representatives of the
+nobles and the four chief cities, and his extravagance and exactions led
+to continual conflicts, in which the prince was compelled to yield to
+the demands of his subjects. In his later years a conspiracy was formed
+against him, headed by his wife, the violent and ambitious Catherine of
+Cleves, and his son Adolf. Arnold was at first successful and Adolf had
+to go into exile; but he returned, and in 1465, having taken his father
+prisoner by treachery, interned him in the castle of Buren. Charles the
+Bold of Burgundy now seized the opportunity to intervene. In 1471 he
+forced Adolf to release his father, who sold the reversion of the duchy
+to the duke of Burgundy for 92,000 golden gulden. On the 23rd of
+February 1473 Arnold died, and Charles of Burgundy became duke of
+Gelderland. His succession was not unopposed. Nijmwegen offered an
+heroic resistance and only fell after a long siege. After Charles's
+death in 1477 Adolf was released from the captivity in which he had been
+held, and placed himself at the head of a party in the powerful city of
+Ghent, which sought to settle the disputed succession by forcing a match
+between him and Mary, the heiress of Burgundy. On the 29th of June 1477,
+however, he was killed at the siege of Tournai; and Mary gave her hand
+to Maximilian of Austria, afterwards emperor. Catherine, Adolf's sister,
+made an attempt to assert the rights of his son Charles to the duchy,
+but by 1483 Maximilian had crushed all opposition and established
+himself as duke of Gelderland.
+
+Charles of Egmont, however, did not surrender his claims, but with the
+aid of the French collected an army, and in the course of 1492 and 1493
+succeeded in reconquering his inheritance. The efforts of Maximilian to
+recover the country were vain, and the successive governors of the
+Netherlands, Philip the Fair and his sister Margaret, fared no better.
+In 1507 Charles of Egmont invaded Holland and Brabant, captured
+Harderwijk and Bommel in 1511, threatened Amsterdam in 1512, and took
+Groningen. It was, undoubtedly, a great and heroic achievement for the
+ruler of a petty state like Gelderland thus to assert and maintain his
+independence for a long period against the overwhelming power of the
+house of Austria. It was not till 1528 that the emperor Charles V. could
+force him to accept the compromise of the treaty of Gorichen, by which
+he received Gelderland and Zutphen for life as fiefs of the Empire. In
+1534 the duke, who was childless, attempted to transfer the reversion of
+Gelderland to France, but this project was violently resisted by the
+estates of the duchy, and Charles was compelled by them in 1538 to
+appoint as his successor William V.--the Rich--of Cleves (d. 1592).
+Charles died the same year, and William, with the aid of the French,
+succeeded in maintaining his position in Gelderland for several years.
+The Habsburg power was, however, in the end too great for him, and he
+was forced to cede the duchy to Charles V. by the treaty of Venloo,
+signed on the 7th of September 1543.
+
+Gelderland was now definitely amalgamated with the Habsburg dominions in
+the Netherlands, until the revolt of the Low Countries led to its
+partition. In 1579 the northern and greater part, comprising the three
+"quarters" of Nijmwegen, Arnhem and Zutphen, joined the Union of Utrecht
+and became the province of Gelderland in the Dutch republic. Only the
+quarter of Roermonde remained subject to the crown of Spain, and was
+called Spanish Gelderland. By the treaty of Utrecht (1715) this was
+ceded to Prussia with the exception of Venloo, which fell to the United
+Provinces, and Roermonde, which, with the remaining Spanish Netherlands,
+passed to Austria. Of this, part was ceded to France at the peace of
+Basel in 1795, and the whole by the treaty of Luneville in 1801, when it
+received the name of the department of the Roer. By the peace of Paris
+of 1814 the bulk of Gelderland was incorporated in the United
+Netherlands, the remainder falling to Prussia, where it forms the circle
+of Dusseldorf.
+
+The rise of the towns in Gelderland began in the 13th century, river
+commerce and markets being the chief cause of their prosperity, but they
+never attained to the importance of the larger cities in Holland and
+Utrecht, much less to that of the great Flemish municipalities. They
+differed also from the Flemish cities in the nature of their privileges
+and immunities, as they did not possess the rights of communes, but only
+those of "free cities" of the Rhenish type. The power of the feudal lord
+over them was much greater. The states of Gelderland first became a
+considerable power in the land during the reign of Arnold of Egmont
+(1423-1473). Their claim to large privileges and a considerable share in
+the government of the county were formulated in a document drawn up at
+Nijmwegen in April 1436. These the duke had to concede, and to agree
+further to the appointment of a council to assist him in his
+administration. From this time the absolute authority of the sovereign
+in Gelderland was broken. The states consisted of two members--the
+nobility and the towns. The towns were divided into four separate
+districts or "quarters" named after the chief town in each--Nijmwegen,
+Arnhem, Zutphen and Roermonde. In the time of the republic, as has been
+stated above, the province of Gelderland comprised the three first-named
+"quarters" only. The three quarters had each of them peculiar rights and
+customs, and their representatives met together in a separate assembly
+before taking part in the diet (_landdag_) of the states. The nobility
+possessed great influence in Gelderland and retained it in the time of
+the republic.     (G. E.)
+
+
+
+
+GELDERLAND (_Guelders_), a province of Holland, bounded S. by Rhenish
+Prussia and North Brabant, W. by Utrecht and South Holland, N. by the
+Zuider Zee, N.E. by Overysel, and S.E. by the Prussian province of
+Westphalia. It has an area of 1906 sq. m. and a pop. (1900) of 566,549.
+Historically it was part of the duchy of Gelderland, which is treated
+separately above.
+
+The main portion of Gelderland north of the Rhine and the Old Ysel forms
+as it were an extension of the province of Overysel, being composed of
+diluvial sand and gravel, covered with sombre heaths and patches of fen.
+South of this line, however, the soil consists of fertile river-clay.
+The northern portion is divided by the New (or Gelders) Ysel into two
+distinct regions, namely, the Veluwe ("bad land") on the west, and the
+former countship of Zutphen on the east. In this last division the
+ground slopes downwards from south-east to north-west (131 to 26 ft.)
+and is intersected by several fertilizing streams which flow in the same
+direction to join the Ysel. The extreme eastern corner is occupied by
+older Tertiary loam, which is used for making bricks, and upon this and
+the river-banks are the most fertile spots, woods, cultivated land,
+pastures, towns and villages. The highlands of the Veluwe lying west of
+the Ysel really extend as far as the Crooked Rhine and the Vecht in the
+province of Utrecht, but are slightly detached from the Utrecht hills by
+the so-called Gelders valley, which forms the boundary between the two
+provinces. This valley extends from the Rhine along the Grift, the
+Luntersche Beek, and the Eem to the Zuider Zee, and would still offer an
+outlet in this direction to the Rhine at high water if it were not for
+the river dikes. The two main ridges of the Veluwe hills (164 and 360
+ft.) extend from the neighbourhood of Arnhem north to Harderwyk and
+north-east to Hattem. In the south they stretch themselves along the
+banks of the Rhine, forming a strip of picturesque river scenery made up
+of the varied elements of sandhills and trees, clay-lands and pastures.
+A large number of country-houses and villas are to be found here, and
+the riverside villages of Dieren, Velp and Renkum. All over the Veluwe
+are heaths, scantily cultivated, with fields of rye and buckwheat,
+cattle of inferior quality, and sheep, and a sparse population. There is
+also a considerable cultivation of wood, especially of fir and copse,
+while tobacco plantations are found at Nykerk and Wageningen.
+
+The southern division of the province presents a very different aspect,
+and contains many old towns and villages. It is watered by the three
+large rivers, the Rhine, the Waal and the Maas, and has a level clay
+soil, varied only by isolated hills and a sandy, wooded stretch between
+Nijmwegen and the southern border. The region enclosed between the Rhine
+and the Waal and watered by the Linge is called the Betuwe ("good
+land"), and gave its name to the Germanic tribe of Batavians, who are
+sometimes wrongly regarded as the parent stock of the Dutch people.
+There is here a denser population, occupied in the cultivation of wheat,
+beetroot and fruit, the breeding of excellent cattle, shipping and
+industrial pursuits. The principal centres of population, such as
+Zutphen, Arnhem (the chief town of the province), Nijmwegen and Tiel,
+lie along the large rivers. Smaller, but of equal antiquity, are the
+riverside towns of Doesburg, which is strongly fortified; Wageningen,
+with the State agricultural schools; Doetinchem, with a bridge over the
+Old Ysel which is mentioned as early as the 14th century; Zalt-Bommel,
+with an old church (1304), and a railway bridge over the Waal; and
+Kuilenburg, with a fine railway bridge (1863-1868) over the Rhine. Five
+m. S. of Zalt-Bommel, on the Maas, is the medieval castle of Ammerzode
+or Ammersooi, also called Amelroy during the French occupation in 1674.
+It is in an excellent state of preservation and has been restored in
+modern times. The first authentic record of the castle is its possession
+by John de Herlar of the noble family of Loo at the end of the 13th
+century. In 1480 it passed by marriage to the powerful lords van Arkel,
+and was partly destroyed by fire at the end of the 16th century. The
+chapel dates from the 15th century, and the keep from 1564. Among the
+family portraits are works by Albert Durer. Zetten, on the railway
+between Nijmwegen and Tiel, is famous for the charitable institutions
+founded here by the preacher Otto Gerhard Heldring (d. 1876). They
+comprise a penitentiary (1849) for women; an educational home (1858) for
+girls; a theological training college (1864); and a Magdalen hospital.
+Nykerk, Harderwyk and Elburg are fishing towns on the Zuider Zee.
+Apeldoorn is situated on the edge of the sand-grounds. Heerenberg on the
+south-eastern border is remarkable for its ancient castle near the seat
+of the powerful lords van den Bergh. Other ancient and historical towns
+bordering on the Prussian frontier are Zevenaar, which was for long the
+cause of dispute between the houses of Cleves and Gelder and was finally
+attached to the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1816; Breedevoort, once
+the seat of a lordship of the same name belonging to the counts van Loon
+or Lohn, who built a castle here in the beginning of the 13th century
+which was destroyed in 1646--the lordship was presented to Prince
+William III. in 1697; Winterswyk, now an important railway junction, and
+of growing industrial importance; and Borkeloo, or Borkulo, the seat of
+an ancient lordship dating from the first half of the 12th century,
+which finally came into the possession of Prince William V. of Orange
+Nassau in 1777. The castle was formerly of importance.
+
+Gelderland is intersected by the main railway lines, which are largely
+supplemented by steam-tram railways. Steam-tramways connect Arnhem and
+Zutphen, Wageningen, Nijmwegen, Velp, Doetinchem (by way of Dieren and
+Doesburg), whence there are various lines to Emmerich and Gendringen on
+the Prussian borders. Groenlo and Lichtenvorde, Borkulo and Deventer are
+also connected.
+
+
+
+
+GELDERN, a town of Germany, in Rhenish Prussia, on the Niers, 28 m. N.
+W. of Dusseldorf, at the junction of railways to Wesel and Cologne. Pop.
+(1905) 6551. It has an Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches and a
+town hall with a fine council chamber. Its industries include the
+manufacture of buttons, shoes, cigars and soap. The town dates from
+about 1100 and was early an important fortified place; until 1371 it was
+the residence of the counts and dukes of Gelderland. Having passed to
+Spain, its fortifications were strengthened by Philip II., but they were
+razed by Frederick the Great, the town having been in the possession of
+Prussia since 1703.
+
+  See Nettesheim, _Geschichte der Stadt und des Amtes Geldern_ (Crefeld,
+  1863); Henrichs, _Beitrage zur innern Geschichte der Stadt Geldern_
+  (Geldern, 1893); and Real, _Chronik der Stadt und Umgegend von
+  Geldern_ (Geldern, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+GELL, SIR WILLIAM (1777-1836), English classical archaeologist, was born
+at Hopton in Derbyshire. He was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge,
+and subsequently elected a fellow of Emmanuel College (B.A. 1798, M.A.
+1804). About 1800 he was sent on a diplomatic mission to the Ionian
+islands, and on his return in 1803 he was knighted. He went with
+Princess (afterwards Queen) Caroline to Italy in 1814 as one of her
+chamberlains, and gave evidence in her favour at the trial in 1820 (see
+G.P. Clerici, _A Queen of Indiscretions_, Eng. trans., London, 1907). He
+died at Naples on the 4th of February 1836. His numerous drawings of
+classical ruins and localities, executed with great detail and
+exactness, are preserved in the British Museum. Gell was a thorough
+dilettante, fond of society and possessed of little real scholarship.
+None the less his topographical works became recognized text-books at a
+time when Greece and even Italy were but superficially known to English
+travellers. He was a fellow of the Royal Society and the Society of
+Antiquaries, and a member of the Institute of France and the Berlin
+Academy.
+
+  His best-known work is _Pompeiana; the Topography, Edifices and
+  Ornaments of Pompeii_ (1817-1832), in the first part of which he was
+  assisted by J.P. Gandy. It was followed in 1834 by the _Topography of
+  Rome and its Vicinity_ (new ed. by E.H. Bunbury, 1896). He wrote also
+  _Topography of Troy and its Vicinity_ (1804); _Geography and
+  Antiquities of Ithaca_ (1807); _Itinerary of Greece, with a Commentary
+  on Pausanias and Strabo_ (1810, enlarged ed. 1827); _Itinerary of the
+  Morea_ (1816; republished as _Narrative of a Journey in the Morea_,
+  1823). All these works have been superseded by later publications.
+
+
+
+
+GELLERT, CHRISTIAN FURCHTEGOTT (1715-1769), German poet, was born at
+Hainichen in the Saxon Erzgebirge on the 4th of July 1715. After
+attending the famous school of St Afra in Meissen, he entered Leipzig
+University in 1734 as a student of theology, and on completing his
+studies in 1739 was for two years a private tutor. Returning to Leipzig
+in 1741 he contributed to the _Bremer Beitrage_, a periodical founded by
+former disciples of Johann Christoph Gottsched, who had revolted from
+the pedantry of his school. Owing to shyness and weak health Gellert
+gave up all idea of entering the ministry, and, establishing himself in
+1745 as _privatdocent_ in philosophy at the university of Leipzig,
+lectured on poetry, rhetoric and literary style with much success. In
+1751 he was appointed extraordinary professor of philosophy, a post
+which he held until his death at Leipzig on the 13th of December 1769.
+
+The esteem and veneration in which Gellert was held by the students, and
+indeed by persons in all classes of society, was unbounded, and yet due
+perhaps less to his unrivalled popularity as a lecturer and writer than
+to his personal character. He was the noblest and most amiable of men,
+generous, tender-hearted and of unaffected piety and humility. He wrote
+in order to raise the religious and moral character of the people, and
+to this end employed language which, though at times prolix, was always
+correct and clear. He thus became one of the most popular German
+authors, and some of his poems enjoyed a celebrity out of proportion to
+their literary value. This is more particularly true of his _Fabeln und
+Erzahlungen_ (1746-1748) and of his _Geistliche Oden und Lieder_ (1757).
+The fables, for which he took La Fontaine as his model, are simple and
+didactic. The "spiritual songs," though in force and dignity they cannot
+compare with the older church hymns, were received by Catholics and
+Protestants with equal favour. Some of them were set to music by
+Beethoven. Gellert wrote a few comedies: _Die Betschwester_ (1745), _Die
+kranke Frau_ (1748), _Das Los in der Lotterie_ (1748), and _Die
+zartlichen Schwestern_ (1748), the last of which was much admired. His
+novel _Die schwedische Grafin von G._ (1746), a weak imitation of
+Richardson's _Pamela_, is remarkable as being the first German attempt
+at a psychological novel. Gellert's _Briefe_ (letters) were regarded at
+the time as models of good style.
+
+  See Gellert's _Samtliche Schriften_ (first edition, 10 vols., Leipzig,
+  1769-1774; last edition, Berlin, 1867). _Samtliche Fabeln und
+  Erzahlungen_ have been often published separately, the latest edition
+  in 1896. A selection of Gellert's poetry (with an excellent
+  introduction) will be found in F. Muncker, _Die Bremer Beitrage_
+  (Stuttgart, 1899). A translation by J.A. Murke, _Gellert's Fables and
+  other Poems_ (London, 1851). For a further account of Gellert's life
+  and work see lives by J.A. Cramer (Leipzig, 1774), H. Doring (Greiz,
+  1833), and H.O. Nietschmann (2nd ed., Halle, 1901); also _Gellerts
+  Tagebuch aus dem Jahre 1761_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1863) and _Gellerts
+  Briefwechsel mit Demoiselle Lucius_ (Leipzig, 1823).
+
+
+
+
+GELLERT, or KILLHART, in Welsh traditional history, the dog of
+Llewellyn, prince of Wales. The dog, a greyhound, was left to guard the
+cradle in which the infant heir slept. A wolf enters, and is about to
+attack the child, when Gellert flies at him. In the struggle the cradle
+is upset and the infant falls underneath. Gellert kills the wolf, but
+when Prince Llewellyn arrives and sees the empty cradle and blood all
+around, he does not for the moment notice the wolf, but thinks Gellert
+has killed the baby. He at once stabs him, but almost instantly finds
+his son safe under the cradle and realizes the dog's bravery. Gellert is
+supposed to have been buried near the village of Beddgelert ("grave of
+Gellert"), Snowdon, where his tomb is still pointed out to visitors. The
+date of the incident is traditionally given as 1205. The incident has
+given rise to a Welsh proverb, "I repent as much as the man who slew his
+greyhound." The whole story is, however, only the Welsh version of a
+tale long before current in Europe, which is traced to the Indian
+Panchatantra and perhaps as far back as 200 B.C.
+
+  See W.A. Clouston, _Popular Tales and Fictions_ (1887); D.E. Jenkins,
+  _Beddgelert, its Facts, Fairies and Folklore_ (Portmadoc, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+GELLIUS, AULUS (c. A.D. 130-180), Latin author and grammarian, probably
+born at Rome. He studied grammar and rhetoric at Rome and philosophy at
+Athens, after which he returned to Rome, where he held a judicial
+office. His teachers and friends included many distinguished
+men--Sulpicius Apollinaris, Herodes Atticus and Fronto. His only work,
+the _Noctes Atticae_, takes its name from having been begun during the
+long nights of a winter which he spent in Attica. He afterwards
+continued it at Rome. It is compiled out of an Adversaria, or
+commonplace book, in which he had jotted down everything of unusual
+interest that he heard in conversation or read in books, and it
+comprises notes on grammar, geometry, philosophy, history and almost
+every other branch of knowledge. The work, which is utterly devoid of
+sequence or arrangement, is divided into twenty books. All these have
+come down to us except the eighth, of which nothing remains but the
+index. The _Noctes Atticae_ is valuable for the insight it affords into
+the nature of the society and pursuits of those times, and for the
+numerous excerpts it contains from the works of lost ancient authors.
+
+  Editio princeps (Rome, 1469); the best editions are those of Gronovius
+  (1706) and M. Hertz (1883-1885; editio minor, 1886, revised by C.
+  Hosius, 1903, with bibliography). There is a translation in English by
+  W. Beloe (1795), and in French by various hands (1896). See Sandys,
+  _Hist. Class. Schol._ i. (1906), 210.
+
+
+
+
+GELLIVARA [GELLIVARE], a mining town of Sweden in the district (_lan_)
+of Norrbotten, 815 m. N. by E. of Stockholm by rail. It lies in the
+well-nigh uninhabited region of Swedish Lapland, 43 m. N. of the Arctic
+Circle. It owes its importance to the iron mines in the mountain
+Malmberget 4-1/2 m. to the north, rising to 2024 ft. above sea-level
+(830 ft. above Gellivara town). During the dark winter months work
+proceeds by the aid of electric light. In 1864 the mines were acquired
+by an English company, but abandoned in 1867. In 1884 another English
+company took them up and completed a provisional railway from Malmberget
+to Lulea at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia (127 m. S.S.E.), besides
+executing a considerable portion of the preliminary works for the
+continuation of the line on the Norwegian side from Ofoten Fjord upwards
+(see NARVIK). But this company, after extracting some 150,000 tons of
+ore in 1888-1889, went into liquidation in the latter year. Two years
+later the mines passed into the hands of a Swedish company, and the
+railway was acquired by the Swedish Government. The output of ore was
+insignificant until 1892, when it stood at 178,000 tons; but in 1902 it
+amounted to 1,074,000 tons. Three miles S.W. rises the hill Gellivara
+Dundret (2700 ft.), from which the sun is visible at midnight from June
+5 to July 11. The population of the parish (about 6500 sq. m.) in 1900
+was 11,745; the greater part of the population being congregated at the
+town of Gellivara and at Malmberget.
+
+
+
+
+GELNHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau,
+on the Kinzig, 27 m. E.N.E. of Frankfort-on-Main, on the railway to
+Bebra. Pop. 4500. It is romantically situated on the slope of a
+vine-clad hill, and is still surrounded by ancient walls and towers. On
+an island in the river are the ivy-covered ruins of the imperial palace
+which Frederick I. (Barbarossa) built before 1170, and which was
+destroyed by the Swedes during the Thirty Years' War. It has an
+interesting and beautiful church (the Marien Kirche), with four spires
+(of which that on the transept is curiously crooked), built in the 13th
+century, and restored in 1876-1879; also several other ancient
+buildings, notably the town-hall, the Furstenhof (now administrative
+offices), and the Hexenthurm. India-rubber goods are manufactured, and
+wine is made. Gelnhausen became an imperial town in 1169, and diets of
+the Empire were frequently held within its walls. In 1634 and 1635 it
+suffered severely from the Swedes. In 1803 the town became the property
+of Hesse-Cassel, and in 1866 passed to Prussia.
+
+
+
+
+GELO, son of Deinomenes, tyrant of Gela and Syracuse. On the death of
+Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela (491 B.C.), Gelo, who had been his commander
+of cavalry, succeeded him; and in 485, his aid having been invoked by
+the Gamori (the oligarchical landed proprietors) of Syracuse who had
+been driven out by the populace, he seized the opportunity of making
+himself despot. From this time Gelo paid little attention to Gela, and
+devoted himself to the aggrandizement of Syracuse, which attained
+extraordinary wealth and influence. When the Greeks solicited his aid
+against Xerxes, he refused it, since they would not give him command of
+the allied forces (Herodotus vii. 171). In the same year the
+Carthaginians invaded Sicily, but were totally defeated at Himera, the
+result of the victory being that Gelo became lord of all Sicily. After
+he had thus established his power, he made a show of resigning it; but
+his proposal was rejected by the multitude, and he reigned without
+opposition till his death (478). He was honoured as a hero, and his
+memory was held in such respect that when all the brazen statues of
+tyrants were condemned to be sold in the time of Timoleon (150 years
+later) an exemption was made in favour of the statue of Gelo.
+
+  Herodotus vii.; Diod. Sic. xi. 20-38; see also SICILY: _History_, and
+  SYRACUSE; for his coins see NUMISMATICS: _Sicily_.
+
+
+
+
+GELSEMIUM, a drug consisting of the root of _Gelsemium nitidum_, a
+clinging shrub of the natural order Loganiaceae, having a milky juice,
+opposite, lanceolate shining leaves, and axillary clusters of from one
+to five large, funnel-shaped, very fragrant yellow flowers, whose
+perfume has been compared with that of the wallflower. The fruit is
+composed of two separable jointed pods, containing numerous flat-winged
+seeds. The stem often runs underground for a considerable distance, and
+indiscriminately with the root it is used in medicine. The plant is a
+native of the United States, growing on rich clay soil by the side of
+streams near the coast, from Virginia to the south of Florida. In the
+United States it is commonly known as the wild, yellow or Carolina
+jessamine, although in no way related to the true jessamines, which
+belong to the order Oleaceae. It was first described in 1640 by John
+Parkinson, who grew it in his garden from seed sent by Tradescant from
+Virginia; at the present time it is but rarely seen, even in botanical
+gardens, in Great Britain.
+
+The drug contains a volatile oil and two potent alkaloids, gelseminine
+and gelsemine. Gelseminine is a yellowish, bitter substance, readily
+soluble in ether and alcohol. It is not employed therapeutically.
+Gelsemine has the formula C11H19NO2, and is a colourless, odourless,
+intensely bitter solid, which is insoluble in water, but readily forms a
+soluble hydrochloride. The dose of this salt is from 1/60th to 1/20th of
+a grain. The British Pharmacopoeia contains a tincture of gelsemium, the
+dose of which is from five to fifteen minims.
+
+[Illustration: _Gelsemium nitidum_, half natural size; flower, nat.
+size.]
+
+The drug is essentially a nerve poison. It has no action on the skin and
+no marked action on the alimentary or circulatory systems. Its action on
+the cerebrum is slight, consciousness being retained even after toxic
+doses, but there may be headache and giddiness. The drug rapidly causes
+failure of vision, diplopia, ptosis or falling of the upper eyelid,
+dilatation of the pupil, and a lowering of the intra-ocular tension.
+This last action is doubtful. The symptoms appear to be due to a
+paralysis of the motor cells that control the internal and external
+ocular muscles. The most marked action of the drug is upon the anterior
+cornua of grey matter in the spinal cord. It can be shown by a process
+of experimental exclusion that to an arrest of function of these cells
+is due the paralysis of all the voluntary muscles of the body that
+follows the administration of gelsemium or gelsemine. Just before death
+the sensory part of the spinal cord is also paralysed, general
+anaesthesia resulting. The drug kills by its action on the respiratory
+centre in the medulla oblongata. Shortly after the administration of
+even a moderate dose the respiration is slowed and is ultimately
+arrested, this being the cause of death. In cases of poisoning the
+essential treatment is artificial respiration, which may be aided by the
+subcutaneous exhibition of strychnine.
+
+Though the drug is still widely used, the rational indications for its
+employment are singularly rare and uncertain. The conditions in which it
+is most frequently employed are convulsions, bronchitis, severe and
+purposeless coughing, myalgia or muscular pain, neuralgia and various
+vague forms of pain.
+
+
+
+
+GELSENKIRCHEN, a town of Germany in the Prussian province of Westphalia,
+27 m. W. of Dortmund on the railway Duisburg-Hamm. Pop. (1905) 147,037.
+It has coal mines, iron furnaces, steel and boiler works, and soap,
+glass and chemical factories. In 1903 various neighbouring industrial
+townships were incorporated with the town.
+
+
+
+
+GEM (Lat. _gemma_, a bud,--from the root _gen_, meaning "to
+produce,"--or precious stone; in the latter sense the Greek term is
+[Greek: psephos]), a word applied in a wide sense to certain minerals
+which, by reason of their brilliancy, hardness and rarity, are valued
+for personal decoration; it is extended to include pearl. In a
+restricted sense the term is applied only to precious stones after they
+have been cut and polished as jewels, whilst in their raw state the
+minerals are conveniently called "gem-stones." Sometimes, again, the
+term "gem" is used in a yet narrower sense, being restricted to engraved
+stones, like seals and cameos.
+
+The subject is treated here in two sections: (1) Mineralogy and general
+properties; (2) Gems in Art, i.e. engraved gems, such as seals and
+cameos. The artificial products which simulate natural gem-stones in
+properties and chemical composition are treated in the separate article
+GEM, ARTIFICIAL.
+
+
+1. MINERALOGY AND GENERAL PROPERTIES
+
+The gem-stones form a small conventional group of minerals, including
+principally the diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald and opal. Other stones
+of less value--such as topaz, spinel, chrysoberyl, chrysolite, zircon
+and tourmaline--are sometimes called "fancy stones." Many minerals still
+less prized, yet often used as ornamental stones,--like moonstone,
+rock-crystal and agate,--occasionally pass under the name of
+"semi-precious stones," but this is rather a vague term and may include
+the stones of the preceding group. The classification of gem-stones is,
+indeed, to some extent a matter of fashion.
+
+Descriptions of the several gem-stones will be found under their
+respective headings, and the present article gives only a brief review
+of the general characters of the group.
+
+
+  Hardness.
+
+A high degree of hardness is an essential property of a gem-stone, for
+however beautiful and brilliant a mineral may be it is useless to the
+jeweller if it lack sufficient hardness to withstand the abrasion to
+which articles of personal decoration are necessarily subjected. Even if
+not definitely scratched, the polished stone becomes dull by wear.
+Imitations in paste may be extremely brilliant, but being comparatively
+soft they soon lose lustre when rubbed. In the article MINERALOGY it is
+explained that the varying degrees of hardness are registered on a
+definite scale. The exceptional hardness of the diamond gives it a
+supreme position in this scale, and to it the arbitrary value of 10 has
+been assigned. The corundum gem-stones (ruby and sapphire), though
+greatly inferior in hardness to the diamond, come next, with the value
+of 9; and it is notable that the sapphire is usually rather harder than
+ruby. Then follows the topaz, which, with spinel and chrysoberyl, has a
+hardness of 8; whilst quartz falls a degree lower. Most gem-stones are
+harder than quartz, though precious opal, turquoise, moonstone and
+sphene are inferior to it in hardness. Those stones which are softer
+than quartz have been called by jewellers _demi-dures_. To test the
+hardness of a cut stone, one of its sharp edges may be drawn, with firm
+pressure, across the smooth surface of a piece of quartz; if it leave a
+scratch its hardness must be above 7. The stone is then applied in like
+manner to a fragment of topaz, preferably a cleavage-piece, and if it
+fail to leave a distinct scratch its hardness is between 7 and 8,
+whereas if the topaz be scratched it is above 8. An expert may obtain a
+fair idea of hardness by gently passing the stone over a fine steel
+file, and observing the feel of the stone and the grating sound which it
+emits. If a stone be scratched by a steel knife its hardness is below 6.
+The degree of hardness of a precious stone is soon ascertained by the
+lapidary when cutting it.
+
+
+  Specific gravity.
+
+Gem-stones differ markedly among themselves in density or specific
+weight; and although this is a character which does not directly affect
+their value for ornamental purposes, it furnishes by its constancy an
+important means of distinguishing one stone from another. Moreover, it
+is a character very easily determined and can be applied to cut stones
+without injury. The relative weightiness of a stone is called its
+specific gravity, and is often abbreviated as S.G. The number given in
+the description of a mineral as S.G. shows how many times the stone is
+heavier than an equal bulk of the standard with which it is compared,
+the standard being distilled water at 4 deg. C. If, for example, the
+S.G. of diamond is said to be 3.5 it means that a diamond weighs 3-1/2
+times as much as a mass of water of the same bulk. The various methods
+of determining specific gravity are described under DENSITY. The
+readiest method of testing precious stones, especially when cut, is to
+use dense liquids. Suppose it be required to determine whether a yellow
+stone be true topaz or false topaz (quartz), it is merely necessary to
+drop the stone into a liquid made up to the specific gravity of about 3;
+and since topaz has S.G. of 3.5 it sinks in this medium, but as quartz
+has S.G. of only 2.65 it floats. The densest gem-stone is zircon, which
+may have S.G. as high as 4.7, whilst the lowest is opal with S.G. 2.2.
+Amber, it is true, is lighter still, being scarcely denser than water,
+but this substance can hardly be called a gem.
+
+
+  Crystalline form and cleavage.
+
+Although the great majority of precious stones occur crystallized, the
+characteristic form is destroyed in cutting. The crystal-forms of the
+several stones are noticed under their respective headings, and the
+subject is discussed fully under CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. A few substances used
+as ornamental stones--like opal, turquoise, obsidian and amber--are
+amorphous or without crystalline form; whilst others, like the various
+stones of the chalcedony-group, display no obvious crystal-characters,
+but are seen under the microscope to possess a crystalline structure.
+Gem-stones are frequently found in gravels or other detrital deposits,
+where they occur as rolled crystals or fragments of crystals, and in
+many cases have been reduced to the form of pebbles. By the
+disintegration of the rock which formed the original matrix, its
+constituent minerals were set free, and whilst many of them were worn
+away by long-continued attrition, the gem-stones survived by virtue of
+their superior hardness.
+
+Many crystallized gem-stones exhibit cleavage, or a tendency to split in
+definite directions. The lapidary recognizes a "grain" in the stone.
+When the cleavage is perfect, as in topaz, it may render the working of
+the stone difficult, and produce incipient cracks in the cut gem. Flaws
+due to the cleavage planes are called "feathers." The octahedral
+cleavage of the diamond is taken advantage of in dressing the stone
+before cutting it. The cutting of gem-stones is explained under
+LAPIDARY.
+
+
+  Colour.
+
+The beauty and consequent value of gems depend mainly on their colour.
+Some stones, it is true, are valued for entire absence of colour, as
+diamonds of pure "water." Certain kinds of sapphire and topaz, too, are
+"water clear," as also is pure rock-crystal; but in most stones colour
+is a prime element of attraction. The colour, however, is not generally
+an essential property of the mineral, but is due to the presence of
+foreign pigmentary matter, often in very small proportion and in some
+cases eluding determination. Thus, corundum when pure is colourless, but
+the presence of traces of certain mineral substances imparts to it not
+only the red of ruby and the blue of sapphire, but almost every other
+colour. The tinctorial matter may be distributed either uniformly
+throughout the stone or in regular zones, or in quite irregular patches.
+A tourmaline, for instance, may be red at one end of a prismatic crystal
+and green at the other extremity, or the colour may be so disposed that
+in transverse section the centre will be red and the outer zone green. A
+beryl may be yellow and green in the same crystal. Sapphire, again, is
+often parti-coloured, one portion of the stone being blue and other
+portions white or yellow; and the skilful lapidary, in cutting the
+stone, will take advantage of the blue portion. The character of the
+pigment is in many cases not definitely known. It by no means follows
+that the material capable of imparting a certain tint to glass is
+identical with that which naturally colours a stone of the same tint;
+thus a glass of sapphire-blue may be obtained by the use of cobalt, yet
+cobalt has not been detected in the sapphire. Probably the most common
+mineral pigments are compounds of iron, manganese, copper and chromium.
+If the colour of the stone be discharged by heat, an organic pigment is
+presumably present. Some ornamental stones change their colour, or even
+lose it, on exposure to sunlight and air: such is the case with
+rose-quartz, chrysoprase and certain kinds of topaz and turquoise.
+Exposure to heat alters the colour of some stones so readily that the
+change is taken advantage of commercially; thus, sherry-yellow topaz may
+be rendered pink, smoky and amethystine quartz may become yellow, and
+coloured zircons may be decolorized, so as to resemble diamonds.
+
+The colours of some gem-stones are greatly affected by radioactivity,
+and Prof. F. Bordas has found this to be particularly the case with
+sapphire. From his experiments he believes that yellow corundum, or
+oriental topaz, may have been formed from blue corundum under the
+influence of radioactive substances present in the soil in which the
+sapphire was embedded. Different shades of colour may be presented by
+different stones of the same species; and it was formerly the custom of
+lapidaries to regard the darker stones as masculine and the paler as
+feminine, a full blue sapphire, for instance, being called a "male
+sapphire" and a delicate blue stone a "female sapphire." It is notable
+that some stones appear to change colour by candle-light and by most
+other artificial means of illumination; some amethysts thus become inky,
+and certain sapphires acquire a murky tint, whilst others become
+amethystine. For an example of a remarkable change of this character,
+see ALEXANDRITE.
+
+
+  Refraction.
+
+As the optical properties of minerals are fully explained under
+CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, little need be said here on this subject. The
+brilliancy of a cut stone depends on the amount of light reflected from
+its faces; and in the form known as the "brilliant" the gem is so cut
+that much of the incident light, after entering the stone and suffering
+refraction, is totally reflected from the facets at the back. The amount
+of light which is thus returned to the eye of the observer will be
+greater as the angle of total reflection, or critical angle, is smaller,
+but this angle will be small if the refractive power of the stone is
+great, so that the brilliancy directly depends on the refractivity. The
+diamond has the highest refractive index of any gem-stone (2.42).
+Jargoon, or zircon, has also a high index (mean 1.95), and sphene, which
+is occasionally cut as a gem, is likewise very notable in this respect.
+The index of refraction generally bears a relation to the specific
+gravity of the stone, the heaviest gems having the highest indices,
+though a few minerals offer exceptions. The refractive index, which is
+thus a very important character in the scientific discrimination of
+gem-stones, may be conveniently determined, within certain limits, by
+means of the refractometer devised by Dr G.F. Herbert Smith. This
+instrument is an improved form of the total reflectometer, in which the
+refractive power of a given substance is determined by the method of
+total reflection. It may be used for indices ranging from 1.300 to
+1.775, and may be applied to faceted stones without removal from their
+settings.
+
+
+  Dispersion.
+
+The play of prismatic colours exhibited by a cut stone, often known as
+its "fire," is due to the decomposition of the white light which enters
+the stone, and is returned, by internal reflection, after resolution in
+to its coloured components. This decomposition depends on the dispersive
+power of the substance. The exceptional beauty of the fiery flashes in
+the diamond is due to its high dispersion, in other words, to the
+difference between the refractive indices for the red rays and the
+violet rays at the extremities of the spectrum. The peculiar lustre
+exhibited by the diamond is called adamantine, and is shared to some
+extent by certain other stones which have a high refractive index and
+high dispersion, such as zircon.
+
+
+  Spectroscopic characters.
+
+The use of the spectroscope may be valuable in discriminating between
+certain precious stones. It was shown by Sir A.H. Church that almandine
+garnet and zircon when simply viewed through this instrument give, under
+proper conditions, characteristic absorption spectra, due to the light
+reflected from the stone having penetrated to some extent into the
+substance of the mineral and suffered absorption. It is sometimes
+useful to examine the behaviour of a stone under the action of the
+Rontgen rays.
+
+
+  Dichroism.
+
+A very useful means of discriminating between certain stones is found in
+their dichroism, or, to use a more general term, pleochroism. Neither
+amorphous minerals, like opal, nor minerals crystallizing in the cubic
+system, like spinel and garnet, possess this property; but coloured
+minerals which are doubly refracting may show different colours, when
+properly examined, in different directions. Occasionally this is so
+marked as to be detected by the naked eye, as in iolite or dichroite,
+but usually the stone needs to be examined with such an instrument as
+Haidinger's dichroscope (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY). It must be remembered
+that in the direction of an optic axis the two images will be of the
+same colour in all positions of the instrument, and it is therefore
+necessary before reaching a definite conclusion to turn the stone about
+and examine it in various directions. The use of the dichroscope is so
+simple that it can be applied by any one to the examination of a cut
+stone, but there are other means of determining the nature of a stone by
+its optical properties available to the mineralogist and more suitably
+discussed under CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
+
+
+  Chemical composition.
+
+In chemical composition the gem-stones present great variety. Diamond is
+composed of only a single element; ruby, sapphire and the quartz-group
+are oxides; spinel and chrysoberyl may be regarded as aluminates;
+turquoise and beryllonite are phosphates; and a great number of
+ornamental stones are silicates of greater or less complexity, such as
+emerald, topaz, chrysolite, garnet, zircon, tourmaline, kunzite, sphene
+and benitoite. In the examination of a cut stone chemical tests are not
+available, since they usually involve the partial destruction of the
+mineral. The artificial production of certain gems by chemical processes
+which yield products identical in composition and physical properties
+with the natural stones, is described in the article GEM, ARTIFICIAL.
+
+Doublets and triplets are composite stone, sometimes prepared for
+fraudulent purposes. In a doublet a slab of real gem-stone covers the
+face of a paste, whilst in a triplet the paste is both faced and backed
+by a slice of genuine stone. By the action of a suitable solvent, such
+as chloroform or in some cases even hot water, the cement uniting the
+pieces gives way and the compound character of the structure is
+detected.
+
+Before the chemical composition of gem-stones was understood, their
+classification remained vague and unscientific. As the ancients depended
+almost entirely on the eye, the colour of the stone naturally became the
+chief factor in classification. A variety of stones agreeing roughly in
+colour would be grouped together under a common name, widely as they
+might differ in other respects. Thus the emerald, the peridot, green
+fluorspar, malachite, and certain kinds of quartz and jade seem to have
+been united under the general name of [Greek: smaragdos] whilst the
+ruby, red spinel and garnet were probably grouped together as
+_carbunculus_. In this way minerals radically different were associated
+on the ground of what is generally a superficial and accidental
+character, and rarely of any classificatory value. On the other hand, a
+grouping based only on colour led to several names being in some cases
+applied to the same mineral species. Thus the ruby and sapphire are
+essentially identical in chemical composition and in all physical
+characters, save colour.
+
+
+  Superstitions.
+
+Descriptions of precious stones by ancient writers generally are too
+vague for exact diagnosis. The principal classical authorities are
+Theophrastus and the elder Pliny. Stones were formerly held in esteem
+not only for their beauty and rarity but for the medicinal and magical
+powers with which they were reputed to be endowed. Up to comparatively
+recent years the toadstone, for example, was worn not for beauty but for
+sake of occult virtue; and even at the present day certain stones, like
+jade, are valued for a similar reason. Prof. W. Ridgeway has suggested
+that jewelry took its origin not, as often supposed, in an innate love
+of personal decoration, but rather in the belief that the objects used
+possessed magical virtue. Small stones peculiar in colour or shape,
+especially those with natural perforations, are usually valued by
+uncivilized peoples as amulets. The Orphic poem [Greek: Lithika],
+reputed to be of very early though unknown date, is rich in allusions to
+the virtues of many of the gem-stones. Many of the medical and other
+virtues of precious stones were evidently attributed to them on the
+well-known doctrine of signatures. Thus, the blood-red colour of a fine
+jasper suggested that the stone would be useful in haemorrhage; a green
+jasper would bring fertility to the soil; and the purple wine-colour of
+amethyst pointed to its value as a preventive of intoxication. Many of
+the superstitions came down to modern times, and even at the present day
+the belief in "lucky stones" is by no means extinct.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most comprehensive work on gem-stones is Professor
+  Max Bauer's _Edelsteinkunde_ (1896), translated, with additions, by
+  L.J. Spencer under the title _Precious Stones_ (1904). Less detailed
+  are Professor P. Groth's _Grundriss der Edelsteinkunde_ (1887) and
+  Professor C. Doelter's _Edelsteinkunde_ (1893). Sir A. H. Church's
+  _Precious Stones_ (1905), intended as a guide to the collections in
+  the Victoria and Albert Museum, is a convenient introduction: and
+  Professor H.A. Miers's Cantor Lectures at the Society of Arts on
+  _Precious Stones_ (1896) may be studied with advantage. For American
+  stones, the valuable work of Dr G.F. Kunz, _The Gems and Precious
+  Stones of N. America_, is a standard authority; and the Annual Reports
+  of this writer and others, published by the Geological Survey of the
+  United States in the _Mineral Resources_, form a repertory of valuable
+  information on precious stones in general. The articles in _The
+  Mineral Industry_ (founded by R.P. Rothwell) should also be consulted.
+  See likewise O.C. Farrington, _Gems and Gem Minerals_ (Chicago, 1903).
+  For optical characters reference should be made to G.F.H. Smith, _The
+  Herbert Smith Refractometer_ (London, 1907); L. Claremont, _The
+  Gem-Cutter's Craft_ (London, 1906); W. Goodchild, _Precious Stones_
+  (London, 1908).     (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+2. GEMS IN ART
+
+In art, the word Gem is the general term for precious stones when
+engraved with designs, whether adapted for sealing ([Greek: sphragis],
+_sigillum_, _intaglio_), or mainly for artistic effect (_imagines
+ectypae_, _cameo_). They exist in a very large number of undoubtedly
+genuine old examples, extending from the mists of Babylonian antiquity
+to the decline of Roman civilization, and again starting with a new, but
+less original impulse on the revival of art. Apart from workmanship they
+possess the charms of colour deep, rich, and varied, of material
+unequalled for its endurance, and of scarcity, which in many instances
+has been enhanced by the remoteness of the lands whence they came or the
+fortuity of their occurrence. These qualities united within the small
+compass of a gem were precisely such as were required in a seal as a
+thing of constant use, so inalienable in its possession as to become
+naturally a personal ornament and an attractive medium of artistic
+skill, no less than the centre of traditions or of religious and
+legendary associations. As regards the nations of classical antiquity,
+all seals are classed as gems, though in many cases the material is not
+such as would strictly come under that heading, and precious stones in
+the modern sense are hardly known to occur. On the other hand it must
+not be supposed that gems engraved in intaglio were necessarily employed
+as seals. At all periods many intaglios are found which could not have
+been so employed without great difficulty. In Greece and Rome, within
+historic times, gems were worn engraved with designs to show that the
+bearer was an adherent of a particular worship, the follower of a
+certain philosopher, or the attached subject of an emperor. However,
+speaking generally, the intaglio engraving is a means to an end, namely,
+a seal-impression, while an engraving in relief is complete in itself.
+
+_Methods of Engraving_ (see also under LAPIDARY).--In gem-engraving the
+principal modern implement is a wheel or minute copper disk, driven in
+the manner of a lathe, and moistened with olive oil mixed with emery or
+diamond dust. There is no clear proof of the use among the ancients of a
+wheel mounted lathewise, but we have abundant indications of drilling
+with a revolving tool, which might be either a tubular drill making a
+ring-like depression, a pointed tool making a cup-like sinking, or a
+small wheel with a cutting edge, making a boat-shaped depression.
+
+We have one sepulchral monument from Philadelphia showing the tool of an
+intaglio engraver ([Greek: daktylokoilogyphos]; see _Athenische
+Mitteilungen des Arch. Inst._ xv. p. 333). Unfortunately the relief is
+incomplete, and the published illustration inadequate. It would seem,
+however, that a revolving tool was supported by a kind of mandrel, and
+actuated in primitive fashion by a bow. An alternative plan of working
+was to use a splinter of diamond set in a handle and applied like a
+graver. Both systems are clearly indicated by Pliny, who in one passage
+(_H.N._ xxxvii. 60) states that diamond splinters are sought out by gem
+engravers and set in iron, and so easily hollow out stones of any degree
+of hardness; while elsewhere (_H.N._ xxxvii. 200) he speaks of the
+special efficacy of the _fervor terebrarum_, the vehement action of
+drills. A third method is also indicated by Pliny (_ibid._) when he
+speaks of the use of a blunted tool, which must have been moistened and
+supplied with emery of Naxos.
+
+A four-sided pendant of the Hellenistic period published by Furtwangler
+(_Antike Gemmen, Gesch._ p. 400) shows clearly the successive stages of
+the operation. On side a the subject is slightly sketched in with the
+diamond point. On side b the deepest parts of the figure have also been
+roughly scooped out with the wheel. On sides c and d the wheel work is
+fairly complete, but the finer internal work has not been begun.
+
+After the design had been completed the stone must have received a final
+polish on its surface, to obliterate any erroneous strokes of the first
+sketch; but this process was not carried as far as in modern work. It is
+a popular error to suppose that a high degree of internal polish is a
+proof of antiquity. If the interior of the design has a high degree of
+polish it may be either ancient or modern, or it may be an ancient stone
+repolished in modern times. If it has a matt surface uniformly produced
+by intention, it is probably modern. If the design is slightly dimmed
+and worn or scratched the stone may be antique, but is not necessarily
+so, since modern engravers have observed this peculiarity, and have
+imitated it with a success which, were there no other grounds of
+suspicion, might escape detection.
+
+_History._--It has been a subject of controversy whether the first
+infancy of the art was passed in Egypt or in Babylonia, but it seems
+highly probable that it was developed in Babylonia, whence at any rate
+the oldest examples of engraved gems at present known are obtained. It
+does not necessarily follow, however, that Egypt was therefore a pupil.
+It may well be that the art was developed independently in the two
+countries, although certain points of possible contact in respect of the
+forms employed will be described below in the section dealing with
+primitive Egypt.
+
+_Babylonia._--At a very remote period the cylindrical form of stone was
+introduced and became the approved shape, while the technical skill of
+the artist was still slight, and the traces of the tools employed (drill
+and pencil point) were still unconcealed.
+
+The cylinder was suspended by a string and used as a seal. Impressions
+of cylinders are frequent on contract tablets. If one of the parties
+cannot use a seal he makes a nail-mark in lieu thereof, as is recorded
+in the document.
+
+But from a time that was still comparatively early the engravers could
+work with considerable skill in the hard stone. In particular a cylinder
+may be quoted in the de Clercq Collection bearing the name of Sargon I.
+of Agade, who is placed about 3500 B.C. The cylinder is engraved with
+the king's name and titles and two symmetrically disposed renderings of
+Izdubar, with a vase of flowing water giving drink to a bull. The whole
+is treated in a conventionalized style that indicates long traditions.
+An important early cylinder in the British Museum is inscribed with the
+name of a viceroy of Ur-Gur, king of Ur (about 2500 B.C.). The engraving
+shows Ur-Gur being led into the presence of Sin, the moon-god.
+
+The cylinder seal was adopted by the Assyrians, and so was carried on
+continuously till the time of the Persian conquest of Babylon (538
+B.C.). Meanwhile, as an alternative form the conoidal seal, rounded at
+the top and having a flat base for the intaglio, came into use beside
+the cylinder.
+
+In style the Assyrians carried on the Babylonian tradition, but with no
+freedom of design. Subjects and treatment became rigidly conventional.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+  1-5.--ORIENTAL.
+
+    1. Babylonian (late Sumerian) Cylinder of a Viceroy of Ur-Gur (or
+      Ur-Engur), 2500 B.C.
+    2. Assyrian Cylinder. Woman adoring Goddess.
+    3. Assyrian Cylinder. Assur worshipped by two Assyrian kings, and
+      divine Attendants.
+    4. Persian Seal of Darius (500 B.C.). Lion Hunt.
+    5. Graeco-Persian Scarabaeoid. Boar Hunt.
+
+  6-15.--CRETAN AND MYCENAEAN INTAGLIOS.
+
+    6. Cretan Symbols.
+    7. Man and Bull. Crete.
+    8. Lions and Column. Ialysus.
+    9. Daemon. Crete.
+    10. Lioness and Deer.
+    11-13. Three-sided Stone. Peloponnesus.
+    14. Man and Bull. Crete.
+    15. Bull and Palm. Ialysus.
+
+  16-18.--GEMS OF THE ISLANDS.
+
+    16. Goddess on Waves. Birds.
+    17. Lion and Goat.
+    18. Heracles and Nereus.
+
+  19.--PHOENICIAN SEAL, inscribed.
+
+  20-26.--GRAECO-PHOENICIAN SCARABS FROM THARROS.
+
+    20. King, enthroned.
+    21. Bes with Antelope and Hound.
+    22. Bes with Lions.
+    23. Warrior.
+    24. Egyptian Device.
+    25. Bes and Goats.
+    26. Hawk of Horus.
+
+  All the above are in the British Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  27-34.--EARLY GREEK SCARABS AND SCARABAEOIDS.
+
+    27. Pluto and Persephone. (New York.)
+    28. Boreas and Oreithyia. (New York.)
+    29. Youth and Dog.
+    30. Archer feeling Arrow Tip. (Lord Southesk.)
+    31. Satyr and Wine Cup.
+    32. Archer and Dog.
+    33. Satyr with Wineskin.
+    34. Athena with Gorgon Spoils.
+
+  35-44.--FINEST GREEK SCARABS AND SCARABAEOIDS.
+
+    35. Head of Young Warrior.
+    36. Lyre Player. (Cockerell Coll.)
+    37. Crane, with Deer's Antler.
+    38. Head of Eos.
+    39. Lyre Player. (Woodhouse Coll. and B.M.)
+    40. Lyre Player, signed by Syries.
+    41. Stork and Grasshopper, signed by Dexamenos. (St. Petersburg.)
+    42. Flying Crane, signed by Dexamenos. (St. Petersburg.)
+    43. Flying Goose.
+    44. Lion and Stag.
+
+  45-54.--ETRUSCAN SCARABS.
+
+    45. Achilles in Retirement.
+    46. Victory.
+    47. Capaneus struck by the Bolt.
+    48. Heracles.
+    49. Capaneus struck by the Bolt.
+    50. Achilles.
+    51. Heracles and Cycnus.
+    52. Heracles.
+    53. Heracles and the Lion.
+    54. Machaon bandaging Philoctetes.
+
+  55-57.--GREEK GEMS.
+
+    55. Girl with Scroll and Lyre.
+    56. Girl with Water-Jar.
+    57. Head of Aristippus--Deities.
+
+  58-61.--SIGNED GEMS.
+
+    58. Asclepius of Aulos.
+    59. Citharist of Allion.
+    60. Medusa of Solon.
+    61. Heracles of Gnaios.
+
+  62-70.--ROMAN GEMS.
+
+    62. Portrait.
+    63. Head of Trajan Decius.
+    64. Ares and Aphrodite.
+    65. Jupiter of Heliopolis.
+    66. Artemis of Ephesus.
+    67. So-called Psyche.
+    68. So-called Psyche.
+    69. Minerva with Mask, Stamp for the Eye Balsam of Herophilus.
+    70. Helios.
+
+  71-72.--CHRISTIAN GEMS.
+
+    71. Crucifixion.
+    72. Good Shepherd. Jonah.
+
+  73-76.--EIGHTEENTH CENTURY GEMS.
+
+    73. Achilles of Pamphilus, copied from the antique.
+    74. Eros and Psyche, by Pichler.
+    75. Head of Athena.
+    76. Athena, from Townley Bust by Marchant.]
+
+After the Persian conquest the victors adopted the cylinder form of the
+conquered, and continued to use it. A Persian cylinder seal of Darius
+(probably about 500 B.C.) in the British Museum shows the king in his
+chariot, transfixing a lion with his arrows, in a palm wood. Above is
+the winged emblem of the Persian deity Ahuramazda. The inscription gives
+the name and titles of Darius in the Persian, Scythic and Babylonian
+languages. The style is accurate and minute. The idea of the lion hunt
+is borrowed from the Assyrian monuments, but the engraver has been
+careful to make the necessary changes of costume and treatment. The
+cylinder was, as might be anticipated, imitated to a certain extent by
+peoples of the Eastern world in touch with Babylonia. It occurs in
+Armenia, Media and Elam. It has been found in Crete (_British School
+Annual_, viii. p. 77) and is frequent in the early Cypriote deposits. In
+some instances it has been found unfinished and therefore must be
+supposed to be of local manufacture. Sometimes a direct imitation of
+cuneiform characters occurs on the Cypriote cylinders. The same form was
+also employed by the Phoenicians (about the 8th century-7th century
+B.C.). By the Greeks and Etruscans it was used, but only rarely, and by
+way of exception.
+
+_Egypt._--We must go back to the remotest periods for the origin of
+intaglio engraving in Egypt. Recent discoveries of tombs of the earliest
+dynasties at Abydos and Nagada have thrown much light on the early
+stages of Egyptian art, and have revealed the remarkable fact that in
+Egypt (as in Babylonia) the cylinder was the earliest form used for the
+purpose of a seal. The cylinders that have been found are comparatively
+few in number; but a large number of jar-stoppings of clay are preserved
+on which cylinder designs have been rolled off while the clay was still
+soft. Such early incised cylinders as are extant are made either of hard
+wood or (as in an instance in the British Museum) of stone. The identity
+of form has been thought to indicate a connexion with Babylonia, but
+none can be traced in the designs of the respective cylinders.
+
+The Egyptians of the earliest dynasties had an admirable command of hard
+stones, as shown by their beads and stone vases, but with the exception
+of the cylinders quoted they are not known to have applied their skill
+to the production of intaglios. At this early period the scarab (or
+beetle) was still unknown as a gem-form. It was only about the time of
+the 4th dynasty that the scarab (q.v.) was first introduced, and
+gradually took the place of the cylinder as the prevailing shape.
+
+The _Scarabaeus sacer_ (Egyptian, _Kheperer_), rolling its eggs in a
+ball of mud, became the accepted emblem of the sun-god, and so the form
+had an amuletic value. Scarabs of obsidian and crystal date back to the
+4th dynasty. Others, coarse and uninscribed, belong to the beginning of
+the first Theban empire. After the 18th dynasty they are counted by
+thousands. While the beetle form was naturalistically treated, the flat
+surface underneath was well adapted to receive a hieroglyphic sign. The
+scarabs, however, are by no means the only product of the art. We have
+also figures of all kinds in the round and in intaglio--statuettes,
+figures of animals and of deities, and sacred emblems such as the ankh
+(or _crux ansata_) and the eye. Among interesting variations from the
+scarab form is the oblong intaglio of green jasper in the Louvre
+(_Gazette arch._, 1878, p. 41) with a design on both sides. It
+represents on the obverse Tethmosis (Thothmes) II. (1800 B.C.) slaying a
+lion, and identified by his cartouche. On the reverse we have the same
+king drawing his bow against his enemies from a war chariot. The scarabs
+of Egypt though uninteresting in themselves, considered as examples of
+engraving, have this accidental importance in the history of art, that
+they furnished the Phoenicians with a model which they were able to
+improve as regards the intaglio by a more free spirit of design,
+gathered partly from Egypt and partly from Assyria. The scarab thus
+improved exercised a lasting influence on the later history, since, as
+will be seen below, it was adopted and modified both by Greeks and
+Etruscans.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Jewish High Priest's Breastplate.]
+
+_Engraved Gems in the Bible._--While the Phoenicians have left actual
+specimens to show with what skill they could adopt the systems of
+gem-engraving prevailing at their time in Egypt and Assyria, the
+Israelites, on the other hand, have left records to prove, if not their
+skill, at least the estimation in which they held engraved gems. "The
+sin of Judah is written with a pen of iron and with the point of a
+diamond" (Jerem. xvii. 1). To pledge his word Judah gave Tamar his
+signet, with its cord for suspension, and staff (Gen. xxxviii. 18);
+whence if this passage be compared with the frequent use of "seal" in a
+metaphorical sense in the Bible, and with the usage of the Babylonians
+of carrying a seal with an emblem engraved on it recorded by Herodotus,
+it may be concluded that among the Israelites also every man of mark at
+least wore a signet. Their acquaintance with the use of seals in Egypt
+and Assyria is seen in the statement that Pharaoh gave Joseph his signet
+ring as a badge of investiture (Gen. xli. 42), and that the stone which
+closed the den of lions was sealed by Darius with his own signet and
+with the signet of his lords (Daniel vi. 17). Then as to the stones
+which were most prized, Ezekiel (xxviii. 13), speaking of the prince of
+Tyre, mentions "the sardius, the topaz and the diamond, the beryl, the
+onyx, and the jasper, the sapphire, the emerald and the carbuncle,"
+stones which again occur in that most memorable of records, the
+description of the breastplate of the high priest (Exodus xxviii. 16-21,
+and xxxix. 8-14). Twelve stones grouped in four rows, each with three
+specimens, may be arranged on a square, so as to have the rows placed
+either vertically or horizontally. If they are to cover the whole
+square, then, unless the gold mounts supplied the necessary
+compensation, they must be cut in an oblong form, and if the names
+engraved on them are to run lengthwise, as is the manner of Assyrian
+cylinders, then the stones, to be legible, must be grouped in four
+horizontal rows of three each. There is in fact no reason to suppose
+that the gems of the breastplate were in any other form than that of
+cylinders such as abounded to the knowledge of the Israelites, with this
+possibility, however, that they may have been cut lengthways into
+half-cylinders like a fragmentary one of sard in the British Museum,
+which has been mounted in bronze, and, as a remarkable exception, has
+been set with three small precious stones now missing. It could not have
+been a seal, because of this setting, and because the inscription is not
+reversed. The names of the twelve tribes, not their standards, as has
+been thought, may have been engraved in this fashion, just as on the two
+onyx stones in the preceding verses (Exodus xxviii. 9-11), where there
+can be no question but that actual names were incised. On these two
+stones the order of the names was according to primogeniture, and this,
+it is likely, would apply to the breastplate also. The accompanying
+diagram will show how the stones, supposing them to have been cylinders
+or half-cylinders, may have been arranged consistently with the
+descriptions of the Septuagint. In the arrangement of Josephus (iii. 7.
+5) the jasper is made to change places with the sapphire, the amethyst
+with the agate, and the onyx with the beryl, while our version differs
+partly in the order and partly in the names of the stones; but probably
+in all these accounts the names had in some cases other meanings than
+those which they now carry. It must be remembered that we have two
+series of equivalents, namely, the Hebrew compared with the Septuagint,
+and the Greek words of the Septuagint compared with the modern names,
+which in many cases, though derived from the Greek, have changed their
+applications. From the fact that to each tribe was assigned a stone of
+different colour, it may be taken that in each case the colour was one
+which belonged prescriptively to the tribe and was symbolic, as in
+Assyria, where the seven planets appropriated each a special colour [see
+Brandis in _Hermes_, 1867, p. 259 seq., and de Saulcy, _Revue
+archeologique_, 1869, ii. p. 91; and compare Revelation xxi. 12, 13,
+where the twelve gates, which have the names of the twelve tribes
+written upon them, are grouped in four threes, and 19, 20, where the
+twelve precious stones of the walls are given]. The precious stones
+which occur among the cylinders of the British Museum are sard, emerald,
+lapis lazuli (sapphire of the ancients), agate, onyx, jasper and rock
+crystal.
+
+_Gem-Engraving in Greek Lands._--We must now turn to the history of
+gem-engraving in Greek lands. The excavations in Crete in the first
+years of the 20th century revealed a previously unknown culture, which
+lasted on the lowest computation for more than two thousand years, and
+was only interrupted by the national upheavals which preceded the
+opening of Greek history proper. (See CRETE; ARCHAEOLOGY; and AEGEAN
+CIVILIZATION.) Throughout the whole period the products of the
+gem-engraver occupy an important place among the surviving remains. It
+must suffice, however, in this place to indicate the chief groups of
+stones.
+
+The earliest engraved stones of Minoan Crete are three-sided prism
+seals, made of a soft steatite, native in S.E. Crete (_Journ. of
+Hellenic Studies_, xvii. p. 328). These are incised with pictorial signs
+evidently belonging to a rudimentary hieroglyphic system, and are dated
+before 3000 B.C. At a period placed by A.J. Evans between 2800 and 2200
+the method was fully systematized and employed on the signets, as well
+as on tablets and other materials. This development of the hieroglyphic
+system was accompanied by an increasing power of working in hard
+material, and cornelian and chalcedony superseded soft steatite (_Journ.
+of Hell. Studies_, xvii. p. 334).
+
+Towards 2000 B.C. a highly developed linear form began to supersede the
+pictorial signs. It is abundant on the tablets, but the gems thus
+inscribed are comparatively rare. The linear form in turn died out some
+six hundred years later.
+
+The signs of the pictorial script incised on the gems are
+representations of objects, expressed with precision, but giving little
+scope for the higher side of the gem-engraver's art. Simultaneously,
+however, with the use of the script, a high degree of skill was acquired
+by the engravers in rendering animal and human forms. Scenes occur of
+ritual observance, hunting, animal life, and strange compounded forms of
+demons. The excavations did not yield a large number of original gems of
+this class, but a great number of clay sealings from such signets were
+discovered. That they were synchronous with the use of the forms of
+script described above is proved by the fact that in the palace at
+Cnossus deposits were found, both in the linear and the hieroglyphic
+script, sealed with these signets, the seal impressions being again
+endorsed in the script (_Brit. School Annual_, xi. pp. 56, 62). For a
+remarkable group of sealings found at Zakro see _Journ. of Hell.
+Studies_, xxii. pll. 6-10. The finest naturalistic engravings are placed
+towards the close of the "Mid-Minoan" and beginning of the "Late-Minoan"
+periods (about 2200-1800 B.C.). During the progress of the "Late-Minoan"
+period the subjects tended to assume a more formal and heraldic
+character. The forms of stones in favour were the disk convex on each
+side (lenticular or lentoid stones), and during the "Mid-Minoan" period,
+elaborate signets in the form of modern fob-seals. Apart from the use of
+intaglios for sealing, the excavations have shown that the Cretan
+lapidaries were largely employed in the working of gems for purposes of
+decoration. Fragments of lapis lazuli and crystal for inlaying (the
+crystals having coloured designs on their lower surfaces) were found in
+the throne room at Cnossus; the royal gaming-board, also from the palace
+at Cnossus, had inlaid crystal disks and plaques. The workshop of a
+lapidary, with unfinished works in marble, steatite, jasper and beryl,
+was also found within the precincts of the palace (_Brit. School
+Annual_, vii. pp. 20, 77). Examples were also found of work in relief,
+substantially anticipating the art of cameo-cutting.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Lenticular Rock-Crystal from Ialysus. (Brit.
+Mus.)]
+
+The area over which the Cretan influence extended was wide. Its
+manifestations in Greek lands proper, first revealed by Schliemann's
+excavation of the royal tombs of Mycenae, ran parallel with and
+outlasted the later periods of the Cretan culture to which it stood in
+close relation (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION). Its gems and intaglio works in
+gold are known to us from the finds at Mycenae, and at analogous sites,
+such as Menidi, Vaphio and Ialysus. They have much in common with the
+finer class of Cretan stones already described. The engraved gems fall
+principally into two groups in respect of form, namely, the lenticular
+(or lentoid) stones already mentioned, and (more rarely) glandular
+stones, so called from their resemblance to a _glans_ or sling bolt. A
+Cretan fresco shows a figure wearing an agate lenticular stone suspended
+from the left wrist. The finer specimens of the Aegean gems are engraved
+with the wheel and the point in hard stones, such as chalcedony,
+amethyst, sard, rock-crystal and haematite. A lapidary's workshop
+similar to that at Cnossus has been found at Mycenae, with a store of
+unused gems, and an unfinished lenticular stone (_Ephemeris
+Archaiologike_, 1897, p. 121). The characteristic of the Aegean engraver
+is the free expression of living forms. His subjects are figures of
+animals, men and demons in combat, and heraldic compositions recalling
+the Gate of Lions at Mycenae. It was almost inevitable that the scarab
+should be found in the Cretan and Aegean deposits, but in such cases we
+have the Egyptian scarab directly imported, and not, as at a later
+period, non-Egyptian adaptations of the form. The cylinder also (except
+in Cyprus, the borderland between east and west) only occurs as an
+importation, and not as a currently manufactured shape.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Lenticular Sard from Ialysus. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+_The "Island Gems."_--The Aegean culture was swept away probably by that
+dimly seen upheaval which separated Mycenaean from historical Greece,
+and which is commonly known as the Dorian invasion. One of the few facts
+which indicate a certain continuity of tradition in later Greece is
+this, that we again find the same characteristic forms, the glandular
+and lenticular stones, in the cemeteries, of Melos and elsewhere. It is
+only recently that archaeologists have learnt to distinguish between the
+later lenticular and glandular stones "of the Greek Islands," as they
+are commonly called, and those of the Aegean age. Engravings of the
+later class are worked in soft materials only, such as steatite. They
+have not the power of expressing action peculiar to the Aegean artist.
+In general, the continuity of tradition between the gems of the
+Mycenaean and the historical periods is in respect of shape rather than
+of art. The subjects are for the most part decorative forms (the
+Gryphon, the winged Sphinx, the winged horse, &c.) in course of
+development into characters of Greek myth.
+
+_The Phoenicians and the Greeks._--About the end of the 8th and
+beginning of the 7th century B.C. the Phoenicians began to exercise a
+powerful influence as intermediaries between Egypt and Assyria and the
+Mediterranean. Porcelain and other imitations of Egyptian ornaments,
+and especially of Egyptian scarabs, are found in great numbers on such
+sites as Amathus in Cyprus, Camirus in Rhodes, in Etruria, and at
+Tharros in Sardinia. The Egyptian hieroglyphics are imitated with
+mistakes, the figures introduced are stiff and formal, the animals as a
+rule heraldic. The scarab form, which in Egypt had had its sacred
+significance, was now become nothing more than a convenient shape for an
+object of jewelry or for the reverse side of a stone. It was adopted
+from the Phoenicians both by Greeks and Etruscans. By the Greeks, with
+whom we are at present concerned, its use was occasional, and about 500
+B.C. it was superseded by the scarabaeoid. Under this name two forms,
+somewhat similar but independent in origin, are usually grouped without
+sufficient discrimination. The scarabaeoid proper is a simplification of
+the scarab, effected by the omission of all details of the beetle. But
+many of the stones known as scarabaeoids, with a flat and oval base and
+a convex back, are in respect of their form probably of North Syrian
+origin (so Furtwangler). The earliest examples of archaic Greek
+gem-engraving (other than the later "Island gems" already described) are
+works of Ionian art. They show a desire, only limited by imperfect power
+of expression, to represent the human figure, though the particular
+theme may be a god or other mythical personages. By the beginning of the
+5th century the engravers had reached the point of full development, and
+the scarabaeoids of the time embody its results. As an example of fine
+scarabaeoids the Woodhouse intaglio of a seated citharist (fig. 5; _Cat.
+of Gems in Brit. Mus._ No. 555) may be quoted as perhaps the very finest
+example of Greek gem-engraving that has come down to us. It would stand
+early in the 5th century B.C., a date which would also suit the head of
+Eos from Ithome in Messenia (fig. 6). The number, however, of fine
+scarabaeoids known to us has been considerably increased in recent
+years. They are marked by a broad and simple treatment, which attains a
+large effect without excessive minuteness or laboured detail. In these
+respects the style has something in common with the reliefs of the 5th
+century.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Victory. Early Greek Scarab. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Citharist. Early Greek Scarabaeoid. (Brit.
+Mus.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Head of Eos. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+_Literary History._--The literary references to the early gem-engravers
+are no longer of the same importance as before in view of the fuller
+knowledge we possess as to the quality of early gem-engraving, but it is
+necessary that they should be taken into account.
+
+The records of gem-engravers in Greece begin in the island of Samos,
+where Mnesarchus, the father of the philosopher Pythagoras, earned by
+his art more of praise than of wealth. "Not to carry the image of a god
+on your seal," was a saying of Pythagoras; and, whatever his reason for
+it may have been, it is interesting to observe him founding a maxim on
+his father's profession of gem-engraving (Diogenes Laert. viii. 1, 17).
+From Samos also came Theodorus, who made for Polycrates the seal of
+emerald (Herodotus iii. 41), which, according to the curious story, was
+cast in vain into the deep sea on purpose to be lost. That the design on
+it was a lyre, as is stated in one authority, is unlikely, at least if
+we accept Benndorf's ingenious interpretation of Pliny (_Nat. Hist._
+xxxiv. 83). He has suggested that the portrait statue of Theodorus made
+by himself was in all probability a figure holding in one hand a graving
+tool, and in the other, not, as previously supposed, a quadriga so
+diminutive that a fly could cover it with its wings, but a scarab with
+the engraving of a quadriga on its face (_Zeitschrift fur die
+osterreich. Gymnasien_, 1873, pp. 401-411), whence it is not
+unreasonable to conclude that this scarab in fact represented the famous
+seal of Polycrates. Shortly after 600 B.C. there was a law of Solon's
+forbidding engravers to retain impressions of the seals they made, and
+this date would fall in roundly with that of Theodorus and Mnesarchus,
+as if there had in fact been at that time a special activity and unusual
+skill. That the use of seals had been general long before, in Cretan and
+Mycenaean times, we have seen above, and it is singular to find, as
+Pliny points out (xxxiii. 4), no direct mention of seals in Homer, not
+even in the passage (_Iliad_, vi. 168) where Bellerophon himself carries
+the tablets on which were written the orders against his life. From the
+time of Theodorus to that of Pyrgoteles in the 4th century B.C. is a
+long blank as to names, but not altogether as to gems, the production of
+which may be judged to have been carried on assiduously from the
+constant necessity of seals for every variety of purpose. The references
+to them in Aristophanes, for example, and the lists of them in the
+ancient inventories of treasures in the Parthenon and the Asclepieion at
+Athens confirm this frequent usage during the period in question. The
+mention of a public seal for authenticating state documents also becomes
+frequent in the inscriptions. In the reign of Alexander the Great we
+meet the name of Pyrgoteles, of whom Pliny records that he was no doubt
+the most famous engraver of his time, and that Alexander decreed that
+Pyrgoteles alone should engrave his portrait. Nothing else is known of
+Pyrgoteles. A portrait of Alexander in the British Museum (No. 2307),
+purporting to be signed by him, is palpably modern.
+
+From literary sources we also learn the names of the engravers
+Apollonides, Chronius and Dioscorides, but the date of the
+last-mentioned only is certain. He is said to have made an excellent
+portrait of Augustus, which was used as a seal by that emperor in the
+latter part of his reign and also by his successors. Inscriptions on
+extant gems make it probable that Dioscorides was a native of Aegeae in
+Cilicia, and that three sons, Hyllos, Herophilus and Eutyches, followed
+their father's occupation. We have also a few scattered notices of
+amateurs and collectors of gems, but it will be seen that for the whole
+period of classical antiquity the literary notices give little aid, and
+we must return to the gems.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7--Scarabaeioid by Syries. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+_Early Inscribed Gems._--Various early gems are inscribed with proper
+names, which may be supposed to indicate either the artist or the owner
+of the gem. In some cases there is no ambiguity, e.g. on a scarab is
+inscribed, "I am the seal of Thersis. Do not open me"; and a scarabaeoid
+(fig. 7) is inscribed, "Syries made me." But when we have the name
+alone, the general principle on which we must distinguish between owner
+and artist is that the name of the owner is naturally meant to be
+conspicuous (as in a gem in the British Museum inscribed in large
+letters with the name of Isagor[as]), while the name of an artist is
+naturally inconspicuous and subordinate to the design.
+
+The early engravers known to us by their signatures are: Syries, who was
+author of the modified scarab in the British Museum, mentioned above,
+with a satyr's head in place of the beetle, and a citharist on the
+base--a work of the middle of the 6th century; Semon, who engraved a
+black jasper scarab now at Berlin, with a nude woman kneeling at a
+fountain filling her pitcher, of the close of the 6th century; Epimenes,
+who was the author of an admirable chalcedony scarabaeoid of a nude
+youth restraining a spirited horse--formerly in the Tyszkiewicz
+Collection, and of about the beginning of the 5th century. But better
+known to us than any of these artists is the 5th-century engraver,
+Dexamenus of Chios, of whose work four examples[1] survive, viz.:--
+
+1. A chalcedony scarabaeoid from Greece, in the Fitzwilliam Museum at
+Cambridge, with a lady at her toilet, attended by her maid. Inscribed
+[Greek: DEXAMENOS], and with the name of the lady, [Greek: MIKES].
+
+2. An agate with a stork standing on one leg, inscribed [Greek:
+DEXAMENOS] simply.
+
+3. A chalcedony with the figure of a stork flying, and inscribed in two
+lines, the letters carefully disposed above each other, [Greek:
+DEXAMENOS EPOIE CHIOS].
+
+4. A gem, apparently by the same Dexamenus, is a cornelian formerly
+belonging to Admiral Soteriades in Athens, and subsequently in the
+collection of Dr Arthur Evans. It has a portrait head, bearded and
+inscribed [Greek: DEXAMENOS EPOIE].
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Greek Sard. 5th Cent. B.C. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+The design of a stork flying occurs on an agate scarab in the British
+Museum, from the old Cracherode Collection, and therefore beyond all
+suspicion of having been copied from the more recently discovered Kertch
+gem.
+
+For the period immediately following that early prime to which the gems
+above described belong, our materials are less copious. Some of the
+finest examples are derived from the Greek tombs in the Crimea and South
+Russia. Reckoned among the best of the Crimean gems, and that is
+equivalent to saying among the best of all gems, are the following: (1)
+a burnt scarabaeoid with an eagle carrying off a hare; (2) a gem with
+scarab border and the figure of a youth seated playing on the trigonon,
+very much resembling the Woodhouse intaglio (both engraved, _Compte
+rendu_, 1871, pl. vi. figs. 16, 17). In these, and in almost all Greek
+gems belonging to this period of excellence, the material is of
+indifferent quality, consisting of agate, chalcedony or cornelian, just
+as in the older specimens. Brilliant colour and translucency are as yet
+not a necessary element, and accordingly the design is worked out solely
+with a view to its own artistic merit. The scarab tends to die out. The
+scarabaeoid in its turn is abandoned for the simple ring stone. The
+subjects chosen take by degrees a different character. Aphrodite (nude),
+Eros, children and women tend to replace the older and severer themes.
+The motives of 4th-century sculpture appear by degrees on the gems.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Amethyst Pendant. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+_Etruscan Gems._--At this point it is convenient to discuss the
+gem-engraving of the Etruscans, which came into being towards the close
+of the archaic period of Greek art. In the early Etruscan deposits, such
+as that of the Polledrara tomb in the British Museum (towards 600 B.C.),
+we find nothing except Phoenician imports of porcelain or stone scarabs,
+both strongly Egyptian in character. During the 6th century a few of the
+semi-Egyptian stones of Sardinia make their appearance. But in the
+latter part of the century these oriental products tend to die out, and
+we have in their place the native works of Etruscan artists. These
+engravings stand in the closest relation to Greek works of the close of
+the 6th century and many imported Greek scarabs also occur.
+
+The Etruscan scarab has its beetle form more minutely engraved than that
+of the Greeks. It is further distinguished in the better examples, alike
+from the Greek and the Egyptian form, by a small border of a sort of
+petal ornament round the lower edge of the beetle. Like the earlier
+Greek scarabs it has the cable border round the design, but the border
+continued in use in Etruria when it had been abandoned in Greece. The
+scarabaeoid form does not occur in Etruscan deposits. Etruscan engraving
+begins when Greek art was approaching maturity, with studies, sometimes
+stiff and cramped, of the heroic nude form. Some of the Greek deities
+such as Athena and Hermes occur, together with the winged personages of
+Greek mythology. To the heroic types the names of Greek legend are
+attached, with modifications of form, such as [Greek: TYTE] for Tydeus,
+and [Greek: KAPNE] for Capaneus. Sometimes the names are appropriate and
+sometimes they are assigned at random. The subjects include certain
+favourite incidents in the Trojan and Theban cycles (e.g. the death of
+Capaneus); myths of Heracles; athletes, horsemen, a few scenes of daily
+life. Certain schemes of composition are frequent. In particular, a
+figure too large for the field, standing and bending over, is made to
+serve for many types. The engraving of the finer Etruscan gems is minute
+and precise, marked with elegance and command of the material. Its fault
+is its want of original inspiration. Special mention must be made of a
+very numerous group of cornelian scarabs, roughly engraved for the most
+part with cup-shaped sinkings (whence they are known as gems _a globolo
+tondo_) roughly joined together by furrows. Notwithstanding their
+apparent rudeness, these gems are shown, by the conditions in which they
+are found, to be comparatively late works of the 4th century.
+Furtwangler ingeniously suggests that the rough execution was intended
+to emphasize the shining surfaces of the cup-sinkings, rather than to
+produce any particular intaglio subject. (For an elaborate
+classification of the Etruscan scarabs see Furtwangler, _Geschichte_, p.
+170.)
+
+_The Cameos._--After the beginning of the regal period, in the 4th
+century B.C., the introduction of more splendid materials from the East
+was turned to good account by the development of the cameo, i.e. of
+gem-carving in relief (for the origin of the word see CAMEO). But in its
+simpler forms the principle of the cameo necessarily dates from the
+beginning of the art. Thus a lion in rock-crystal was found in the very
+early royal tomb of Nagada (de Morgan, _Recherches, Tombeau de Negadah_,
+p. 193). The Egyptian scarab, on its rounded side, had been
+naturalistically carved in relief in beetle form. Steatite engravings in
+relief (notably the harvest festival vase from Hagia Triada) were found
+in the Cretan deposits. Subjects are found carved in the round in hard
+stone in Mycenaean graves. When we come to historical Greece and to
+Etruria the cameo of later times is anticipated by various attempts to
+modify the traditional form of the scarab. An example in cornelian was
+found at Orvieto in 1874 in a tomb along with vases dating from the
+beginning of the 5th century B.C., and it will be seen from the
+engraving of this gem (_Arch. Zeit._, 1877, pl. xi. fig. 3) that, while
+the design on the face is in intaglio, the half-length figure of a
+Gorgon on the back is engraved in relief. Compare a cornelian fragment,
+apparently cut from the back of a scarabaeoid, now in the British
+Museum. As further examples of the same rare form of cameo, the
+following gems in the British Museum may be mentioned:--(1) a cornelian
+cut from back of a scarabaeoid, with head of Gorgon surrounded by wings;
+(2) cornelian scarabaeoid: Gorgon running to left; on face of the gem an
+intaglio of Thetis giving armour to Achilles; (3) steatite scarabaeoid,
+already mentioned, signed by Syries, head of a satyr, full face, with
+intaglio of citharist. There is, however, no evidence at present
+available to show that the cameo proper had been introduced in Greece
+before the time of Alexander. The earliest examples found in known
+conditions are derived from Crimean tombs of the middle of the 3rd
+century B.C.
+
+Among the most splendid of ancient cameos are those at St Petersburg and
+Vienna, each representing a monarch of the Diadochi and his consort
+(Furtwangler, pl. 53). There is much controversy as to the persons
+represented, but the cameos are probably works of the 3rd century.
+
+The materials which ancient artists used for cutting into cameos were
+chiefly those siliceous minerals which, under a variety of names,
+present various strata or bands of two or more distinct colours. The
+minerals, under different names, are essentially the chalcedonic
+variety of quartz, and the differences of colour they present are due to
+the presence of variable proportions of iron and other foreign
+ingredients. These banded stones, when cut parallel to the layers of
+different colours, and when only two coloured bands--white and black, or
+sometimes white and black and brown--are present, are known as onyxes;
+but when they have with the onyx bands layers of cornelian or sard, they
+are termed sardonyxes. The sardonyx, which was the favourite stone of
+ancient cameo-engravers, and the material in which their masterpieces
+were cut, was procured from India, and the increased intercourse with
+the East after the death of Alexander the Great had a marked influence
+on the development of the art.
+
+Akin in their nature to the great regal cameos, which from the nature of
+the case are cut on a nearly plane surface, are the cups and vases cut
+out of a homogeneous stone and therefore capable of being worked in the
+round. A few examples of such works survive. The most famous are the
+Farnese Tazza and the cup of the Ptolemies. The Tazza, which is now in
+the National Museum at Naples, was bought by Lorenzo de' Medici from
+Pope Paul II. in 1471. It is a large shallow bowl of sardonyx, 8 in. in
+diameter. On its exterior surface is a Gorgoneion upon an aegis; in the
+interior is an allegorical design, relating to the Nile flood. The cup
+of the Ptolemies, formerly known as the cup of St Denis, is preserved in
+the Cabinet des Medailles of the French Bibliotheque Nationale. It is a
+cup 4-3/4 in. high and 5-1/8 in. in diameter, carved out of oriental
+sardonyx, and richly decorated with Dionysiac emblems and attributes in
+relief.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Actaeon. Fragment of Sardonyx Cameo. (Brit.
+Mus.)]
+
+_The Cameo in the Roman Empire._--During the 1st century of the empire
+the engraver's art alike in cameo and in intaglio was at a high degree
+of excellence. The artist in cameo took full advantage of his rich
+opportunities in the way of sumptuous materials, and of the requirements
+of an imperial court. The two most famous examples of this art which
+have come down to the present day are the Great Agate of the Sainte
+Chapelle in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, and the Augustus Cameo in
+the Vienna Collection. The former was pledged among other valuables in
+1244 by Baldwin II. of Constantinople to Saint Louis. It is mentioned in
+1344 as "Le Camahieu," having been sent in that year to Rome for the
+inspection of Pope Clement VI. It is a sardonyx of five layers of
+irregular shape, like all classical gems, measuring 12 in. by 10-1/2 in.
+It represents on its upper part the deified members of the Julian house.
+The centre is occupied with the reception of Germanicus on his return
+from his great German campaign by the emperor Tiberius and his mother
+Livia. The lower division is filled with a group of captives in
+attitudes expressive of woe and deep dejection. The Vienna gem (_Gemma
+augustea_), an onyx of two layers measuring 8-5/8 in. by 7-1/2, is a
+work of still greater artistic interest. The upper portion is occupied
+with an allegorical representation of the coronation of Augustus, the
+emperor being represented as Jupiter with Livia as the goddess Roma at
+his side. In the composition deities of Earth and Sea, and several
+members of the family of Augustus, are introduced; on the exergue or
+lower portion are Roman soldiers preparing a trophy, barbarian captives
+and female figures. This gem was in the 15th century at the abbey of St
+Sernin at Toulouse. According to tradition it had been placed there by
+Charlemagne. It came into the possession of the emperor Rudolph II. in
+the 16th century for the enormous sum of 12,000 gold ducats. The
+principal cameo in the collection of the British Museum was acquired at
+the final dispersion of the Marlborough Collection in 1899. It is a
+sardonyx measuring 8-3/4 in. by 6 in., and appears to represent a Roman
+emperor and empress in the forms of Serapis and Isis. Here also, in
+imperial times as in the Hellenistic period, side by side with the great
+cameos, we meet with works carved out in the round. Noted examples of
+such work are the Brunswick vase (at Brunswick), with the subject of
+Triptolemus; the Berlin vase with the lustration of a new-born imperial
+prince; and the Waddesdon vase in the British Museum, with a vine in
+relief set in a rich enamelled Renaissance mount. Hardly less precious
+than the cameos in sardonyx were the imitations carved out of coloured
+glass. The material was not costly, but its extreme fragility made the
+work of extreme difficulty. Examples of such work are the Barberini or
+Portland vase, deposited in the British Museum, with scenes supposed to
+be connected with the story of Peleus and Thetis; and the "vase of blue
+glass" from Pompeii, in the museum at Naples (see Mau and Kelsey, p.
+408). The world's great cameos, which are hardly more than a dozen in
+number, have not been found by excavation. They remained as precious
+objects in imperial and ecclesiastical treasuries and passed thence to
+the royal and national collections of modern Europe.
+
+_The Intaglio in the Roman Empire._--The art of engraving in intaglio
+was also at a high level of excellence in the beginning of the Roman
+empire. This is to be inferred alike from the admirable portraits of the
+1st century A.D., and from the number of signed gems bearing Roman
+artists' names, such as Aulus, Gnaius and the like, which could hardly
+belong to any other period. It is impossible, however, to found any
+argument upon the artists' signatures without taking into account the
+intricate questions of authenticity which are discussed in the following
+section.
+
+_Signed Gems._--The number of gems which have, or purport to have, the
+name of the artist inscribed upon them is very large. A great many of
+the supposed signatures are modern forgeries, dating from the period
+between 1724 (when the book of Stosch, _Gemmae antiquae caelatae,
+scalptorum nominibus insignitae_, first drew general attention to the
+subject) and 1833, when the multitude of forged signatures (about 1800
+in number) in the collection of Prince Poniatowski made the whole
+pursuit ridiculous. It is known, however, that forged signatures were
+current before 1724 (see Stosch, p. xxi.), and in the period immediately
+following they were very numerous. Thus Laurence Natter (_Methode de
+graver en pierres fines_ (1754), p. xxx.) confesses that, whenever
+desired, he made copies. For example, he copied a Venus (Brit. Mus. No.
+2296), converting the figure into a Danae and affixing the name of Aulos
+which he found on the Venus. Cf. Mariette, _Traite_ (1750), i. p. 101.
+
+The question which of the multitude of supposed signatures can be
+accepted as genuine has been a subject of prolonged and intricate
+controversy. In the period immediately following the Poniatowski
+forgeries the extreme height of scepticism is represented by Koehler,
+who only acknowledged five gems (Koehler, iii. p. 206) as having genuine
+signatures. In recent years the subject has been principally dealt with
+by Furtwangler, whose conclusion is to admit a considerable number of
+gems rejected by his predecessors.
+
+It must suffice here to point out a few general principles. In the first
+place a certain number of gems recently discovered have inscriptions
+which are undoubtedly genuine and which record the names of the
+engravers. The form of the signature may be a nominative with a verb, a
+nominative without a verb or a genitive. The artists in this class are
+Syries, Dexamenus, Epimenes and Semon, mentioned above, and a few
+others. Another group of gems which must be accepted consists of stones
+whose known history goes back to a period at which a forged inscription
+was impossible. Thus a bust of Athena in the Berlin Collection, signed
+by Eutyches, was seen by Cyriac of Ancona in 1445. A glass cameo signed
+by Herophilus, son of Dioscorides, now at Vienna, was, in the 17th
+century, in the monastery of Echternach, where it had probably been from
+old times. The portrait of Julia, daughter of Titus, by Euodos (now in
+the Bibliotheque Nationale) was formerly a part of a reliquary presented
+to the abbey of St Denis by Charles the Bold. Another group of
+undoubtedly genuine signatures occurs on cameos (in stone and paste)
+which have the inscriptions in relief, and therefore as part of the
+original design. Such are the works of Athenion, and of Quintus, son of
+Alexas.
+
+For the great majority of signed gems which do not fall into these
+categories the reader must refer to the discussions of Furtwangler and
+others (see _Bibliography_ below). It must suffice to say that
+Furtwangler arrives at the result that we have in all genuine signatures
+of at least fifty ancient gem-engravers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Christian Gem. The Good Shepherd. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Gnostic Gem. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Sassanian Gem. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+_Gem-Engraving in the Later Empire._--In the following centuries the art
+of intaglio engraving, which was still at a high degree of perfection in
+the first century of the Roman empire, became more mechanical. The
+designs have a very characteristic appearance, due to the method of
+production with rough and hasty strokes of the wheel only. A collection
+of gems found in England, such as that in the possession of the
+corporation of Bath, shows the feeble character in particular of the
+gems current in the provinces. Except in portraiture, and in grylli or
+conceits, in which various things are combined into one, often with much
+skill, the subjects were as a rule only variations or adaptations of old
+types handed down from the Greeks. When new and distinctly Roman
+subjects occur, such as the finding of the head on the Capitol, or
+Faustulus, or the she-wolf with the twins, both the stones and the
+workmanship are poor. In such cases, where the design stirs a genuine
+national interest, it may happen that very little of artistic rendering
+will be acceptable rather than otherwise, and much more is this true
+when the design is a symbol of some article of faith, as in the early
+Christian gems. There both the art and the material are at what may be
+called the lowest level. The usual subjects on the early Christian gems
+are the fish, anchor, ship, dove, the good shepherd, and, according to
+Clemens, the lyre. Under the Gnostics, however, with whom there was more
+of speculation than of faith, symbolism was developed to an extent which
+no art could realize without the aid of writing. A gem was to them a
+talisman more or less elaborate with long, but for the most part quite
+unintelligible, engraved formulae. The difficulty is to make out how the
+stones were carried; many specimens exist, but none show signs of
+mounting. The materials are usually haematite or jasper. As regards the
+designs, it is clear that Egyptian sources have been most drawn upon.
+But the symbolism is also largely associated with Mithraic worship. The
+name Abraxas, or more correctly Abrasax, which, from its frequency on
+these gems, has led to their being called also "Abraxas gems," is, when
+the Greek letters of which it is composed are treated as Greek numerals,
+equal to 365, the number of days in a year, and the same is the case
+with [Greek: MEITHRAS].
+
+More interesting, from the occasionally forcible portraiture and the
+splendour of some of the jacinths employed, are the Sassanian gems,
+which as a class may be said to represent the last stage of true
+gem-engraving in ancient times.
+
+The art of cameo-engraving, which, as we have seen, attained its
+greatest splendour at the beginning of the empire, followed on the whole
+a similar course. It waned in the early part of the 3rd century after
+the death of the emperor Severus, but under the first Christian emperor
+Constantine it enjoyed a brief period of revival. Fine cameo portraits
+of Constantine are extant; and it was during or shortly after his reign
+that Christian Scripture subjects began to appear on cameos. That class
+of subjects constituted the staple of such work--generally rude and
+artistically debased--as continued to be cultivated under the Byzantine
+empire down to nearly the epoch of the Renaissance. From the Byzantine
+period downward one peculiarity of gem-engraving becomes noticeable.
+Cameo-work as compared with intaglios in classical times was rare and
+infrequent, but now and onwards the opposite is the case,
+intaglio-sinking having almost died out, and cameos being chiefly
+produced. Commercial intercourse with the East still secured for the
+engravers a supply of magnificent sardonyxes, although blood-stone and
+other non-banded stones were very commonly used for works in relief.
+Cameos during the long dark ages were used chiefly for the decoration of
+reliquaries and other altar furniture, and as such their designs were
+purely ecclesiastical or scriptural. To this period also belongs the
+class of complimentary or motto cameos, which, containing only
+inscriptions and an ornamental border, executed in nicolo stones, were
+used as personal gifts and adornments.
+
+In medieval times antique cameos were held in peculiar veneration on
+account of the belief, then universal, in their potency as medicinal
+charms. This power was supposed to be derived from their origin, of
+which two theories, equally satisfactory, were current. By the one they
+were held to be the work of the children of Israel during their sojourn
+in the wilderness (hence the name _Pierres d'Israel_), while the other
+theory held them to be direct products of nature, the engraved figures
+pointing to the peculiar virtue lodged in them. Interpreters less
+mystically inclined found Biblical interpretations for the subjects.
+Thus the cameo of the Sainte Chapelle was supposed to represent the
+triumph of Joseph in Egypt. A cameo with Poseidon, Athena and her
+serpent was Adam and Eve.
+
+The revival of the glyptic arts in western Europe dates from the
+pontificate of the Venetian Paul II. (1464-1471), himself an ardent
+lover and collector of gems, to which passion, indeed, it is gravely
+affirmed he was a martyr, having died of a cold caught by the
+multiplicity of gems exposed on his fingers. The cameos of the early
+part of the 16th century rival in beauty of execution the finest
+classical works, and, indeed, many of them pass in the cabinets of
+collectors for genuine antiques, which they closely imitated. The
+Oriental sardonyx was not available for the purposes of the Renaissance
+artists, who were consequently obliged to content themselves with the
+colder German agate onyx. The scarcity of worthy materials led them to
+use the backs of ancient cameos, or to improve on classical works of
+inferior value executed on good material, and probably to this cause
+must also be assigned the development of shell cameos, which are rarely
+found, of an older period.
+
+Among the means of distinguishing antique cameos from cinquecento work,
+the kind of stone is one of the best tests, the classical artists having
+used only rich and warm-tinted Oriental stones, which further are
+frequently drilled through their diameter with a minute hole, from
+having been used by their original Oriental possessors in the form of
+beads. The cinquecento artists also, as a rule, worked their subjects in
+high relief, and resorted to undercutting, no case of which is found in
+the flat low work of classical times. The projecting portions of antique
+work exhibit a dull chalky appearance, which, however, fabricators
+learned to imitate in various ways, one of which was by cramming the
+gizzards of turkey fowls with the gems. Another index of antiquity is
+found in the different methods of working adopted in classical and
+Renaissance times. The tools employed by the Renaissance engraver were
+the drill and the wheel, while the ancient artist also employed the
+diamond point.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14--Muse, by Pichler. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+The gem-engraver's art again during the 18th century revived under an
+even greater amount of encouragement from men of wealth and rank. In
+this last period the names of engravers who succeeded best in imitating
+classical designs were Natter, Pichler (fig. 14), and the Englishmen
+Marchant (fig. 15) and Burch. Compared with Greek gems, it will be seen
+that what at first sight is attractive as refined and delicate is after
+all an exaggerated minuteness of execution, entirely devoid of the
+ancient spirit. The success with which modern engravers imposed on
+collectors is recorded in many instances, of which one may be taken as
+an instructive type. In the Bibliotheque Nationale is a gem
+(Chabouillet's catalogue, No. 2337), familiarly known as the signet of
+Michelangelo, the subject being a Bacchanalian scene. So much did he
+admire it, the story says, that he copied from it one of the groups in
+his paintings in the Sistine chapel. The gem, however, is evidently in
+this part of it a mere copy from Michelangelo's group, and therefore a
+subsequent production, probably by da Pescia.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Nereid and Sea-bull by Marchant. (Brit. Mus.)]
+
+In our own day the engraving of cameos has practically ceased to be
+pursued as an art. Roman manufacturers cut stones in large quantities to
+be used as shirt-studs and for setting in finger-rings; and in Rome and
+Paris an extensive trade is carried on in the cutting of shell cameos,
+which are largely imported into England and mounted as brooches by
+Birmingham jewelry manufacturers. The principal shell used is the large
+bull's-mouth shell (_Cassis rufa_), found in East Indian seas, which has
+a sard-like underlayer. The black helmet (_Cassis tuberosa_) of the West
+Indian seas, the horned helmet (_C. cornuta_) of Madagascar, and the
+pinky queen's conch (_Strombus gigas_) of the West Indies are also
+employed. The famous potter Josiah Wedgwood introduced a method of
+making imitations of cameos in pottery by producing white figures on a
+coloured ground, this constituting the peculiarity of what is now known
+as Wedgwood ware.
+
+_Gem Collectors._--The habit of gem-collecting is recorded first in the
+instance of Ismenias, a musician of Cyprus, who appears to have lived in
+the 4th century B.C. But though individual collectors are not again
+mentioned till the time of Mithradates, whose cabinet was carried off to
+Rome by Pompey, still it is to be inferred that they existed, if not
+pretty generally, yet in such places as Cyrene, where the passion for
+gems was so great that the thriftiest person owned one worth 10 minas,
+and where, according to Aelian (_Var. hist._ xii. 30), the skill in
+engraving was astonishing. The first cabinet (_dactyliotheca_) in Rome
+was that of Scaurus, a stepson of Sulla. Caesar is said to have formed
+six cabinets for public exhibition, and from the time of Augustus all
+men of refinement were supposed to be judges both of the art and of the
+quality of the stones.
+
+In the middle ages the chief collections were incorporated in works of
+art in the church treasuries. The first collector of modern times was,
+as already mentioned, Pope Paul II., who was followed by a long
+succession of princely and noble collectors such as Lorenzo de' Medici
+and the great earl of Arundel. The collection of the latter passed into
+the hands of the dukes of Marlborough and thence into the possession of
+Mr David Bromilow. The collection was finally dispersed by auction in
+June 1899.
+
+In modern times the principal collections are contained in state
+museums. The cabinets of Vienna and of the Bibliotheque Nationale are
+incomparably rich in the historic cameos. Those of the British Museum
+and of Berlin are the strongest in their range over the whole field of
+the gem-engraver's art.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the fullest general account of the subject (with
+  especial attention to the gems of classical antiquity) see A.
+  Furtwangler, _Die antiken Gemmen, Geschichte der Steinschneiderkunst
+  im klassischen Altertum_, in 3 vols (1900). See also E. Babelon, _La
+  Gravure en pierres fines, camees et intailles_ (1894); A.H. Smith,
+  "Gemma" and "Sculptura," in the 3rd edition of Smith's _Dict. of
+  Antiquities_; J.H. Middleton, _The Engraved Gems of Classical Times_
+  (1891). Much curious information is in the works of C.W. King:
+  _Handbook of Engraved Gems_ (1866); _Antique Gems_ (1866); _The
+  Natural History, Ancient and Modern, of Precious Stones and Gems, and
+  of the Precious Metals_ (1865); _Antique Gems and Rings_ (2 vols.,
+  1872).
+
+  Special Periods:--_Babylonia, &c._--Menant, "Les Pierres gravees de la
+  haute Asie," _Recherches sur la glyptique orientale_ (1883-1886).
+
+  _Egypt._--For the early cylinder sealings, &c. see Petrie, "Royal
+  Tombs of the First Dynasty" (_Egypt Explor. Fund, XVIIIth Memoir_), p.
+  24; pls. 12, figs. 3 to 7, and pls. 18-29; Amelineau, "Nouvelles
+  Fouilles d'Abydos, 1897-1898," _Compte rendu_, pp. 78, 423; pl. 25,
+  figs. 1-3.
+
+  _The Bible._--Petrie, "Stones (Precious)," in Hastings' _Dict. of the
+  Bible_.
+
+  _Phoenician._--See M.A. Levy, _Siegel und Gemmen_, with three plates
+  of gems having Phoenician, Aramaic, old Hebrew and other inscriptions
+  (Breslau, 1869); and, on the same subject, De Vogue, in the _Revue
+  archeologique_, 2nd series (1868), xvii. p. 432, pls. 14-16.
+
+  _Crete._--Articles by A.J. Evans in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_,
+  xiv., xvii., xxi., and in _Annual of British School at Athens_, vi.
+  and onwards.
+
+  _Classical Gems._--See Furtwangler, op. cit.
+
+  _Gnostic Gems._--Cabrol, _Dict. d'archeologie chretienne_, s.v.
+  "Abrasax."
+
+  For the controversy as to gems with artists' signatures, see Koehler,
+  _Abhandlung uber die geschnittenen Steine, mit den Namen der
+  Kunstler_; Koehler's collected works, ed. Stephani, vol. iii. (1851);
+  Stephani, Notes to Koehler as above; also _Uber einige angebliche
+  Steinschneider des Alterthums_ (St Petersburg, 1851); Brunn,
+  _Geschichte der griechischen Kunstler_, ii. (1859), pp. 442-637;
+  Furtwangler, _Jahrbuch d. k. deutsch. arch. Inst._ iii. (1888), pp.
+  105, 193, 297; iv. (1889), p. 46, and _Geschichte_, passim.
+
+  For the history of the Poniatowski gems, see Reinach, _Pierres
+  gravees_, p. 151.
+
+  _Catalogues._--The chief catalogues dealing with modern public
+  collections are: Berlin, A. Furtwangler, _Beschreibung der
+  geschnittenen Steine im Antiquarium_ (1896); British Museum, A.H.
+  Smith, _A Catalogue of Engraved Gems in the British Museum_ (_Dept. of
+  Greek and Roman Antiquities_) (1888); Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale,
+  Chabouillet, _Catalogue ... des camees et pierres gravees de la
+  Bibliotheque Imperiale_ (1858); E. Babelon, _Catalogue des camees ...
+  de la Bibliotheque Nationale_ (1897).
+
+  _Modern Engraving._--Vasari vii. p. 113 (ed. Siena, 1792); continued
+  by Mariette, _Traite des pierres gravees_ (1750), i. p. 105. The older
+  books on gems are very numerous, but those of present-day importance
+  are not many. Faber, _Illustrium imagines ... apud Fulvium Ursinum_
+  (Antwerp, 1606); Stosch, _Gemmae antiquae caelatae, scalptorum
+  nominibus insignitae_ (Amsterdam, 1724); Winckelmann, _Description des
+  pierres gravees du feu Baron de Stosch_ (1760); Krause, _Pyrgoteles,
+  oder die edlen Steine der Alten_ (1856); a convenient reissue of
+  Stosch, and seven others of the older works, by S. Reinach, _Pierres
+  gravees, &c. ... reunies et reeditees, avec un texte nouveau_ (1895).
+
+  _Pastes._--The principal collection of glass and sulphur pastes from
+  gems was that issued by James Tassie of Glasgow, with _A Descriptive
+  Catalogue of a General Collection of ... Engraved Gems ... arranged
+  and described by R.E. Raspe_ (the author of _Baron Munchausen_)
+  (1791).     (A. S. M.; A. H. Sm.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For Nos. 1-4 see Furtwangler, pl. 14; for Nos. 2-4 see Evans,
+    _Rev. archeologique_, xxxii. (1898) pl. 8.
+
+
+
+
+GEM, ARTIFICIAL. The term "Artificial Gems" does not mean _imitations_
+of real gems, but the actual formation by artificial means of the real
+precious stone, so that the product is identical, chemically, physically
+and optically, with the one found in nature. For instance, in chemical
+composition the lustrous diamond is nothing but crystallized carbon.
+Could we take black amorphous carbon in the form of charcoal or
+lampblack and dissolve it in a liquid, and by the slow evaporation of
+that liquid allow the dissolved carbon to separate out, it would
+probably crystallize in the transparent form of diamond. This would be a
+true synthesis of diamond, and the product would be just as much
+entitled to the name as the choicest products of Kimberley or Golconda.
+But this is a very different thing from the imitation diamond so common
+in shop windows. Here the chemist has only succeeded in making a paste
+or glass having limpidity and a somewhat high refractivity, but wanting
+the hardness and "fire" of the real stone.
+
+_The Diamond._--Within recent years chemists have actually succeeded in
+making the real diamond by artificial means, and although the largest
+yet made is not more than one-fiftieth of an inch across, the process
+itself and the train of reasoning leading up to such an achievement are
+sufficiently interesting to warrant a somewhat full description.
+Attempts to make diamonds artificially have been numerous, but, with the
+sole exception of those of Henri Moissan, all have resulted in failure.
+The nearest approach to success was attained by J.B. Hannay in 1880 and
+R.S. Marsden in 1881; but their results have not been verified by others
+who have tried to repeat them, and the probability is that what was then
+thought to be diamond was in reality carborundum or carbide of silicon.
+
+Attempts have been made by two methods to make carbon crystallize in the
+transparent form. One is to crystallize it slowly from a solution in
+which it has been dissolved. The difficulty is to find a solvent. Many
+organic and some inorganic bodies hold carbon so loosely combined that
+it can be separated out under the influence of chemical action, heat or
+electricity, but invariably the carbon assumes the black amorphous form.
+The other method is to try to fuse the carbon by fierce heat, when from
+analogy it is argued that on cooling it will solidify to a clear limpid
+crystal. The progress of science in other directions has now made it
+pretty certain that the true mode of making diamond artificially is by a
+combination of these two methods. Until recently it was assumed that
+carbon was non-volatile at any attainable temperature, but it is now
+known that at a temperature of about 3600 deg. C. it volatilizes
+readily, passing without liquefying directly from the solid to the
+gaseous state. Very few bodies act in this manner, the great majority
+when heated at atmospheric pressure to a sufficient temperature passing
+through the intermediate condition of liquidity. Some few, however,
+which when heated at atmospheric pressure do not liquefy, when heated at
+higher pressures in closed vessels obey the common rule and first become
+liquid and then volatilize. Sir James Dewar found the critical pressure
+of carbon to be about 15 tons on the sq. in.; that is to say, if heated
+to its critical temperature (3600 deg. C.), and at the same time
+subjected to a pressure of 15 tons to the sq. in., it will assume the
+liquid form. Enormous as such pressures and temperatures may appear to
+be, they have been exceeded in some of Sir Andrew Noble's and Sir F.
+Abel's researches; in their investigations on the gases from gunpowder
+and cordite fired in closed steel chambers, these chemists obtained
+pressures as great as 95 tons to the sq. in., and temperatures as high
+as 4000 deg. C. Here then, if the observations are correct, we have
+sufficient temperature and enough pressure to liquefy carbon; and, were
+there only sufficient time for these to act on the carbon, there is
+little doubt that the artificial formation of diamonds would soon pass
+from the microscopic stage to a scale more likely to satisfy the
+requirements of science, if not those of personal adornment.
+
+It has long been known that the metal iron in a molten state dissolves
+carbon and deposits it on cooling as black opaque graphite. Moissan
+carried out a laborious and systematic series of experiments on the
+solubility of carbon in iron and other metals, and came to the
+conclusion that whereas at ordinary pressures the carbon separates from
+the solidifying iron in the form of graphite, if the pressure be greatly
+increased the carbon on separation will form liquid drops, which on
+solidifying will assume the crystalline shape and become true diamond.
+Many other metals dissolve carbon, but molten iron has been found to be
+the best solvent. The quantity entering into solution increases with the
+temperature of the metal. But temperature alone is not enough; pressure
+must be superadded. Here Moissan ingeniously made use of a property
+which molten iron possesses in common with some few other
+liquids--water, for instance--of increasing in volume in the act of
+passing from the liquid to the solid state. Pure iron is mixed with
+carbon obtained from the calcination of sugar, and the whole is rapidly
+heated in a carbon crucible in an electric furnace, using a current of
+700 amperes and 40 volts. The iron melts like wax and saturates itself
+with carbon. After a few minutes' heating to a temperature above 4000
+deg. C.--a temperature at which the lime furnace begins to melt and the
+iron volatilizes in clouds--the dazzling, fiery crucible is lifted out
+and plunged beneath the surface of cold water, where it is held till it
+sinks below a red heat. The sudden cooling solidifies the outer skin of
+molten metal and holds the inner liquid mass in an iron grip. The
+expansion of the inner liquid on solidifying produces enormous pressure,
+and under this stress the dissolved carbon separates out in a hard,
+transparent, dense form--in fact, as diamond. The succeeding operations
+are long and tedious. The metallic ingot is attacked with hot _aqua
+regia_ till no iron is left undissolved. The bulky residue consists
+chiefly of graphite, together with translucent flakes of
+chestnut-coloured carbon, hard black opaque carbon of a density of from
+3.0 to 3.5, black diamonds--carbonado, in fact--and a small quantity of
+transparent colourless diamonds showing crystalline structure. Besides
+these there may be corundum and carbide of silicon, arising from
+impurities in the materials employed. Heating with strong sulphuric
+acid, with hydrofluoric acid, with nitric acid and potassium chlorate,
+and fusing with potassium fluoride--operations repeated over and over
+again--at last eliminate the graphite and impurities and leave the true
+diamond untouched. The precious residue on microscopic examination shows
+many pieces of black diamond, and other colourless transparent pieces,
+some amorphous, others crystalline. Although many fragments of crystals
+are seen, the writer has scarcely ever met with a complete crystal. All
+appear broken up, as if, on being liberated from the intense pressure
+under which they were formed, they burst asunder. Direct evidence of
+this phenomenon has been seen. A very fine piece of diamond, prepared in
+the way just described and carefully mounted on a microscopic slide,
+exploded during the night and covered the slide with fragments. This
+bursting paroxysm is not unknown at the Kimberley mines.
+
+Sir William Crookes in 1906 communicated to the Royal Society a paper on
+a new formation of diamond. Sir Andrew Noble has shown that in the
+explosion of cordite in closed steel cylinders pressures of over 50 tons
+to the sq. in. and a temperature probably reaching 5400 deg. were
+obtained. Here then we have conditions favourable for the liquefaction
+of carbon, and if the time of explosion were sufficient to allow the
+reactions to take place we should expect to get liquid carbon solidified
+in the crystalline state. Experiment proved the truth of these
+anticipations. Working with specially prepared explosive containing a
+little excess of carbon Sir Andrew Noble collected the residue left in
+the steel cylinder. This residue was submitted by Sir William Crookes to
+the lengthy operations already described in the account of H. Moissan's
+fused iron experiment. Finally, minute crystals were obtained which
+showed octahedral planes with dark boundaries due to high refracting
+index. The position and angles of their faces, and cleavages, the
+absence of bi-refringence, and their high refractive index all showed
+that the crystals were true diamond.
+
+The artificial diamonds, so far, have not been larger than microscopic
+specimens, and none has measured more than about half a millimetre
+across. That, however, is quite enough to show the correctness of the
+train of reasoning leading up to the achievement, and there is no reason
+to doubt that, working on a larger scale, larger diamonds will result.
+Diamonds so made burn in the air when heated to a high temperature, with
+formation of carbonic acid; and in lustre, crystalline form, optical
+properties, density and hardness, they are identical with the natural
+stone.
+
+It having been shown that diamond is formed by the separation of carbon
+from molten iron under pressure, it became of interest to see if in some
+large metallurgical operations similar conditions might not prevail. A
+special form of steel is made at some large establishments by cooling
+the molten metal under intense hydraulic pressure. In some samples of
+the steel so made Professor Rosel, of the university of Bern, has found
+microscopic diamonds. The higher the temperature at which the steel has
+been melted the more diamonds it contains, and it has even been
+suggested that the hardness of steel in some measure may be due to the
+carbon distributed throughout its mass being in this adamantine form.
+The largest artificial diamond yet formed was found in a block of steel
+and slag from a furnace in Luxembourg; it is clear and crystalline, and
+measures about one-fiftieth of an inch across.
+
+A striking confirmation of the theory that natural diamonds have been
+produced from their solution in masses of molten iron, the metal from
+which has gradually oxidized and been washed away under cycles of
+atmospheric influences, is afforded by the occurrence of diamonds in a
+meteorite. On a broad open plain in Arizona, over an area of about 5 m.
+in diameter, lie scattered thousands of masses of metallic iron, the
+fragments varying in weight from half a ton to a fraction of an ounce.
+There is little doubt that these fragments formed part of a meteoric
+shower, although no record exists as to when the fall took place. Near
+the centre, where most of the fragments have been found, is a crater
+with raised edges, three-quarters of a mile in diameter and 600 ft.
+deep, bearing just the appearance which would be produced had a mighty
+mass of iron--a falling star--struck the ground, scattered it in all
+directions, and buried itself deeply under the surface, fragments eroded
+from the surface forming the pieces now met with. Altogether ten tons of
+this iron have been collected, and specimens of the Canyon Diablo
+meteorite are in most collectors' cabinets. Dr A.E. Foote, a
+mineralogist, when cutting a section of this meteorite, found the tools
+injured by something vastly harder than metallic iron, and an emery
+wheel used for grinding it was ruined. He attacked the specimen
+chemically, and soon afterwards announced to the scientific world that
+the Canyon Diablo meteorite contained diamonds, both black and
+transparent. This startling discovery was subsequently verified by
+Professors C. Friedel and H. Moissan, and also by Sir W. Crookes.
+
+_The Ruby._--It is evident that of the other precious stones only the
+most prized are worth producing artificially. Apart from their inferior
+hardness and colour, the demand for what are known as "semi-precious
+stones" would not pay for the necessarily great expenses of the factory.
+Moreover, were it to be known that they were being produced artificially
+the demand--never very great--would almost cease. The only other gems,
+therefore, which need be mentioned in connexion with their artificial
+formation are those of the corundum or sapphire class, which include all
+the most highly prized gems, rivalling, and sometimes exceeding, the
+diamond in value. Here a remarkable and little-known fact deserves
+notice. Excepting the diamond and sapphire, each of the precious
+stones--the emerald, the topaz and amethyst--possesses a more noble, a
+harder, and more highly-prized counterpart of itself, alike in colour,
+but superior in brilliancy and hardness; still more strange, the
+precious stone to which its special name is usually attached is the
+variety the least prized. The ruby itself might almost be included in
+the same category. The true ruby consists of the earth alumina, in a
+clear, crystalline form, having a minute quantity of the element
+chromium as the colouring matter. It is often called the "Oriental
+Ruby," or red sapphire, and when of a paler colour, the "Pink Sapphire."
+But the ruby as met with in jewellers' shops of inferior standing is
+usually no true ruby, but a "spinel ruby" or "balas ruby," sometimes
+very beautiful in colour, but softer than the Oriental ruby, and
+different in chemical composition, consisting essentially of alumina and
+magnesia and a little silica, with the colouring matter chromium. The
+colourless basis of the true Oriental precious stones being taken as
+crystallized alumina or white sapphire, when the colouring matter is red
+the stone is called ruby, when blue sapphire, when green Oriental
+emerald, when orange-yellow Oriental topaz, and when violet Oriental
+amethyst. Clear, colourless crystals are known as white sapphire, and
+are very valuable. It is evident, therefore, that whosoever succeeds in
+making artificially clear crystals of white sapphire has the power, by
+introducing appropriate colouring matter, to make the Oriental ruby,
+sapphire, emerald, topaz and amethyst. All of these stones, even when of
+small size, are costly and readily saleable, while when they are of fine
+quality and large size they are highly prized, a ruby of fine colour,
+and free from flaws, a few carats in weight, being of more value than a
+diamond of the same weight.
+
+This being the case, it is not surprising that repeated attempts have
+been made to effect the crystallization of alumina. This is not a matter
+of difficulty, but unfortunately the crystals generally form thin
+plates, of good colour, but too thin to be useful as gems. In 1837
+M.A.A. Gaudin made true rubies, of microscopic size, by fusing alum in a
+carbon crucible at a very high temperature, and adding a little chromium
+as colouring matter. In 1847 J.J. Ebelmen produced the white sapphire
+and rose-coloured spinel by fusing the constituents at a high
+temperature in boracic acid. Shortly afterwards he produced the ruby by
+employing borax as the solvent. The boracic acid was found to be too
+volatile to allow the alumina to crystallize, but the use of borax made
+the necessary difference. But it was not till about the year 1877 that
+E. Fremy and C. Feil first published a method whereby it was possible to
+produce a crystallized alumina from which small stones could be cut.
+They first formed lead aluminate by the fusion together of lead oxide
+and alumina. This was kept in a state of fusion in a fireclay crucible
+(in the composition of which silica enters largely). Under the influence
+of the high temperature the silica of the crucible gradually decomposes
+the lead aluminate, forming lead silicate, which remains in the liquid
+state, and alumina, which crystallizes as white sapphire. By the
+admixture of 2 or 3% of a chromium compound with original materials the
+resulting white sapphire became ruby. More recently Edmond Fremy and A.
+Verneuil obtained artificial rubies by reacting at a red heat with
+barium fluoride on amorphous alumina containing a small quantity of
+chromium. The rubies obtained in this manner are thus described by Fremy
+and Verneuil: "Their crystalline form is regular; their lustre is
+adamantine; they present the beautiful colour of the ruby; they are
+perfectly transparent, have the hardness of the ruby, and easily scratch
+topaz. They resemble the natural ruby in becoming dark when heated,
+resuming their rose-colour on cooling." Des Cloizeaux says of them that
+"under the microscope some of the crystals show bubbles. In converging
+polarized light the coloured rings and the negative black cross are of a
+remarkable regularity."
+
+Other experimentalists have attacked the problem in other directions.
+Besides those already mentioned, L. Eisner, H.H. De Senarmont,
+Sainte-Claire Deville, and H. Caron and H. Debray have succeeded with
+more or less success in producing rubies. The general plan adopted has
+been to form a mixture of salts fusible at a red heat, forming a liquid
+in which alumina will dissolve. Alumina is now added till the fused mass
+will take up no more, and the crucible is left in the furnace for a long
+time, sometimes extending over weeks. The solvent slowly volatilizes,
+and the alumina is deposited in crystals, coloured by whatever colouring
+oxide has been added.
+
+Mention has been made above of a stone frequently substituted for the
+true ruby, called the "spinel" or "balas" ruby. The spinel and ruby
+occur together in nature, stones from Burma being as often spinel as
+true Oriental ruby. In the artificial production of the ruby it
+sometimes happens that spinel crystallizes out when true Oriental ruby
+is expected. The fusion bath is so arranged that only red-coloured
+alumina shall crystallize out, but it is difficult to have all the
+materials of such purity as to ensure the complete absence of silica and
+magnesia. In this case, when these impurities have accumulated to a
+certain point they unite with the alumina, and spinel then separates, as
+it crystallizes more easily than ruby. When all the magnesia and silica
+have been eliminated in this way the bath resumes its deposition of
+crystalline ruby. Rubies of fine colour and of considerable size have
+been shown in London, made on the Continent by a secret process. The
+writer has seen several cut stones so made weighing over a carat each,
+the uncut crystals measuring half an inch along a crystal edge, and
+weighing over 70 grains, and a clear plate of ruby cut from a single
+crystal weighing over 10 grains. Ruby has been made by Sir W.
+Roberts-Austen as a by-product in the production of metallic chromium.
+Oxide of chromium and aluminium powder are intimately mixed together in
+a refractory crucible, and the mixture is ignited at the upper part. The
+aluminium and chromium oxide react with evolution of so much heat that
+the reduced chromium is melted. Such is the intensity of the reaction
+that the resulting alumina is also completely fused, floating as a
+liquid on the molten chromium. Sometimes the alumina takes tip the right
+amount of chromium to enable it to assume the ruby colour. On cooling
+the melted alumina crystallizes in large flakes, which on examination by
+transmitted light are seen to be true ruby. The development of the red
+colour is said by C. Greville-Williams only to take place at a white
+heat. It is not due to the presence of chromic acid, but to a reaction
+between alumina and chromic oxide, which requires an elevated
+temperature.
+
+Artificially made but real rubies have been put on the market, prepared
+by a process of fusion by A. Verneuil. He finds that certain conditions
+have to be fulfilled in order to get the alumina in a transparent form.
+The temperature must not be higher than is absolutely necessary for
+fusion. The melted product must always be in the same part of the
+oxyhydrogen flame, and the point of contact between the melted product
+and the support should be reduced to as small an area as possible. M.
+Verneuil uses a vertical blowpipe flame directed on a support capable of
+movement up and down by means of a screw, so that the fused product may
+be removed from the zone of fusion as it gets higher by addition of
+fresh material. The material employed is either composed of small,
+valueless rubies, or alumina coloured with the right amount of chromium.
+It is very finely powdered and fed in through the blowpipe orifice,
+whence it is blown in a highly heated condition into the zone of fusion.
+The support is a small cylinder of alumina placed in the axis of the
+blowpipe. As the operation proceeds the fine grains of powder driven on
+to the support in the zone of fusion form a cone which gradually rises
+and broadens out until it becomes of sufficient size to be used for
+cutting. Rubies prepared in this way have the same specific gravity and
+hardness as the natural ruby, and they are also dichroic, and in the
+vacuum tube under the influence of the cathode stream they phosphoresce
+with a discontinuous spectrum showing the strong alumina line in the
+red. When properly cut and mounted it is almost impossible to
+distinguish them from natural stones.
+
+_The Sapphire._--Auguste Daubree has shown that when a full quantity of
+chromium is added to the bath from which white sapphire crystallizes the
+colour is that of ruby, but when much less chromium is added the colour
+is blue, forming the true Oriental sapphire. The real colouring matter
+of the Oriental sapphire is not definitely known, some chemists
+considering it to be chromium and others cobalt. Artificial sapphires
+have been made of a fair size and perfectly transparent by the addition
+of cobalt to the igneous bath of alumina, but the writer does not
+consider them equal in colour to true Oriental sapphire.
+
+_The Oriental Emerald._--The stone known as emerald consists chemically
+of silica, alumina and glucina. Like the ruby, it owes its colour to
+chromium, but in a different state of oxidation. As already mentioned,
+there is another stone which consists of crystallized alumina coloured
+with chromium, but holding the chromium in a different state of
+oxidation. This is called the Oriental emerald, and, owing to its beauty
+of colour, its hardness and rarity, it is more highly prized than the
+emerald itself and commands higher prices. The Oriental emerald has been
+produced artificially in the same way as the ruby, by adding a larger
+amount of chromium to the alumina bath and regulating the temperature.
+
+_The Oriental Amethyst._--The amethyst is rock crystal (quartz) of a
+bluish-violet colour. It is one of the least valuable of the precious
+stones. The sapphire, however, is found occasionally of a beautiful
+violet colour; it is then called the Oriental amethyst, and, on account
+of its beauty and rarity, is of great value. It is evident that if to
+the igneous bath of alumina some colouring matter, such as manganese, is
+added capable of communicating a violet colour to the crystals of
+alumina, the Oriental amethyst will be the result. Oriental amethyst has
+been so formed artificially, but the stone being known only as a
+curiosity to mineralogists and experts in precious stones, and the
+public not being able to discriminate between the violet sapphire and
+amethystine quartz, there is no demand for the artificial stone.
+
+_The Oriental Topaz._--The topaz is what is called a semi-precious
+stone. It occurs of many colours, from clear white to pink, orange,
+yellow and pale green. The usual colour is from straw-yellow to sherry
+colour. The exact composition of the colouring matter is not known; it
+is not entirely of mineral origin, as it changes colour and sometimes
+fades altogether on exposure to light. Chemically the topaz consists of
+alumina, silica and fluorine. It is not so hard as the sapphire. There
+is also a yellow variety of quartz, which is sometimes called "false
+topaz." The Oriental topaz, on the other hand, is a precious stone of
+great value. It consists of clear crystalline sapphire coloured with a
+small quantity of ferric oxide. It has been produced artificially by
+adding iron instead of chromium to the matrix from which the white
+sapphire crystallizes.
+
+_The Zircon._--The zircon is a very beautiful stone, varying in colour,
+like the topaz, from red and yellow to green and blue. It is sometimes
+met with colourless, and such are its refractive powers and brilliancy
+that it has been mistaken for diamond. It is a compound of silica and
+zirconia. H. Sainte-Claire Deville formed the zircon artificially by
+passing silicon fluoride at a red heat over the oxide zirconia in a
+porcelain tube. Octahedral crystals of zircon are then produced, which
+have the same crystalline form, appearance and optical qualities as the
+natural zircon.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Sir William Crookes, "A New Formation of Diamond,"
+  _Proc. Roy. Soc._ vol. lxxvi. p. 458; "Diamonds," a lecture delivered
+  before the British Association at Kimberley, South Africa, 5th
+  September, 1905, _Chemical News_, vol. xcii. pp. 135, 147, 159; J.J.
+  Ebelmen, "Sur la production artificielle des pierres dures," _Comptes
+  rendus_, vol. xxv. p. 279; "Sur une nouvelle methode pour obtenir, par
+  la voie seche, des combinations crystallisees, et sur ses applications
+  a la reproduction de plusieurs especes minerales," _Comptes rendus_,
+  vol. xxv. p. 661; Edmond Fremy and C. Feil, "Sur la production
+  artificielle du corindon, du rubis, et de differents silicates
+  crystallisees," _Comptes rendus_, vol. lxxxv. p. 1029; C. Friedel,
+  "Sur l'existence du diamant dans le fer meteorique de Canon Diablo,"
+  _Comptes rendus_, vol. cxv. p. 1037, vol. cxvi. p. 290; H. Moissan,
+  "Etude de la meteorite de Canon Diablo," _Comptes rendus_, vol. cxvi.
+  p. 288; "Experiences sur la reproduction du diamant," _Comptes
+  rendus_, vol. cxviii. p. 320; "Sur quelques experiences relatives a la
+  preparation du diamant," _Comptes rendus_, vol. cxxiii. p. 206; _Le
+  Four electrique_ (Paris, 1897); H. Sainte-Claire Deville and H. Caron,
+  "Sur un nouveau mode de production a l'etat cristallise d'un certain
+  nombre d'especes chimiques et mineralogiques," _Comptes rendus_, vol.
+  xlvi. p. 764; A. Verneuil, "Production artificielle des rubis par
+  fusion," ibid. vol. cxxxv. p. 791; J. Boyer, _La Synthese des pierres
+  precieuses_ (Paris, 1909).     (W. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GEMBLOUX, a town in the province of Namur and on the borders of Brabant,
+Belgium, 25 m. S.E. of Brussels on the main line to Namur and Luxemburg.
+Pop. (1904) 4643. It is a busy place with large railway and engine
+works, and the junction for several branch lines. On the 31st of January
+1578 Don John of Austria gained here a signal victory over the army of
+the provinces led by Antony de Goignies.
+
+
+
+
+GEMINI ("The Twins," i.e. Castor and Pollux), in astronomy, the third
+sign in the zodiac, denoted by the symbol II. It is also a
+constellation, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd
+century B.C.), and catalogued by Ptolemy, 25 stars, Tycho Brahe 25, and
+Hevelius 38. By the Egyptians this constellation was symbolized as a
+couple of young kids; the Greeks altered this symbol to two children,
+variously said to be Castor and Pollux, Hercules and Apollo, or
+Triptolemus and Iasion; the Arabians used the symbol of a pair of
+peacocks. Interesting objects in this constellation are: [alpha]
+Geminorum or Castor, a very fine double star of magnitudes 2.0 and 2.8,
+the fainter component is a spectroscopic binary; [eta] Geminorum, a long
+period (231 days) variable, the extreme range in magnitude being 3.2 to
+4; [zeta] Geminorum, a short period variable, 10.15 days, the extreme
+range in magnitude being 3.7 to 4.5; _Nova_ Geminorum, a "new" star
+discovered in 1903 by H.H. Turner of Oxford; and the star cluster M.35
+Geminorum, a fine and bright, but loose, cluster, with very little
+central condensation.
+
+
+
+
+GEMINIANI, FRANCESCO (c. 1680-1762), Italian violinist, was born at
+Lucca about 1680. He received lessons in music from Alessandro
+Scarlatti, and studied the violin under Lunati (Gobbo) and afterwards
+under Corelli. In 1714 he arrived in London, where he was taken under
+the special protection of the earl of Essex, and made a living by
+teaching and writing music. In 1715 he played his violin concertos with
+Handel at the English court. After visiting Paris and residing there for
+some time, he returned to England in 1755. In 1761 he went to Dublin,
+where a servant robbed him of a musical manuscript on which he had
+bestowed much time and labour. His vexation at this loss is said to have
+hastened his death on the 17th of September 1762. He appears to have
+been a first-rate violinist, but most of his compositions are dry and
+deficient in melody. His _Art of Playing the Violin_ is a good work of
+its kind, but his _Guida armonica_ is an inferior production. He
+published a number of solos for the violin, three sets of violin
+concertos, twelve violin trios, _The Art of Accompaniment on the
+Harpsichord, Organ_, &c., _Lessons for the Harpsichord_ and some other
+works.
+
+
+
+
+GEMISTUS PLETHO [or PLETHON], GEORGIUS (c. 1355-1450), Greek Platonic
+philosopher and scholar, one of the chief pioneers of the revival of
+learning in Western Europe, was a Byzantine by birth who settled at
+Mistra in the Peloponnese, the site of ancient Sparta. He changed his
+name from Gemistus to the equivalent Pletho ("the full"), perhaps owing
+to the similarity of sound between that name and that of his master
+Plato. He invented a religious system founded on the speculative
+mysticism of the Neoplatonists, and founded a sect, the members of which
+believed that the new creed would supersede all existing forms of
+belief. But he is chiefly memorable for having introduced Plato to the
+Western world. This took place upon his visit to Florence in 1439, as
+one of the deputies from Constantinople on occasion of the general
+council. Cardinal Bessarion became his disciple; he produced a great
+impression upon Cosimo de' Medici; and though not himself making any
+very important contribution to the study of Plato, he effectually shook
+the exclusive domination which Aristotle had exercised over European
+thought for eight centuries. He promoted the union of the Greek and
+Latin Churches as far as possible, but his efforts in this direction
+bore no permanent fruit. He probably died before the capture of
+Constantinople. The most important of his published works are treatises
+on the distinction between Plato and Aristotle as philosophers
+(published at Venice in 1540); on the religion of Zoroaster (Paris,
+1538); on the condition of the Peloponnese (ed. A. Ellissen in
+_Analekten der mittel- und neugriechischen Literatur_, iv.); and the
+[Greek: Nomoi] (ed. C. Alexandre, Paris, 1858). In addition to these he
+compiled several volumes of excerpts from ancient authors, and wrote a
+number of works on geography, music and other subjects, many of which
+still exist in MS. in various European libraries.
+
+  See especially F. Schultze, _Geschichte der Philosophie der
+  Renaissance_, i. (1874); also J.A. Symonds, _The Renaissance in Italy_
+  (1877), ii. p. 198; H.F. Tozer, "A Byzantine Reformer," in _Journal of
+  Hellenic Studies_, vii. (1886), chiefly on Pletho's scheme of
+  political and social reform for the Peloponnese, as set forth in the
+  pamphlets addressed to Manuel II. Palaeologus and his son Theodore,
+  despot of the Morea; W. Gass, _Gennadius und Pletho_ (1844). Most of
+  Pletho's works will be found in J.P. Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, clx.;
+  for a complete list see Fabricius, _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (ed. Harles),
+  xii.
+
+
+
+
+GEMMI PASS, a pass (7641 ft.) leading from Frutigen in the Swiss canton
+of Bern to Leukerbad in the Swiss canton of the Valais. It is much
+frequented by travellers in summer. From Kandersteg (7-1/2 m. by road
+above Frutigen, which is 12 m. by rail from Spiez on the
+Berne-Interlaken line) a mule path leads to the summit of the pass,
+passing over the Spitalmatte plain, where in 1782 and again in 1895 a
+great avalanche fell from the Altels (11,930 ft.) to the S.E., causing
+on both occasions great loss of life and property. The mule path
+descends on the south side of the pass by an extraordinary series of
+zigzags, made accessible for mules (though no rider is now allowed to
+descend on mule-back) by a band of Tirolese workmen in 1740-1741. They
+are cut in a very steep wall of rock, about 1800 ft. in height, and lead
+down to the village of Leukerbad, which is 9-1/2 m. by carriage road
+past Leuk above the Susten station in the Rhone valley and on the
+Simplon line.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GENDARMERIE, originally a body of troops in France composed of
+_gendarmes_ or men-at-arms. In the days of chivalry they were mounted
+and armed cap-a-pie, exactly as were the lords and knights, with whom
+they constituted the most important part of an army. They were attended
+each by five soldiers of inferior rank and more lightly armed. In the
+later middle ages the men-at-arms were furnished by owners of fiefs. But
+after the Hundred Years' War this feudal gendarmerie was replaced by the
+_compagnies d'ordonnance_ which Charles VII. formed when the English
+were driven out of France, and which were distributed throughout the
+whole extent of the kingdom for preserving order and maintaining the
+king's authority. These companies, fifteen in number, were composed of
+100 lances or gendarmes fully equipped, each of whom was attended by at
+least three archers, one _coutillier_ (soldier armed with a cutlass) and
+one _varlet_ (soldier's servant). The states-general of Orleans (1439)
+had voted a yearly subsidy of 1,200,000 livres in perpetuity to keep up
+this national soldiery, which replaced, and in fact was recruited
+chiefly amongst, the bands of mercenaries who for about a century had
+made France their prey. The number and composition of the _compagnies
+d'ordonnance_ were changed more than once before the reign of Louis XIV.
+This sovereign on his accession to the throne found only eight companies
+of gendarmes surviving out of an original total of more than one
+hundred, but after the victory of Fleurus (1690), which had been decided
+by their courage, he increased their number to sixteen. The four first
+companies (which were practically guard troops) were designated by the
+names of _Gendarmes ecossais_, _Gendarmes anglais_, _Gendarmes
+bourguignons_ and _Gendarmes flamands_, from the nationality of the
+soldiers who had originally composed them; but at that time they
+consisted entirely of French soldiers and officers. These four companies
+had a captain-general, who was the king. The fifth company was that of
+the queen; and the others bore the name of the princes who respectively
+commanded them. This organization was dissolved in 1788. The Revolution
+swept away all these institutions of the monarchy, and, with the
+exception of a short revival of the _Gendarmes de la garde_ at the
+Restoration, henceforward the word "gendarmerie" possesses an altogether
+different significance--viz. military police.
+
+
+
+
+GENEALOGY (from the Gr. [Greek: genos], family, and [Greek: logos],
+theory), a pedigree or list of ancestors, or the study of family
+history.
+
+1. _Biblical Genealogies._--The aims and methods of ancient genealogists
+require to be carefully considered before the value of the numerous
+ancestral lists in the Bible can be properly estimated. Many of the old
+"genealogies," like those of Greece, have arisen from the desire to
+explain the origin of the various groups which they include. Information
+relating to the subdivision of tribes, their relation to each other, the
+intermingling of populations and the like are thus frequently
+represented in the form of genealogies. The "sons" of a "father" often
+stand merely for the branches of a family as they existed at some one
+period, and since in course of time tribal relations would vary, lists
+which have originated at different periods will present discrepancies.
+It is obvious that many of the Biblical names are nothing more than
+personifications of nations, tribes, towns, &c., which are grouped
+together to convey some idea of the bond by which they were believed to
+be connected.
+
+  For the personification of a people or tribe, cp. Gen. xxxiv. 30
+  ("Jacob said ... I am a few men"), Josh. xvii. 14 ("the children of
+  Joseph said ... I am a numerous people"), Ex. xiv. 25 ("Egypt said,
+  let me flee"), Jos. ix. 7, 1 Sam. v. 10, &c.; see G.B. Gray on
+  Numbers, xx. 14 (_Internat. Crit. Comm._). Thus we find among the
+  "sons" of Japhet: (the nations) Gomer, Javan, Tubal; Canaan "begat"
+  Sidon and Heth; the "sons" of Ishmael include the well-known tribes
+  Kedar and Jetur; Jacob, or the synonym Israel, personifies the
+  "children of Israel" (cf. use of "I," "thou" of the Israelites in
+  Deut., and in poetical passages). The recognition of this
+  characteristic usage often furnishes an ethnological interpretation to
+  those genealogical stories which obviously do not relate to persons,
+  but to tribes or peoples personified. The Edomites and Israelites are
+  regarded as "brothers" (cf. Num. xx. 14, Deut. ii. 4, Am. i. 11), and
+  since Esau (Edom) was born before Jacob (Israel) it would appear that
+  the Edomites were held to be the older nation. The union of two clans
+  is expressed as a marriage, or the wife is the territory which is
+  dominated by the husband (tribe); see CALEB. If the woman is not of
+  noble blood, but is a handmaiden or concubine, her children are
+  naturally not upon the same footing as those of the wife; consequently
+  the descendants of Ishmael, the son of Hagar (Sarah's maid), are
+  inferior to Isaac and his descendants, whilst the children of Keturah
+  ("incense"), Abraham's concubine, are still lower--from the Israelite
+  point of view. This application of the terms of relationship is
+  characteristic of the Semites. The "father" of the Rechabites is their
+  head or founder (cf. 1 Sam. x. 12: "who is their father?"), and a
+  common bond, which is not necessarily physical, unites all "sons,"
+  whether they are "sons of the prophets" (members of prophetic guilds)
+  or "sons of Belial" (worthless men).
+
+The interpretation of ethnological or statistical genealogies may easily
+be pushed too far. Every case has to be judged upon its own merits, and
+due allowance must be made both for the ambition of the weaker to claim
+or to strengthen an alliance with the stronger, and for the not
+unnatural desire of clans or individuals to magnify the greatness of
+their ancestry. The first step must always be the careful comparison of
+related lists in order to test the consistency of the tradition. Next,
+these must be critically studied in the light of all available
+historical material, though indeed such evidence is not necessarily
+conclusive. Finally, (a) literary criticism must be employed to
+determine if possible the dates of such lists, since obviously a
+contemporary register is more trustworthy than one which is centuries
+later; (b) a critical estimate of the character of the names and of
+their use in various periods of Old Testament history is of importance
+in estimating the antiquity of the list[1]--for example, many of the
+names in Chronicles attributed to the time of David are indubitably
+exilic or post-exilic; and (c) principles of ordinary historical
+probability are as necessary here as in dealing with the genealogies of
+other ancient peoples, and attention must be paid to such features as
+fluctuation in the number of links, representation of theories
+inconsistent with the growth of national life, schemes of relationship
+not in accordance with sociological conditions, &c.
+
+The Biblical genealogies commence with "the generations of the heaven
+and earth," and by a process of elimination pass from Adam and Eve by
+successive steps to Jacob and to his sons (the tribes), and finally to
+the subdivisions of each tribe (cp. 1 Chron. i.-ix. 1). According to
+this theory every Israelite could trace back his descent to Jacob, the
+common father of the whole nation (Josh. vii. 17 seq., 1 Sam. x. 21).
+Such a scheme, however, is full of manifest improbabilities. It demands
+that every tribe and every clan should have been a homogeneous group
+which had preserved its unity from the earliest times, that family
+records extending back for several centuries were in existence, and that
+such a tribe as Simeon was able to maintain its independence in spite of
+the tradition that it lost its autonomy in very early times (Gen. xlix.
+7). The whole conception of the unity of the tribes cannot be referred
+to a date previous to the time of David, and in the older writings a
+David or a Jeroboam was sufficiently described as the son of Jesse or of
+Nebat. The genealogical zeal as represented in the Old Testament is
+chiefly of later growth, and the exceptions are due to interpolation
+(Josh. vii. 1 18, contrast v. 24), or to the desire to modify or qualify
+an older notice. This, in the case of Saul (1 Sam. ix. 1), has led to
+textual corruption; a list of such a length as his should have reached
+back to one of the "sons" of Benjamin (cf. e.g. Gen. xlvi. 21), else it
+were purposeless. The genealogies, too, are often inconsistent amongst
+themselves and in contradiction to their object. They show, for example,
+that the population of southern Judah, so far from being "Israelite" was
+half-Edomite (see Judah), and several of the clans in this district bear
+names which indicate their original affinity with Midian or Edom.
+Moreover, there was a free intermixture of races, and many cities had a
+Canaanite (i.e. pre-Israelite) population which must have been gradually
+absorbed by the Israelites (cf. Judg. 1.). That spirit of religious
+exclusiveness which marked later Judaism did not become prominent before
+the Deuteronomic reformation (see DEUTERONOMY), and it is under its
+influence that the writings begin to emphasize the importance of
+maintaining the purity of Israelite blood, although by this time the
+fusion was complete (see Judg. iii. 6) and for practical purposes a
+distinction between Canaanites and Israelites within the borders of
+Palestine could scarcely be discerned.
+
+  Many of the genealogical data are intricate. Thus, the interpretation
+  of Gen. xxxiv. is particularly obscure (see LEVITES _ad fin._;
+  SIMEON). As regards the sons of Jacob, it is difficult to explain
+  their division among the four wives of Jacob; viz. (a) the sons of
+  Leah are Reuben, Simeon, Levi and Judah (S. Palestine), Issachar and
+  Zebulun (in the north), and Dinah (associated with Shechem); (b) of
+  Leah's maid Zilpah, Gad and Asher (E. and N. Palestine); (c) of
+  Rachel, Joseph (Manasseh and Ephraim, i.e. central Palestine) and
+  Benjamin; (d) of Rachel's maid Bilhah, Dan and Naphtali (N.
+  Palestine). It has been urged that (b) and (d) stood upon a lower
+  footing than the rest, or were of later origin; or that Bilhan points
+  to an old clan associated with Reuben (Gen. xxxv. 22) or Edom (Bilhan,
+  Gen. xxxvi. 27), whilst Zilpah represents an Aramaean strain.
+  Tradition may have combined distinct schemes, and the belief that the
+  wives were Aramaean at least coincides with the circumstance that
+  Aramaean elements predominated in certain of the twelve tribes. The
+  number "twelve" is artificial and can be obtained only by counting
+  Manasseh and Ephraim as one or by omitting Levi, and a careful study
+  of Old Testament history makes it extremely difficult to recover the
+  tribes as historical units. See, on these points, the articles on the
+  several tribes, B. Luther, _Zeit. d. alttest. Wissens_. (1901), pp. 1
+  sqq.; G.B. Gray, _Expositor_ (March 1902), pp. 225-240, and in _Ency.
+  Bib._, art. "Tribes"; and H.W. Hogg's thorough treatment of the tribes
+  in the last-mentioned work.
+
+The ideal of purity of descent shows itself conspicuously in portions of
+Deuteronomic law (Deut. vii. 1-3, xxiii. 2-8), and in the reforms of
+Nehemiah and Ezra (Ezr. ix. 1-4, 11 sqq.; Neh. xiii. 1-3). The desire to
+prove the continuity of the race, enforced by the experience of the
+exile, gave the impetus to genealogical zeal, and many of the extant
+lists proceed from this age when the true historical succession of names
+was a memory of the past. This applies with special force to the lists
+in Chronicles which present finished schemes of the Levitical divisions
+by the side of earlier attempts, with consequent confusion and
+contradiction. Thus the immediate ancestors of Ethan appear in the time
+of Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix. 12), but he with Asaiah and Heman are
+contemporaries of David, and their genealogies from Levi downwards
+contain a very unequal number of links (1 Chron. vi.). By another
+application of genealogical method the account of the institution of
+priests and Levites by David (1 Chron. xxiv.) presents many names which
+belong solely to post-exilic days, thus suggesting that the scribes
+desired to show that the honourable families of their time were not
+unknown centuries previously. Everywhere we find the results of much
+skill and labour, often in accordance with definite theories, but a
+thorough investigation reveals their weakness and often quite
+incidentally furnishes valuable evidence of another nature.
+
+  The intricate Levitical genealogies betray the result of successive
+  genealogists who sought to give effect to the development of the
+  hierarchal system (see LEVITES). The climax is reached when all
+  Levites are traced back to Gershon, Kehath and Merari, to which are
+  ascribed respectively Asaph, Heman and Ethan (or Jeduthun). The last
+  two were not originally Levites in the later accepted sense of the
+  term (see 1 Kings iv. 31). To Kehath is reckoned an important
+  subdivision descended from Korah, but in 2 Chron. xx. 19 the two are
+  distinct groups, and Korah's name is that of an Edomite clan (Gen.
+  xxxvi. 5, 14, 18) related to Caleb, and thus included among the
+  descendants of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 43). Cases of adjustment,
+  redistribution and "Levitizing" of individuals are frequent. There are
+  traces of varying divisions both of the singers (Neh. xi. 17) and of
+  the Levites (Num. xxvi. 58; Ezr. ii. 40, iii. 9; 1 Chron. xv. 5-10,
+  xxiii.), and it is noteworthy that in the case of the latter we have
+  mention of such families as Hebroni (Hebronite), Libni (from
+  Libnah)--ethnics of South Judaean towns. In fact, a significant number
+  of Levitical names find their analogy in the lists of names belonging
+  to Judah, Simeon and even Edom, or are closely connected with the
+  family of Moses; e.g. Mushi (i.e. Mosaite), Gershon and Eleazar (cp.
+  Gershom and Eliezer, sons of Moses). The Levites bear a class-name,
+  and the genealogies show that many of them were connected with the
+  minor clans and families of South Palestine which included among them
+  Moses and his kin. Hence, it is not unnatural that Obed-edom, for
+  example, obviously a southerner, should have been reckoned later as a
+  Levite, and the work ascribed by the chronicler's history to the
+  closing years of David's life may be influenced by the tradition that
+  it was through him these mixed populations first attained importance.
+  See further DAVID; JEWS; LEVITES.
+
+In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove
+his descent, and perhaps from the time of Ezra downwards lists were
+carefully kept. But when Anna is called an Asherite (Luke ii. 36), or
+Paul a Benjamite (Rom. xi. 1), family tradition was probably the sole
+support to the claim, although the tribal feeling had not become
+entirely extinct. The genealogies of Jesus prefixed to two of the
+gospels are intended to prove that He was a son of David. But not that
+alone, for in Matt. i. he is traced back to Abraham the father of the
+Jews, whilst in Luke iii. He, as the second Adam, is traced back to the
+first man. The two lists are hopelessly inconsistent; not because one of
+them follows the line of Mary, but because they represent independent
+attempts. That in Matthew is characteristically arranged in three
+series of fourteen generations each through the kings of Judah, whilst
+Luke's passes through an almost unknown son of David; in spite of this,
+however, both converge in the person of Zerubbabel.
+
+  See further, A.C. Hervey, _Genealogies of Our Lord_; H. von Soden,
+  _Ency. Bib._ ii. col. 1666 sqq.; B.W. Bacon, Hastings' _Dict. Bib._
+  ii. pp. 138 seq. On the subject generally see J.F. M'Lennan's
+  _Studies_ (2nd ser., ch. ix., "fabricated genealogies"); S.A. Cook,
+  _Ency. Bib._ ii. col. 1657 sqq. (with references); W.R. Smith,
+  _Kinship and Marriage_ (2nd ed., especially ch. i.).     (S. A. C.)
+
+2. _Greek and Roman Genealogies._--A passing reference only is needed to
+the intricate genealogies of gods and sons of gods which form so
+conspicuous a feature in classical literature.[2] In every one of the
+numerous states into which ancient Greece was divided there were
+aristocratic families, whose genealogies as a rule went back to
+prehistoric times, their first ancestor being some hero of divine
+descent, from whom, or from some distinguished younger ancestor, they
+derived their names. Many of these families were, as families,
+undoubtedly of great antiquity even at the beginning of the historical
+period; and in several instances they continued to maintain a
+conspicuous and separate existence for centuries. The element of family
+pride is prominent in the poetry of the Megarian Theognis; and in an
+inscription belonging to the 2nd century B.C. the recipient of certain
+honours from the community of Gythium is represented as the thirty-ninth
+in direct descent from the Dioscuri and the forty-first from Heracles.
+Even in Athens, long after the constitution had become thoroughly
+democratic, some of the clans continued to be known as Eupatridae (of
+noble family); and Alcibiades, for example, as a member of the phratria
+of the Eurysacidae, traced his origin through many generations to
+Eurysaces, who was represented as having been the first of the Aeacidae
+to settle in Attica. The Corinthian Bacchiadae traced their descent back
+to Heracles, but took their name from Bacchis, a younger ancestor. It is
+very doubtful, however, whether such pedigrees as this were very
+seriously put forward by those who claimed them; and it is certain that,
+almost along the whole line, they were unsupported by evidence.[3] We
+have the authority of Pollux (viii. 111) for stating that the Athenian
+[Greek: gene], of which there were thirty in each [Greek: phratria],
+were organized without any exclusive regard being had to
+blood-relationship; they were constantly receiving accessions from
+without; and the public written registers of births, adoptions and the
+like do not appear to have been preserved with such care as would have
+made it possible to verify a pedigree for any considerable portion even
+of the strictly historical period.[4]
+
+The great antiquity of the early Roman (patrician) _gentes_, who
+universally traced themselves back to illustrious ancestors, is
+indisputable; and the rigid exclusiveness with which each preserved its
+_hereditates gentiliciae_ or _sacra gentilicia_ is sufficiently
+illustrated by the fact that towards the close of the republic there
+were not more than fifty patrician families (Dion. Halic. i. 85). Yet
+even in these it is obvious that, owing to the frequency of resort to
+the well-recognized practice of adoption, while there was every
+guarantee for the historical identity of the family, there was none
+(documents apart) for the personal genealogy of the individual. There is
+no evidence that sufficient records of pedigree were kept during the
+earlier centuries of the Roman commonwealth, although the leading houses
+drew up genealogical tables, and their family pedigree was painted on
+the walls of the entrance hall. In later times, it is true, even
+plebeian families began to establish a prescriptive right (known as the
+_jus imaginum_) to preserve in small wooden shrines in their halls the
+busts (or rather, wax portrait masks fastened on to busts) of those of
+their members who had attained to curule office, and to exhibit these in
+public on appropriate occasions. Under these _imagines majorum_[5] it
+became usual to inscribe on the wall their respective _tituli_, the
+relationship of each to each being indicated by means of connecting
+lines; and thus arose the _stemmata gentilicia_, which at a later time
+began to be copied into family records. In the case of plebeian families
+(whose stemmata in no case went farther back than 366 B.C.) these
+written genealogies were probably trustworthy enough; but in the case of
+patricians who went back to Aeneas,[6] so much cannot, it is obvious, be
+said; and from a comparatively early period it was clearly recognized
+that such records lent themselves too readily to the devices of the
+falsifier and the forger to deserve confidence or reverence (Pliny,
+_H.N._ xxxv. 2; Juv. viii. 1).
+
+Thus, parvenus were known to place the busts of fictitious ancestors in
+the shrines and to engage needy literary men to trace back their descent
+even to Aeneas himself.
+
+The many and great social changes which marked the closing centuries of
+the Western empire almost invariably militated with great strength
+against the maintenance of an aristocracy of birth; and from the time of
+Constantine the dignity of patrician ceased to be hereditary.[7]
+
+3. _Modern._--Two forces have combined to give genealogy its importance
+during the period of modern history: the laws of inheritance,
+particularly those which govern the descent of real estate, and the
+desire to assert the privileges of a hereditary aristocracy. But it is
+long before genealogies are found in the possession of private families.
+The succession of kings and princes are in the chronicle book; the line
+of the founders and patrons of abbeys are recorded by the monks with
+curious embellishment of legend. But the famous suit of Scrope against
+Grosvenor will illustrate the late appearance of private genealogies in
+England. In 1385 Sir Richard Scrope, lord of Bolton, displaying his
+banner in the host that invaded Scotland, found that his arms of a
+golden bend in a blue field were borne by a knight of the Chester
+palatinate, one Sir Robert Grosvenor. He carried the dispute to a court
+of chivalry, whose decision in his favour was confirmed on appeal to the
+king. Grosvenor asserted that he derived his right from an ancestor, Sir
+Gilbert Grosvenor, who had come over with the Conqueror, while an
+intervening claimant, a Cornish squire named Thomas Carminowe, boasted
+that his own ancestors had borne the like arms since the days of King
+Arthur's Round Table. It is remarkable that in support of the false
+statements made by the claimants no written genealogy is produced. The
+evidence of tombs and monuments and the reports of ancient men are
+advanced, but no pedigree is exhibited in a case which hangs upon
+genealogy. It is possible that the art of pedigree-making had its first
+impulse in England from the many genealogies constructed to make men
+familiar with the claims of Edward III. to the crown of France, a second
+crop of such royal pedigrees being raised in later generations during
+the contests of York and Lancaster. But it is not until after the close
+of the middle ages that genealogies multiply in men's houses and are
+collected into volumes. The medieval baron, knight or squire, although
+proud of the nobility of his race, was content to let it rest upon
+legend handed down the generations. The exact line of his descent was
+sought only when it was demanded for a plea in the king's courts to
+support his title to his lands.
+
+From the first the work of the genealogist in England had that taint of
+inaccuracy tempered with forgery from which it has not yet been
+cleansed. The medieval kings, like the Welsh gentry of later ages,
+traced their lines to the household of Eden garden, while lesser men,
+even as early as the 14th century, eagerly asserted their descent from a
+companion of the Conqueror. Yet beside these false imaginations we find
+the law courts, whose business was often a clash of pedigrees, dealing
+with genealogies centuries long which, constructed as it would seem from
+worthy evidences, will often bear the test of modern criticism.
+
+Genealogies in great plenty are found in manuscripts and printed volumes
+from the 16th century onward. Remarkable among these are the descents
+recorded in the Visitation Books of the heralds, who, armed with
+commissions from the crown, the first of which was issued in 20 Hen.
+VIII., perambulated the English counties, viewing arms and registering
+pedigrees. The notes in their register books range from the simple
+registration of a man's name and arms to entries of pedigrees many
+generations long. To the heralds these visitations were rare
+opportunities of obtaining fees from the visited, and the value of the
+pedigrees registered is notably unequal. Although it has always been the
+boast of the College of Arms that Visitation records may be produced as
+evidence in the law courts, few of these officially recorded genealogies
+are wholly trustworthy. Many of the officers of arms who recorded them
+were, even by the testimony of their comrades, of indifferent character,
+and even when the visiting herald was an honourable man and an
+industrious he had little time to spare for the investigation of any
+single genealogy. Deeds and evidences in private hands may have been
+hastily examined in some instances--indeed, a herald's summons invites
+their production--and monuments were often viewed in the churches, but
+for the most part men's memories and the hearsay of the country-side
+made the backbone of the pedigree. The further the pedigree is carried
+beyond the memory of living men the less trustworthy does it become. The
+principal visitations took place in the reigns of Elizabeth, James I.
+and Charles II. No commission has been issued since the accession of
+William and Mary, but from that time onwards large numbers of
+genealogies have been recorded in the registers of the College of Arms,
+the modern ones being compiled with a care which contrasts remarkably
+with the unsupported statements of the Tudor heralds.
+
+Outside the doors of the College of Arms genealogy has now been for some
+centuries a favourite study of antiquaries, whose researches have been
+of the utmost value to the historian, the topographer and the
+biographer. County histories, following the example of Dugdale's
+Warwickshire folios, have given much space to the elucidation of
+genealogies and to the amassing of material from which they may be
+constructed. Dugdale's great work on the English baronage heads another
+host of works occupied with the genealogy of English noble families, and
+the second edition of "G.E.C.'s" _Complete Peerage_ shows the mighty
+advance of the modern critical spirit. Nevertheless, the 20th century
+has not yet seen the abandoning of all the genealogical fables nourished
+by the Elizabethan pedigree-mongers, and the ancestry of many noble
+houses as recorded in popular works of reference is still derived from
+mythical forefathers. Thus the dukes of Norfolk, who, by their office of
+earl marshal are patrons of the heralds, are provided with a
+10th-century Hereward for an ancestor; the dukes of Bedford, descendants
+of a 15th-century burgess of Weymouth, are traced to the knightly house
+of Russell of Kingston Russell, and the dukes of Westminster to the
+mythical Gilbert le Grosvenor who "came over in the train of the
+Conqueror."
+
+Genealogical research has, however, made great advance during the last
+generation. The critical spirit shown in such works as Round's _Studies
+in Peerage and Family History_ (1901) has assailed with effective
+ridicule the methods of dishonest pedigree-makers. Much raw material of
+genealogy has been made available for all by the publication of parish
+registers, marriage-licence allegations, monumental inscriptions and the
+like, and above all by the mass of evidences contained in the volumes
+issued by the Public Record Office.
+
+Within a small space it is impossible to set forth in detail the methods
+by which an English genealogy may be traced. But those who are setting
+out upon the task may be warned at the outset to avoid guesswork based
+upon the possession of a surname which may be shared by a dozen families
+between whom is no tie of kinship. A man whose family name is Howard may
+be presumed to descend from an ancestor for whom Howard was a personal
+name: it may not be presumed that this ancestor was he in whom the dukes
+of Norfolk have their origin. A genealogy should not be allowed to stray
+from facts which can be supported by evidence. A man may know that his
+grandfather was John Stiles who died in 1850 at the age of fifty-five.
+It does not follow that this John is identical with the John Stiles who
+is found as baptized in 1795 at Blackacre, the son of William Stiles.
+But if John the grandfather names in his letters a sister named Isabel
+Nokes, while the will of William Stiles gives legacies to his son and
+daughter John Stiles and Isabel Nokes, we may agree that reasonable
+proof has been given of the added generation. A new pedigree should
+begin with the carefully tested statements of living members of a
+family. The next step should be to collate such family records as bible
+entries, letters and diaries, and inscriptions on mourning rings, with
+monumental inscriptions of acknowledged members of the family. From such
+beginnings the genealogist will continue his search through the
+registers of parishes with which the family has been connected; wills
+and administrations registered in the various probate courts form, with
+parish registers, the backbone of most middle-class family histories.
+Court rolls of manors in which members of the family were tenants give,
+when existing and accessible, proofs which may carry back a line,
+however obscure, through many descents. When these have been exhausted
+the records of legal proceedings, and notably those of the court of
+chancery, may be searched. Few English households have been able in the
+past to avoid an appeal to the chancery court, and the bill and answer
+of a chancery plaintiff and defendant will often tell the story of a
+family quarrel in which a score of kinsfolk are involved, and the
+pleadings may contain the material for a family tree of many branching
+generations. Coram Rege and De Banco rolls may even, in the course of a
+dispute over a knight's fee or a manor carry a pedigree to the Conquest
+of England, although such good fortune can hardly be expected by the
+searcher out of an undistinguished line. In proving a genealogy it must
+be remembered that in the descent of an estate in land must be sought
+the best evidence for a pedigree.
+
+At the present time the study of genealogy grows rapidly in English
+estimation. It is no less popular in America, where societies and
+private persons have of late years published a vast number of
+genealogies, many of which combine the results of laborious research in
+American records with extravagant and unfounded claims concerning the
+European origin of the families dealt with. A family with the surname of
+Cuthbert has been known to hail St Cuthbert of Lindisfarne as its
+progenitor, and one surnamed Eberhardt has incorporated in its pedigree
+such German princes of old times as were found to have Eberhardt for a
+Christian name.
+
+Genealogy in modern France has, with a few honourable exceptions, fallen
+into the hands of the popular pedigree-makers, whose concern is to
+gratify the vanity of their employers. Italy likewise has not yet shaken
+off the influence of those venal genealogists who, three hundred years
+ago, sold pedigrees cheaply to all comers. But much laborious
+genealogical inquiry had been made in Germany since the days of Hubner,
+and even in Russia there has been some attempt to apply modern standards
+of criticism to the chronicles of the swarming descendants of the blood
+of Rurik.
+
+In no way is the gap made by the Dark Ages between ancient and modern
+history more marked than by the fact that no European family makes a
+serious claim to bridge it with its genealogy. The unsupported claim of
+the Roman house of Massimo to a descent from Fabius Maximus is
+respectable beside such legends as that which made Levis-Mirepoix head
+of the priestly tribe of Levi, but even the boast of such remote
+ancestry has now become rare. The ancient sovereign houses of Europe
+are, for the most part, content to attach themselves to some ancestor
+who, when the mist that followed the fall of the Western empire begins
+to lift, is seen rallying with his sword some group of spearmen.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Genealogical works have been published in such abundance
+  that the bibliographies of the subject are already substantial
+  volumes. Amongst the earlier books from the press may be noted
+  Benvenuto de San Georgio's _Montisferrati marchionum et principum
+  regiae propagium successionumque series_ (1515); Pingonius's _Arbor
+  gentilitiae Sabaudiae Saxoniaeque domus_ (1521); Gebweiler's _Epitome
+  regii ac vetustissimi ortus Caroli V. et Ferdinandi I., omniumque
+  archiducum Austriae et comitum Habsburgiensium_ (1527): Meyer's work
+  on the counts of Flanders (1531), and Du Boulay's genealogies of the
+  dukes of Lorraine (1547). Later in the same century Reineck of
+  Helmstadt put forth many works having a wider genealogical scope, and
+  we may cite Henninges's _Genealogiae Saxonicae_ (1587) and _Theatrum
+  genealogicum_ (1598), and Reusner's _Opus genealogicum catholicum_
+  (1589-1592). For the politically inconvenient falseness of Francois de
+  Rosieres' _Stemmata Lotharingiae ac Barri ducum_ (1580), wherein the
+  dukes of Lorraine were deduced from the line of Charlemagne, the
+  author was sent to the Bastille by the parlement of Paris and his book
+  suppressed.
+
+  The 17th century saw the production in England of Dugdale's great
+  _Baronage_ (1675-1676), a work which still holds a respectable place
+  by reason of its citation of authorities, and of Sandford's history of
+  the royal house. In the same century Andre Duchesne, the historian of
+  the Montmorencys, Pierre d'Hozier, the chronicler of the house of La
+  Rochefoucauld, Rittershusius, Imhoff, Spener, Lohmeier and many others
+  contribute to the body of continental genealogies. Pierre de Guibours,
+  known as Pere Anselme de Ste Marie, published in 1674 the first
+  edition of his magnificent _Histoire genealogique de la maison royale
+  de France, des pairs, grands officiers de la couronne et de la maison
+  du roy et des anciens barons du royaume_. Of this encyclopaedic work a
+  third and complete edition appeared in 1726-1733. A modern edition
+  under the editorship of M. Potier de Courcy began to be issued in
+  1873, but remains incomplete. Among 18th-century work Johann Hubner's
+  _Bibliotheca genealogica_ (1729) and _Genealogische Tabellen_
+  (1725-1733), with Lenzen's commentary on the latter work (c. 1756),
+  may be signalized, with Gatterer's _Handbuch der Genealogie_ (1761)
+  and his Abriss der Genealogie (1788), the latter an early manual on
+  the science of genealogy. Hergott's _Genealogia diplomatica augustae
+  gentis Habsburgicae_ (1737) is the imperial genealogy compiled by the
+  emperor's own historiographer.
+
+  Modern peerages in England may be said to date from that of Arthur
+  Collins, whose one-volume first edition was published in 1709. The
+  fifth edition appeared in 1778, in eight volumes, to be republished in
+  1812 by Sir Egerton Brydges, the "Baptist Hatton" of Disraeli's novel,
+  who corrected many legendary pedigrees, besides inserting his own
+  forged descent from a common ancestor with the dukes of Chandos. From
+  this work and from the Irish peerage of Lodge (as re-edited by
+  Archdall) most of the later peerages have quarried their material.
+  With these may be named the baronetages of Wotton and Betham. Of
+  modern popular peerages and baronetages that of Burke has been
+  published since 1822 in many editions and now appears yearly. Most
+  important for the historian are the _Complete Peerage_ of G.E.
+  C[ockayne] (2nd ed., 1910), and the _Complete Baronetage_ of the same
+  author. The _Peerage of Scotland_ (1769) of Sir Robert Douglas of
+  Glenbervie came to a second edition in 1813, edited by J.P. Wood, and
+  the whole work has been revised and re-edited by Sir James Balfour
+  Paul (1904, &c.). Of the popular manuals of English untitled families,
+  Burke's _Genealogical and Heraldic Dictionary of the Commoners_
+  (1833-1838) is now brought up to date from time to time and reissued
+  as the _Landed Gentry_.
+
+  Lists of pedigrees in English printed works are supplied by Marshall's
+  _Genealogist's Guide_ (1903), while pedigrees in the manuscript
+  collections of the British Museum are indexed in the list of R. Sims
+  (1849). Valuable genealogical material will be found in such
+  periodicals as the _Genealogist_, the _Herald and Genealogist_, the
+  _Topographer and Genealogist_, _Collectanea topographica et
+  genealogica_, _Miscellanea genealogica et heraldica_ and the
+  _Ancestor_. In Germany the _Deutscher Herold_ is the organ of the
+  Berlin Heraldic and Genealogical Society. The _Nederlandsche Leeuw_ is
+  a similar publication in the Low Countries.
+
+  Modern criticism of the older genealogical methods will be found in
+  J.H. Round's _Peerage and Pedigree_, 2 vols. (London, 1910), and in
+  other volumes by the same author. The Harleian Society has published
+  many volumes of the Herald's Visitations; and the British Record
+  Society's publications, supplying a key to a vast mass of wills,
+  Chancery suits and marriage licences, are of still greater importance.
+  The _Victoria History of the Counties of England_ includes
+  genealogies of the ancient English county families still among the
+  land-owning classes. English pedigrees of the age before the Conquest
+  are collected in W.G. Searle's _Anglo-Saxon Bishops, Kings and Nobles_
+  (1899).
+
+  Genealogical dictionaries of noble French families include Victor de
+  Saint Allais's _Nobiliaire universel_ (21 vols., 1872-1877) and Aubert
+  de la Chenaye-Desbois' _Dictionnaire de la noblesse_ (15 vols.,
+  1863-1876). A sumptuous work on the genealogy and heraldry of the
+  ancient duchy of Savoy by Count Amedee de Foras began to appear in
+  1863. Spain has Lopez de Haro's _Nobiliario genealogico de los reyes y
+  titulos de Espana_. Italy has the _Teatro araldico_ of Tettoni and
+  Saladini (1841-1848), Litti's _Famiglie celebri_ and an _Annuario
+  della nobilita_. Such annuals are now published more or less
+  intermittently in many European countries. Finland has a _Ridderscap
+  och Adels Kalender_, Belgium the _Annuaire de la noblesse_, the Dutch
+  Netherlands an _Adelsboek_, Denmark the _Adels-Garbog_ and Russia the
+  _Annuaire_ of Ermerin. But chief of all such publications is the
+  ancient _Almanach de Gotha_, containing the modern kinship of royal
+  and princely houses, and now accompanied by volumes dealing with the
+  houses of German and Austrian counts and barons, and with houses
+  ennobled in modern times by patent. A useful modern reference book for
+  students of history is Stokvis's _Manuel d'histoire et de genealogie
+  de tous les etats du globe_ (1888-1893). The best manual for the
+  English genealogist is Walter Rye's _Records and Record Searching_
+  (1897), while an ill-arranged but valuable bibliography of English and
+  foreign works on the subject is that of George Gatfield (1892).
+       (O. Ba.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] G.B. Gray's _Hebrew Proper Names_ (1896), with his article in the
+    _Expositor_ (Sept. 1897), pp. 173-190, should be consulted for the
+    application and range of Hebrew names in O. T. genealogies and lists.
+
+  [2] On the subject generally see articles "Genos" and "Gens," by A.H.
+    Greenidge, in Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_
+    (3rd ed., 1890), where the chief authorities are given.
+
+  [3] The fondness of Euripides for genealogies is ridiculed by
+    Aristophanes (_Acharnians_, 47).
+
+  [4] All the earlier Greek historians appear to have constructed their
+    narratives on assumed genealogical bases. The four books of Hecataeus
+    of Miletus dealt respectively with the traditions about Deucalion,
+    about Heracles and the Heraclidae, about the early settlements in
+    Peloponnesus, and about those in Asia Minor; he further made a
+    pedigree for himself, in which his sixteenth ancestor was a god. The
+    works of Hellanicus of Lesbos bore titles ([Greek: Deukalioneia] and
+    the like) which sufficiently explain their nature; his disciple,
+    Damastes of Sigeum, was the author of genealogical histories of
+    Trojan heroes; Apollodorus of Athens made use of three books of
+    [Greek: Genealogika] by Acusilaus of Argos; Pherecydes of Leros also
+    wrote [Greek: genealogiai]. See J.A.F. Topffer, _Attische Genealogie_
+    (1889); also J.H. Schubart, _Quaestt. geneal. historicae_ (1832); G.
+    Marckscheffel, _De genealogica Graecorum poesi_ (1840).
+
+  [5] The chief authority on this subject is Polybius (vi. 53); see
+    also T. Mommsen, _Romisches Staatsrecht_, i. (1887), p. 442.
+
+  [6] At the funeral of Drusus the images of Aeneas, of the Alban
+    kings, of Romulus, of the Sabine nobles, of Attus Clausus, and of
+    "the rest of the Claudians" were exhibited (Tac. _Ann._ iv. 9).
+
+  [7] The Roman stemmata had, as will be seen afterwards, great
+    interest for the older modern genealogists. Reference may be made to
+    J. Glandorp's _Descriptio gentis Antoniae_ (1557); to the _Descriptio
+    gentis Juliae_ (1576) of the same author; and to J. Hubner's
+    _Genealogische Tabellen_. See also G.A. Ruperti's _Tabulae
+    genealogicae sive stemmata nobiliss_. gent. Rom. (1794).     (X.)
+
+
+
+
+GENELLI, GIOVANNI BUONAVENTURA (1798-1868), German painter, was born at
+Berlin on the 28th of September 1798. He was the son of Janus Genelli, a
+painter whose landscapes are still preserved in the Schloss at Berlin,
+and grandson to Joseph Genelli, a Roman embroiderer employed to found a
+school of gobelins by Frederick the Great. Buonaventura Genelli first
+took lessons from his father and then became a student of the Berlin
+academy. After serving his time in the guards he went with a stipend to
+Rome, where he lived ten years, a friend and assistant to Koch the
+landscape painter, a colleague of the sculptor Ernst Hahnel (1811-1891),
+Reinhart, Overbeck and Fuhrich, all of whom made a name in art. In 1830
+he was commissioned by Dr Hartel to adorn a villa at Leipzig with
+frescoes, but quarrelling with this patron he withdrew to Munich, where
+he earned a scanty livelihood at first, though he succeeded at last in
+acquiring repute as an illustrative and figure draughtsman. In 1859 he
+was appointed a professor at Weimar, where he died on the 13th of
+November 1868. Genelli painted few pictures, and it is very rare to find
+his canvases in public galleries, but there are six of his compositions
+in oil in the Schack collection at Munich. These and numerous
+water-colours, as well as designs for engravings and lithographs, reveal
+an artist of considerable power whose ideal was the antique, but who was
+also fascinated by the works of Michelangelo. Though a German by birth,
+his spirit was unlike that of Overbeck or Fuhrich, whose art was
+reminiscent of the old masters of their own country. He seemed to hark
+back to the land of his fathers and endeavour to revive the traditions
+of the Italian Renaissance. Subtle in thought and powerfully conceived,
+his compositions are usually mythological, but full of matter, energetic
+and fiery in execution, and marked almost invariably by daring effects
+of foreshortening. Impeded by straitened means, the artist seems
+frequently to have drawn from imagination rather than from life, and
+much of his anatomy of muscle is in consequence conventional and false.
+But none the less Genelli merits his reputation as a bold and
+imaginative artist, and his name deserves to be remembered beyond the
+narrow limits of the early schools of Munich and Weimar.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL (Lat. _generalis_, of or relating to a _genus_, kind or class),
+a term which, from its pointing to all or most of the members of a
+class, the whole of an area, &c. as opposed to "particular" or to
+"local," is hence used in various shades of meaning, for that which is
+prevalent, usual, widespread or miscellaneous, indefinite, vague. It has
+been added to the titles of various officials, military officers and
+others; thus the head of a religious order is the "superior-general,"
+more usually the "general," and we find the same combination in such
+offices as that of "accountant-general," "postmaster-general,"
+"attorney-" or "solicitor-general," and many others, the additional word
+implying that the official in question is of superior rank, as having a
+wider authority or sphere of activity. This is the use that accounts
+for the application of the term, as a substantive, to a military officer
+of superior rank, a "general officer," or "general," who commands or
+administers bodies of troops larger than a regiment, or consisting of
+more than one arm of the service (see also OFFICERS). It was towards the
+end of the 16th century that the word began to be used in its present
+sense as a noun, and in the armies of the time the "general" was
+commander-in-chief, the "lieutenant-general" commander of the horse and
+second in command of the army, and the "major-general" (strictly
+"sergeant-major-general") commander of the foot and chief of the staff.
+Field marshals, who have now the highest rank, were formerly subordinate
+to the general officers. These titles--general, lieutenant-general and
+major-general--are still applied in most armies to the first, second and
+third grades of general officer, and in the French service until 1870
+the chief of the staff of the army bore the title of major-general. In
+the German and Russian services the three grades are qualified by the
+addition of the words "of cavalry," "of infantry" and "of artillery."
+The French service possesses only two grades, "general of brigade" and
+"general of division." The Austrian service has two ranks of general
+officers peculiar to itself, "lieutenant field marshal," equivalent to
+lieutenant-general, and _Feldzeugmeister_ (master of the ordnance),
+equivalent to the German general of infantry or artillery. There is also
+the rank of "general of cavalry." The Spanish army still retains the old
+term "captain-general." In the German service _General Oberst_
+(colonel-general) and _General Feldzeugmeister_ (master-general of
+ordnance) are ranks intermediate between that of full general and that
+of general field marshal. It may be noted that during the 17th century
+"general" was not confined to a commanding officer of an army, and was
+also equivalent to "admiral"; thus when under the Protectorate the
+office of lord high admiral was put into commission, the three first
+commissioners, Blake, Edward Popham and Richard Deane, were styled
+"generals at sea."
+
+
+
+
+GENERATION (from Lat. _generare_, to beget, procreate; _genus_, stock,
+race), the act of procreation or begetting, hence any one of the various
+methods by which plants, animals or substances are produced. As applied
+to the result of procreation, "generation" is used of the offspring of
+the same parents, taken as one degree in descent from a common ancestor,
+or, widely, of the body of living persons born at or near the same time;
+thus the word is also used of the age or period of a generation, usually
+taken as about thirty years, or three generations to a century. As a
+term in biology or physiology, generation is synonymous with the Gr.
+[Greek: biogenesis] and the Ger. _Zeugung_, and may comprehend the whole
+history of the first origin and continued reproduction of living bodies,
+whether plants or animals; but it is frequently restricted to the sexual
+reproduction of animals. The subject may be divided into the following
+branches, viz.: (1) the first origin of life and living beings, (2)
+non-sexual or agamic reproduction, and (3) gamic or sexual reproduction.
+For the first two of these topics see ABIOGENESIS, BIOGENESIS and
+BIOLOGY; for the third and more extensive division, including (1) the
+formation and fecundation of the ovum, and (2) the development of the
+embryo in different animals, see REPRODUCTION and EMBRYOLOGY.
+
+
+
+
+GENESIS (Gr. [Greek: genesis], becoming; the term being used in English
+as a synonym for origin or process of coming into being), the name of
+the first book in the Bible, which derives its title from the Septuagint
+rendering of ch. ii. 4. It is the first of the five books (the
+Pentateuch), or, with the inclusion of Joshua, of the six (the
+Hexateuch), which cover the history of the Hebrews to their occupation
+of Canaan. The "genesis" of Hebrew history begins with records of
+antediluvian times: the creation of the world, of the first pair of
+human beings, and the origin of sin (i.-iii.), the civilization and
+moral degeneration of mankind, the history of man to the time of Noah
+(iv.-vi. 8), the flood (vi. 9-ix.), the confusion of languages and the
+divisions of the human race (x.-xi.). Turning next to the descendants of
+Shem, the book deals with Abraham (xii.-xxv. 18), Isaac and Jacob (xxv.
+19-xxxv.), the "fathers" of the tribes of Israel, and concludes with
+the personal history of Joseph, and the descent of his father Jacob (or
+Israel) and his brethren into the land of Egypt (xxxvii.-l.). The book
+of Genesis, as a whole, is closely connected with the subsequent
+oppression of the sons of Israel, the revelation of Yahweh the God of
+their fathers (Ex. iii. 6, 15 seq., vi. 2-8), the "exodus" of the
+Israelites to the land promised to their fathers (Ex. xiii. 5, Deut. i.
+8, xxvi. 3 sqq., xxxiv. 4) and its conquest (Josh. i. 6, xxiv.); cf.
+also the summaries Neh. ix. 7 sqq., Ps. cv. 6 sqq.
+
+
+    Analysis.
+
+  The words, "these are the generations of the heavens and of the earth
+  when they were created" (ii. 4), introduce an account of the creation
+  of the world, which, however, is preceded by a relatively later and
+  less primitive record (i. 1-ii. 3). The differences between the two
+  accounts lie partly in the style and partly in the form and contents
+  of the narratives. i. 1-ii. 3 is marked by stereotyped formulae ("and
+  God [_Elohim_] said ... and it was so ... and God saw that it was
+  good, and there was evening and there was morning," &c.); it is
+  precise and detailed, whereas ii. 4b-iii. is less systematic, fresher
+  and more anthropomorphic. The former is cosmic, the latter is local.
+  It is the latter which mentions the mysterious garden and the
+  wonderful trees which Yahweh planted, and depicts Yahweh conversing
+  with man and walking in the garden in the cool of the evening. The
+  former, on the other hand, has an enlightened conception of _Elohim_;
+  the Deity, though grand, is a lifeless figure; several antique ideas
+  are nevertheless preserved. The account of the creation, too, is
+  different; for example, in chap. i. man and woman are created
+  together, whereas in ii. man is at first alone. The naiveness of the
+  story of the creation of woman is in line with the interest which this
+  more popular source takes in the origin or existence of phenomena,
+  customs and contemporary beliefs (the garden, the naming of animals,
+  &c.). The primitive record is continued in the story of Cain and Abel
+  (iv.), where the old-time problem of Cain's wife and the reference to
+  other human beings (iv. 14 seq.) gave rise in pre-critical days to the
+  theory of pre-Adamites, as though Adam and Eve were not the only
+  inhabitants of the earth. But all the indications go to show that
+  there were at least two distinct popular narratives, one of which
+  ignores the flood. Cain the murderer, doomed to be a wanderer, now
+  becomes the builder of a city, and his descendants introduce various
+  arts (iv. 16b-24).[1] (See the articles ABEL; ADAM; CAIN; COSMOGENY;
+  ENOCH; EVE; LAMECH.) From the "generations" of the heavens and the
+  earth (which one would have expected at the head of ch. i.) we pass to
+  the "generations of Adam" (v. 1). The list of the "Sethites," with its
+  characteristically stereotyped framework, has an older parallel in iv.
+  25 seq. (with the origin of the worship of Yahweh contrast Ex. vi. 2.
+  seq.), and a fragment from the same source is found in v. 29.
+
+  After the birth of Noah the son of Lamech (v. 29, contrast iv. 19
+  sqq.) comes the brief story of the demigods (vi. 1-4). It is no part
+  of the account of the fall or of the flood (note verse 4 and Num.
+  xiii. 33), least of all does it furnish grounds for the old view of
+  the division of the human race into evil Cainites and God-fearing
+  Sethites. The excerpt with its description of the fall of the angels
+  is used to form a prelude to the wickedness of man and the avenging
+  flood (vi. 5). Noah, the father of Ham, Shem and Japheth, appears as
+  the hero in the Hebrew version of the flood (see DELUGE; NOAH).
+  Duplicates (vi. 5-8, 9-13) and discrepancies (vi. 19 sq. contrasted
+  with vii. 2; or vii. 11, viii. 14 contrasted with viii. 8, 10, 12)
+  point to the use of two sources (harmonizing passages in vii. 3, 7-9).
+  The later narrative, which begins with "the generations" of Noah (vi.
+  9-22; vii. 6, 11, 13-17a, 18-21, 24; viii. 1-2a, 3b-5, 13a, 14-19; ix.
+  1-17), is almost complete; note the superscription and the length of
+  the flood (365 days; according to other notices the flood apparently
+  lasted only 61 or 68 days). In the earlier source Noah collects seven
+  pairs of clean animals, one of each kind; he sacrifices after leaving
+  the ark, and Yahweh promises not to curse the ground or to smite
+  living things again. But in the later, he takes only one pair, and
+  subsequently Elohim blesses Noah and makes a covenant never again to
+  destroy all flesh by a flood.[2] The covenant (characteristic of the
+  latest narratives in Genesis) also prohibits the shedding of blood
+  (cf. the story of Cain and Abel in the earlier source). Mankind is now
+  made to descend from the three sons of Noah. The older story, however,
+  continues with another step in the history of civilization, and to
+  Noah is ascribed the cult of the vine, the abuse of which leads to the
+  utterance of a curse upon Canaan and a blessing upon Shem and Japheth
+  (ix. 20-27). The table of nations in x. ("the generations of the sons
+  of Noah") preserves several signs of composite origin (contrast e.g.
+  x. 7 with vv. 28 sq., Ludim v. 13 with v. 22, and the Canaanite
+  families v. 16 with the dispersion "afterwards," v. 18, &c.); see
+  CANAAN; GENEALOGY; NIMROD. The history of the primitive age concludes
+  with the story of the tower of Babel (xi. 1-9), which, starting from
+  a popular etymology of Babel ("gate of God"), as though from Balbel
+  ("confusion"), tells how Yahweh feared lest mankind should become too
+  powerful (cf. iii. 22-24), and seeks to explain the origin of the
+  numerous languages in use. It is independent of x., which already
+  assumes a confusion of tongues (vv. 5, 20, 31), the existence of Babel
+  (v. 10), and gives a different account of the rise of the various
+  races. This incident in the journey eastwards (xi. 2) is equally
+  independent of the story of the Deluge and of Noah's family (see
+  Wellhausen, _Prolegomena_, p. 316). The continuation of the chapter,
+  "the generations of Shem" (xi. 10-27, see the Shemite genealogy in x.
+  21 sqq., and contrast the ages with vi. 3), is in the same stereotyped
+  style as ch. v., and prepares the way for the history of the
+  patriarchs.
+
+  The "generations of Terah" (xi. 27) lead to the introduction of the
+  first great patriarch Abraham (q.v.).[3] There is a twofold account of
+  his migration to Bethel with his nephew Lot; the more statistical form
+  in xi. 31 sq., xii. 4b, 5 belongs to the latest source. The statement
+  that the Canaanite was then in the land (xii. 6, cf. xiii. 7) points
+  to a time long after the Israelite conquest, when readers needed such
+  a reminder (so Hobbes in his _Leviathan_, 1651). A famine forces him
+  to descend into Egypt, where a story of Sarai (here at least 65 years
+  of age; see xii. 4, xvii. 17) is one of three variants of a similar
+  peculiar incident (cf. xx. 1-17, xxvi. 6-14). The passage is an
+  insertion (xii. 10-xiii. 2; xii. 9, xiii. 3 seq. being harmonistic).
+  The thread is resumed in the account of the separation of the
+  patriarch and his nephew Lot, who divide the land between them.
+  Abraham occupies Canaan, but moves south to Hebron, which, according
+  to Josh. xiv. 15, was formerly known as Kirjath-Arba. Lot dwells in
+  the basin of the Jordan, and his history is continued in the story of
+  the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (xviii.-xix.; Hos. xi. 8, Deut.
+  xxix. 23 speak of Admah and Zeboim). Lot is saved and becomes the
+  ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites, who are thus closely related
+  to the descendants of Abraham (note xix. 37, "unto this day"). The
+  great war with Amraphel and Chedorlaomer--the defeat of a
+  world-conquering army by 318 men--with the episode of Melchizedek,
+  noteworthy for the reference to Jerusalem (xiv. 18, cf. Ps. lxxvi. 2),
+  has nothing in common with the context (see ABRAHAM; MELCHIZEDEK). It
+  treats as individuals the place-names Mamre and Eshcol (xiv. 13, cf.
+  Num. xiii. 23 seq.), and by mentioning Dan (v. 14) anticipates the
+  events in Josh. xix. 47, Judg. xviii. 29.[4] A cycle of narratives
+  deals with the promise that the barren Sarai (Sarah) should bear a
+  child whose descendants would inhabit the land of Canaan. The
+  importance of the tradition for the history of Israel explains both
+  the prominence given to it (cf. already xii. 7, xiii. 14-17) and their
+  present complicated character (due to repeated revision). The older
+  narratives comprise (a) the promise that Abraham shall have a son of
+  his own flesh (xv.)--the account is composite;[5] (b) the birth of
+  Ishmael, Abraham's son by Hagar, their exile, and Yahweh's promise
+  (xvi., with a separate framework in vv. 1a. 3, 15 seq.)--before the
+  birth of Isaac; and (c) the promise of a son to Sarai (xviii. 1-15),
+  now combined with the story of Lot and the overthrow of Sodom. The
+  latest source (xvii.) is marked by the solemn covenant between Yahweh
+  and Abraham, the revelation of God Almighty (El-Shaddai, cf. Ex. vi.
+  3), and the institution of circumcision (otherwise treated in Ex. iv.
+  26, Josh. v. 2 seq.). The more elevated character of this source as
+  contrasted with xv. and xviii. is as striking as the difference of
+  religious tone in the two accounts of the creation (above). Abraham
+  now travels thence (xx. 1, Hebron, see xviii. 1), and his adventure in
+  the land of Abimelech, king of Gerar (xx.), is a duplicate of xii.
+  (above). It is continued in xxi. 22-34, which has a close parallel in
+  the life of Isaac (xxvi., below). Isaac is born in accordance with the
+  divine promise (xviii. 10 at Hebron); the scene is the south of
+  Palestine. The story of the dismissal of Hagar and Ishmael, and the
+  revelation (xxi. 8-21) cannot be separated from xvi. 4-14, where vv. 9
+  seq. are intended to harmonize the passages. Although about sixteen
+  years intervene (see xvi. 16; xxi. 5, 8), Ishmael is a young child who
+  has to be carried (xxi. 15), but the Hebrew text of xxi. 14 (not,
+  however, the Septuagint) endeavours to remove the discrepancy.[6]
+  "After these things" comes the offering of Isaac which implicitly
+  annuls the sacrifice of the first-born, a not unfamiliar rite in
+  Palestine as the denunciations prove (cf. Ezek. xvi. 20 seq., xx. 26;
+  Mic. vi. 7; Is. lvii. 5), and thus marks an advance, e.g. upon the
+  story of Jephthah's daughter (Judg. xi.). The story may be contrasted
+  with the Phoenician account of the sacrifice by Cronos (to be
+  identified with El) of his only son, which practically justified the
+  horrid custom. The detailed account of the purchase of the cave of
+  Machpelah (contrast the brevity of xxxiii. 19) is of great importance
+  for the traditions of the patriarchs, and, like the references to the
+  death of Sarah and Abraham, belongs to the latest source (xxiii., xxv.
+  7-11a).[7] The idyllic picture of life in xxiv. presupposes that Isaac
+  is sole heir (v. 36); since this is first stated in xxv. 5, it is
+  probable that xxv. 5, 11b (and perhaps vv. 6, 18) are out of place. It
+  is noteworthy that the district is Abraham's native place (xxiv. 4, 7,
+  10; contrast the Babylonian home specified in xi. 28, 31; xv. 7). In
+  xxv. 1 sqq. Abraham takes as wife (but _concubine_, 1 Chron. i. 32
+  seq.) Keturah ("incense") and becomes the father of various Arab
+  tribes, e.g. Sheba and Dedan (grandsons of Cush in x. 7).
+
+  After "the generations of Ishmael" (xxv. 12 sqq.) the narrative turns
+  to "the generations of Isaac" (xxv. 19 sqq.). The story of the events
+  at the court of Abimelech (xxvi.) finds a parallel in the now
+  disjointed xx., xxi. 22-34; note the new explanation of Beersheba, the
+  reference in xxvi. 1 to the parallel story in xii., the absence of
+  allusion to xx., and the apparent editorial references to xxi. in vv.
+  15, 18. On the whole, the story of Isaac's wife at Gerar is briefer
+  and not so elevated as that of Sarah, but the parallel to xxi. 22-34
+  is more detailed. The birth of Esau and Jacob (xxv. 21-34) introduces
+  the story of Jacob's craft when Isaac is on the point of death
+  (xxvii.). Jacob flees to Laban at Haran to escape Esau's hatred
+  (xxvii. 41-45); but, according to the latest source (P), he is charged
+  by Isaac to go to Paddan-Aram, and take a wife there, and his father
+  transfers to him the blessing of Abraham (xxvii. 46-xxviii. 9). On his
+  way to Haran he stops at Bethel (formerly Luz, according to Judg. i.
+  22-26), where a vision prompts him to accept the God of the place
+  should he return in peace to his father's home (xxviii. 10-22). He
+  passes to the land of "the children of the east" (xxix. 1), and the
+  scenes which follow are scarcely situated at Haran, the famous and
+  ancient seat of the worship of the moon-god, but in the desert. Here
+  he resides fifteen years or more, and by the daughters of Laban and
+  their handmaidens becomes the "father" of the tribes of Israel. There
+  are numerous traces of composition from different sources, but a
+  satisfactory analysis is impossible.[8] The flight of Jacob and his
+  household (from Paddan-Aram, xxxi. 18 P) leads over "the River" (v.
+  21, i.e. the Euphrates); though the seven days' journey of this
+  concourse of men and cattle suggests that he came to Gilead, not from
+  Haran (300 m. distant), but from some nearer locality. This is to be
+  taken with the evidence against Haran already noticed, with the use of
+  the term "children of the east" (xxix. 1; cf. Jer. xlix. 28; Ezek.
+  xxv. 4, 10), and with the details of Laban's kindred (xxii. 20-24).[9]
+  The arrival at Mahanaim ("[two?] camps") gives rise to specific
+  allusions to the meaning of the name (xxxii. 1 seq., 7-12, 13-21); cf.
+  also the plays upon Jabbok, Israel and Peniel in xxxii. 22-32. He
+  meets Esau (xxxii. 3-21, xxxiii. 1-16, another reference to Peniel,
+  "face of God," in v. 10), but they part. Jacob now comes to Shechem
+  "in peace" (cf. the phrase in xxviii. 21), where he buys land and
+  erects an altar (xxxiii. 18-20, cf. Abraham in xii. 6 seq.). There is
+  a remarkable story of the violation of his daughter Dinah by Shechem,
+  the son of Hamor the Hivite (xxxiv.). It has been heavily revised;
+  note the alternating prominence of Hamor and Shechem, the condemnation
+  of Simeon and Levi for their vengeance (cf. the curse in xlix. 5-7),
+  the destruction of the city Shechem by all the sons of Jacob, and the
+  survival of the Hamorites as a family centuries later (xxxiii. 19,
+  Judg. ix. 28). The narrative continues with Jacob's journey to Bethel,
+  the death of Deborah (who accompanied Rebekah to Palestine 140 years
+  previously, see xxiv. 59, and the latest source in xxv. 20, xxxv. 28),
+  the death of Rachel (xxxv. 16-20, contrast xxxvii. 10), and ceases
+  abruptly in the middle of a sentence (xxxv. 22, but see xlix. 3-4).
+  The latest source (xxxv. 9-13, 15, 22b-29) gives another account of
+  the origin of the names Israel (cf. xxxii. 28) and Bethel (cf. xxviii.
+  19), and the genealogy wrongly includes Benjamin among the sons born
+  outside Palestine (vv. 24-26). In narrating Jacob's leisurely return
+  to Isaac at Hebron, the writers quite ignore the many years which have
+  elapsed since he left his father at the point of death in Beersheba
+  (xxvii. 1, 2, 7, 10, 41).
+
+  "The generations of Esau, the same is Edom," provide much valuable
+  material for the study of Israel's rival (xxxvi.). The chapter gives
+  yet another account of the separation of Jacob and Esau (with vv. 6-8,
+  cf. Abraham and Lot, xiii. 5 seq.), and describes the latter's
+  withdrawal to Seir (cf. already xxxii. 3; xxxiii. 14, 16). It includes
+  lists of diverse origin (e.g. vv. 2-5, contrast xxvi. 34, xxviii. 9);
+  various "dukes" (R.V. marg. "chiefs"), or rather "thousands" or
+  "clans"; and also the "sons" of Seir the Horite, i.e. Horite clans
+  (vv. 20 seq. and vv. 29 seq.). A summary of Edomite kings is ascribed
+  to the period before the Israelite monarchy (vv. 31-39), and the
+  record concludes with the "dukes" of Esau, the father of the Edomites
+  (vv. 40-43, cf. names in vv. 10-14, 15-19).[10]
+
+  Finally, Genesis turns from the patriarchs to the "generations of
+  Jacob" (xxxvii. 2), and we have stories of the "sons," the ancestors
+  of the tribes. (In xxxiv. the incidents which primarily concerned
+  Simeon and Levi alone have, however, been adjusted to the general
+  history of Jacob and his family.) The first place is given to Joseph
+  (xxxvii.), although xxxviii. crowds the early history of the family of
+  Judah into the twenty-two years between xxxvii. 2 and Jacob's descent
+  into Egypt (see xli. 46, 47; xlv. 6).[11] In xxxvii., xxxix. sqq. we
+  have an admirable specimen of writing quite distinct in stamp from the
+  patriarchal stories. The romance which has here been utilized shows an
+  acquaintance with Egypt; the narratives are discursive, not laconic,
+  everything is more detailed, and more under the influence of literary
+  art. The Reuben and Simeon which appear in it are not the characters
+  which we meet in xxxiv., xxxv. 22, or in the poem xlix. 3-7; and the
+  tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh do not scruple to claim ancestry from
+  Joseph and the daughter of an Egyptian priest at the seat of the
+  worship of the sun-god (xli. 45). The narratives are composite. Joseph
+  incurs the ill-will of his brethren because of Israel's partiality or
+  because of his significant dreams. He is at Shechem or at Dothan; and
+  when the brothers seek to slay him, Judah proposes that he should be
+  sold to Ishmaelites, or Reuben suggests that he should be cast into a
+  pit, where Midianites find and kidnap him (xxxvii., cf. xl. 15). The
+  latter sell him to the eunuch Potiphar, but he appears in the service
+  of a married householder (xxxix., the second clause of v. 1
+  harmonizes). Among other signs of dual origin are the alternation of
+  "Jacob" and "Israel," and the prominence of Judah (xliii. 3, 8; xliv.
+  14, 18) or of Reuben (xlii. 22, 37). The money is found in a "bag" as
+  the brothers encamp (xlii. 27, 28a; xliii.), or in a "sack" when they
+  reach home (xlii. 8-26, 29-35, 28b, 36 sq.). When Israel and his
+  family descend into Egypt, the latest source gives a detailed list
+  which agrees in the main with the Israelite subdivisions (xlvi. 6-27,
+  cf. Num. xxvi. and 1 Chron. ii.-viii.). The families dwell in the land
+  of Goshen, east of the Delta, "for every shepherd is an abomination
+  unto the Egyptians" (xlv. 10; xlvi. 28-34; xlvii. 1-6); or they are in
+  the "land of Rameses" (xlvii. 11, and Septuagint in xlvi. 28);[12]
+  Joseph's policy during the famine is next described (xlvii. 13-26),
+  although it would have been more in place after xli. (see _ib._ 34).
+  There are several difficulties in Jacob's blessing of the sons of
+  Joseph (xlviii.).[13] The blessing in xlix. is a collection of
+  poetical passages praising or blaming the various tribes, and must
+  certainly date after the Israelite settlement in Palestine; see
+  further the articles on the tribes. Jacob's dying instructions to
+  Joseph (xlvii. 29-31) are continued in l. 1 sqq., his charge to his
+  sons (xlix. 28 sqq., P) in l. 12 seq. It is significant that Jacob's
+  body is taken to Palestine, but the brethren return to Egypt; in spite
+  of a possible allusion to the famine in v. 21, the late chronological
+  scheme would imply that it had long ceased (see xlv. 6, xlvii. 28).
+  The book closes with the death of Joseph about fifty years later,
+  after the birth of the children of Machir, who himself was a
+  contemporary of Moses forty years after the Exodus (Num. xxxii.
+  39-41). Joseph's body is embalmed, but it is not until the concluding
+  chapter of the book of Joshua (xxiv. 32) that his bones find their
+  last resting-place.
+
+
+  A composite work.
+
+Only on the assumption that the book of Genesis is a composite work is
+it possible to explain the duplication of events, the varying use of the
+divine names _Yahweh_ and _Elohim_, the linguistic and stylistic
+differences, the internal intricacies of the subject matter, and the
+differing standpoints as regards tradition, chronology, morals and
+religion.[14] The cumulative effect of the whole evidence is too strong
+to be withstood, and already in the 17th century it was recognized that
+the book was of composite origin. Immense labour has been spent in the
+critical analysis of the contents, but it is only since the work of Graf
+(1866) and Wellhausen (1878) that a satisfactory literary hypothesis has
+been found which explained the most obvious intricacies. The
+Graf-Wellhausen literary theory has gained the assent of almost all
+trained and unbiased biblical scholars, it has not been shaken by the
+more recent light from external evidence, and no alternative theory has
+as yet been produced. The internal features of Genesis demand some
+formulated theory, more precise than the indefinite concessions of the
+17th century, beyond which the opponents of modern literary criticism
+scarcely advance, and the Graf-Wellhausen theory, in spite of the
+numerous difficulties which it leaves untouched, is the only adequate
+starting-point for the study of the book. According to this, Genesis is
+a post-exilic work composed of a post-exilic priestly source (P) and
+non-priestly earlier sources which differ markedly from P in language,
+style and religious standpoint, but much less markedly from one and
+another.[15] These sources can be traced elsewhere in the Pentateuch and
+Joshua, and P itself is related to the post-exilic works Chronicles,
+Ezra and Nehemiah. In its _present_ form Genesis is an indispensable
+portion of the biblical history, and consequently its literary growth
+cannot be viewed apart from that of the books which follow. On internal
+grounds it appears that the Pentateuch and Joshua, as they now read,
+virtually come in between an older history by "Deuteronomic" compilers
+(easily recognizable in Judges and Kings), and the later treatment of
+the monarchy in Chronicles, where the influence of the circle which
+produced P and the present Mosaic legislation is quite discernible.
+There have been stages where earlier extant sources have been cut down,
+adjusted or revised by compilers who have incorporated fresh material,
+and it is the later compilers of Genesis who have made the book a fairly
+knit whole. The technical investigation of the _literary_ problems
+(especially the extent of the earlier sources) is a work of great
+complexity, and, for ordinary purposes, it is more important to obtain a
+preliminary appreciation of the general features of the contents of
+Genesis.
+
+
+  Value of traditions.
+
+That the records of the pre-historic ages in Gen. i.-xi. are at complete
+variance with modern science and archaeological research is
+unquestionable.[16] But although it is impossible to regard them any
+longer either as genuine history or as subjects for an allegorical
+interpretation (which would prove the accuracy of _any_ record) they are
+of distinct value as human documents. They reflect the ideas and
+thoughts of the Hebrews, they illustrate their conceptions of God and
+the universe, and they furnish material for a comparison of the moral
+development of the Hebrews with that of other early races. Some of the
+traditions are closely akin to those current in ancient Babylonia, but a
+careful and impartial comparison at once illustrates in a striking
+manner the relative moral and spiritual superiority of our writers. On
+these subjects see further COSMOGONY; DELUGE.[17]
+
+The records of the patriarchal age, xii.-l. are very variously
+estimated, although the great majority of scholars agree that they are
+not contemporary and that they cannot be used, as they stand, for
+pre-Mosaic times. Apart from the ordinary arguments of historical
+criticism, it is to be noticed that external evidence does not support
+the assumption that the records preserve genuine pre-Mosaic history.
+There are no grounds for any arbitrary distinction between the
+"pre-historic" pre-Abrahamic age and the later age. External evidence,
+which recognizes no universal deluge and no dispersal of mankind in the
+third millennium B.C., throws its own light upon the opening centuries
+of the second. It has revealed conditions which are not reflected in
+Genesis, and important facts upon which the book is silent--unless,
+indeed, there is a passing allusion to the great Babylonian monarch
+Khammurabi in the Amraphel of Gen. xiv. Any careful perusal of modern
+attempts to recover historical facts or an historical outline from the
+book will show how very inadequate the material proves to be, and the
+reconstructions will be found to depend upon an interpretation of the
+narratives which is often liberal and not rarely precarious, and to
+imply such reshaping and rewriting of the presumed facts that the
+cautious reader can place little reliance on them. Whatever future
+research may bring, it cannot remove the _internal_ peculiarities which
+combine to show that Genesis preserves, not literal history, but popular
+traditions of the past. External evidence has proved the antiquity of
+various elements, but not that of the form or context in which they now
+appear; and the difference is an important one. We have now a background
+upon which to view the book, and, on the one hand, it has become obvious
+that the records preserve--as is only to be expected--Oriental customs,
+beliefs and modes of thought. But it has not been demonstrated that
+these are exclusively pre-Mosaic. On the other hand, a better
+acquaintance with the ancient political, sociological and religious
+conditions has made it increasingly difficult to interpret the records
+as a whole literally, or even to find a place in pre-Mosaic Palestine
+for the lives of the patriarchs as they are depicted.[18] Nevertheless,
+though one cannot look to Genesis for the history of the early part of
+the second millennium B.C., the study of what was thought of the past,
+proves in this, as in many other cases, to be more instructive than the
+facts of the past, and it is distinctly more important for the biblical
+student and the theologian to understand the thought of the ages
+immediately preceding the foundation of Judaism in the 5th century B.C.
+than the actual history of many centuries earlier.
+
+
+  Fusion of diverse features.
+
+A noteworthy feature is the frequent _personification_ of peoples,
+tribes or clans (see GENEALOGY: _Biblical_). Midian (i.e. the
+Midianites) is a son of Abraham; Canaan is a son of Ham (ix. 22), and
+Cush the son of Ham is the father of Ramah and grandfather of the famous
+S. Arabian state Sheba and the traders of Dedan (x. 6 sq., cf. Ezek.
+xxvii. 20-22). Bethuel the father of Rebekah is the brother of the
+tribal names Uz and Buz (xxii. 21 sqq., cf. Jer. xxv. 20, 23). Jacob is
+otherwise known as Israel and becomes the father of the tribes of
+Israel; Joseph is the father of Ephraim and Manasseh, and incidents in
+the life of Judah lead to the birth of Perez and Zerah, Judaean clans.
+This personification is entirely natural to the Oriental, and though
+"primitive" is not necessarily an ancient trait.[19] It gives rise to
+what may be termed the "prophetical interpretation of history" (S.R.
+Driver, _Genesis_, p. 111), where the character, fortunes or history of
+the apparent individual are practically descriptive of the people or
+tribe which, according to tradition, is named after or descended from
+him. The utterance of Noah over Canaan, Shem and Japheth (ix. 25 sqq.),
+of Isaac over Esau and Jacob (xxvii.), of Jacob over his sons (xlix.) or
+grandsons (xlviii.), would have no meaning to Israelites unless they had
+some connexion with and interest for contemporary life and thought.
+Herein lies the force of the description of the wild and independent
+Ishmael (xvi. 12), the "father" of certain well-known tribes (xxv.
+13-15); or the contrast between the skilful hunter Esau and the quiet
+and respectable Jacob (xxv. 27), and between the tiller Cain who
+becomes the typical nomad and the pastoral Abel (iv. 1-15). The interest
+of the struggles between Jacob and Esau lay, not in the history of
+individuals of the distant past, but in the fact that the names actually
+represented Israel and its near rival Edom. These features are in entire
+accordance with Oriental usage and give expression to current belief,
+existing relationships, or to a poetical foreshadowing of historical
+vicissitudes. But in the effort to understand them as they were
+originally understood it is very obvious that this method of
+interpretation can be pressed too far. It would be precarious to insist
+that the entrances into Palestine of Abraham and Jacob (or Israel)
+typified two distinct immigrations. The separation of Abraham from Lot
+(cf. Lotan, an Edomite name), of Isaac from Hagar-Ishmael, or of Jacob
+from Esau-Edom scarcely points to the relative antiquity of the origin
+of these non-Israelite peoples who, to judge from the evidence, were
+closely related. Or, if the "sons" of Jacob had Aramaean mothers, to
+prove that those which are derived from the wives were upon a higher
+level than the "sons" of the concubines is more difficult than to allow
+that certain of the tribes must have contained some element of Aramaean
+blood (cf. 1 Chron. vii. 14, and see ASHER; GAD; MANASSEH). Some of the
+names are clearly not those of known clans or tribes (e.g. Abraham,
+Isaac), and many of the details of the narratives obviously have no
+natural ethnological meaning. Stories of heroic ancestors and of tribal
+eponyms intermingle; personal, tribal and national traits are
+interwoven. The entrance of Jacob or Israel with his sons suggests that
+of the children of Israel. The story of Simeon and Levi at Shechem is
+clearly not that of two individuals, sons of the patriarch Israel; in
+fact the story actually uses the term "wrought folly in Israel" (cf.
+Jud. xx. 6, 10), and the individual Shechem, the son of Hamor, cannot be
+separated from the city, the scene of the incidents. Yet Jacob's life
+with Laban has many purely individual traits. And, further, there
+intervenes a remarkable passage with an account of his conflict with the
+divine being who fears the dawn and is unwilling to reveal his name. In
+a few verses the "wrestling" ('-b -k) of Jacob (_ya'aqob_) is associated
+with the Jabbok (_yabboq_); his "striving" explains his name Israel; at
+Peniel he sees "the face of God," and when touched on his vulnerable
+spot--the hollow of the thigh--he is lamed, hence "the children of
+Israel eat not the sinew of the hip which is upon the hollow of the
+thigh unto this day" (xxxii. 24-32). Other examples of the fusion of
+different features can be readily found. Three divine beings appear to
+Abraham at the sacred tree of Hebron, and when the birth of Isaac (from
+_sahaq_, "laugh") is foretold, the account of Sarah's behaviour is
+merely a popular and trivial story suggested by the child's name (xviii.
+12-15; see also xvii. 17, xxi. 6, 9). An extremely fine passage then
+describes the patriarch's intercession for Sodom and Gomorrah, and the
+narrative passes on to the catastrophe which explains the Dead Sea and
+its desert region and has parallels elsewhere (e.g. the Greek legend of
+Zeus and Hermes in Phrygia). Lot escapes to Zoar, the name gives rise to
+the pun on the "little" city (xix. 20), and his wife, on looking back,
+becomes one of those pillars of salt which still invite speculation.
+Finally the names of his children Moab and Ammon are explained by an
+incident when he is a cave-dweller on a mountain.
+
+  To primitive minds which speculated upon the "why and wherefore" of
+  what they saw around them, the narratives of Genesis afforded an
+  answer. They preserve, in fact, some of the popular philosophy and
+  belief of the Hebrews. They furnish what must have been a satisfactory
+  origin of the names Edom, Moab and Ammon, Mahanaim and Succoth,
+  Bethel, Beersheba, &c. They explain why Shechem, Bethel and Beersheba
+  were ancient sanctuaries (see further below); why the serpent writhes
+  along the ground (iii. 14); and why the hip sinew might not be eaten
+  (xxxii. 32). To these and a hundred other questions the national and
+  tribal stories--of which no doubt only a few have survived, and of
+  which other forms, earlier or later, more crude or more refined, were
+  doubtless current--furnish an evidently adequate answer. Myth and
+  legend, fact and fiction, the common stock of oral tradition, have
+  been handed down, and thus constitute one of the most valuable sources
+  for popular Hebrew thought.
+
+  The book is not to be judged from any one-sided estimate of its
+  contents. By the side of much that seems trivial, and even
+  non-moral--for the patriarchs themselves are not saints--it is
+  noteworthy how frequently the narratives are didactic. The
+  characteristic sense of collective responsibility, which appears more
+  incidentally in xx. 7, is treated with striking intensity in a passage
+  (xviii. 23-33) which uses the legend of Sodom and Gomorrah as a
+  vehicle for the statement of a familiar problem (cf. Ezek. xviii., Ps.
+  lxxiii., Job). It will be observed that interviews with divine beings
+  presented as little difficulty to the primitive minds of old as to the
+  modern native; even the idea of intercourse of supernatural beings
+  with mortals (vi. 1-4) is to-day equally intelligible. The modern
+  untutored native has a not dissimilar undeveloped and childlike
+  attitude towards the divine, a naive theology and a simple cultus. The
+  most circumstantial tales are told of imaginary figures, and the most
+  incredible details clothe the lives of the historical heroes of the
+  past. So abundant is the testimony of modern travellers to the extent
+  to which Eastern custom and thought elucidate the interpretation of
+  the Bible, that it is very important to notice those features which
+  illustrate Genesis. "The Oriental," writes S.I. Curtiss (_Bibl.
+  sacra_, Jan. 1901, pp. 103 sqq.), "is least of all a scientific
+  historian. He is the prince of story-tellers, narratives, real and
+  imaginative, spring from his lips, which are the truest portraiture of
+  composite rather than individual Oriental life, though narrated under
+  forms of individual experience." There are, therefore, many
+  preliminary points which combine to show that the critical student
+  cannot isolate the book from Oriental life and thought; its uniqueness
+  lies in the manner in which the material has been shaped and the use
+  to which it has been put.
+
+
+  Questions of date.
+
+The Book of Jubilees (not earlier than the 2nd century B.C.) presents
+the history in another form. It retains some of the canonical matter,
+often with considerable reshaping, omits many details (especially those
+to which exception could be taken), and adds much that is novel. The
+chronological system of the latest source in Genesis becomes an
+elaborate reckoning of heavenly origin. Written under the obvious
+influence of later religious aims, it is especially valuable because one
+can readily compare the two methods of presenting the old
+traditions.[20] There is the same kind of personification, fresh
+examples of the "prophetical interpretation of history," and by the side
+of the older "primitive" thought are ideas which can only belong to this
+later period. In each case we have merely a selection of current
+traditional lore. For example, Gen. vi. 1-4 mentions the marriage of
+divine beings with the daughters of men and the birth of Nephilim or
+giants (cf. Num. xiii. 33). Later allusions to this myth (e.g. Baruch
+iii. 26-28, Book of Enoch vi. sqq., 2 Peter ii. 4, &c.) are not based
+upon this passage; the fragment itself is all that remains of some more
+organic written myth which, as is well-known, has parallels among other
+peoples.[21] Old myths underlie the account of the creation and the
+garden of Eden, and traces of other versions or forms appear elsewhere
+in the Old Testament. Again, the Old Testament throws no light upon the
+redemption of Abraham (Is. xxix. 22), although the Targums and other
+sources profess to be well-informed. The isolated reference to Jacob's
+conquest of Shechem in Gen. xlviii. 22 must have belonged to another
+context, and later writings give in a later and thoroughly incredible
+form allied traditions. In Hosea xii. 4, Jacob's wrestling is mentioned
+before the scene at Bethel (Gen. xxxii. 24 sqq., xxviii. 11 sqq.). The
+overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah is described in Genesis (xviii. seq.),
+but Hosea refers only to that of Admah and Zeboim (xi. 8, cf. Deut.
+xxix. 23, Gen. x. 19)--different versions of the great catastrophe were
+doubtless current. Consequently investigation must start with the
+particular details which happen to be preserved, and these not
+necessarily in their original or in their only form. Since the antiquity
+of elements of tradition is independent of the shape in which they
+appear before us, a careful distinction must be drawn between those
+details which do not admit of being dated or located and those which do.
+There is evidence for the existence of the _names_ Abram, Jacob and
+Joseph previous to 900 B.C., but this does not prove the antiquity of
+the present narratives encircling them. Babylonian tablets of the
+creation date from the 7th century B.C., but their contents are many
+centuries earlier (viz. the age of Khammurabi), whereas the Phoenician
+myths of the origin of things are preserved in a late form by the late
+writers Damascius and Philo of Byblus. Gen. xiv., which may preserve
+some knowledge of the reign of Khammurabi, is on internal literary
+grounds of the post-exilic age, and it is at least a coincidence that
+the Babylonian texts, often quoted in support of the genuineness of the
+narrative, belong to about the same period and use early Babylonian
+history for purely didactic purposes.[22] In general, just as the Book
+of Jubilees, while presenting many elements of old tradition, betrays on
+decisive internal grounds an age later than Genesis itself, so, in turn,
+there is sufficient conclusive evidence that Genesis in its present form
+includes older features, but belongs to the age to which (on quite
+independent grounds) the rest of the Pentateuch must be ascribed.
+
+
+  Historical backgrounds.
+
+Popular tradition often ignores events of historical importance, or, as
+repeated experience shows, will represent them in such a form that the
+true historical kernel could never have been recovered without some
+external clue. The absence of definite references to the events of the
+Israelite monarchy does not necessarily point to the priority of the
+traditions in Genesis or their later date. Nevertheless, some allusion
+to national fortunes is reflected in the exaltation of Jacob (Israel)
+over Esau (Edom), and in the promise that the latter should break the
+yoke from his neck.[23] Israelite kings are foreshadowed (xvii. 6, xxxv.
+11, P), and Israel's kingdom has the ideal limits as ascribed to Solomon
+(xv. 18, see 1 Kings iv. 21; but cf. art. SOLOMON). Judah is promised a
+world-wide king (xlix. 8-10), though elsewhere the supremacy of Joseph
+rouses the jealousy of his "brothers" (xxxvii. 8). Different dates and
+circles of interest are thus manifest. The cursing and dispersion of
+Simeon and Levi (xlix. 5-7) recall the fact that Simeon's cities were in
+the territory of Judah (Josh. xix. 1, 9), and that the Levitical priests
+are later scattered and commended to the benevolence of the Israelites.
+But the curse obviously represents an attitude quite opposed to the
+blessing pronounced upon Levi by Moses (Deut. xxxiii. 8-11). The Edomite
+genealogies (xxxvi.) represent a more extensive people than the
+references in the popular stories suggest, and the latter by no means
+indicate that Edom had so important a career as we actually gather from
+a few allusions to its kings (xxxvi. 31-39).[24] The references to
+Philistines are anachronistic for the pre-Mosaic age, and it is clear
+that the tradition of a solemn covenant with a Philistine king and his
+general (xxi. 22 seq., xxvi. 26 sqq.) does not belong to the age or the
+circle which remembered the grievous oppressions of the Philistines or
+felt contempt for these "uncircumcised" enemies of Israel[25]. Finally,
+the thread of the tradition unmistakably represents a national unity of
+the twelve sons (tribes) of Israel; but this unity was not felt at
+certain periods of disorganization, and the idea of including Judah
+among the sons of Israel could not have arisen at a time when Israel and
+Judah were rival kingdoms.[26] In so far as the traditions can be read
+in the light of biblical history it is evident that they belong to
+different ages and represent different national, tribal, or local
+standpoints.
+
+
+  Interest in holy places.
+
+Another noteworthy feature is the interest taken in _sacred sites_.
+Certain places are distinguished by theophanies or by the erection of an
+altar (_lit._ place of sacrificial slaughter), and incidents are
+narrated with a very intelligible purpose. _Mizpah_ in Gilead is the
+scene of a covenant or treaty between Jacob and his Aramaean relative
+commemorated by a pillar (_Massebah_). It was otherwise known for an
+annual religious ceremony, the traditional origin of which is related in
+the story of Jephthah's vow and sacrifice (Judg. xi.), and its priests
+are denounced by Hosea (v. i). _Shechem_, the famous city of the
+Samaritans ("the foolish nation," Ecclus. I. 26), where Joseph was
+buried (Josh. xxiv. 32), had a sanctuary and a sacred pillar and tree.
+It was the scene of the coronation (a religious ceremony) of Abimelech
+(Judg. ix.), and Rehoboam (1 Kings xii. 1). The pillar was ascribed to
+Joshua (Josh. xxiv. 26 seq.), and although Jacob set up at Shechem an
+"altar," the verb suggests that the original object was a pillar (Gen.
+xxxiii. 20). The first ancestor of Israel, on the other hand, is merely
+associated with a theophany at an oracular tree (xii. 6). The Benjamite
+_Bethel_ was especially famous in Israelite religious history. The story
+tells how Jacob discovered its sanctity,--it was the gate of
+heaven,--made a covenant with its God, established the sacred pillar,
+and instituted its tithes (xxviii.). The prophetess Deborah dwelt under
+a palm-tree near Bethel (Judg. iv. 5), and her name is also that of the
+foster-mother of Rebekah who was buried near Bethel beneath the "oak of
+weeping" (xxxv. 8). _Bochim_ ("weeping") elsewhere receives its name
+when an angel appeared to the Israelites (Judg. ii. 1, Septuagint adds
+Bethel). To the prophets Hosea and Amos the cultus of Bethel was
+superstitious and immoral, even though it was Yahweh himself who was
+worshipped there (see BETHEL). South of Hebron lay _Beersheba_, an
+important centre and place of pilgrimage, with a special numen by whom
+oaths were taken (Amos viii. 14, see Sept. and the commentaries). Isaac
+built its altar, and Isaac's God guarded Jacob in his journeying (xxxi.
+29, xlvi. 1). This patriarch and his "brother" Ishmael are closely
+associated with the district south of Judah, both are connected with
+_Beer-lahai-roi_ (xxiv. 62, Sept. xxv. 11), whose fountain was the scene
+of a theophany (xvi.), and their traditions are thus localized in the
+district of Kadesh famous in the events of the Exodus (cf. xvi. 14, xxi.
+21, xxv. 18, Ex. xv. 22). (See EXODUS, THE.) Abraham planted a sacred
+tree at Beersheba and invoked "the everlasting God" (xxi. 33). But the
+patriarch is more closely identified with _Hebron_, which had a
+sanctuary (cf. 2 Sam. xv. 7 seq.), and an altar which he built "unto
+Yahweh" (xiii. 18). The sacred oak of Mamre was famous in the time of
+Josephus (_B. J._ iv. 9, 7), it was later a haunt of "angels" (Sozomen),
+and Constantine was obliged to put down the heathenish cultus. The place
+still has its holy tree. Beneath the oak there appeared the three divine
+beings, and in the cave of Machpelah the illustrious ancestor and his
+wife were buried. The story of his descent into Egypt and the plaguing
+of Pharaoh is a secondary insertion (xii. 10-xiii. 2), and where the
+patriarch appears at Beersheba it is in incidents which tend to connect
+him with his "son" Isaac. There is a very distinct tendency to emphasize
+the importance of Hebron. Taken from primitive giants by the
+non-Israelite clan Caleb (q.v.) it has now become predominant in the
+patriarchal traditions. Jacob leaves his dying father at Beersheba
+(xxviii. 10), but according to the _latest_ source he returns to him at
+Hebron (xxxv. 27), and here, north of Beersheba, he continues to live
+(xxxvii. 14, xlvi. 1-5). The cave of Machpelah became the grave of
+Isaac, Rebekah and Leah (but not Rachel); and though Jacob appears to
+be buried beyond the Jordan, it is the latest source which places his
+grave at Hebron (1. i-11 and 12 seq.). So in still later tradition, all
+the sons of Jacob with the exception of Joseph find their last
+resting-place at Hebron, and in Jewish prayers for the dead it is
+besought that their souls may be bound up with those of the patriarchs,
+or that they may go to the cave of Machpelah and thence to the
+Cherubim.[27] The increasing prominence of the old Calebite locality is
+not the least interesting phase in the comparative study of the
+patriarchal traditions.
+
+The association of the ancestors of Israel with certain sites is a
+feature which finds analogies even in modern Palestine. There are old
+centres of cult which have never lost the veneration of the people; the
+shrines are known as the tombs of saints or _walis_ (patrons) with such
+orthodox names as St George, Elijah, &c. Traditions justify the
+reputation for sanctity, and not only are similar stories told of
+distinct figures, but there are varying traditions of a single
+figure.[28] The places have retained their sacred character despite
+political and religious vicissitudes; they are far older than their
+present names, and such is the conservatism of the east that it is not
+surprising when, for example, a sacred tomb at Gezer stands quite close
+to the site of an ancient holy place, about 3000 years old, the
+existence of which was first made known in the course of excavation.
+Genesis preserves a selection of traditions relating to a few of the old
+Palestinian centres of cult. We cannot suppose that these first gained
+their sacred character in the pre-Mosaic "patriarchal" age; there is in
+any case the obvious difficulty of bridging the gap between the descent
+into Egypt and the Exodus, and it is clear that when the Israelites
+entered Palestine they came among a people whose religion, tradition and
+thought were fully established. It is only in accordance with analogy if
+stories were current in Israel of the institution of the sacred places,
+and closer study shows that we do not preserve the original version of
+these traditions.[29]
+
+A venerated tree in modern Palestine will owe its sanctity to some
+tradition, associating it, it may be, with some saint; the Israelites in
+their turn held the belief that the sacred tree at Hebron was one
+beneath which their first ancestor sat when three divine beings revealed
+themselves to him. But it is noteworthy that Yahweh alone is now
+prominent; the tradition has been revised, apparently in writing, and,
+later, the author of Jubilees (xvi.) ignores the triad. At
+Beer-lahai-roi an El ("god") appeared to Hagar, whence the name of her
+child Ishmael; but the writer prefers the unambiguous proper name
+Yahweh, and, what is more, the divine being is now Yahweh's angel--the
+Almighty's subordinate (xvi.). The older traits show themselves partly
+in the manifestation of various _Els_, and partly in the cruder
+anthropomorphism of the earlier sources. Later hands have by no means
+eliminated or modified them altogether, and in xxxi. 53 one can still
+perceive that the present text has endeavoured to obscure the older
+belief that the God of Abraham was not the God of his "brother" Nahor
+(see the commentaries). The sacred pillar erected by Jacob at Bethel was
+solemnly anointed with oil, and it (and not the place) was regarded as
+the abode of the Deity (xxviii. 18, 22). This agrees with all that is
+known of stone-cults, but it is quite obvious that this interesting
+example of popular belief is far below the religious ideas of the writer
+of the chapter in its present form.[30] There were many places where it
+could be said that Yahweh had recorded his name and would bless his
+worshippers (Ex. xx. 24). They were abhorrent to the advanced ethical
+teaching of prophets and of those imbued with the spirit of Deuteronomy
+(cf. 2 Kings xviii. 4 with v. 22), and it is patent from Jeremiah,
+Ezekiel and Is. lvi.-lxvi. that even at a late date opinion varied as
+to how Yahweh was to be served.[31] It is significant, therefore, that
+the narratives in Genesis (apart from P) reflect a certain tolerant
+attitude; there is much that is contrary to prophetical thought, but
+even the latest compilers have not obliterated all features that, from a
+strict standpoint, could appear distasteful. Although the priestly
+source shows how the lore could be reshaped, and Jubilees represents
+later efforts along similar lines, it is evident that for ordinary
+readers the patriarchal traditions could not be presented in an entirely
+new form, and that to achieve their aims the writers could not be at
+direct variance with current thought.
+
+  It will now be understood why several scholars have sought to recover
+  earlier forms of the traditions, the stages through which the material
+  has passed, and the place of the earlier forms and stages in the
+  history and religion of Israel. These labours are indispensable for
+  scientific biblical study, and are most fruitful when they depend upon
+  comprehensive methods of research. When, for example, one observes the
+  usual forms of hero-cult and the tendency to regard the occupant of
+  the modern sacred shrine as the ancestor of his clients, deeper
+  significance is attached to the references to the protective care of
+  Abraham and Israel (Is. lxiii. 16), or to the motherly sympathy of
+  Rachel (Jer. xxxi. 15). And, again, when one perceives the tendency to
+  look upon the alleged ancestor or _weli_ as an almost divine being,
+  there is much to be said for the view that the patriarchal figures
+  were endowed by popular opinion with divine attributes. But here the
+  same external evidence warns us that these considerations throw no
+  light upon the original significance of the patriarchs. It is
+  impossible to recover the earliest traditions from the present
+  narratives, and these alone offer sufficiently perplexing
+  problems.[32]
+
+
+  Southern interests.
+
+From a careful survey of all the accessible material it is beyond doubt
+that Genesis preserves only a selection of traditions of various ages
+and interests, and often not in their original form. We have relatively
+little tradition from North Israel; Beersheba, Beer-lahai-roi and Hebron
+are more prominent than even Bethel or Shechem, while there are no
+stories of Gilgal, Shiloh or Dan. Yet in the nature of the case, there
+must have been a great store of local tradition accessible to some
+writers and at some periods.[33] Interest is taken not in Phoenicia,
+Damascus or the northern tribes, but in the east and south, in Gilead,
+Ammon, Moab and Ishmael. Particular attention is paid to Edom and Jacob,
+and there is good evidence for a close relationship between Edomite and
+allied names and those of South Palestine (including Simeon and Judah).
+Especially significant, too, is the interest in traditions which
+affected the South of Palestine, that district which is of importance
+for the history of Israel in the wilderness and of the Levites.[34] It
+is noteworthy, therefore, that while different peoples had their own
+theories of their earliest history, the first-born of the first human
+pair is Cain, the eponym of the Kenites, and the ancestor of the
+beginnings of civilization (iv. 17, 20-22). This "Kenite" version had
+its own view of the institution of the worship of Yahweh (iv. 26); it
+appears to have ignored the Deluge, and it implies the existence of a
+fuller corpus of written tradition. Elsewhere, in the records of the
+Exodus, there are traces of specific traditions associated with Kadesh,
+Kenites, Caleb and Jerahmeel, and with a movement into Judah, all
+originally independent of their present context. Like the prominence of
+the traditions of Hebron and its hero Abraham, these features cannot be
+merely casual.[35]
+
+  The fact that one is not dealing with literal history complicates the
+  question of the nomadic or semi-nomadic life of the Israelite
+  ancestors.[36] They are tent-dwellers, shepherds, sojourners (xvii. 8,
+  xxiii. 4, xxviii. 4, xxxvi. 7, xxxvii. 1), and we breathe the air of
+  the open country. But the impression gained from the narratives is of
+  course due to the narrators. The movements of the patriarchs serve
+  mainly to connect them with traditions which were originally
+  independent. When Abraham separates from Lot he settles in "the land
+  of Canaan," while Lot dwells in "the cities of the plain" (xiii. 12).
+  Isaac at Beersheba enters into an alliance with the Philistines (xxvi.
+  12 sqq.), while Jacob seems to settle at Shechem (xxxiv.), and there
+  or at Dothan, a few miles north, his sons pasture their father's flock
+  (xxxvii. 12 sqq.).[37] Indeed, according to an isolated fragment Jacob
+  conquered Shechem and gave it to Joseph (xlviii. 22), and this
+  tradition underlies (and has not given birth to) the late and
+  fantastic stories of his warfare (Jub. xxxiv. 1-9, Test. of Judah
+  iii.). Judah, also, is represented as settling among the Canaanites
+  (xxxviii.), and Simeon marries a Canaanite--according to late
+  tradition, a woman of Zephath (xlvi. 10; Jub. xxxiv. 20, xliv. 13; see
+  Judg. i. 17). These representations have been subordinated to others,
+  in particular to the descent into Egypt of Jacob (Israel) and his
+  sons, and the Exodus of the Israelites. But the critical study of
+  these events raises very serious historical problems. Abraham's
+  grandson, with his family--a mere handful of people--went down into
+  Egypt during a famine (cf. Abraham xii. 10, and Isaac xxvi. 1 seq.);
+  400 years pass, all memory of which is practically obliterated, and
+  the Israelite nation composed of similar subdivisions returns.
+  Although the later genealogies from Jacob to Moses allow only four
+  generations (cf. Gen. xv. 16), the difficulties are not removed.
+  Joseph lived to see the children of Machir (l. 23, note Ex. i. 8),
+  though Machir received Gilead from the hands of Moses (Num. xxxii.
+  40); Levi descended with Kehath, who became the grandfather of Aaron
+  and Moses, while Aaron married a descendant in the fifth generation
+  from Judah (Ex. vi. 23). On the other hand the genealogies in 1 Chron.
+  ii. sqq. are independent of the Exodus; Ephraim's children raid Gath,
+  his daughter founds certain cities, and Manasseh has an Aramaean
+  concubine who becomes the mother of Machir (1 Chron. vii. 14,
+  20-24).[38] Moreover the whole course of the invasion and settlement
+  of Israel (under Joshua) has no real connexion with pre-Mosaic
+  patriarchal history. If we reinterpret the history of the _family_ and
+  its descent into Egypt, and belittle its increase into a _nation_, and
+  if we figure to ourselves a more gradual occupation of Palestine, we
+  destroy the entire continuity of history as it was understood by those
+  who compiled the biblical history, and we have no evidence for any
+  confident reconstruction. With such thoroughness have the compilers
+  given effect to their views that only on closer examination is it
+  found that even at a relatively late period fundamentally differing
+  traditions still existed, and that those which belonged to circles
+  which did not recognize the Exodus have been subordinated and adjusted
+  by writers to whom this was the profoundest event in their past.[39]
+
+
+  The Southern nucleus.
+
+That the journey of Jacob-Israel from his Aramaean relatives into
+Palestine hints at some pre-Mosaic immigration is possible, but has not
+been either proved or disproved. The details point rather to a
+reflection of the entrance of the children of Israel, elsewhere ascribed
+to the leadership of Joshua (q.v.). Though the latter proceeded to
+Gilgal, a variant tradition, now almost lost, seems to have recorded an
+immediate journey to Shechem (Deut. xxvii. 1-10, Josh. viii. 30-35)
+previous to Joshua's great campaigns (Josh. x. seq., cf. Jacob's wars).
+His religious gathering at Shechem before the dismissal of the tribes
+finds its parallel in Jacob's reforms before leaving for Bethel (xxiv.;
+cf. v. 26, Gen. xxxv. 4). Owing, perhaps, to the locale of the writers,
+we hear relatively little of the northern tribes. Judah and Simeon are
+the first to conquer their lot, and the "house of Joseph" proceeds south
+to Bethel, where the story of the "weeping" at Bochim finds a parallel
+in the "oak of weeping" (Gen. xxxv. 8). In Gen. xxxviii. "at that time
+Judah went down from his brethren"--in xxxvii. they are at Shechem or
+Dothan--and settled among Canaanites, and there is a fragmentary
+allusion to a similar alliance of Simeon (xlvi. 10). The trend of the
+two series of traditions is too close to be accidental, yet the present
+sequence of the narratives in Joshua and Judges associates them with the
+Exodus. Further, Jacob's move to Shechem, Bethel and the south is
+parallel to that of Abraham, but his history actually represents a
+twofold course. On the one hand, he is the Aramaean (Deut. xxvi. 5), the
+favourite son of his Aramaean mother. On the other, Rebekah is brought
+to Beer-lahai-roi (xxiv.), Jacob belongs to the south and he leaves
+Beersheba for his lengthy sojourn beyond the Jordan. His separation from
+Esau, the revelation at Bethel, and the new name Israel are recorded
+twice, and if the entrance into Palestine reflects one ethnological
+tradition, the possibility that his departure from Beersheba reflects
+another, finds support (a) in the genealogies which associate the nomad
+"father" of the southern clans Caleb and Jerahmeel with Gilead (1 Chron.
+ii. 21), and (b) in the hints of an "exodus" from the district of Kadesh
+northwards.
+
+The history of an immigration into Palestine from beyond the Jordan
+would take various shapes in local tradition. In Genesis it is preserved
+from the southern point of view. The northern standpoint appears when
+Rachel, mother of Joseph and Benjamin, is the favoured wife in contrast
+to the despised Leah, mother of Judah and Simeon; when Joseph is supreme
+among his brethren; and when Judah is included among the "sons" of
+Israel. It is possible that the application of the traditional
+immigration to the history of the tribes is secondary. This at all
+events suggests itself when xxxiv. extends to the history of all the
+sons, incidents which originally concerned Simeon and Levi alone, and
+which may have represented the Shechemite version of a "Levitical"
+tradition (see LEVITES). However this may be, it is necessary to account
+for the nomadic colouring of the narratives (cf. Meyer, pp. 305, 472)
+and the prominence of southern interests, and it would be in accordance
+with biblical evidence elsewhere if northern tradition had been taken
+over and adapted to the standpoint of the southern members of Israel,
+with the incorporation of local tradition which could only have
+originated in the south.[40] These and other indications point to a late
+date in biblical history. There is a manifest difference between the
+religious importance of Shechem in the traditions of Joshua (xxiv.) and
+Jacob's reforms when he leaves behind him the heathen symbols before
+journeying to the holy site of Bethel (Gen. xxxv. 4). There is even some
+polemic against marriage with Shechemites (xxxiv.; more emphatic in Jub.
+xxx.), while in the story of the Hebronite Abraham, Bethel itself is
+avoided and Shechem is of little significance. Again, the present object
+of xxxviii. is to trace the origin of certain Judaean subdivisions after
+the death of the wicked Er and Onan. It is purely local and is
+interested in Shelah, and more especially in Perez and Zerah, names of
+families or clans of the post-exilic age.[41] Elsewhere, in 1 Chron.
+ii. and iv., the genealogies represent a Judah composed of clans from
+the south (Caleb and Jerahmeel) and of small families or guilds, Shelah
+included. It is not the Judah of the monarchy or of the post-exilic
+Babylonian-Israelite community. But the mixed elements were ultimately
+reckoned among the descendants of Judah, through Hezron the "father" of
+Caleb and Jerahmeel, and just as the southern groups finally became
+incorporated in Israel, so it is to be observed that although Hebron and
+Abraham have gained the first place in the patriarchal history, the
+traditions are no longer specifically Calebite, but are part of the
+common Israelite heritage.
+
+We are taken to a period in biblical history when, though the historical
+sources are almost inexplicably scanty, the narratives of the past were
+approaching their present shape. Some time after the fall of Jerusalem
+(587 B.C.) there was a movement from the south of Judah northwards to
+the vicinity of Jerusalem (Bethlehem, Kirjath-jearim, &c.), where, as
+can be gathered from 1 Chron. ii., were congregated Kenite and Rechabite
+communities and families of scribes. Names related to those of Edomite
+and kindred groups are found in the late genealogies of both Judah and
+Benjamin, and recur even among families of the time of Nehemiah.[42] The
+same obscure period witnessed the advent of southern families,[43] the
+revival of the Davidic dynasty and its mysterious disappearance, the
+outbreak of fierce hatred of Edom, the return of exiles from Babylonia,
+the separation of Judah from Samaria and the rise of bitter
+anti-Samaritan feeling. It closes with the reorganization associated
+with Ezra and Nehemiah and the compilation of the historical books in
+practically their present form. It contains diverse interests and
+changing standpoints by which it is possible to explain the presence of
+purely southern tradition, the southern treatment of national history,
+and the antipathy to northern claims. As has already been mentioned, the
+specifically southern writings have everywhere been modified or adjusted
+to other standpoints, or have been almost entirely subordinated, and it
+is noteworthy, therefore, that in narratives elsewhere which reflect
+rivalries and conflicts among the priestly families, there is sometimes
+an animus against those whose names and traditions point to a southern
+origin (see LEVITES).
+
+
+  Summary.
+
+Thus the book of Genesis represents the result of efforts to systematize
+the earliest history, and to make it a worthy prelude to the Mosaic
+legislation which formed the charter of Judaism as it was established in
+or about the 5th century B.C. It goes back to traditions of the most
+varied character, whose tone was originally more in accord with earlier
+religion and thought. Though these have been made more edifying, they
+have not lost their charm and interest. The latest source, it is true,
+is without their freshness and life, but it is a matter for thankfulness
+that the simple compilers were conservative, and have neither presented
+a work entirely on the lines of P, nor rewritten their material as was
+done by the author of Jubilees and by Josephus. It is obvious that from
+Jubilees alone it would have been impossible to conceive the form which
+the traditions had taken a few centuries previously--viz. in Genesis.
+Also, from P alone it would have been equally impossible to recover the
+non-priestly forms. But while there is no immeasurable gulf between the
+canonical book of Genesis and Jubilees, the internal study of the former
+reveals traces of earlier traditions most profoundly different as
+regards thought and contents. It is not otherwise when one looks below
+the traditional history elsewhere (e.g. Samuel, Kings). An explanation
+may be found in the vicissitudes of the age. The movement from the
+south, which seems to account for a considerable cycle of the
+patriarchal traditions, belongs to the age after the downfall of the
+Israelite and (later) the Judaean monarchies when there were vital
+political and social changes. The removal of prominent inhabitants, by
+Assyria and later by Babylonia, the introduction of colonists from
+distant lands, and the movements of restless tribes around Palestine
+were more fatal to the continuity of trustworthy tradition than to the
+persistence of popular thought. New conditions arose as the population
+was reorganized, a new Israel claimed to be the heirs of the past (cf.
+e.g. the Samaritans, Ezr. iv. 2, Joseph. _Antiq_. ix. 14, 3; xi. 8,
+6), and not until after these vicissitudes did the book of Genesis begin
+to assume its present shape.[44] (See JEWS; PALESTINE: _History_.)
+
+  The above pages handle only the more important details for the study
+  of a book which, as regards contents and literary history, cannot be
+  separated from the series to which it forms the introduction. As
+  regards the literary-critical problems it is clear that with the
+  elimination of P we have the sources (minor adjustment and revision
+  excepted) which were accessible to the last compiler in the
+  post-exilic age. Most critics have inclined to date these sources (J
+  and E) as early as possible, whereas the admitted presence of
+  secondary and of relatively late passages (e.g. xviii. 22 sqq., J;
+  xxii., E) shows that one must work back from the sources as known in
+  P's age, and that one can rely only upon those criteria which can be
+  approximately dated. It is usual to regard the more primitive
+  character of J and E as a mark of antiquity; but this ignores the
+  regular survival of primitive modes of thought and of popular
+  tradition outside more cultured circles. It is also recognized that J
+  and E are non-prophetical and non-Deuteronomic, but it has not been
+  proved that the present J and E are earlier than the prophets or the
+  Deuteronomic reforms of Josiah (2 Kings xxii. seq.). J and E are
+  linguistically almost identical (in contrast to P), and differ from P
+  in features which are often not of chronological but of sociological
+  significance (e.g. the mentality of the writers). Their language is
+  without some of the phenomena found in narratives which emanate from
+  the north (e.g. Judges v., stories of Elijah and Elisha), and their
+  stylistic variations may be, as Gunkel suggests, the mark of a
+  district or region; for this district one would look in the
+  neighbourhood of Jerusalem. The conclusion that P's narratives and
+  laws in the Pentateuch are post-exilic was found by biblical scholars
+  to be a necessary correction to the original hypothesis of Graf (1866)
+  that P's _narratives_ were to be retained (with J and E) at an early
+  date. This view was influenced by the close connexion between the
+  subject-matter, J, E and P representing the same trend of tradition.
+  But by still ascribing J and E as written sources to about the 9th or
+  8th century (individual opinion varies), many difficulties and
+  inconsistencies are involved. The present J and E reflect a reshaping
+  and readjustment of earlier tradition which is found elsewhere, and
+  the suggestion that they are not far removed from the age of the
+  priestly writers and redactors does not conflict with what is known of
+  language, forms of religious thought, or tendencies of tradition. We
+  reach thus approximately the age when post-Deuteronomic editors were
+  able to utilize such records as Judg. i., xvii. sqq., 2 Sam. ix.-xx.
+  (see JUDGES; SAMUEL, BOOKS OF), which are equally valuable as
+  specimens of current thought and of written tradition. In conclusion,
+  the tendency of criticism has been to recognize "schools" of J and E
+  extending into the exile, thus making the three sources J, E and P
+  more nearly contemporaneous. The most recent conservative authority
+  also inclines to a similar contemporaneity ("collaboration" or
+  "co-operation"), but at an impossibly early date (J. Orr, _Problem of
+  the O. T_., 1905, pp. 216, 345, 354, 375 seq., 527). By admitting
+  possible revision in the post-exilic age (pp. 226, 369, 375 seq.), the
+  conservative theory recalls the old legend that Ezra rewrote the Old
+  Testament (2 Esd. xiv.) and thus restored the Law which had been lost;
+  a view which, through the early Christian Fathers, gained currency and
+  has enjoyed a certain popularity to the present day. But when once
+  revision or rewriting is conceded, there is absolutely no guarantee
+  that the present Pentateuch is in any way identical with the five
+  books which tradition ascribed to Moses (q.v.), and the necessity for
+  a comprehensive critical investigation of the _present_ contents makes
+  itself felt.[45]
+
+  LITERATURE.--Only a few of the numerous works can be mentioned. Of
+  those written from a conservative or traditional standpoint the most
+  notable are: W.H. Green's _Unity of Genesis_ (1895); and J. Orr,
+  _Problem of the O. T_. (which is nevertheless a great advance upon
+  earlier non-critical literature). S.R. Driver's commentary
+  (_Westminster Series_) deals thoroughly with all preliminary problems
+  of criticism, and is the best for the ordinary reader; that of A.
+  Dillmann (6th ed.; Eng. trans.) is more technical, that of W.H.
+  Bennett (_Century Bible_) is more concise and popular. G.J. Spurrell,
+  Notes on the Text of Genesis, and C.J. Ball (in Haupt's _Sacred Books
+  of the O. T_.) appeal to Hebrew students. W.E. Addis, _Documents of
+  the Hexateuch_, Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, _The Hexateuch_, and
+  C.F. Kent, _Beginnings of Hebrew History_, are more important for the
+  literary analysis. J. Wellhausen's sketch in his _Proleg. to Hist. of
+  Israel_ (Eng. trans., pp. 259-342) is admirable, as also is the
+  general Introduction (trans. by W.H. Carruth, 1907) to H. Gunkel's
+  valuable commentary. Of recent works bearing upon the subject-matter
+  reference may be made to J.P. Peters, _Early Hebrew Story_ (1904),
+  A.R. Gordon, _Early Traditions of Genesis_ (1907), and T.K. Cheyne,
+  _Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient Israel_ (1907). Special mention
+  must be made of Eduard Meyer and B. Luther, to whose _Die Israeliten
+  und ihre Nachbarstamme_ (1906) the present writer is indebted for many
+  valuable suggestions and hints. Fuller bibliographical information
+  will be found in the works already mentioned, in the articles in the
+  _Ency. Bib_. (G.F. Moore), and Hastings's _Dict_. (G.A. Smith), and in
+  the volume by J. Skinner in the elaborate and encyclopaedic
+  _International Critical Series_.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The abrupt introduction of a small poem (iv. 23 seq.) was long
+    ago regarded as due to the use of separate sources (so the Calvinist
+    Isaac de la Peyrere, 1654).
+
+  [2] The divergences of detail, with corresponding stylistic
+    variations, were recognized long ago (e.g. by Father Simon in 1682).
+
+  [3] As early as 1685 Jean le Clerc observed that Ur of the Chaldees
+    (_Chasdim_) in xi. 28 anticipates _Chesed_ in xxii. 22, and implied
+    some knowledge of the land of the Chaldaeans (cf. Ezek. i. 3, xi.
+    24).
+
+  [4] The Catholic priest Andrew du Maes (1570) already pointed to the
+    names Hebron and Dan as signs of post-Mosaic date.
+
+  [5] Note the repetitions in vv. 2 and 3; Abraham's faith, vv. 4-6,
+    and his request, v. 8; contrast the time of day, v. 5 and v. 12, and
+    the dates, v. 13 and v. 16. In vv. 12-15 there is a reference to the
+    bondage in Egypt.
+
+  [6] These and other chronological embarrassments, now recognized as
+    due to the framework of the post-exilic writer (P), have long been
+    observed--by Spinoza, 1671.
+
+  [7] Points of resemblance in xxiii. with Babylonian usage have often
+    been exaggerated; comparison "shows noteworthy differences" (T.G.
+    Pinches, _The Old Testament_, p. 238); see Carpenter and
+    Harford-Battersby, _Hexateuch_, i. 64, Driver, Gen. p. 230, and
+    _Addenda_.
+
+  [8] Note, e.g., the sudden introduction of xxix. 15, the curious
+    position of v. 24 (due to P), the double play upon the names Zebulun
+    and Joseph, xxx. 20, 23 seq., the internal intricacies in the
+    agreement, _ib._ vv. 31-43; the difficulties in the reference to the
+    latter in xxxi. 6 sqq. (especially v. 10).
+
+  [9] See Ed. Meyer (and B. Luther), _Die Israeliten und ihre
+    Nachbarstamme_ (1906), pp. 238 sqq.; also the shrewd remarks of C.T.
+    Beke, _Origines biblicae_ (1834), pp. 123 sqq.
+
+  [10] It is interesting to find that the Spanish Rabbi Isaac (of
+    Toledo, A.D. 982-1057), noticing that the royal list must be later
+    than the time of Saul (also recognized by Martin Luther and others),
+    proposed to assign the chapter to the age of Jehoshaphat.
+
+  [11] But the chronology is hopeless, and only ten years are allowed
+    according to another and later scheme (xxv. 26, xxxv. 28, xlvii. 9).
+
+  [12] Cf. the account of the Israelites in Egypt, where they are in
+    Goshen, unaffected by the plagues (Ex. viii. 22, ix. 26), or,
+    according to another view, are living in the midst of the Egyptians
+    (e.g. xii. 23).
+
+  [13] V. 7 breaks the context; there is repetition in vv. 10b and 13b;
+    interchange of the names Jacob and Israel; v. 12 suggests a blessing
+    upon Joseph himself; and with vv. 15 seq. (the blessing of the sons,
+    not of Joseph), contrast vv. 20 sqq. (the singular "in thee," v. 20).
+
+  [14] Only the more noticeable peculiarities have been mentioned in
+    the preceding columns.
+
+  [15] On the course of modern criticism and on the various sources: P,
+    J (Judaean or Yahwist), E (Ephraimite or Elohist), see BIBLE (_Old
+    Test. Criticism_). The passages usually assigned to P in Genesis are:
+    i. 1-ii. 4a; v. 1-28, 30-32; vi. 9-22; vii. 6 (and parts of 7-9), 11,
+    13-16a, 18-21, 24; viii. 1-2a, 3b-5, 13a, 14-19; ix. 1-17, 28-29; x.
+    1-7, 20, 22-23, 31-32; xi. 10-27, 31-32; xii. 4b-5; xiii. 6, 11b-12a;
+    xvi. 1a, 3, 15-16; xvii.; xix. 29; xxi. 1b, 2b-5; xxiii.; xxv. 7-11a,
+    12-17, 19-20, 26b; xxvi. 34-35; xxvii. 46-xxviii. 9; xxix. 24, 28b,
+    29; xxxi. 18b; xxxiii. 18a; xxxiv. 1-2a, 4, 6, 8-10, 13-18, 20-24,
+    part of 25, 27-29; xxxv. 9-13, 15, 22b-29; xxxvi. (in the main);
+    xxxvii. 1-2a; xli. 46; xlvi. 6-27; xlvii. 5-6a, 7-11, 27b-28; xlviii.
+    3-7; xlix. 1a, 28b-33, l. 12-13.
+
+  [16] See on this, especially, S.R. Driver's _Genesis_ in the
+    "Westminster Commentaries" (seventh ed., 1909).
+
+  [17] The above is typical of modern biblical criticism which is
+    compelled to recognize the human element (and can thus have no a
+    priori preconceptions in approaching the Old Testament), but at the
+    same time reveals ever more decisively the presence of purifying
+    influences, without which the records of Israel would have had no
+    permanent interest or value. They thus gain a new value which cannot
+    be impaired when it is realized that their significance is quite
+    independent of their origins.
+
+  [18] See the remarks of W.R. Smith, _Eng. Hist. Rev._ (1888), pp. 128
+    seq. (from the sociological side), and for general considerations,
+    A.A. Bevan, _Crit. Rev._ (1893), pp. 138 sqq.; S.R. Driver,
+    _Genesis_, pp. xliii. sqq.
+
+  [19] Cf. Amos i. 11; 1 Chron. ii. iv. (note iv. 10), the Book of
+    Jubilees (see above), and also Arabian usage (W.R. Smith, _Kinship
+    and Marriage_, ch. i.). For modern examples, see E. Littmann,
+    _Orient. Stud. Theodor Noldeke_ (ed. Bezold, 1906), pp. 942-958.
+
+  [20] The Book of Jubilees also enables the student to test the
+    arguments based upon any study restricted to Genesis alone. Thus it
+    shows that the "primitive" features of Genesis afford a criterion
+    which is sociological rather than chronological. This is often
+    ignored. For example, the conveyance of the field of Machpelah
+    (xxiii.) is conspicuous for the absence of any reference to a written
+    contract in contrast to the "business" methods in Jer. xxxii. This
+    does not prove that Gen. xxiii. is early, because writing was used in
+    Palestine about 1400 B.C., and, on the other hand, the more simple
+    forms of agreement are still familiar after the time of Jeremiah
+    (e.g. Ruth, Proverbs). Similarly, no safe argument can be based upon
+    the institution of blood-revenge in Gen. iv., when one observes the
+    undeveloped conditions among the Trachonites of the time of Herod the
+    Great (Josephus, Ant. xvi. 9, 1), or the varying usages among modern
+    tribes.
+
+  [21] On the Jewish forms, see R.H. Charles, _Book of Jubilees_
+    (1902), pp. 33 seq.
+
+  [22] A.H. Sayce, _Proc. of the Soc. of Bibl. Arch._ (1907), pp.
+    13-17.
+
+  [23] xxvii. 27-29, 39 seq. This is significantly altered in the later
+    writings (Jub. xxvi. 34 and the Targums). It is worth noticing that
+    in Jub. xxvi. 35 a new turn is given to Gen. xxvii. 41 by changing
+    Isaac's approaching death (which raises serious difficulties in the
+    history of Jacob) into Esau's wish that it may soon come.
+
+  [24] See E. Meyer (and B. Luther), _Die Israeliten und ihre
+    Nachbarstamme_ (1906), pp. 386-389, 442-446.
+
+  [25] See PHILISTINES. The covenant with Abimelech may be compared
+    with the friendship between David and Achish (1 Sam. xxvii.), who is
+    actually called Abimelech in the heading of Ps. xxxiv. (see 1 Sam.
+    xxi. 10). If this is a mistake (and not a variant tradition) it is a
+    very remarkable one. The treatment of the covenant by the author of
+    Jubilees (xxiv. 28 sqq.), on the other hand, is only intelligible
+    when one recalls the attitude of Judah to the Philistine cities in
+    the 2nd century B.C.; see R.H. Charles, ad loc.
+
+  [26] In 2 Sam. xix. 43 (original text) the men of Israel claim to be
+    the first-born rather than Judah; cf. 1 Chron. v. 1 seq., where the
+    birthright (after Reuben was degraded) is explicitly conferred upon
+    Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh).
+
+  [27] Cf. Josephus, _Antiq._ ii. 8, 2; _Test. of xii. Patriarchs_;
+    Acts vii. 16 (where Shechem is an error); Oesterley and Box,
+    _Religion and Worship of the Synagogue_, pp. 340 seq.; M.G. Dampier,
+    in _Church and Synagogue_ (1909), p. 78.
+
+  [28] See J.P. Peters, _Early Heb. Story_ (1904), pp. 81 sqq.; S.A.
+    Cook, _Relig. of Anc. Palestine_ (1908), pp. 19 sqq.
+
+  [29] In like manner the Babylonian story of the flood has been
+    revised and adapted to the Hebrew Noah (cf. _Nippur, ad fin._).
+
+  [30] The writer in Jub. xxvii. 27 treats the pillar as a "sign."
+    Another useful example of revision is to be found in Josh. xxii.,
+    where what was regarded (by a reviser) as an object unworthy of the
+    religion of Yahweh is now merely commemorative.
+
+  [31] For popular religious thought and practice (often described as
+    pre-prophetical, though non-prophetical would be a safer term), see
+    HEBREW RELIGION.
+
+  [32] Among recent efforts to find and explain mythical elements, see
+    especially Stucken, _Astralmythen_: H. Winckler, _Geschichte
+    Israels_, vol. ii.; and P. Jensen, _Das Gilgamesch-Epos in der
+    Weltlitteratur_.
+
+  [33] Again the analogy of the modern East is instructive. Especially
+    interesting are the traditions associating the same figure or
+    incident with widely separated localities.
+
+  [34] See EXODUS, THE; LEVITES. On this feature see Luther and Meyer,
+    _op. cit._ pp. 158 seq., 227 sqq., 259, 279, 305, 386, 443. Their
+    researches on this subject are indispensable for a critical study of
+    Genesis.
+
+  [35] The notion of an Eve (_hawwah_, "serpent") as the first woman
+    may be conjecturally associated with (a) the frequent traditions of
+    the serpent-origin of clans, and (b) with evidence which seems to
+    connect the Levites and allied families with some kind of
+    serpent-cult (see Meyer, op. cit. pp. 116, 426 seq., 443, and art.
+    SERPENT-WORSHIP). The account of mankind as it now reads (ii. seq.)
+    is in several respects less primitive (contrast vi. 1 seq.), and the
+    present story of Cain and his murder of Abel really places the former
+    in an unfavourable light.
+
+  [36] See the discussion between B.D. Eerdmans and G.A. Smith in the
+    _Expositor_ (Aug.-Oct. 1908), and the former's _Alttest. Studien_,
+    ii. (1908), _passim._
+
+  [37] xxxiv. (note v. 9) indicates a possible alliance with
+    Shechemites, and xxxv. 4 (taken literally) implies a residence long
+    enough for a religious reform to be necessary. Yet the present aim of
+    the narratives is to link together the traditions and emphasize
+    Jacob's return from Laban to his dying father (xxviii. 21; xxxi. 3,
+    13, 18; xxxii. 9; xxxv. 1, 27).
+
+  [38] Cf. Benjamin's descendants in 1 Chron. viii. 6 seq. and see on
+    the naive and primitive character of these traditions, Kittel,
+    comment. ad loc.
+
+  [39] That there are traditions in Genesis which do not form the
+    prelude to Exodus is very generally recognized by those who agree
+    that the Israelites after entering Palestine took over some of the
+    indigenous lore (whether from the Canaanites or from a presumed
+    earlier layer of Israelites). This adoption of native tradition by
+    new settlers, however, cannot be confined to any single period. See
+    further, Luther and Meyer, op. cit. pp. 108, 110, 156, 227 seq., 254
+    seq., 414 seq., 433; on traditions related to the descent into Egypt,
+    _ib._ 122 sqq., 151 seq., 260; and on the story of Joseph (ch. xxxv.,
+    xxxvii. sqq.), as an independent cycle used to form a connecting
+    link, Luther, _ib._ pp. 142-154.
+
+  [40] Cf. the late "Deuteronomic" form of Judges where a hero of
+    Kenizzite origin (and therefore closely connected with Caleb) stands
+    at the head of the Israelite "judges"; also, from another aspect, the
+    specifically Judaean and anti-Israelite treatment of the history of
+    the monarchy. But in each case the feature belongs to a relatively
+    late stage in the literary history of the books; see JUDGES; SAMUEL,
+    BOOKS OF; KINGS.
+
+  [41] Mahalalel (son of Kenan, another form of Cain, v. 12) is also a
+    prominent ancestor in Perez (Neh. xi. 4), and Zerah claimed the
+    renowned sages of Solomon's day (1 Chron. ii. 6, 1 Kings iv. 31). The
+    story implies that Perez surpassed his "brother" clan Zerah (xxxviii.
+    27-30), and in fact Perez is ultimately reckoned the head of the
+    Judaean subdivisions (1 Chron. ii. 4 sqq.), and thus is the reputed
+    ancestor of the Davidic dynasty (Ruth iv. 12, 18 sqq.).
+
+    The sympathies of these traditions are as suggestive as their
+    presence in the canonical history, which, it must be remembered,
+    ultimately passed through the hands of Judaean compilers.
+
+  [42] Neh. iii. 9, 14; see Meyer, pp. 300, 430; S.A. Cook, _Critical
+    Notes on O. T. History_, p. 58 n. 2. While the evidence points to an
+    early close relationship among S. Palestinian groups (Edom, Ishmael,
+    &c.; cf. Meyer, p. 446), there are many allusions to subsequent
+    treacherous attacks which made Edom execrable. Here again biblical
+    criticism cannot at present determine precisely when or precisely why
+    the changed attitude began; see EDOM; JEWS, SS 20, 22.
+
+  [43] Although the movement reflected in 1 Chron. ii. is scarcely
+    pre-exilic, yet naturally there had always been a close relation
+    between Judah and the south, as the Assyrian inscriptions of the
+    latter part of the 8th century B.C. indicate.
+
+  [44] The south of Palestine, if less disturbed by these changes, may
+    well have had access to older authoritative material.
+
+  [45] For Orr's other concessions bearing upon Genesis, see _op.
+    cit_., pp. 9 seq., 87, 93, and (on J, E, P) 196, 335, 340. These,
+    like the concessions of other apologetic writers, far outweigh the
+    often hypercritical, irrelevant, and superficial objections brought
+    against the literary and historical criticism of Genesis.
+
+
+
+
+GENET, typically a south European carnivorous mammal referable to the
+_Viverridae_ or family of civets, but also taken to include several
+allied species from Africa. The true genet (_Genetta vulgaris_ or
+_Genetta genetta_) occurs throughout the south of Europe and in
+Palestine, as well as North Africa. The fur is of a dark-grey colour,
+thickly spotted with black, and having a dark streak along the back,
+while the tail, which is nearly as long as the body, is ringed with
+black and white. The genet is rare in the south of France, but commoner
+in Spain, where it frequents the banks of streams, and feeds on small
+mammals and birds. It differs from the true civets in that the anal
+pouch is a mere depression, and contains only a faint trace of the
+highly characteristic odour of the former. In south-western Europe and
+North Africa it is sought for its soft and beautifully spotted fur. In
+some parts of Europe, the genet, which is easily tamed, is kept like a
+cat for destroying mice and other vermin.
+
+[Illustration: The Genet (_Genetta vulgaris_).]
+
+
+
+
+GENEVA, a city of Ontario county, New York, U.S.A., at the N. end of
+Seneca Lake, about 52 m. S.E. of Rochester. Pop. (1890) 7557; (1900)
+10,433 (of whom 1916 were foreign-born); (1910 census) 12,446. It is
+served by the New York Central & Hudson River, and the Lehigh Valley
+railways, and by the Cayuga & Seneca Canal. It is an attractively built
+city, and has good mineral springs. Malt, tinware, flour and grist-mill
+products, boilers, stoves and ranges, optical supplies, wall-paper,
+cereals, canned goods, cutlery, tin cans and wagons are manufactured,
+and there are also extensive nurseries. The total value of the factory
+product in 1905 was $4,951,964, an increase of 82.3% since 1900. Geneva
+has a public library, a city hospital and hygienic institute. It is the
+seat of the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station and of Hobart
+College (non-sectarian), which was first planned in 1812, was founded in
+1822 (the majority of its incorporators being members of the Protestant
+Episcopal church) as successor to Geneva Academy, received a full
+charter as Geneva College in 1825, and was renamed Hobart Free College
+in 1852 and Hobart College in 1860, in honour of Bishop John Henry
+Hobart. The college had in 1908-1909 107 students, 21 instructors, and a
+library of 50,000 volumes and 15,000 pamphlets. A co-ordinate woman's
+college, the William Smith school for women, opened in 1908, was endowed
+in 1906 by William Smith of Geneva, who at the same time provided for a
+Hall of Science and for further instruction in science, especially in
+biology and psychology. In 1888 the Smith Observatory was built at
+Geneva, being maintained by William Smith, and placed in charge of Dr
+William Robert Brooks, professor of astronomy in Hobart College. The
+municipality owns its water-supply system. Geneva was first settled
+about 1787 almost on the site of the Indian village of Kanadasega, which
+was destroyed in 1779 during Gen. John Sullivan's expedition against the
+Indians in western New York. It was chartered as a city in 1898.
+
+
+
+
+GENEVA (Fr. _Geneve_, Ger. _Genf_, Ital. _Ginevra_, Late Lat. _Gebenna_,
+though _Genava_ in good Latin), a city and canton of Switzerland,
+situated at the extreme south-west corner both of the country and of the
+Lake of Geneva or Lake Leman. The canton is, save Zug, the smallest in
+the Swiss Confederation, while the city, long the most populous in the
+land, is now surpassed by Zurich and by Basel.
+
+
+  The canton.
+
+The canton has an area of 108.9 sq. m., of which 88.5 sq. m. are classed
+as "productive" (forests covering 9.9 sq. m. and vineyards 6.8 sq. m.,
+the rest being cultivated land). Of the "unproductive" 20.3 sq. m.,
+11-1/2 are accounted for by that portion of the Lake of Geneva which
+belongs to the canton. It is entirely surrounded by French territory
+(the department of Haute Savoie lying to the south, and that of the Ain
+to the west and the north), save for about 3-1/2 m. on the extreme
+north, where it borders on the Swiss canton of Vaud. The Rhone flows
+through it from east to west, and then along its south-west edge, the
+total length of the river in or within the canton being about 13 m., as
+it is very sinuous. The turbid Arve is by far its largest tributary
+(left), and flows from the snows of the chain of Mont Blanc, the only
+other affluent of any size being the London (right). Market gardens,
+orchards, and vineyards occupy a large proportion of the soil (outside
+the city), the apparent fertility of which is largely due to the
+unremitting industry of the inhabitants. In 1901 there were 6586 cows,
+3881 horses, 2468 swine and 2048 bee-hives in the canton. Besides
+building materials, such as sandstone, slate, &c., the only mineral to
+be found within the canton is bituminous shale, the products of which
+can be used for petroleum and asphalt. The broad-gauge railways in the
+canton have a length of 18-3/4 m., and include bits of the main lines
+towards Paris and Lausanne (for Bern or the Simplon), while there are
+also 72-3/4 m. of electric tramways. The canton was admitted into the
+Swiss Confederation in 1815 only, and ranks as the junior of the 22
+cantons. In 1815-1816 it was created by adding to the old territory
+belonging to the city (just around it, with the outlying districts of
+Jussy, Genthod, Satigny and Cartigny) 16 communes (to the south and
+east, including Carouge and Chene) ceded by Savoy, and 6 communes (to
+the north, including Versoix), cut off from the French district of Gex.
+
+
+  Statistics of canton and city.
+
+In 1900 there were, not counting the city, 27,813 inhabitants in the
+canton, or, including the city, 132,609, the city alone having thus a
+population of 104,796. (In the following statistics those for the city
+are enclosed within brackets.) In 1900 this population was thus divided
+in point of religion: Romanists, 67,162 (49,965), Protestants, 62,400
+(52,121), and Jews 1119 (1081). In point of language 109,741 (84,259)
+were French-speaking, 13,343 (12,004) German-speaking, and 7345 (6574)
+Italian-speaking, while there were also 89 (76) Romonsch-speaking
+persons. More remarkable are the results as to nationality: 43,550
+(31,607) were Genevese citizens, and 36,415 (30,582) Swiss citizens of
+other cantons. Of the 52,644 (42,607) foreigners, there were 34,277
+(26,018) French, 10,211 (9126) Italians, 4653 (4283) subjects of the
+German empire, 583 (468) British subjects, 832 (777) Russians, and 285
+(251) citizens of the United States of America. In the canton there were
+10,821 (5683) inhabited houses, while the number of separate households
+was 35,450 (28,621). Two points as to these statistics deserve to be
+noted. The number of foreign residents is steadily rising, for in 1900
+there were only 79,965 (62,189) Swiss in all as against 52,644 (42,607)
+foreigners. One result of this foreign immigration, particularly from
+France and Italy, has been the rapid increase of Romanists, who now form
+the majority in the canton, while in the city they were still slightly
+less numerous than the Protestants in 1900; later (local) statistics
+give in the Canton 75,400 Romanists to 64,200 Protestants, and in the
+city 52,638 Romanists to 51,221 Protestants. Geneva has always been a
+favourite residence of foreigners, though few can ever have expected to
+hear that the "protestant Rome" has now a Romanist majority as regards
+its inhabitants. Galiffe (_Geneve hist. et archeolog_.) estimates the
+population in 1356 at 5800, and in 1404 at 6490, in both cases within
+the fortifications. In 1536 the old city acquired the outlying districts
+mentioned above, as well as the suburb of St Gervais on the right bank
+of the Rhone, so that in 1545 the number is given as 12,500, reduced by
+1572 to 11,000. After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) it
+rose, by 1698, to 16,934. Thenceforward the progress was fairly steady:
+18,500 (1711); 24,712 (1782); 26,140 (1789). After the creation of the
+canton (1815) the numbers were (those for the city are enclosed within
+brackets) 48,489 (25,289), the city rising in 1837 to 33,714, and in
+1843 to 36,452. The result of the Federal censuses (begun in 1850) are
+as follows: in 1850, 64,146 (42,127); in 1860, 82,876 (59,826); in 1870,
+88,791 (65,606); in 1880, 99,712 (76,197), and in 1888, 105,509
+(81,407).
+
+
+  Government.
+
+The canton comprises 3 administrative districts: the 13 communes on the
+right bank and the 34 on the left bank each form one, while the city
+proper, on both sides of the river, forms one district and one commune.
+From 1815 to 1842 the city and the cantonal government was the same. But
+at that date the city obtained its independence, and is now ruled by a
+town council of 41 members, and an executive of 5 members, the election
+in each case being made direct by the citizens, and the term of office
+being 4 years. The existing cantonal constitution dates, in most of its
+main features, from 1847. The legislature or _Grand Conseil_ (now
+composed of 100 members) is elected (in the proportion of 1 member for
+every 1000 inhabitants or fraction over 500) for 3 years by a direct
+popular vote, subject (since 1892) to the principles of proportional
+representation, while the executive or _conseil d'etat_ (7 members) is
+elected (no proportional representation) by a popular vote for 3 years.
+By the latest enactments (one dating from 1905) 2500 citizens can claim
+a vote ("facultative referendum") as to any legislative project, or can
+exercise the "right of initiative" as to any such project or as to the
+revision of the cantonal constitution. The canton sends 2 members
+(elected by a popular vote) to the Federal _Standerath_, and 7 to the
+Federal _Nationalrath_.
+
+
+  Religion.
+
+The Consistory rules the Established Protestant Church, and is now
+composed of 31 members, 25 being laymen and 6 (formerly 15) clerics,
+while the "venerable company of pastors" (pastors actually holding
+cures) has greatly lost its former importance and can now only submit
+proposals to the Consistory. The Christian Catholic Church is also
+"established" at Geneva (since 1873) and is governed by the _conseil
+superieur_, composed of 25 lay members and 5 clerics. No other religious
+denominations are "established" at Geneva. But the Romanists (who form
+13% of the electors) are steadily growing in numbers and in influence,
+while the Christian Catholics are losing ground rapidly, the highest
+number of votes received by a candidate for the _conseil superieur_
+having fallen from 2003 in 1874 to 806 in 1890 and 507 in 1906, while
+they are abandoning the country churches (some were lost as early as
+1892) which they had taken from the Romanists in the course of the
+_Kulturkampf_.
+
+
+  Industry.
+
+The fairs of Geneva (held 4 times a year) are mentioned as early as
+1262, and attained the height of their prosperity about 1450, but
+declined after Louis XI.'s grants of 1462-1463 in favour of the fairs of
+Lyons. Among the chief articles brought to these fairs (which were
+largely frequented by Italian, French and Swiss merchants) were cloth,
+silk, armour, groceries, wine, timber and salt, this last coming mainly
+from Provence. The manufacturers of Geneva formed in 1487 no fewer than
+38 gilds, including tailors, hatters, mercers, weavers, tanners,
+saddle-makers, furriers, shoe-makers, painters on glass, &c. Goldsmiths
+are mentioned as early as 1290. Printing was introduced in 1478 by
+Steinschaber of Schweinfurth, and flourished much in the 16th century,
+though the rigorous supervision exercised by the Consistory greatly
+hampered the Estiennes (Stephanus) in their enterprises. Nowadays the
+best known industry at Geneva is that of watchmaking, which was
+introduced in 1587 by Charles Cusin of Autun, and two years later
+regulations as to the trade were issued. In 1685 there were in Geneva
+100 master watchmakers, employing 300 work-people, who turned out 5000
+pieces a year, while in 1760 this trade employed 4000 work-people. Of
+recent years its prosperity has diminished greatly, so that the
+watchmaking and jewelry trades in 1902 numbered respectively but 38 and
+32 of the 394 establishments in Geneva which were subject to the factory
+laws. Lately, huge establishments have been constructed for the
+utilization of the power contained in the Rhone. The local commerce of
+Geneva is much aided by the fact that the city is nearly entirely
+surrounded by "free zones," in which no customs duties are levied,
+though the districts are politically French: this privilege was given to
+Gex in 1814, and to the Savoyard districts in 1860, when they were also
+neutralized.
+
+
+  Celebrities.
+
+Considering the small size of Geneva, till recently, it is surprising
+how many celebrated persons have been connected with it as natives or as
+residents. Here are a few of the principal, special articles being
+devoted to many of them in this work. In the 16th century, besides
+Calvin and Bonivard, we have Isaac Casaubon, the scholar; Robert and
+Henri Estienne, the printers, and, from 1572 to 1574, Joseph Scaliger
+himself, though but for a short time. J.J. Rousseau is, of course, the
+great Genevese of the 18th century. At that period, and in the 19th
+century, Geneva was a centre of light, especially in the case of various
+of the physical sciences. Among the scientific celebrities were de
+Saussure, the most many-sided of all; de Candolle and Boissier, the
+botanists; Alphonse Favre and Necker, the geologists; Marignac, the
+chemist; Deluc, the physicist, and Plantamour, the astronomer. Charles
+Bonnet was both a scientific man and a philosopher, while Amiel belonged
+to the latter class only. Pradier and Chaponniere, the sculptors;
+Arlaud, Diday and Calame, the artists; Mallet, who revealed Scandinavia
+to the literary world; Necker, the minister; Sismondi, the historian of
+the Italian republics; General Dufour, author of the great survey which
+bears the name of the "Dufour Map," have each a niche in the Temple of
+Fame. Of a less severe type were Cherbuliez, the novelist; Topffer, who
+spread a taste for pedestrianism among Swiss youth; Duchosal, the poet;
+Marc Monnier, the litterateur; not to mention the names of any persons
+still living, or of politicians of any date.
+
+
+  The city and its buildings.
+
+The city of Geneva is situated at the south-western extremity of the
+beautiful lake of the same name, whence the "arrowy Rhone" flows
+westwards under the seven bridges by which the two halves of the town
+communicate with each other. To the south is the valley of the Arve
+(descending from the snows of the Mont Blanc chain), which unites with
+that of the Rhone a little below the town; while behind the Arve the
+grey and barren rocks of the Petit Saleve rise like a wall, which in
+turn is overtopped by the distant and ethereal snows of Mont Blanc. Yet
+the actual site of the town is not as picturesque as that of several
+other spots in Switzerland. Though the cathedral crowns the hillock
+round which clusters the old part of the town, a large portion of the
+newer town is built on the alluvial flats on either bank of the Rhone.
+Since the demolition of the fortifications in 1849 the town has extended
+in every direction, and particularly on the right bank of the Rhone. It
+possesses many edifices, public and private, which are handsome or
+elegant, but it has almost nothing to which the memory reverts as a
+masterpiece of architectural art. It is possible that this is, in part,
+due to the artistic blight of the Calvinism which so long dominated the
+town. But, while lacking the medieval appearance of Fribourg or Bern, or
+Sion or Coire, the great number of modern fine buildings in Geneva,
+hotels, villas, &c., gives it an air of prosperity and comfort that
+attracts many visitors, though on others modern French architecture
+produces a blinding glare. On the other hand, there are broad quays
+along the river, while public gardens afford grateful shade.
+
+The cathedral (Protestant) of St Pierre is the finest of the older
+buildings in the city, but is a second-rate building, though as E.A.
+Freeman remarks, "it is an excellent example of a small cathedral of its
+own style and plan, with unusually little later alteration." The hillock
+on which it rises was no doubt the site of earlier churches, but the
+present Transitional building dates only from the 12th and 13th
+centuries, while its portico was built in the 18th century, after the
+model of the Pantheon at Rome. It contains a few sepulchral monuments,
+removed from the cloisters (pulled down in 1721), and a fine modern
+organ, but the historical old bell _La Clemence_ has been replaced by a
+newer and larger one which bears the same name. More interesting than
+the church itself is the adjoining chapel of the Maccabees, built in the
+15th century, and recently restored. Near the cathedral are the arsenal
+(now housing the historical museum, in which are preserved many relics
+of the "Escalade" of 1602, including the famous ladders), and the maison
+de ville or town hall. The latter building is first mentioned in 1448,
+but most of the present building dates from far later times, though the
+quaint paved spiral pathway (taking the place of a staircase in the
+interior) was made in the middle of the 16th century. In the _Salle du
+Conseil d'Etat_ some curious 15th-century frescoes have lately been
+discovered, while the old Salle des Festins is now known as the Salle de
+l'Alabama, in memory of the arbitration tribunal of 1872. In the
+15th-century Tour Baudet, adjoining the Town Hall, are preserved the
+rich archives of the city. Not far away is the palais de justice, built
+in 1709 as a hospital, but used as a court house since 1858. On the Ile
+in the Rhone stands the tower (built c. 1219) of the old castle
+belonging to the bishop. Among the modern buildings we may mention the
+following: the University (founded in 1559, but raised to the rank of a
+University in 1873 only), the Athenee, the Conservatoire de Musique, the
+Victoria Hall (a concert hall, presented in 1904 to the city by Mr
+Barton, formerly H.B.M.'s Consul), the theatre, the Salle de la
+Reformation (for religious lectures and popular concerts), the Batiment
+Electoral, the Russian church and the new post office. At present the
+museums of various kinds at Geneva are widely dispersed, but a huge new
+building in course of construction (1906) will ultimately house most of
+them. The Musee Rath contains pictures and sculptures; the Musee Fol,
+antiquities of various dates; the Musee des Arts Decoratifs, _inter
+alia_, a fine collection of prints; the Musee Industriel, industrial
+objects and models; the Musee Archeologique, prehistoric and
+archaeological remains; the Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, scientific
+collections; and the Musee Epigraphique, a considerable number of
+inscriptions. Some way out of the town is the Musee Ariana (extensive
+art collections), left, with a fine park, in 1890 to the city by a rich
+citizen, Gustave Revilliod. The public library is in the university
+buildings and contains many valuable MSS. and printed books. Geneva
+boasts also of a fine observatory and of a number of technical schools
+(watchmaking, chemistry, medicine, commerce, fine arts, &c.), some of
+which are really annexes of the university, which in June 1906 was
+attended by 1158 matriculated students, of whom 903 were non-Swiss, the
+Russians (475 in number) forming the majority of the foreign students.
+Geneva is well supplied with charitable institutions, hospitals, &c.
+Among other remarkable sights of the city may be mentioned the great
+hydraulic establishment (built 1882-1899) of the _Forces Motrices du
+Rhone_ (turbines), the singular monument set up to the memory of the
+late duke of Brunswick who left his fortune to the city in 1873, and the
+Ile Jean-Jacques Rousseau now connected with the Pont des Bergues. The
+house occupied by Rousseau is No. 40 in the Grand' Rue, while No. 13 in
+the same street is on the site of Calvin's house, though not the actual
+dwelling inhabited by him.
+
+
+  History.
+
+The real name of the city is _Genava_, that being the form under which
+it appears in almost all the known documents up to the 7th century,
+A.D., the variation _Genua_ (which has led to great confusion with
+Genoa) being also found in the 6th century. But _Geneva_ and _Gebenna_
+are of later date. The first mention of the city is made by Caesar
+(_Bell. Galli_. i. 6-7) who tells us that it was the last _oppidum_ of
+the Allobroges, and the nearest to the territory of the Helvetii, with
+which it was connected by a bridge that, for military reasons, he was
+forced to destroy. Inscriptions of later date state that it was only a
+_vicus_ of the Viennese province, while mentioning the fact that a gild
+of boatmen flourished there. But the many Roman remains found on the
+original site (in the region of the cathedral) of the city show that it
+must have been of some importance, and that it possessed a considerable
+commerce. About 400 the _Notitia Galliarum_ calls it a _civitas_ (so
+that it then had a municipal administration of its own), and reckons it
+as first among those of the Viennese. Probably this rise in dignity was
+connected with the establishment of a bishop's see there, the first
+bishop certainly known, Isaac, being heard of about 400 in a letter
+addressed by St Eucherius to Salvius, while, in 450, a letter of St Leo
+states that the see was then a suffragan of the archbishopric of Vienne.
+It is possible that there may be some ground for the local tradition
+that Christianity was introduced into this region by Dionysius and
+Paracodus, who successively occupied the see of Vienne, but another
+tradition that the first bishop was named St Nazarius rests on a
+confusion, as that saint belongs to Genoa and not to Geneva.
+
+About the middle of the 5th century A.D. it came into the possession of
+the Burgundians, who held it as late as 527 (thus leaving no room for
+any occupation by the Ostrogoths), and in 534 passed into the hands of
+the Franks. The Burgundian kings seem to have made Geneva one of their
+principal residences, and the _Notitia_ (above named) tells us that the
+city was _restaurata_ by King Gundibald (d. 516) which is generally
+supposed to mean that he first surrounded it with a wall, the city then
+comprising little more than the hill on which the present cathedral
+stands. That building is of course of much later date, but it seems
+certain that when (c. 513-516) Sigismund, son of King Gundibald, built a
+stone church on the site, it took the place of an earlier wooden church,
+constructed on Roman foundations, all three layers being clearly visible
+at the present day. We know that St Avitus, archbishop of Vienne (d.
+518), preached a sermon (preserved to us) at the dedication of a church
+at Geneva which had been built on the site of one burnt by the enemy,
+and the bits of half-burnt wood found in the second of the two layers
+mentioned above, seem to make it probable that the reference is to
+Sigismund's church. But Geneva was in no sense one of the great cities
+of the region, though it is mentioned in the _Antonine Itinerary_ and in
+the _Peutinger Table_ (both 4th century A.D.), no doubt owing to its
+important position on the bank of the Rhone, which then rose to the foot
+of the hill on which the original city stood. This is no doubt the
+reason why, apart from some passing allusions (for instance, Charles the
+Great held a council of war there in 773, on his first journey to
+Italy), we hear very little about it.
+
+In 1032, with the rest of the kingdom of Burgundy or Arles, it reverted
+to the emperor Conrad II., who was crowned king at Payerne in 1033, and
+in 1034 was recognized as such at Geneva by a great assembly of nobles
+from Germany, Burgundy and Italy, this rather unwilling surrender
+signifying the union of those 3 kingdoms. It is said that Conrad
+granted the temporal sovereignty of the city to the bishop, who, in
+1162, was raised to the rank of a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, being
+elected, from 1215, by the chapter, but, after 1418, named directly by
+the pope himself.
+
+Like many other prince-bishops, the ruler of Geneva had to defend his
+rights: without against powerful neighbours, and within against the
+rising power of the citizens. These struggles constitute the entire
+political history of Geneva up to about 1535, when a new epoch of unrest
+opens with the adoption of Protestantism. The first foe without was the
+family of the counts of the Genevois (the region south of the city and
+in the neighbourhood of Annecy), who were also "protectors" (_advocati_)
+of the church of Geneva, and are first heard of in the 11th and 12th
+centuries. Their influence was probably never stronger than during the
+rule as bishop (1118-1119) of Guy, the brother of the reigning count.
+But his successor, Humbert de Grammont, resumed the grants made to the
+count, and in 1125 by the Accord of Seyssel, the count fully
+acknowledged the suzerainty of the bishop. A fresh struggle under Bishop
+Ardutius (1135-1185) ended in the confirmation by Frederick Barbarossa,
+as emperor, of the position of the bishop as subject to no one but
+himself (1153), this declaration being strengthened by the elevation of
+the bishop and his successors to the rank of princes of the empire
+(1162).
+
+In 1250 the counts of Savoy first appear in connexion with Geneva, being
+mortgagees of the Genevois family, and, in 1263, practically their heirs
+as "protectors" of the city. It was thus natural that the citizens
+should invoke the aid of Savoy against their bishop, Robert of the
+Genevois (1276-1287). But Count Amadeus of Savoy not merely seized
+(1287) the castle built by the bishops (about 1219) on the Ile, but also
+(1288) the office of _vicedominus_ [_vidomne_], the official through
+whom the bishop exercised his minor judicial rights. The new bishop,
+William of Conflans (1287-1295) could recover neither, and in 1290 had
+to formally recognize the position of Savoy (which was thus legalized)
+in his own cathedral city. It was during this struggle that about 1287
+(these privileges were finally sanctioned by the bishop in 1300) the
+citizens organized themselves into a commune or corporation, elected 4
+syndics, and showed their independent position by causing a seal for the
+city to be prepared. The bishop was thus threatened on two sides by foes
+of whom the influence was rising, and against whom his struggles were of
+no avail. In 1365 the count obtained from the emperor the office of
+imperial vicar over Geneva, but the next bishop William of Marcossay
+(1366-1377: he began the construction of a new wall round the greatly
+extended city, a process not completed till 1428) secured the withdrawal
+of this usurpation (1366-1367), which the count finally renounced
+(1371). One of that bishop's successors, Adhemar Fabri (1385-1388)
+codified and confirmed all the franchises, rights and privileges of the
+citizens (1387), this grant being the _Magna Carta_ of the city of
+Geneva. In 1401 Amadeus VIII. of Savoy bought the county of the
+Genevois, as the dynasty of its rulers had become extinct. Geneva was
+now surrounded on all sides by the dominions of the house of Savoy.
+
+Amadeus did homage, in 1405, to the bishop for those of the newly
+acquired lands which he held from the bishop. But, after his power had
+been strengthened by his elevation (1417) by the emperor to the rank of
+a duke, and by his succession to the principality of Piedmont (1418,
+long held by a cadet branch of his house), Amadeus tried to purchase
+Geneva from its bishop, John of Pierre-Scise or Rochetaillee
+(1418-1422). This offer was refused both by the bishop and by the
+citizens, while in 1420 the emperor Sigismund declared that he alone was
+the suzerain of the city, and forbade any one to attack it or harm it in
+any fashion. Oddly enough Amadeus did in the end get hold of the city,
+for, having been elected pope under the name of Felix V., he named
+himself to the vacant see of Geneva (1444), and kept it, after his
+resignation of the Papacy in 1449, till his death in 1451. For the most
+part of this period he resided in Geneva. From 1451 to 1522 the see was
+almost continuously held by a cadet of the house of Savoy, which thus
+treated it as a kind of appange.
+
+Most probably Geneva would soon have become an integral part of the
+realms of the house of Savoy had it not been for the appearance of a new
+protector on the scene--the Swiss confederation. In the early 15th
+century the town of Fribourg made an alliance with Geneva for commercial
+purposes (the cloth warehouses of Fribourg at Geneva being enlarged in
+1432 and 1465), as the cloth manufactured at Fribourg found a market in
+the fairs of Geneva (which are mentioned as early as 1262, and were at
+the height of their prosperity about 1450). The duke, however, was no
+better inclined towards the Swiss than towards Geneva. He struck a blow
+at both, when, in 1462-1463, he induced his son-in-law, Louis XI. of
+France, to forbid French merchants to attend the fairs of Geneva,
+altering also the days of the fairs at Lyons (established in 1420 and
+increased in number in 1463) so as to make them clash with those fixed
+for the fairs of Geneva. This nearly ruined Geneva, which, too, in 1477
+had to pay a large indemnity to the Swiss army that, after the defeat of
+Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, advanced to take vengeance on the
+dominions of his ally, Yolande, dowager duchess of Savoy and sister of
+Louis XI., as well as on the bishop of Geneva, her brother-in-law. But,
+after this payment, the bishop made an alliance with the Swiss. A
+prolonged attempt was made (1517-1530) by the reigning duke of Savoy,
+Charles III. (1504-1553), to secure Geneva for his family, at first with
+the help of his bastard cousin John (1513-1522), the last of his house
+to hold the see. In this struggle the syndic, Philibert Berthelier,
+succeeded in concluding (1519) an alliance with Fribourg, which,
+however, had to be given up almost immediately. It split the citizens
+into two parties; the _Eidgenots_ relying on the Swiss, while the
+_Mamelus_ (mamelukes) supported the duke. Berthelier was executed in
+1519, and Ame Levrier in 1524, but Bezanson Hugues (d. 1532) took their
+place, and in 1526 succeeded in renewing the alliance with Fribourg and
+adding to it one with Bern. This much enraged the duke, who took active
+steps against the citizens, and tried (1527) to carry off the bishop,
+Pierre de la Baume (1522-1544), who soon found it best to make his
+submission.
+
+The Genevese, thus abandoned by their natural protector, looked to the
+Swiss for help. They sent (October 1530) a considerable army to save the
+city. This armed intervention compelled the duke to sign the treaty of
+St Julien (19th October) by which he engaged not to trouble the Genevese
+any more, agreeing that if he did so the two towns of Fribourg and Bern
+should have the right to occupy his barony of Vaud. The two towns also,
+by the decision given as arbitrators at Payerne (30th December 1530),
+upheld their alliance with Geneva, condemned the duke to pay all the
+expenses of the war, and confirmed the clause as to their right to
+occupy Vaud; they also surrounding the exercise of the powers of
+_vidomne_ by the duke with so many restrictions that in 1532 the duke,
+after much resistance, formally agreed to recognize the alliance of
+Geneva with the two towns and not to annoy the Genevese any more. Thus a
+legal tie between Geneva and two of the Swiss cantons was established,
+while the duke did not any longer venture to annoy the Genevese, as he
+clung to his fine barony of Vaud. In the course of this struggle (and
+especially after the last episcopal _vidomne_ had left the town in 1526)
+the municipal authorities of the city greatly developed, a _grand
+conseil_ of 200 members being set up in imitation of those at Bern and
+at Fribourg, while within the larger assembly there was a _petit
+conseil_ of 60 members for more confidential business. Thus 1530 marks
+the date at which Geneva became its own mistress within, while allied
+externally with the Swiss confederation. But hardly had this settlement
+been reached when a fresh element of discord threatened to wholly upset
+matters--the adoption of Protestant principles by the city. Just before
+this event, however, the fortifications were once more (1534) rebuilt
+(bits still remain) and extended so as to take in several new suburbs,
+including that of St Gervais on the right bank of the Rhone which, till
+then, seems to have been unenclosed (1511-1527).
+
+In 1532 William Farel, a Protestant preacher from Dauphine, who had
+converted Vaud, &c. to the new belief, first came to Geneva and settled
+there in 1533. But although Bern supported the Reform, Fribourg did
+not, and in 1534 withdrew from its alliance with Geneva, while directly
+afterwards the duke of Savoy made a fresh attempt to seize the city. On
+the 10th of August 1535 the Protestant faith was formally adopted by
+Geneva, but an offer of help from France having been refused, as the
+city was unwilling to give up any of its sovereign rights, the duke's
+party continued its intrigues. Finally Bern, fearing that Geneva might
+fall to France instead of to itself, sent an army to protect the city
+(January 1536), but, not being able to persuade the citizens to give up
+their freedom, had to content itself with the conquest of the barony of
+Vaud and of the bishopric of Lausanne, thus acquiring rich territories,
+while becoming close neighbours of Geneva (January and March 1536).
+Meanwhile Farel had been advancing the cause of religious reform, which
+was definitively adopted on the 21st of May 1536. In July 1536 a French
+refugee, John Calvin (q.v.), came to Geneva for a night, but was
+detained by Farel who found in him a powerful helper. The opposition
+party of the _Libertins_ succeeded in getting them both exiled in 1538,
+but, in September 1541, Calvin was recalled (Farel spending the rest of
+his life at Neuchatel, where he died 1565) to Geneva. Born in 1509, he
+was then about 32 years of age. He set up this theocracy in Geneva, and
+ruled the reorganized republic with a strong hand till his death in
+1564, when he was succeeded by the milder Theodore de Beza (1519-1605).
+
+The great blot on Calvin's rule was his intolerance of other thinkers,
+as exemplified by his burning of Gruet (1547) and of Servetus (1553).
+But, on the other hand, he founded (1559) the Academy, which, originally
+meant as a seminary for his preachers, later greatly extended its scope,
+and in 1873 assumed the rank of a University. The strict rule of Calvin
+drove out many old Genevese families, while he caused to be received as
+citizens many French, Italian and English refugees, so that Geneva
+became not merely the "Protestant Rome" but also quite a cosmopolitan
+little city. The Bernese often interfered with the internal affairs of
+Geneva (while Calvin, a Frenchman, naturally looked towards France), and
+refused to allow the city to conclude any alliances save with itself.
+That alliance was finally renewed in 1558, while in 1560 the Romanist
+cantons made one with the duke of Savoy, a zealous supporter of the old
+faith. In 1564, after long negotiations, Bern restored to the duke part
+of its conquests of 1536, viz. Gex, the Genevois and the Chablais,
+Geneva being thus once more placed amid the dominions of the duke;
+though by the same treaty (that of Lausanne, October 1564, Calvin having
+died the preceding May) the alliance of Bern with Geneva was maintained.
+In 1579 Geneva was included in the alliance concluded by France with
+Bern and Soleure, while in 1584 Zurich joined Bern in another alliance
+with Geneva. The struggle widened as Geneva became a pawn in the great
+attempt of the duke of Savoy to bring back his subjects to the old
+faith, his efforts being seconded by Francois de Sales, the "apostle of
+the Chablais." But the king of France, for political reasons, opposed
+Savoy, with whom, however, he made peace in 1601. In December 1602
+Francois de Sales was consecrated bishop of Geneva (since 1535 the
+bishops had lived at Annecy), and a few days later the duke of Savoy
+made a final attempt to get hold of the city by a surprise attack in the
+night of 11-12th December 1602 (Old Style), known in history as the
+"Escalade," as ladders were used to scale the city walls. It was
+successfully repelled, over 200 of the foe being slain, while 17
+Genevese only perished. Filled with joy at their rescue from this
+attack, the citizens crowded to their cathedral, where Beza (then 83
+years of age) bid them to sing the 124th Psalm which has ever since been
+sung on the anniversary of this great delivery. The peace of St Julien
+(21st of July 1603) marked the final defeat of the duke of Savoy in the
+long struggle waged (since 1290) by his house against the city of
+Geneva.
+
+In the charter of 1387 we hear only of the _conseil general_ (composed
+of all male heads of families) which acted as the legislature, and
+elected annually the executive of 4 syndics; no doubt this form of rule
+existed earlier than 1387. Even before 1387 there was also the _petit
+conseil_ or _conseil ordinaire_ or _conseil etroit_, a body not
+recognized by the law, though it became very powerful; it was composed
+of the 4 syndics, with several other counsellors, and acted originally
+as the adviser of the syndics who were legally responsible for the rule
+of the city. In 1457 we first hear of the Council of the Fifty
+(re-established in 1502 and later known as the Sixty), and in 1526 of
+the Council of the Two Hundred (established in imitation of those of
+Bern and Fribourg), both being summoned in special cases of urgency. The
+members of both were named by the _petit conseil_, of which, in turn,
+the members were confirmed or not by the Two Hundred. By the
+Constitution of 1543 the _conseil general_ had only the right of
+choosing the 4 syndics out of a list of 8 presented by the _petit
+conseil_ and the Two Hundred, which therefore really elected them,
+subject to a formal approbation on the part of the larger body. This
+system was slightly modified in 1568, the constitution of that date
+lasting till 1794. The _conseil general_ fell more and more into the
+background, the members of the other councils gradually obtained the
+privilege of being irremovable, and the system of co-optation resulted
+in the creation of a close monopoly of political offices in the hands of
+a few leading families.
+
+During the 17th and 18th centuries, while the Romanist majority of the
+Swiss cantons steadily refused to accept Geneva as even a subordinate
+member of the Confederation, the city itself was distracted on several
+occasions by attempts of the citizens, as a whole, to gain some share in
+the aristocratic government of the town, though these attempts were only
+partially successful. But the last half of the 18th century marks the
+most brilliant period in the literary history of Geneva, whether as
+regards natives or resident foreigners, while in the succeeding half
+century the number of Genevese scientific celebrities is remarkable. In
+1794 the effects of the French Revolution were shown in the more liberal
+constitution granted by the city government. But in 1798 the city was
+annexed to France and became the capital of the French department of
+Leman (to be carefully distinguished from the Swiss _canton_ of Leman,
+that is Vaud, of the Helvetic Republic, also set up in 1798), while in
+1802, by the Concordat, the ancient bishopric of Geneva was suppressed.
+On the fall of Napoleon (1813) the city recovered its independence, and
+finally, in 1815, was received as the junior member of the Swiss
+confederation, several bits of French and Savoyard territory (as pointed
+out above) being added to the narrow bounds of the old Genevese Republic
+in order to give the town some protection against its non-Swiss
+neighbours.
+
+The constitution of 1814 set up a common form of government for the city
+and the canton, the city not obtaining its municipal independence till
+the constitution of 1842. From 1535 to 1798 public worship according to
+the Romanist form had been strictly forbidden. In 1799 already the first
+attempts were made to reestablish it, and in 1803 the church of St
+Germain was handed over to the Romanists. The constitution of 1814,
+looking forward to the annexation of Romanist districts to the city
+territory to form the new canton, guaranteed to that body the freedom of
+worship, at any rate in these newly gained districts. In 1819 the canton
+(the new portions of which were inhabited mainly by Romanists) was
+annexed to the bishopric of Lausanne, the bishop in 1821 being
+authorized to add "and of Geneva" to his episcopal style. After the
+adventure of the "Escalade" the fortifications were once more
+strengthened and extended, these works being completed about 1726. But,
+in 1822, some of the bastions were converted into promenades, while in
+1849 the rest of the fortifications were pulled down so as to allow the
+city to expand and gradually assume its present aspect.
+
+When Geneva recovered its political independence in 1814 a new
+constitution was drawn up, but it was very reactionary, for there is no
+mention in it of the sovereignty of the people. It set up a _conseil
+representatif_ or legislature of 250 members, which named the _conseil
+d'etat_ or executive, while it was itself elected by a limited class,
+for the electoral qualification was the annual payment of direct taxes
+to the amount of 20 Swiss livres or about 23 shillings. It was not till
+1842 that this system, though much criticized, was modified. In the
+early part of 1841 the "Third of March Association" was formed to watch
+over the interests of the citizens, and in November of that year the
+government was forced by a popular demonstration to summon an _assemblee
+constituante_, which in 1842 elaborated a new constitution that was
+accepted by the citizens. Besides bestowing on the city a government
+distinct from that of the canton, it set up for the latter a _grand
+conseil_ or legislature, and a conseil _d'etat_ or executive of 13
+members, both elected for the term of 4 years. But this constitution did
+not seem liberal enough to many citizens, so that in 1846 the government
+gave way to the Radicals, led by James Fazy (1794-1878), who drew up a
+constitution that was accepted by a popular vote on the 21st of May
+1847. It was much more advanced than that of 1842, and in its main
+features still prevails. From that date till 1864 the Radicals ruled the
+state, their head, Fazy, being an able man, though extravagant and
+inclined to absolutism. Under his sway the town was modernized and
+developed, but the finances were badly administered, and Fazy became
+more and more a radical dictator. "On voudrait faire de Geneve," sighed
+the conservative, de la Rive, "la plus petite des grandes villes, et
+pour moi je prefere qu'elle reste la plus grande des petites villes." In
+1861 and in 1864 Fazy failed to secure his re-election to the _conseil
+d'etat_, riots followed his defeat, and the Federal troops were forced
+to intervene so as to restore order.
+
+The Democratic party (liberal-conservative) ruled from 1865 to 1870, and
+did much to improve the finances of the state. In 1870 the Radicals
+regained the supremacy under their new chief, Antoine Carteret
+(1813-1889) and kept it till 1878. This was a period of religious
+strife, due to the irritation caused by the Vatican council, and the
+pope's attempt to revive the bishopric of Geneva. Gaspard Mermillod
+(1824-1891) was named in 1864 _cure_ of Geneva, and made bishop of
+Hebron _in partibus_, acting as the helper of the bishop of Lausanne.
+Early in 1873 the pope named him "vicar apostolic of Geneva," but he was
+expelled a few weeks later from Switzerland, not returning till 1883,
+when he became bishop of Lausanne, being made cardinal in 1890. The
+Radical government enacted severe laws as to the Romanists in Geneva,
+and gave privileges to the Christian Catholic Church, which, organized
+in 1874 in Switzerland, had absorbed the community founded at Geneva by
+Pere Hyacinthe, an ex-Carmelite friar. The Romanists therefore were no
+longer recognized by the state, and were persecuted in divers ways,
+though the tide afterwards turned in their favour. The Democrats ruled
+from 1878 to 1880, and introduced the "Referendum" (1879) into the
+cantonal constitution, but, their policy of the separation of church and
+state having been rejected by the people at a vote, they gave way to the
+Radicals. The Radicals went out in 1889, and the Democrats held the
+reins of power till 1897, their leader being Gustave Ador. In 1891 they
+introduced the "Initiative" into the cantonal constitution, and in 1892
+the principle of proportional representation so far as regards the
+_grand conseil_, while Th. Turrettini did much to increase the
+economical prosperity of the city. In 1897 the Radicals came in again,
+their leaders being first Georges Favon (1843-1902) till his death, and
+then Henri Fazy, a distant relative of James and an excellent historian.
+They attempted to rule by aid of the Socialists, but their power
+fluctuated as the demands of the Socialists became greater. On the 30th
+of June 1907 the Genevese, by a popular vote, decided on the separation
+of Church and State.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--D. Baud-Bovy, _Peintres genevois, 1702-1807_ (2 vols.,
+  Geneva, 1903-1904); J.T. de Belloc, _Le Cardinal Mermillod_ (Fribourg,
+  1892): M. Besson, Recherches _sur les origines des eveches de Geneve,
+  Lausanne et Sion_ (Fribourg, 1906); J.D. Blavignac, Armorial genevois
+  (Geneva, 1849), and _Etudes sur Geneve depuis l'antiquite jusqu'a nos
+  jours_ (2 vols., Geneva, 1872-1874); Fr. Bonivard, _Chroniques de
+  Geneve_ (Reprint) (2 vols., Geneva, 1867); F. Borel, _Les Foires de
+  Geneve au XV^e siecle_ (Geneva, 1892); Ch. Borgeaud, _Histoire de
+  l'universite de Geneve, 1559-1798_ (Geneva, 1900); E. Choisy, _La
+  Theocratie a Geneve au temps de Calvin_ (Geneva, 1898), and _L'Etat
+  chretien Calviniste a Geneve au temps de Theodore de Beze_ (Geneva,
+  1902); F. de Crue, _La Guerre feodale de Geneve et l'etablissement de
+  la Commune, 1205-1320_ (Geneva, 1907); H. Denkinger, _Histoire
+  populaire du canton de Geneve_ (Geneva, 1905); E. Doumergue, _La
+  Geneve Calviniste_ (containing a minute topographical description of
+  16th-century Geneva, and forming vol. iii. of the author's _Jean
+  Calvin_) (Lausanne, 1905); E. Dunant, _Les Relations politiques de
+  Geneve avec Berne et les Suisses, de 1536 a 1564_ (Geneva, 1894);
+  _Documents de l'Escalade de Geneve_ (Geneva, 1903); G. Fatio and F.
+  Boissonnas, _La Campagne genevoise d'apres nature_ (Geneva, 1899), and
+  _Geneve a travers les siecles_ (Geneva, 1900); H. Fazy, _Histoire de
+  Geneve a l'epoque de l'Escalade, 1598-1603_ (Geneva, 1902), and _Les
+  Constitutions de la Republique de Geneve_ (to 1847) (Geneva, 1890);
+  J.B.G. Galiffe, _Geneve historique et archeologique_ (2 vols., Geneva,
+  1869-1872); J.A. Gautier, _Histoire de Geneve_ (to 1691) (6 vols.,
+  1896-1903); F. Gribble and J.H. and M.H. Lewis, _Geneva_ (London,
+  1908); J. Jullien, Histoire de Geneve (new ed.; Geneva, 1889); C.
+  Martin, _La Maison de Ville de Geneve_ (Geneva, 1906); _Memoires et
+  documents_ (publ. by the local Historical Society since 1821); F.
+  Mugnier, _Les Eveques de Geneve-Annecy, 1535-1870_ (Paris, 1888);
+  _Pierre de Geneve, St_ (monograph on the cathedral), 4 parts (Geneva,
+  1891-1899); A. de Montet, _Dictionnaire biographique des Genevois,
+  &c._ (2 vols., Lausanne, 1878); C.L. Perrin, _Les Vieux Quartiers de
+  Geneve_ (Geneva, 1904); A. Pfleghart, _Die schweizerische
+  Uhrenindustrie_ (Leipzig, 1908); _Regeste genevois avant 1312_
+  (Geneva, 1866); _Registres du conseil de Geneve_, vols. i. and ii.,
+  1409-1477 (Geneva, 1900-1906); A. Roget, _Histoire du peuple de Geneve
+  depuis la Reforme jusqu'a l'Escalade_ (7 vols., from 1536-1568;
+  Geneva, 1870-1883); A. Rilliet, _Le Retablissement du Catholicisme a
+  Geneve il y a deux siecles_ (Geneva, 1880); P. Vaucher, _Luttes de
+  Geneve contre la Savoie_, 1517-1530 (Geneva, 1889); _Recueil
+  genealogique suisse (Geneve)_ (2 vols., Geneva, 1902-1907).
+       (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GENEVA CONVENTION, an international agreement for the purpose of
+improving the condition of wounded soldiers of armies in the field,
+originally adopted at an international conference held at Geneva,
+Switzerland, in 1864, and afterwards replaced by the convention of July
+6, 1906, also adopted at Geneva. This later agreement is the one now
+known as the Geneva Convention. The conference of 1864 was the result of
+a movement which sprang from the publication in 1862 of a book entitled
+_Un Souvenir de Solferino_ by Henri Dunant, a Genevese philanthropist,
+in which he described the sufferings of the wounded at the battle of
+Solferino with such vivid effect that the subject became forthwith one
+of public interest. It was energetically taken up by M. Gustave Moynier,
+whose agitation led to an unofficial congress being held at Geneva in
+October 1863. This was followed by an official one at Geneva, called by
+the Swiss government in 1864. The convention which was there signed
+(22nd August 1864) on behalf of the states represented, afterwards
+received the adherence of every civilized power.
+
+At a second conference on the same subject, held at Geneva in 1868, a
+supplementary convention was drawn up, consisting of fourteen additional
+articles, five of which related to war on land and nine to naval
+warfare. The additional articles were not, however, ratified by the
+chief states, and never became operative. The Brussels International
+Conference (1874) for the codification of the law and customs of war
+occupied itself with the Geneva Convention and again drew up a number of
+articles which were submitted to the interested governments. But, as in
+the case of the additional articles of 1868, no effect was ever given to
+them.
+
+At the Peace Conference of 1899 Great Britain withdrew her objections to
+the application of the convention to maritime warfare, and agreed to the
+adoption of a special convention "adapting to Maritime warfare the
+principles of the Geneva Convention." A _voeu_ was also adopted by the
+conference expressing the wish that a special conference should be held
+as soon as possible for the purpose of revising the convention of 1864.
+
+In deference to the above _voeu_ the Swiss government in 1901 sounded
+the other parties to the convention of 1864 as to whether the time had
+not come to call the proposed special conference, but the replies
+received did not give much encouragement and the matter was dropped for
+the time being. By a circular note of the 17th of February 1903, the
+Swiss government invited all the states which had signed or adhered to
+the Geneva Convention to send representatives to a conference to be held
+at Geneva in the following September. Some governments did not accept
+the invitation in time and the conference had to be postponed. At the
+beginning of 1904, there being no apparent obstacle, the Swiss
+government again invited the powers to send delegates to a conference in
+the following May. Meanwhile war broke out between Russia and Japan and
+there was again an adjournment. At length in March 1906 an invitation
+was accepted by thirty-five states, only Turkey, Salvador, Bolivia,
+Venezuela, Nicaragua and Colombia abstaining and the conference was
+held at Geneva in July 1906, when a full revised convention was adopted,
+which now takes the place of that of 1864.[1] The adoption of the new
+Geneva Convention entailed a revision of the above-mentioned Hague
+Convention and a new edition of the latter is one of the documents
+adopted at the Peace Conference of 1907.
+
+The new Geneva Convention consists of thirty-three articles divided into
+the following chapters, (i.) the wounded and sick; (ii.) medical units
+and establishments; (iii.) personnel; (iv.) material; (v.) convoys of
+evacuation; (vi.) the distinctive emblem; (vii.) application and
+carrying out of the Convention; (viii.) prevention of abuses and
+infractions; (ix.) general provisions.
+
+The essential parts of the new Hague Convention of 1907 (18th of
+October) adapting the above conventions to maritime warfare as follows:
+(N.B. The alterations are in italics. The parts of the older convention
+of 1899 which have been suppressed are in brackets).
+
+  i. Military hospital-ships, that is to say, ships constructed or
+  assigned by states specially and solely for the purpose of assisting
+  the wounded, sick or shipwrecked, and the names of which shall have
+  been communicated to the belligerent powers at the commencement or
+  during the course of hostilities, and in any case before they are
+  employed, shall be respected and cannot be captured while hostilities
+  last.
+
+  These ships, moreover, are not on the same footing as men-of-war as
+  regards their stay in a neutral port.
+
+  ii. Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of private
+  individuals or officially-recognized Relief Societies, shall likewise
+  be respected and exempt from capture, provided the belligerent power
+  to whom they belong has given them an official commission and has
+  notified their names to the hostile power at the commencement of or
+  during hostilities, and in any case before they are employed.
+
+  These ships should be furnished with a certificate from the competent
+  authorities, declaring that they had been under their control while
+  fitting out and on final departure.
+
+  iii. Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of private
+  individuals or officially-recognized Societies of neutral countries
+  shall be respected and exempt from capture [if the neutral power to
+  whom they belong has given them an official commission and notified
+  their names to the belligerent powers at the commencement of or during
+  hostilities, and in any case before they are employed] _on condition
+  that they are placed under the orders of one of the belligerents, with
+  the previous consent of their own Government and with the
+  authorization of the belligerent, and on condition that the latter
+  shall have notified their names to the enemy at the commencement or
+  during the course of hostilities, in any event, before they are
+  employed._
+
+  iv. The ships mentioned in Articles i., ii. and iii. shall afford
+  relief and assistance to the wounded, sick and shipwrecked of the
+  belligerents independently of their nationality.
+
+  The governments engage not to use these ships for any military
+  purpose.
+
+  These ships must not in any way hamper the movements of the
+  combatants.
+
+  During and after an engagement they will act at their own risk and
+  peril.
+
+  The belligerents will have the right to control and visit them; they
+  can refuse to help them, order them off, make them take a certain
+  course, and put a commissioner on board; they can even detain them, if
+  important circumstances require it.
+
+  As far as possible the belligerents shall inscribe in the sailing
+  papers of the hospital-ships the orders they give them.
+
+  v. The military hospital-ships shall be distinguished by being painted
+  white outside with a horizontal band of green about a metre and a half
+  in breadth.
+
+  The ships mentioned in Articles ii. and iii. shall be distinguished by
+  being painted white outside with a horizontal band of red about a
+  metre and a half in breadth.
+
+  The boats of the ships above mentioned, as also small craft which may
+  be used for hospital work, shall be distinguished by similar painting.
+
+  All hospital-ships shall make themselves known by hoisting, together
+  with their national flag, the white flag with a red cross provided by
+  the Geneva Convention, _and, in addition, if they belong to a neutral
+  State, by hoisting on the mainmast the national flag of the
+  belligerent under whose direction they are placed._
+
+  _Hospital-ships which, under the terms of Article iv., are detained
+  by the enemy, must lower the national flag of the belligerent under
+  whom they were acting._
+
+  _The above-mentioned vessels and boats, desiring at night-time to
+  ensure the respect due to them, shall, with the consent of the
+  belligerent whom they are accompanying, take the necessary steps that
+  the special painting denoting them shall be sufficiently conspicuous._
+
+  vi. [Neutral merchantmen, yachts or vessels, having, or taking on
+  board, sick, wounded or shipwrecked of the belligerents, cannot be
+  captured for so doing, but they are liable to capture for any
+  violation of neutrality they may have committed.]
+
+  _The distinctive signs provided by Article v. can only be used,
+  whether in time of peace or in time of war, to protect ships therein
+  mentioned._
+
+  vii. _In the case of a fight on board a war-ship, the hospitals shall
+  be respected and shall receive as much consideration as possible._
+
+  _These hospitals and their belongings are subject to the laws of war,
+  but shall not be employed for any other purpose so long as they shall
+  be necessary for the sick and wounded._
+
+  _Nevertheless, the commander who has them under his orders, may make
+  use of them in case of important military necessity, but he shall
+  first ensure the safety of the sick and wounded on board._
+
+  viii. _The protection due to hospital-ships and to hospitals on board
+  war-ships shall cease if they are used against the enemy._
+
+  _The fact that the crew of hospital-ships, and attached to hospitals
+  on war-ships, are armed for the maintenance of order and for the
+  defence of the sick or wounded, and the existence of a
+  radio-telegraphic installation on board, is not considered as a
+  justification for withdrawing the above-mentioned protection._
+
+  ix. _Belligerents may appeal to the charitable zeal of commanders of
+  neutral merchant vessels, yachts or other craft, to take on board and
+  look after the sick and wounded._
+
+  _Ships having responded to this appeal, as well as those who have
+  spontaneously taken on board sick, wounded or shipwrecked men, shall
+  have the advantage of a special protection and of certain immunities.
+  In no case shall they be liable to capture on account of such
+  transport; but subject to any promise made to them they are liable to
+  capture for any violation of neutrality they may have committed._
+
+  [vii.] x. The religious, medical or hospital staff of any captured
+  ship is inviolable, and its members cannot be made prisoners of war.
+  On leaving the ship they take with them the objects and surgical
+  instruments which are their own private property.
+
+  This staff shall continue to discharge its duties while necessary, and
+  can afterwards leave when the commander-in-chief considers it
+  possible.
+
+  The belligerents must guarantee to the staff that has fallen into
+  their hands [the enjoyment of their salaries intact] _the same
+  allowances and pay as those of persons of the same rank in their own
+  navy_.
+
+  [viii.] xi. Sailors and soldiers, _and other persons officially
+  attached to navies or armies_, who are taken on board when sick or
+  wounded, to whatever nation they belong, shall be [protected]
+  respected and looked after by the captors.
+
+  xii. _Every vessel of war of a belligerent party may claim the return
+  of the wounded, sick or shipwrecked who are on board military
+  hospital-ships, hospital-ships of aid societies or of private
+  individuals, merchant ships, yachts or other craft, whatever be the
+  nationality of these vessels._
+
+  xiii. _If the wounded, sick or shipwrecked are received on board a
+  neutral ship of war, it shall be provided, as far as possible, that
+  they may take no further part in war operations._
+
+  xiv. The shipwrecked, wounded or sick of one of the belligerents who
+  fall into the hands of the other, are prisoners of war. The captor
+  must decide, according to circumstances, if it is best to keep them or
+  send them to a port of his own country, to a neutral port, or even to
+  a hostile port. In the last case, prisoners thus repatriated cannot
+  serve as long as the war lasts.
+
+  xv. The shipwrecked, wounded or sick who are landed at a neutral port
+  with the consent of the local authorities, must, failing a contrary
+  arrangement between the neutral State and the belligerents, be guarded
+  by the neutral State, so that they may not be again able to take part
+  in the military operations.
+
+  _The expenses of hospital treatment and internment shall be borne by
+  the State to which the shipwrecked, wounded or sick belong._
+       (T. Ba.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Another International Conference held in December 1904 at the
+    Hague dealt with the status of hospital-ships in time of war. Great
+    Britain did not take part in this Conference. Her abstention,
+    however, was not owing to any objection of principle, but purely to
+    considerations of domestic legislation.
+
+
+
+
+GENEVA, LAKE OF, the largest lake of which any portion belongs to
+Switzerland, and indeed in central Europe. It is called _Lacus Lemannus_
+by the old Latin and Greek writers, in 4th century A.D. _Lacus
+Lausonius_ or _Losanetes_, in the middle ages generally _Lac de
+Lausanne_, but from the 16th century onwards _Lac de Geneve_, though
+from the end of the 18th century the name _Lac Leman_ was
+revived--according to Prof. Forel _Le Leman_ is the proper form. Its
+area is estimated at 223 sq. m. (Swiss Topographical Bureau) or 225-1/2
+sq. m. (Forel), of which about 140 sq. m. (134-1/2 sq. m. Forel) are
+politically Swiss (123-1/2 sq. m. belonging to the canton of Vaud,
+11-1/2 sq. m. to that of Geneva, and 5 sq. m. to that of the Valais),
+the remainder (83 sq. m.) being French since the annexation of Savoy in
+1860--the entire lake is included in the territory (Swiss or Savoyard)
+neutralized by the congress of Vienna in 1815. The French part takes in
+nearly the whole of the south shore, save its western and eastern
+extremities, which belong respectively to Geneva and to the Valais.
+
+  The lake is formed by the Rhone, which enters it at its east end,
+  between Villeneuve (E.) and St Gingolph (W.), and quits it at its west
+  end, flowing through the city of Geneva. The only important
+  tributaries are the Drance (S.), the Venoge (N.) and the Veveyse (N.).
+  The form of the lake is that of a crescent, of which the east end is
+  broad and rounded, while the west end tapers towards the city of
+  Geneva. The bird's eye length of the whole lake, from Chillon to
+  Geneva, is 39-1/2 m., but along its axis 45 m. The coast-line of the
+  north shore is 59 m. in length and that of the south shore 44-3/4 m.
+  The maximum depth is 1015-1/2 ft., but the mean depth only 500 ft. The
+  surface is 1231-1/4 ft. (Swiss Topog. Bureau) or 1220 ft. (Forel)
+  above sea-level. The greatest width (between Morges and Amphion) is
+  8-1/2 m., but the normal width is 5 m. The lake forms two well-marked
+  divisions, separated by the strait of Promenthoux, which is 216-1/2
+  ft. in depth, as a bar divides the Grand Lac from the Petit Lac. The
+  _Grand Lac_ includes the greater portion of the lake, the _Petit Lac_
+  (to the west of the strait or bar) being the special Genevese portion
+  of the lake, and having an area of but 30-1/2 sq. m. The unusual
+  blueness of the waters has long been remarked, and the transparency
+  increases the farther we get from the point where the Rhone enters it,
+  the deposits which the river brings down from the Alps gradually
+  sinking to the bottom of the lake. At Geneva we recall Byron's phrase,
+  "the blue rushing of the arrowy Rhone" (_Childe Harold_, canto iii.
+  stanza 71). The limit of visibility of a white disk is 33 ft. in
+  winter (in February 1891 Prof. Forel observed an extreme of 70-1/2
+  ft.) and 21-1/4 ft. in summer. Apart from the seasonal changes in the
+  level of the lake (which is highest in summer, no doubt because of the
+  melting of the Alpine snows that feed the Rhone), there are also the
+  remarkable temporary disturbances of level known as the _seiches_, in
+  which the whole mass of water in the lake rhythmically swings from
+  shore to shore. According to Prof. Forel there are both longitudinal
+  and transverse _seiches_. The effect of the longitudinal _seiches_ at
+  Geneva is four times as great as at Chillon, at the other end of the
+  lake, while the extreme duration of this phenomenon is 73 minutes for
+  the uninodal longitudinal _seiches_ (35-1/2 minutes for the binodal)
+  and 10 minutes for the transverse _seiches_ (5 minutes for the
+  binodal). The maximum height of a recorded _seiche_ at Geneva is
+  rather over 6 ft. (October 1841). The currents in the water itself are
+  irregular. The principal winds that blow over the lake are the _bise_
+  (from the N.E.), the _vaudaire_ or _Fohn_ (from the S.E.), the
+  _sudois_ or _vent de pluie_ (from the S.W.) and the _joran_ (from the
+  N.W.). The storm winds are the _molan_ (from the Arve valley towards
+  Geneva) and the _bornan_ (from the Drance valley towards the central
+  portion of the lake). The lake is not as rich in fish as the other
+  Swiss lakes, one reason being the obstacle opposed by the Perte du
+  Rhone to fish seeking to ascend that river. Prof. Forel knows of but
+  twenty indigenous species (of which the _Fera_, or _Coregonus fera_,
+  is the principal) and six that have been introduced by man in the 19th
+  century. A number of lake dwellings, of varying dates, have been found
+  on the shores of the lake. The first steamer placed on the lake was
+  the "Guillaume Tell," built in 1823 at Geneva by an Englishman named
+  Church, while in 1873 the present Compagnie generale de navigation sur
+  le lac Leman was formed, and in 1875 constructed the first saloon
+  steamer, the "Mont Blanc." But despite this service and the railways
+  along each shore, the red lateen sails of minor craft still brighten
+  the landscape. The railway along the northern shore runs from Geneva
+  past Nyon, Rolle, Morges, Ouchy (the port of Lausanne), Vevey and
+  Montreux to Villeneuve (56-1/2 m.). That on the south shore gains the
+  edge of the lake at Thonon only (22-1/4 m. from Geneva), and then runs
+  past Evian and St Gingolph to Le Bouveret (20 m. from Thonon). In the
+  harbour of Geneva two erratic boulders of granite project above the
+  surface of the water, and are named _Pierres du Niton_ (supposed to be
+  altars to Neptune). The lower of the two, which is also the farthest
+  from the shore, has been taken as the basis of the triangulation of
+  Switzerland: the official height is 376.86 metres, which in 1891 was
+  reduced to 373.54 metres, though 376.6 metres is now said to be the
+  real figure. Of course the heights given on the Swiss Government map
+  vary with these different estimates of the point taken as basis.
+
+  For all matters relating to the lake, see Prof. F.A. Forel's
+  monumental work, _Le Leman_ (3 vols. Lausanne, 1892-1904); also (with
+  fine illustrations) G. Fatio and F. Boissonnas, _Autour du lac Leman_
+  (Geneva, 1902).     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GENEVIEVE, or GENOVEFA, ST (c. 422-512), patroness of Paris, lived
+during the latter half of the 5th century. According to tradition, she
+was born about 422 at Nanterre near Paris; her parents were called
+Severus and Gerontia, but accounts differ widely as to their social
+position. According to the legend, she was only in her seventh year when
+she was induced by St Germain, bishop of Auxerre, to dedicate herself to
+the religious life. On the death of her parents she removed to Paris,
+where she distinguished herself by her benevolence, as well as by her
+austere life. She is said to have predicted the invasion of the Huns;
+and when Attila with his army was threatening the city, she persuaded
+the inhabitants to remain on the island and encouraged them by an
+assurance, justified by subsequent events, that the attack would come to
+nothing (451). She is also said to have had great influence over
+Childeric, father of Clovis, and in 460 to have caused a church to be
+built over the tomb of St Denis. Her death occurred about 512 and she
+was buried in the church of the Holy Apostles, popularly known as the
+church of St Genevieve. In 1793 the body was taken from the new church,
+built in her honour by Louis XV., when it became the Pantheon, and burnt
+on the Place de Greve; but the relics were enshrined in a chapel of the
+neighbouring church of St Etienne du Mont, where they still attract
+pilgrims; her festival is celebrated with great pomp on the 3rd of
+January. The frescoes of the Pantheon by Puvis de Chavannes are based
+upon the legend of the saint.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The main source is the anonymous _Vita s. Genovefae
+  virginis Parisiorum_, published in 1687 by D.P. Charpentier. The
+  genuineness of this life was attacked by B. Krusch (_Neues Archiv_,
+  1893 and 1894) and defended by L. Duchesne, _Bibliotheque de l'Ecole
+  des Chartes_ (1893), _Bulletin critique_ (1897), p. 473. Krusch
+  continued to hold that the life was an 8th-century forgery
+  (_Scriptores rer. Merov_. iii. 204-238). See A. Potthast, _Bibliotheca
+  medii aevi_ (1331, 1332), and G. Kurth, _Clovis_, ii. 249-254. The
+  legends and miracles are given in the Bollandists' _Acta Sanctorum_,
+  January 1st; there is a short sketch by Henri Lesetre, _Ste
+  Genevieve_, in "Les Saints" series (Paris, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+GENEVIEVE, GENOVEVA or GENOVEFA, OF BRABANT, heroine of medieval legend.
+Her story is a typical example of the widespread tale of the chaste wife
+falsely accused and repudiated, generally on the word of a rejected
+suitor. Genovefa of Brabant was said to be the wife of the palatine
+Siegfried of Treves, and was falsely accused by the majordomo Golo.
+Sentenced to death she was spared by the executioner, and lived for six
+years with her son in a cave in the Ardennes nourished by a roe.
+Siegfried, who had meanwhile found out Golo's treachery, was chasing the
+roe when he discovered her hiding-place, and reinstated her in her
+former honour. Her story is said to rest on the history of Marie of
+Brabant, wife of Louis II., duke of Bavaria, and count-palatine of the
+Rhine, who was tried by her husband and beheaded on the 18th of January
+1256, for supposed infidelity, a crime for which Louis afterwards had to
+do penance. The change in name may have been due to the cult of St
+Genevieve, patroness of Paris. The tale first obtained wide popularity
+in _L'Innocence reconnue, ou vie de Sainte Genevieve de Brabant_ (pr.
+1638) by the Jesuit Rene de Cerisier (1603-1662), and was a frequent
+subject for dramatic representation in Germany. With Genovefa's history
+may be compared the Scandinavian ballads of _Ravengaard og Memering_,
+which exist in many recensions. These deal with the history of Gunild,
+who married Henry, duke of Brunswick and Schleswig. When Duke Henry went
+to the wars he left his wife in charge of Ravengaard, who accused her of
+infidelity. Gunild is cleared by the victory of her champion Memering,
+the "smallest of Christian men." The Scottish ballad of Sir Aldingar is
+a version of the same story. The heroine Gunhilda is said to have been
+the daughter of Canute the Great and Emma. She married in 1036 King
+Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry III., and there was nothing in her
+domestic history to warrant the legend, which is given as authentic
+history by William of Malmesbury (_De gestis regum Anglorum_, lib. ii. S
+188). She was called Cunigund after her marriage, and perhaps was
+confused with St Cunigund, the wife of the emperor Henry II. In the
+_Karlamagnus-saga_ the innocent wife is Oliva, sister of Charlemagne and
+wife of King Hugo, and in the French Carolingian cycle the emperor's
+wife Sibille (_La Reine Sibille_) or Blanchefleur (_Macaire_). Other
+forms of the legend are to be found in the story of Doolin's mother in
+_Doon de Mayence_, the English romance of _Sir Triamour_, in the story
+of the mother of Octavian in _Octavian the Emperor_, in the German folk
+book _Historie von der geduldigen Konigin Crescentia_, based on a
+12th-century poem to be found in the _Kaiserchronik_; and the English
+_Erl of Toulouse_ (c. 1400). In the last-named romance it has been
+suggested that the story gives the relations between Bernard I. count of
+Toulouse, son of the Guillaume d'Orange of the Carolingian romances, and
+the empress Judith, second wife of Louis the Pious.
+
+  See F.J. Child, _English and Scottish Popular Ballads_, vol. ii.
+  (1886), art. "Sir Aldingar"; S. Grundtvig, _Danske Kaempeviser_
+  (Copenhagen, 1867); "Sir Triamore," in _Bishop Percy's Folio MS._, ed.
+  Hales and Furnivall, vol. ii. (London, 1868); _The Romance of
+  Octavian_, ed. E.M. Goldsmid (Aungervyle Soc., Edinburgh, 1882); _The
+  Erl of Toulous and the Emperes of Almayn_, ed. G. Ludtke (Berlin,
+  1881); B. Seuffert, _Die Legende von der Pfalzgrafin Genovefa_
+  (Wurzburg, 1877); B. Golz, _Pfalzgrafin Genovefa in der deutschen
+  Dichtung_ (Leipzig, 1897); R. Kohler, "Die deutschen Volksbucher von
+  der Pfalzgrafin Genovefa," in _Zeitschr. fur deutsche Philologie_
+  (1874).
+
+
+
+
+GENGA, GIROLAMO (c. 1476-1551), Italian painter and architect, was born
+in Urbino about 1476. At the age of ten he was apprenticed to the
+woollen trade, but showed so much inclination for drawing that he was
+sent to study under an obscure painter, and at thirteen under Luca
+Signorelli, with whom he remained a considerable while, frequently
+painting the accessories of his pictures. He was afterwards for three
+years with Pietro Perugino, in company with Raphael. He next worked in
+Florence and Siena, along with Timoteo della Vite; and in the latter
+city he painted various compositions for Pandolfo Petrucci, the leading
+local statesman. Returning to Urbino, he was employed by Duke Guidobaldo
+in the decorations of his palace, and showed extraordinary aptitude for
+theatrical adornments. Thence he went to Rome; and in the church of S.
+Caterina da Siena, in that capital, is one of his most distinguished
+works, "The Resurrection," remarkable both for design and for colouring.
+He studied the Roman antiquities with zeal, and measured a number of
+edifices; this practice, combining with his previous mastery of
+perspective, qualified him to shine as an architect. Francesco Maria
+della Rovere, the reigning duke of Urbino, recalled Genga, and
+commissioned him to execute works in connexion with his
+marriage-festivities. This prince being soon afterwards expelled by Pope
+Leo X., Genga followed him to Mantua, whence he went for a time to
+Pesaro. The duke of Urbino was eventually restored to his dominions; he
+took Genga with him, and appointed him the ducal architect. As he neared
+the close of his career, Genga retired to a house in the vicinity of
+Urbino, continuing still to produce designs in pencil; one, of the
+"Conversion of St Paul," was particularly admired. Here he died on the
+11th of July 1551. Genga was a sculptor and musician as well as painter
+and architect. He was jovial, an excellent talker, and kindly to his
+friends. His principal pupil was Francesco Menzocchi. His own son
+Bartolommeo (1518-1558) became an architect of celebrity. In Genga's
+paintings there is a great deal of freedom, and a certain peculiarity of
+character consonant with his versatile, lively and social temperament.
+One of his leading works is in the church of S. Agostino in Cesena--a
+triptych in oil-colours, representing the "Annunciation," "God the
+Father in Glory," and the "Madonna and Child." Among his architectural
+labours are the church of San Giovanni Battista in Pesaro; the bishop's
+palace at Sinigaglia; the facade of the cathedral of Mantua, ranking
+high among the productions of the 16th century; and a new palace for the
+duke of Urbino, built on the Monte Imperiale. He was also concerned in
+the fortifications of Pesaro.
+
+
+
+
+GENISTA, in botany, a genus of about eighty species of shrubs belonging
+to the natural order Leguminosae, and natives of Europe, western Asia
+and North Africa. Three are native in Britain. _G. anglica_ is the
+needle-furze or petty whin, found on heaths and moist moors, a spinous
+plant with slender spreading branches 1 to 2 ft. long, very small leaves
+and short racemes of small yellow papilionaceous flowers. The pollen is
+emitted in a shower when an insect alights on it. _G. tinctoria_, dyer's
+green-weed, the flowers of which yield a yellow dye, has no spines.
+Other species are grown on rock-work or as greenhouse plants.
+
+
+
+
+GENIUS (from Lat. _genere_, _gignere_), a term which originally meant,
+in Roman mythology, a generative and protecting spirit, who has no exact
+parallel in Greek religion, and at least in his earlier aspect is of
+purely Italian origin as one of the deities of family or household.
+Every man has his genius, who is not his creator, but only comes into
+being with him and is allotted to him at his birth. As a creative
+principle the genius is restricted to man, his place being taken by a
+Juno (cp. Juno Lucina, the goddess of childbirth) in the case of women.
+The male and female spirit may thus be distinguished respectively as the
+protector of generation and of parturition (_tutela generandi,
+pariendi_), although the female appears less prominent. It is the genius
+of the _paterfamilias_ that keeps the marriage bed, named after him
+_lectus genialis_ and dedicated to him, under his special protection.
+The genius of a man, as his higher intellectual self, accompanies him
+from the cradle to the grave. In many ways he exercises a decisive
+influence on the man's character and mode of life (Horace, _Epistles_,
+ii. 2. 187). The responsibility for happiness or unhappiness, good or
+bad fortune, lay with the genius; but this does not suppose the
+existence of two genii for man, the one good and the other bad ([Greek:
+agathodaimon], [Greek: kakodaimon]), an idea borrowed from the Greek
+philosophers. The Roman genius, representing man's natural optimism,
+always endeavoured to guide him to happiness; that man was intended to
+enjoy life is shown by the fact that the Roman spoke of indulging or
+cheating his genius of his due according as he enjoyed himself or failed
+to do so, when he had the opportunity. A man's birthday was naturally a
+suitable occasion for honouring his genius, and on that occasion
+offerings of incense, wine, garlands, and cakes were made (Tibullus ii.
+2; Ovid, _Tristia_, iii. 13. 18). As the representative of a man's
+higher self and participating in a divine nature, the genius could be
+sworn by, and a person could take an oath by his own or some one else's
+genius. When under Greek influence the Roman idea of the gods became
+more and more anthropomorphized, a genius was assigned to them, not
+however as a distinct personality. Thus we hear of the genius of Jupiter
+(Jovis Genio, _C.I.L._ i. 603), Mars, Juno, Pluto, Priapus. In a more
+extended sense the genius is also the generator and preserver of human
+society, as manifested in the family, corporate unions, the city, and
+the state generally. Thus, the genius publicus Populi Romani--probably
+distinct from the genius Urbis Romae, to whom an old shield on the
+Capitol was dedicated, with an inscription expressing doubt as to the
+sex (_Genio ... sive mas sive femina_)--stood in the forum near the
+temple of Concord, in the form of a bearded man, crowned with a diadem,
+and carrying a cornu copiae and sceptre. It frequently appears on the
+coins of Trajan and Hadrian. Sacrifice, not confined to bloodless
+offerings like those of the genius of the house, was offered to him
+annually on the 8th of October. There were genii of cities, colonies,
+and even of provinces; of artists, business people and craftsmen; of
+cooks, gladiators, standard-bearers, a legion, a century, and of the
+army generally (_genius sanctus castrorum peregrinorum totiusque
+exercitus_). In imperial times the genius of Augustus and of the
+reigning emperor, as part of the sacra of the imperial family, were
+publicly worshipped. It was a common practice (often compulsory) to
+swear by the genius of the emperor, and any one who swore falsely was
+flogged. Localities also, such as theatres, baths, stables, streets, and
+markets, had their own genius. The word thus gradually lost its original
+meaning; the nameless local genii became an expression for the
+universality of the _divinum numen_ and were sometimes identified with
+the higher gods. The local genius was usually represented by a snake,
+the symbol of the fruitfulness of the earth and of perpetual youth.
+Hence snakes were usually kept in houses (Virgil, _Aen._ v. 95; Persius
+i. 113), their death in which was considered a bad omen. The personal
+genius usually appeared as a handsome youth in a toga, with head
+sometimes veiled and sometimes bare, carrying a drinking cup and cornu
+copiae, frequently in the position of one offering sacrifice.
+
+  See W.H. Roscher, _Lexikon der Mythologie_, and article by J.A. Hild
+  in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquites_, where full
+  references to ancient and modern authorities are given; L. Preller,
+  _Romische Mythologie_, 3rd ed., by H. Jordan; G. Wissowa, _Religion
+  und Kultur der Romer_.
+
+Apart from the Latin use of the term, the plural "genii" (with a
+singular "genie") is used in English, as equivalent to the Arabic
+_jinn_, for a class of spirits, good or bad, such as are described, for
+instance, in _The Arabian Nights_. But "genius" itself has become the
+regular English word for the highest conceivable form of original
+ability, something altogether extraordinary and beyond even supreme
+educational prowess, and differing, in kind apparently, from "talent,"
+which is usually distinguished as marked intellectual capacity short
+only of the inexplicable and unique endowment to which the term "genius"
+is confined. The attempt, however, to define either quality, or to
+discriminate accurately between them, has given rise to continual
+controversy, and there is no agreement as to the nature of either; and
+the commonly quoted definitions of genius--such as Carlyle's
+"transcendant capacity of taking trouble, first of all,"[1] in which the
+last three words are usually forgotten--are either admittedly incomplete
+or are of the nature of epigrams. Nor can it be said that any
+substantial light has been thrown on the matter by the modern
+physiological school, Lombroso and others, who regard the eccentricity
+of genius as its prime factor, and study it as a form of mental
+derangement. The error here is partly in ignoring the history of the
+word, and partly in misrepresenting the nature of the fact. There are
+many cases, no doubt, in which persons really insane, of one type or
+another, or with a history of physical degeneration or epilepsy, have
+shown remarkable originality, which may be described as genius, but
+there are at least just as many in whom no such physical abnormality can
+be observed. The word "genius" itself however has only gradually been
+used in English to express the degree of original greatness which is
+beyond ordinary powers of explanation, i.e. far beyond the capacity of
+the normal human being in creative work; and it is a convenient term
+(like Nietzsche's "superman") for application to those rare individuals
+who in the course of evolution reveal from time to time the heights to
+which humanity may develop, in literature, art, science, or
+administrative life. The English usage was originally derived, naturally
+enough, from the Roman ideas contained in the term (with the analogy of
+the Greek [Greek: daimon]), and in the 16th and 17th centuries we find
+it equivalent simply to "distinctive character or spirit," a meaning
+still commonly given to the word. The more modern sense is not even
+mentioned in Johnson's _Dictionary_, and represents an 18th-century
+development, primarily due to the influence of German writers; the
+meaning of "distinctive natural capacity or endowment" had gradually
+been applied specially to creative minds such as those of poets and
+artists, by contrast with those whose mental ability was due to the
+results of education and study, and the antithesis has extended since,
+through constant discussions over the attempt to differentiate between
+the real nature of genius and that of "talent," until we now speak of
+the exceptional person not merely as having genius but as "a genius."
+This phraseology appears to indicate some reversion to the original
+Roman usage, and the identification of the great man with a generative
+spirit.
+
+  Modern theories on the nature of "genius" should be studied with
+  considerable detachment, but there is much that is interesting and
+  thought-provoking in such works as J.F. Nisbet's _Insanity of Genius_
+  (1891), Sir Francis Galton's _Hereditary Genius_ (new ed., 1892), and
+  C. Lombroso's _Man of Genius_ (Eng. trans., 1891).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Frederick the Great_, iv. iii. 1407.
+
+
+
+
+GENUS, STEPHANIE-FELICITE DU CREST DE SAINT-AUBIN, COMTESSE DE
+(1746-1830), French writer and educator, was born of a noble but
+impoverished Burgundian family, at Champcery, near Autun, on the 25th of
+January 1746. When six years of age she was received as a canoness into
+the noble chapter of Alix, near Lyons, with the title of Madame la
+Comtesse de Lancy, taken from the town of Bourbon-Lancy. Her entire
+education, however, was conducted at home. In 1758, in Paris, her skill
+as a harpist and her vivacious wit speedily attracted admiration. In her
+sixteenth year she was married to Charles Brulart de Genlis, a colonel
+of grenadiers, who afterwards became marquis de Sillery, but this was
+not allowed to interfere with her determination to remedy her incomplete
+education, and to satisfy a taste for acquiring and imparting knowledge.
+Some years later, through the influence of her aunt, Madame de
+Montesson, who had been clandestinely married to the duke of Orleans,
+she entered the Palais Royal as lady-in-waiting to the duchess of
+Chartres (1770). She acted with great energy and zeal as governess to
+the daughters of the family, and was in 1781 appointed by the duke of
+Chartres to the responsible office of _gouverneur_ of his sons, a bold
+step which led to the resignation of all the tutors as well as to much
+social scandal, though there is no reason to suppose that the
+intellectual interests of her pupils suffered on that account. The
+better to carry out her ingenious theories of education, she wrote
+several works for their use, the best known of which are the _Theatre
+d'education_ (4 vols., 1779-1780), a collection of short comedies for
+young people, _Les Annales de la vertu_ (2 vols., 1781) and _Adele et
+Theodore_ (3 vols., 1782). Sainte-Beuve tells how she anticipated many
+modern methods of teaching. History was taught with the help of magic
+lantern slides and her pupils learnt botany from a practical botanist
+during their walks. In 1789 Madame de Genlis showed herself favourable
+to the Revolution, but the fall of the Girondins in 1793 compelled her
+to take refuge in Switzerland along with her pupil Mademoiselle
+d'Orleans. In this year her husband, the marquis de Sillery, from whom
+she had been separated since 1782, was guillotined. An "adopted"
+daughter, Pamela,[1] had been married to Lord Edward Fitzgerald (q.v.)
+in the preceding December.
+
+In 1794 Madame de Genlis fixed her residence at Berlin, but, having been
+expelled by the orders of King Frederick William, she afterwards settled
+in Hamburg, where she supported herself for some years by writing and
+painting. After the revolution of 18th Brumaire (1799) she was permitted
+to return to France, and was received with favour by Napoleon, who gave
+her apartments at the arsenal, and afterwards assigned her a pension of
+6000 francs. During this period she wrote largely, and produced, in
+addition to some historical novels, her best romance, _Mademoiselle de
+Clermont_ (1802). Madame de Genlis had lost her influence over her old
+pupil Louis Philippe, who visited her but seldom, although he allowed
+her a small pension. Her government pension was discontinued by Louis
+XVIII., and she supported herself largely by her pen. Her later years
+were occupied largely with literary quarrels, notably with that which
+arose out of the publication of the _Diners du Baron d'Holbach_ (1822),
+a volume in which she set forth with a good deal of sarcastic cleverness
+the intolerance, the fanaticism, and the eccentricities of the
+"philosophes" of the 18th century. She survived until the 31st of
+December 1830, and saw her former pupil, Louis Philippe, seated on the
+throne of France.
+
+  The numerous works of Madame de Genlis (which considerably exceed
+  eighty), comprising prose and poetical compositions on a vast variety
+  of subjects and of various degrees of merit, owed much of their
+  success to adventitious causes which have long ceased to operate. They
+  are useful, however (especially the voluminous _Memoires inedits sur
+  le XVIII^e siecle_, 10 vols., 1825), as furnishing material for
+  history. Most of her writings were translated into English almost as
+  soon as they were published. A list of her writings with useful notes
+  is given by Querard in _La France litteraire_. Startling light was
+  thrown on her relations with the duc de Chartres by the publication
+  (1904) of her correspondence with him in _L'Idylle d'un "gouverneur"_
+  by G. Maugras. See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. iii.;
+  H. Austin Dobson, _Four Frenchwomen_ (1890); L. Chabaud, _Les
+  Precurseurs du feminisme_ (1901); W. de Chabreul, _Gouverneur de
+  princes, 1737-1830_ (1900); and _Lettres inedites a ... Casimir
+  Baecker, 1802-1830_ (1902), edited by Henry Lapauze.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See Gerald Campbell, _Edward and Pamela Fitzgerald_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+GENNA, a word of obscure origin borrowed from the Assamese, and used
+technically by anthropologists to describe a class of social and
+religious ordinances based on sanctions which derive their validity from
+a vague sense of mysterious danger which results from disobedience to
+them. These prohibitions--or system of things forbidden--affect the
+relations, permanent and temporary, of individuals (either as members of
+a tribe, village, clan or household, or as occupying an official
+position in the village or clan) towards other persons or groups of
+persons and towards material objects which possess intrinsic sanctity.
+The term is extended to the communal rites performed by the village,
+clan or household, either as magical ceremonies or as prophylactics on
+special occasions when the social, commensal, conjugal and alimentary
+relations of the group affected are subjected to temporary
+modifications. These practices and beliefs are observed among the hill
+tribes of Assam from the Abors and Mishmis on the north to the Lusheis
+on the south, all linguistically members of the Tibeto-Burman group,
+and among the Khasis, members of the Mon-Khmer group. Genna and taboo
+(q.v.) are products of an identical level of culture and similar
+psychological processes, and provide the mechanism of the social and
+religious systems.
+
+_Permanent Gennas._--The only universal _genna_ is that which forbids
+the intermarriage of members of the same clan. In some cases in Manipur
+animals are _genna_ to the tribe--i.e. they must not be killed or
+eaten--but tribal differentiation is, in practice, based on dialectical
+distinctions rather than on tribal _gennas_. The village as such
+possesses no permanent _gennas_, but the clans, as the units of marriage
+under the law of exogamy, have distinct elementary _gennas_, especially
+the clan to which the priest-chief belongs. The most important
+individual _gennas_ are those which protect the priest-chief from
+impurity or contact with "sacred" substances such as the flesh of
+animals used in sacrifices. He may neither eat in a strange house, nor
+utter words of abuse, nor take an oath in a dispute, except in his
+representative capacity on behalf of his village. The first-fruits are
+_genna_ to the village until he eats, thus establishing an opposition
+between him and his co-villagers. Married and unmarried women are
+subject to alimentary _gennas_; thus unmarried girls are forbidden the
+flesh of any male animal or of any female animal dying gravid.
+
+_Ritual Gennas._--Ritual _gennas_ are held annually to foster the rice
+crops, all other industries and activities being _genna_ (forbidden)
+during the cultivating season, to secure good hunting, to avert
+sickness, especially epidemics, to take omens, and to lay finally to
+rest the ghosts of all that have died within the year. The village gates
+are closed, men and women eat apart, and conjugal relations are
+suspended. Special village _gennas_ are held when rain is needed, when a
+villager dies in any manner out of the ordinary, as women in childbirth,
+when an animal gives birth to still-born offspring, and when any
+permanent genna has been violated. Clan _gennas_ are held for all
+ordinary cases of death. Household _gennas_ are held on the occasions of
+birth (when the aliment and conduct of the father are specially
+regulated), naming, ear-piercing, the first hair-cutting, sickness, and,
+in certain areas, tattooing. Individuals are subjected to temporary
+_gennas_ as warriors both before and after a head-hunting raid, pregnant
+women, married persons at the beginning of their married life, the wives
+of the priest-chief, and those who from ambition or pride of wealth seek
+to perpetuate their names by erecting a stone monument, an act which
+confers the right to wear the distinctive clothes of the priest-chief
+which otherwise are _genna_ to the whole village. Ritual _gennas_ are of
+varying duration. Some last for a month while others are complete in two
+days. As religious or magical rites, they prevent danger or establish
+and restore normal relations with powers which are potentially harmful
+or require placation.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Official records of the government of India, Nos. 23
+  (1855), 27 (1859), 68 (1870); Colonel T.H. Lewin, _Hill Tracts of
+  Chittagong; Report on the Census of Assam_ (1891), vol. i. Report,
+  note by A.W. Davis, p. 237 seq.; Major P.R.T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_
+  (1907); T.C. Hodson, _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_,
+  vol. xxxvi. (1906).     (T. C. H.)
+
+
+
+
+GENNADIUS II. [as layman GEORGIOS SCHOLARIOS] (d. c. 1468), patriarch of
+Constantinople from 1454 to 1456, philosopher and theologian, was one of
+the last representatives of Byzantine learning. Extremely little is
+known of his life, but he appears to have been born at Constantinople
+about 1400 and to have entered the service of the emperor John VII.
+Paleologus as imperial judge or counsellor. Georgios first appears
+conspicuously in history as present at the great council held in 1438 at
+Ferrara and Florence with the object of bringing about a union between
+the Greek and Latin Churches. At the same council was present the
+celebrated Platonist, Gemistus Pletho, the most powerful opponent of the
+then dominant Aristotelianism, and consequently the special object of
+reprobation to Georgios. In church matters, as in philosophy, the two
+were opposed,--Pletho maintaining strongly the principles of the Greek
+Church, and being unwilling to accept union through compromise, while
+Georgios, more politic and cautious, pressed the necessity for union and
+was instrumental in drawing up a form which from its vagueness and
+ambiguity might be accepted by both parties. He was at a disadvantage
+because, being a layman, he could not directly take part in the
+discussions of the council. But on his return to Greece his views
+changed, and he violently and obstinately opposed the union he had
+previously urged. In 1448 he became a monk at Pantokrator and took the
+name Gennadius. In 1453, after the capture of Constantinople by the
+Turks, Mahommed II., finding that the patriarchal chair had been vacant
+for some time, resolved to elect some one to the office, and the choice
+fell on Gennadius. While holding the episcopal office Gennadius drew up,
+apparently for the use of Mahommed, a lucid confession or exposition of
+the Christian faith, which was translated into Turkish by Ahmed, judge
+of Beroea, and first printed by A. Brassicanus at Vienna in 1530. After
+a couple of years Gennadius found the position of patriarch under a
+Turkish sultan so irksome that he retired to the monastery of John the
+Baptist near Serrae in Macedonia, where he died about 1468. About one
+hundred of his alleged writings exist, the majority in manuscript and of
+doubtful authenticity.
+
+  The fullest account of his writings is given in Gass, _Gennadius and
+  Pletho_ (Berlin, 1844), the second part of which contains Pletho's
+  _Contra Gennadium_. See also F. Schultze, _Gesch. der Phil. d.
+  Renaissance_, i. (1874). A list of the known writings of Gennadius is
+  given in Fabricius, _Bibliotheca Graeca_, ed. Harles, vol. xi., and
+  what has been printed is to be found in Migne, _Patrol. Gr._ vol. clx.
+
+
+
+
+GENOA (anc. _Genua_, Ital. _Genova_, Fr. _Genes_), the chief port of
+Liguria, Italy, and capital of the province of Genoa, 119 m. N.W. of
+Leghorn by rail. Pop. (1906) 255,294 (town); 267,248 (commune). The town
+is situated on the Gulf of Genoa, and is the chief port and commercial
+town of Italy, the seat of an archbishop and a university, the
+headquarters of the IV. Italian army corps, and a strong fortress. The
+city, as seen from the sea, is "built nobly," and deserves the title it
+has acquired or assumed of the Superb. Finding only a small space of
+level ground along the shore, it has been obliged to climb the lower
+hills of the Ligurian Alps, which afford many a coign of vantage for the
+effective display of its architectural magnificence. The original
+nucleus of the city is that portion which lies to the east of the port
+in the neighbourhood of the old pier (Molo Vecchio). In the 10th century
+it began to feel a lack of room within the limits of its fortifications;
+and accordingly, in the middle of the 12th century, it was found
+necessary to extend the line of circumvallation. Even this second
+circuit, however, was of small compass, and it was not till 1320-1330
+that a third line took in the greater part of the modern site of the
+city proper. This presented about 3 m. of rampart towards the land side,
+and can still be easily traced from point to point through the city,
+though large portions, especially towards the east, have been
+dismantled. The present line of circumvallation dates from 1626-1632,
+the period when the independence of Genoa was threatened by the dukes of
+Savoy. From the mouth of the Bisagno in the east, and from the
+lighthouse point in the west, it stretches inland over hill and dale to
+the great fort of Sperone, i.e. the Spur, on the summits of Monte
+Peraldo at a height of 1650 ft.,--the circuit being little less than 12
+m., and all the important points along the line being defended by forts
+or batteries.
+
+A portion of the enclosed area is open country, dotted only here and
+there with houses and gardens. There are eight gates, the more important
+being Porta Pila and Porta Romana towards the east, and the Porta
+Lanterna or Lighthouse Gate to the west. The main architectural features
+of Genoa are its medieval churches, with striped facades of black and
+white marble, and its magnificent 16th-century palaces. The earlier
+churches of Genoa show a mixture of French Romanesque and the Pisan
+style--they are mostly basilicas with transepts, and as a rule a small
+dome; the pillars are sometimes ancient columns, and sometimes formed of
+alternate layers of black and white marble. The facades are simple,
+without galleries, having only pilasters projecting from the wall, and
+are also alternately black and white. This style continued in Gothic
+times also. The oldest is S. Maria di Castello (11th century), the
+columns and capitals of which are almost all antique. S. Cosma, S.
+Donato (with remains of the 10th-century building) and others belong to
+the 12th century, and S. Giovanni di Pre, S. Agostino (with a fine
+campanile), S. Stefano, S. Matteo and others to the 13th. The famous
+painting of the martyrdom of S. Stephen, by Giulio Romano, carried off
+by Napoleon in 1811, was restored to S. Stefano in 1815. S. Matteo, the
+church of the D'Oria or Doria family, was founded in 1126 by Martino
+Doria. The facade dates from 1278, and the interior of the edifice dates
+in the main from 1543. In the crypt is the tomb of Andrea Doria by
+Montorsoli, and above the main altar hangs the dagger presented to the
+doge by Pope Paul III. To the left of the church is an exquisite
+cloister of 1308 with double columns, in which a number of inscriptions
+relating to the Doria family and also the statue of Andrea Doria by
+Montorsoli are preserved. The little square in front of the church is
+surrounded by Gothic palaces of the Doria family. Of the churches the
+principal is the comparatively small cathedral of S. Lorenzo. Tradition
+makes its first foundation contemporary with St Lawrence himself; and a
+document of 987 implies that it was even then the metropolitan church.
+Reconstructed about the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th
+century, it was formally consecrated by Pope Gelasius II. on the 18th of
+October 1118; and since then it has undergone a large number of
+extensive though partial renovations. The facade, with its three
+elaborate doorways, belongs to the 14th century and is a copy of French
+models of the 13th. The two side portals with Romanesque sculptures
+belong to the 12th-14th centuries. Some pagan reliefs are built into the
+tower. The interior was rebuilt in 1307, the old columns being used. The
+belfry, which rises above the right-hand doorway, was erected about 1520
+by the doge, Ottaviano da Campofragoso, and the cupola was erected after
+the designs of the architect Galeazzo Alessi in 1567. The fine Early
+Renaissance (1448) sculptural decorations of the chapel of S. John the
+Baptist were due to Domenico Gagini of Bissone on the Lake of Lugano,
+who later transferred his activities to Naples and Palermo, and other
+Lombard masters. An edict of Innocent VIII. forbids women to enter the
+chapel except on one day in the year. In the treasury of the cathedral
+is a magnificent silver monstrance dating from 1553, and an octagonal
+bowl, the Sacro Catino, brought from Caesarea in 1101, which corresponds
+to the descriptions given of the Holy Grail, and was long regarded as an
+emerald of matchless value, but was found when broken at Paris, whither
+it had been carried by Napoleon I., to be only a remarkable piece of
+ancient glass. The choir-stalls are a very fine work of the 15th century
+and later, with intarsias. Near the cathedral is a small 12th-century
+(?) cloister.
+
+Of older date than the cathedral is the church of S. Ambrose and S.
+Andrew, if its first foundation be correctly assigned to the Milanese
+bishop Honoratus of the 6th century; but the present edifice is due to
+the Society of Jesus, who obtained possession of the church in 1587. The
+interior is richly decorated and contains the "Circumcision" and "St
+Ignatius" by Rubens, and the "Assumption" of Guido Reni. The Annunziata
+del Guastato is one of the largest churches in the city, erected in
+1587. It is a cruciform structure, with a dome, and the central nave is
+supported by fourteen Corinthian columns of white marble. To the
+otherwise unfinished brick facade a portal borne by marble columns was
+added in 1843. The interior is covered with gilding and frescoes of the
+17th century, and is somewhat overloaded with rich decoration, while a
+range of white marble columns supports the nave. Santa Maria delle Vigne
+probably dates from the 9th century, but the present structure was
+erected in 1586. The campanile, however, is a remarkable work of the
+13th century. Adjoining the church is a ruined cloister of the 11th
+century. San Siro, originally the "Church of the Apostles" and the
+cathedral of Genoa, was rebuilt by the Benedictines in the 11th century,
+and restored and enlarged by the Theatines in 1576, the facade being
+added in 1830; in this church in 1339 Simone Boccanera was elected first
+doge of Genoa. Santa Maria di Carignano, or more correctly Santa Maria
+Assunta e SS. Fabiano e Sebastiano, belongs mainly to the 16th century,
+and was designed by Galeazzo Alessi, in imitation of Bramante's plan for
+S. Peter's at Rome, as it was then being executed by Michelangelo. The
+interior is fine, harmonious and restrained, painted in white and grey,
+while the colouring of the exterior is less pleasing. From the highest
+gallery of the dome--368 ft. above the sea-level, and 194 ft. above the
+ground--a magnificent view is obtained of the city and the neighbouring
+coast.
+
+Buildings of the 15th century do not occupy an important place in Genoa,
+but there are some small private houses and remains of sculptural
+decoration of the Early Renaissance to be seen in the older portions of
+the town. The palaces of the Genoese patricians, famous for their
+sumptuous architecture, their general effectiveness (though the
+architectural details are often faulty if closely examined), and their
+artistic collections, were many of them built in the latter part of the
+16th century by Galeazzo Alessi, a pupil of Michelangelo, whose style is
+of an imposing and uniform character and displays marvellous ingenuity
+in using a limited or unfavourable site to the greatest advantage.
+Several of the villas in the vicinity of the city are also his work. The
+Via Garibaldi is flanked by a succession of magnificent palaces, chief
+among which is the Palazzo Rosso, so called from its red colour.
+Formerly the palace of the Brignole-Sale family, it was presented by the
+duchess of Galliera to the city in 1874, along with its valuable
+contents, its library and picture gallery, which includes fine examples
+of Van Dyck and Paris Bordone. The Palazzo Municipale, built by Rocco
+Lurago at the end of the 16th century, once the property of the dukes of
+Turin, has a beautiful entrance court and a hanging terraced garden
+fronting a noble staircase of marble which leads to the spacious council
+chamber. In an adjoining room are preserved a bronze tablet dating from
+117 B.C. (see below), two autograph letters of Columbus, and the violin
+of Paganini, also a native of Genoa. Opposite the Palazzo Rosso is the
+Palazzo Bianco, a palace full of art treasures bequeathed to the city by
+the duchess of Galliera upon her death in 1889, and subsequently
+converted into a museum. The Roman antiquities here preserved belong to
+other places--Luna, Libarna, &c. The Adorno, Giorgio Doria (both
+containing small but choice picture-galleries), Parodi and Serra and
+other palaces in this street are worthy of mention. The Via Balbi again
+contains a number of palaces. The Durazzo Pallavicini palace has a noble
+facade and staircase and a rich picture-gallery. The street takes its
+name, however, from the Palazzo Balbi-Senarega, which has Doric
+colonnades and a fine orangery. The Palazzo dell' Universita has an
+extremely fine court and staircase of the early 17th century. The
+Palazzo Reale is also handsome but somewhat later. The Palazzo Doria in
+the Piazza del Principe, presented to Andrea Doria by the Genoese in
+1522, is on the other hand earlier; it was remodelled in 1529 by
+Montorsoli and decorated with fine frescoes by Perino del Vaga. The old
+palace of the doges, originally a building of the 13th century, to which
+the tower alone belongs, the rest of the building having been remodelled
+in the 16th century and modernized after a fire in 1777, stands in the
+Piazza Umberto Primo near the cathedral, and now contains the telegraph
+and other government offices. Another very fine building is the Gothic
+Palazzo di S. Giorgio, near the harbour, dating from about 1260,
+occupied from 1408 to 1797 by the Banca di S. Giorgio, and now converted
+into a produce exchange. The Campo Santo or Cimitero di Staglieno, about
+1-1/2 m. from the city on the banks of the Bisagno, is one of the chief
+features of Genoa; its situation is of great natural beauty and it is
+remarkable for its sepulchral monuments, many of which have been
+executed by the foremost sculptors of modern Italy. The university,
+founded in 1471, is a flourishing institution with faculties in law,
+medicine, natural science, engineering and philosophy. Attached to it
+are a library, an observatory, a botanical garden, and a physical and
+natural history museum. Genoa is also well supplied with technical
+schools and other institutions for higher education, while ample
+provision is made for primary education. The hospitals and the asylum
+for the poor are among the finest institutions of their kind in Italy.
+Mention must also be made of the Academy of Fine Arts, the municipal
+library, the great Teatro Carlo Felice and the Verdi Institute of Music.
+
+
+The irregular relief of its site and its long confinement within the
+limits of fortifications, which it had outgrown, have both contributed
+to render Genoa a picturesque confusion of narrow streets, lanes and
+alleys, varied with stairways climbing the steeper slopes and bridges
+spanning the deeper valleys. Large portions of the town are inaccessible
+to ordinary carriages, and many of the important streets have very
+little room for traffic. In modern times, however, a number of fine
+streets and squares with beautiful gardens have been laid out. The
+Piazza Ferrari, a large irregular space, is the chief focus of traffic
+and the centre of the Genoese tramway system; it is embellished with a
+fine equestrian statue of Garibaldi, unveiled in 1893, which stands in
+front of the Teatro Carlo Felice. Leading from this piazza is the Via
+Venti Settembre, a broad, handsome street laid out since 1887, leading
+south-east to the Ponte Pila, the central bridge over the Bisagno. The
+street is itself spanned by an elegant bridge carrying the Corso Andrea
+Podesta, a modern avenue on the heights above. Adjoining the church of
+the Madonna della Consolazione is the new market, a building of no
+little beauty. The Via Roma, another important centre of traffic which
+gives on to the Via Carlo Felice near the Piazza Ferrari, leads to the
+Piazza Corvetto, in the centre of which stands the colossal equestrian
+statue of Victor Emmanuel II. To the left is the Villetta Dinegro, a
+beautiful park belonging to the city, decorated with cascades and a
+number of statues and busts of prominent statesmen and citizens. To the
+right is another park, the Acquasola, laid out in 1837 on the site of
+the old ramparts. In the west of the city, in front of the principal
+station, is the Piazza Acquaverde. On the north side, embowered in palm
+trees, is a great statue of Columbus, at whose feet kneels the figure of
+America. Opposite is the Palazzo Faraggiana, with scenes from the life
+of Columbus in relief on its marble pediment. Among other modern
+thoroughfares, the Via di Circonvallazione a Monte, laid out since 1876
+on the hills at the back of the town, leads by many curves from the
+Piazza Manin along the hill-tops westward, and finally descends into the
+Piazza Acquaverde; its entire length is traversed by an electric
+tramway, and it commands magnificent views of the town. A similar road,
+the Via di Circonvallazione a Mare, was laid out in 1893-1895 on the
+site of the outer ramparts, and skirts the sea-front from the Piazza
+Cavour to the mouth of the Bisagno, thence ascending the right bank to
+the Ponte Pila. Genoa is remarkably well served with electric tramways,
+which are found in all the wider streets, and run, often through
+tunnels, into the suburbs and to the surrounding country on the east as
+far as Nervi and to Pegli oh the west. Three funicular railways from
+different points of the city give access to the highest parts of the
+hills behind the town.
+
+  Though its existence as a maritime power was originally due to its
+  port, it is only since 1870 that Genoa has provided the conveniences
+  necessary for the modern development of its trade, the duke of
+  Galliera's gift of L800,000 to the city in 1875 being devoted to this
+  purpose. A further enlargement of the harbour was necessitated upon
+  the opening of the St Gotthard tunnel in 1882, which extended the
+  commercial range of the port through Switzerland into Germany. The old
+  harbour is semi-circular in shape, 232 acres in area, with numerous
+  quays, and protected by moles from southern and south-westerly winds.
+  An outer harbour, 247 acres in area, has been constructed in front of
+  this by extending the Molo Nuovo by the Molo Duca di Galliera, and
+  another basin, the Vittorio Emanuele III., for coal vessels, with an
+  area of 96 acres, is in course of construction to the west of this,
+  between it and the lofty lighthouse which rises on the promontory at
+  the south-west extremity of the harbour. This basin is to be entered
+  from both the east and the west, and allows for a future extension in
+  front of San Pier d'Arena as far as the mouth of the river Polcevera.
+  The port administration was placed under an autonomous harbour board
+  (_consorzio_) in 1903. The largest ships can enter the harbour, which
+  has a minimum depth of 30 ft.; it has two dry docks, a graving dock
+  and a floating dry dock. Very large warehouses have been constructed.
+  The exports are olive oil, hemp, flax, rice, fruit, wine, hats,
+  cheese, steel, velvets, gloves, flour, paper, soap and marble, while
+  the main imports are coal, cotton, grain, machinery, &c. Genoa has a
+  large emigrant traffic with America, and a large general passenger
+  steamer traffic both for America and for the East.
+
+  The development of industry has kept pace with that of the harbour.
+  The Ansaldo shipbuilding yards construct armoured cruisers both for
+  the Italian navy and for foreign governments, The Odero yards, for
+  the construction of merchant and passenger steamers, have been
+  similarly extended, and the Foce yard is also important. A number of
+  foundries and metallurgical works supply material for repairs and
+  shipbuilding. The sugar-refining industry has been introduced by two
+  important companies, and most of the capital employed in
+  sugar-refining in other parts of Italy has been subscribed at Genoa,
+  where the administrative offices of the principal companies and
+  individual refiners are situated. The old industries of macaroni and
+  cognate products maintain their superiority. Tanneries and
+  cotton-spinning and weaving mills have considerably extended
+  throughout the province. Cement works have acquired an extension
+  previously unknown, more than thirty firms being now engaged in that
+  branch of industry. The manufactures of crystallized fruits and of
+  filigree silver-work may also be mentioned. The trade of the port
+  increased from well under 1,000,000 tons in 1876 to 6,164,873 metric
+  tons in 1906 (the latter figure, however, includes home trade in a
+  proportion of about 12%). Of this large total 5,365,544 tons are
+  imports and only 799,319 tons are exports, and, comparing 1906 with
+  1905, we have a decrease of 34,355 tons on the exports, and an
+  increase of 436,123 tons on the imports. The effect upon the railway
+  problem is of course very great, inasmuch as, while the supply of
+  trucks required per day in 1906 was from 1000 to 1200, about 80% of
+  these had to be sent down empty to the harbour. Of the four main lines
+  which centre on Genoa--(1) to Novi, which is the junction for
+  Alessandria, where lines diverge to Turin and France via the Mont
+  Cenis, and to Novara and Switzerland and France via the Simplon, and
+  for Milan; (2) to Acqui and Piedmont; (3) to Savona, Ventimiglia and
+  the French Riviera, along the coast; (4) to Spezia and Pisa--the first
+  line has to take no less than 78% of the traffic. It has indeed two
+  alternative double lines for the passage over the Apennines, but one
+  of them has a maximum gradient of 1 : 18 and a tunnel over 2 m. long,
+  and the other has a maximum gradient of 1 : 62, and a tunnel over 5 m.
+  long. A marshalling station costing some L800,000, connected directly
+  with the harbour by tunnels, with 31 m. of rails, capable of taking
+  2000 trucks, was constructed at Campasso in 1906 north of San Pier
+  d'Arena (through which till then the traffic of the first three lines,
+  representing 95% of the total, had to pass). It is computed that some
+  40% of the total commerce of Italy passes through Genoa; it is indeed
+  the most important harbour in the western Mediterranean, with the
+  exception of Marseilles, with which it carries on a keen rivalry.
+  Genoa has in the past been somewhat handicapped in the race by the
+  insufficiency of railway communication, which, owing to the mountains
+  which encircle it, is difficult to secure, many tunnels being
+  necessary. The general condition of the Italian railways has also
+  affected it, and the increased traffic has not always found the
+  necessary facilities in the way of a proper amount of trucks to
+  receive the goods discharged, leading to considerable encumbrance of
+  the port and consequent diversion of a certain amount of trade
+  elsewhere, and besides this to serious temporary deficiencies in the
+  coal supply of northern Italy.
+
+  The imports of Genoa are divided into four main classes: about 50% of
+  the total weight is coal, grain about 12%, cotton about 6%, and
+  miscellaneous about 34%. Of the coal imports the great bulk is from
+  British ports: about half comes from Cardiff and Barry, one-tenth from
+  other Welsh ports, one-fifth from the Tyne ports. The amount shows an
+  almost continued increase from 617,798 tons in 1881 to 2,737,919 in
+  1906. The total of shipping entered in 1906 was 6586 vessels with a
+  tonnage of 6,867,442, while that cleared was 6611 vessels with a
+  tonnage of 6,682,104.
+
+_History._--Genoa, being a natural harbour of the first rank, must have
+been in use as a seaport as early as navigation began in the Tyrrhenian
+Sea. We hear nothing from ancient authorities of its having been visited
+or occupied by the Greeks, but the discovery of a Greek cemetery of the
+4th century B.C.[1] proves it. The construction of the Via Venti
+Settembre gave occasion for the discovery of a number of tombs, 85 in
+all, the bulk of which dated from the end of the 5th and the 4th
+centuries B.C. The bodies had in all cases been cremated, and were
+buried in small shaft graves, the interment itself being covered by a
+slab of limestone. The vases were of the last red figure style, and were
+mostly imported from Greece or Magna Graecia, while the bronze objects
+came from Etruria, and the brooches (_fibulae_) from Gaul. This
+illustrates the early importance of Genoa as a trading port, and the
+penetration of Greek customs, inhumation being the usual practice of the
+Ligurians. Genoa is believed to derive its name from the fact that the
+shape of this portion of the coast resembles that of a knee (_genu_).
+
+We hear of the Romans touching here in 216 B.C., and of its destruction
+by the Carthaginians in 209 B.C. and immediate restoration by the
+Romans, who made it and Placentia their headquarters against the
+Ligurians. It was reached from Rome by the Via Aurelia, which ran along
+the north-west coast, and its prolongation, which later acquired the
+name of the Via Aemilia (Scauri); for the latter was only constructed in
+109 B.C., and there must have been a coast-road long before, at least as
+early as 148 B.C., when the Via Postumia was built from Genua through
+Libarna (mod. Serravalle, where remains of an amphitheatre and
+inscriptions have been found), Dertona, Iria, Placentia, Cremona, and
+thence eastwards. We also have an inscription of 117 B.C. (now preserved
+in the Palazzo Municipale at Genoa) giving the text of the decision
+given by the _patroni_, Q. and M. Minucius, of Genua, in accordance with
+a decree of the Roman senate, in a controversy between the people of
+Genua and the Langenses or Langates (also known as the Viturii), the
+inhabitants of a neighbouring hill-town, which was included in the
+territory of Genua. But none of the other inscriptions found in Genoa or
+existing there at the present day, which are practically all sepulchral,
+can be demonstrated to have belonged to the ancient city; it is equally
+easy to suppose that they were brought from elsewhere by sea (Mommsen in
+_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ v. p. 884). It is only from inscriptions of other
+places that we know that it had municipal rights, and we do not know at
+what period it obtained them. Classical authors tell us but little of
+it. Strabo (iv. 6. 2, p. 202) states that it exported wood, skins and
+honey, and imported olive oil and wine, though Pliny speaks of the wine
+of the district as the best of Liguria (_H.N._ xiv. 67.)
+
+The history of Genoa during the dark ages, throughout the Lombard and
+Carolingian periods, is but the repetition of the general history of the
+Italian communes, which succeeded in snatching from contending princes
+and barons the first charters of their freedom. The patriotic spirit and
+naval prowess of the Genoese, developed in their defensive wars against
+the Saracens, led to the foundation of a popular constitution, and to
+the rapid growth of a powerful marine. From the necessity of leaguing
+together against the common Saracen foe, Genoa united with Pisa early in
+the 11th century in expelling the Moslems from the island of Sardinia,
+but the Sardinian territory thus acquired soon furnished occasions of
+jealousy to the conquering allies, and there commenced between the two
+republics the long naval wars destined to terminate so fatally for Pisa.
+With not less adroitness than Venice, Genoa saw and secured all the
+advantages of the great carrying trade which the crusades created
+between Western Europe and the East. The seaports wrested at the same
+period from the Saracens along the Spanish and Barbary coasts became
+important Genoese colonies, whilst in the Levant, on the shores of the
+Black Sea, and along the banks of the Euphrates were erected Genoese
+fortresses of great strength. No wonder if these conquests generated in
+the minds of the Venetians and the Pisans fresh jealousy against Genoa,
+and provoked fresh wars; but the struggle between Genoa and Pisa was
+brought to a disastrous conclusion for the latter state by the battle of
+Meloria in 1284.
+
+The commercial and naval successes of the Genoese during the middle ages
+were the more remarkable because, unlike their rivals, the Venetians,
+they were the unceasing prey to intestine discord--the Genoese commons
+and nobles fighting against each other, rival factions amongst the
+nobles themselves striving to grasp the supreme power in the state,
+nobles and commons alike invoking the arbitration and rule of some
+foreign captain as the sole means of obtaining a temporary truce. From
+these contests of rival nobles, in which the names of Spinola and Doria
+stand forth with greatest prominence, Genoa was soon drawn into the
+great vortex of the Guelph and Ghibelline factions; but its recognition
+of foreign authority--successively German, Neapolitan and Milanese--gave
+way to a state of greater independence in 1339, when the government
+assumed a more permanent form with the appointment of the first doge, an
+office held at Genoa for life, in the person of Simone Boccanera.
+Alternate victories and defeats of the Venetians and Genoese--the most
+terrible being the defeat sustained by the Venetians at Chioggia in
+1380--ended by establishing the great relative inferiority of the
+Genoese rulers, who fell under the power now of France, now of the
+Visconti of Milan. The Banca di S. Giorgio, with its large possessions,
+mainly in Corsica, formed during this period the most stable element in
+the state, until in 1528 the national spirit appeared to regain its
+ancient vigour when Andrea Doria succeeded in throwing off the French
+domination and restoring the old form of government. It was at this very
+period--the close of the 15th and commencement of the 16th century--that
+the genius and daring of a Genoese mariner, Christopher Columbus, gave
+to Spain that new world, which might have become the possession of his
+native state, had Genoa been able to supply him with the ships and
+seamen which he so earnestly entreated her to furnish. The government as
+restored by Andrea Doria, with certain modifications tending to impart
+to it a more conservative character, remained unchanged until the
+outbreak of the French Revolution and the creation of the Ligurian
+republic. During this long period of nearly three centuries, in which
+the most dramatic incident is the conspiracy of Fieschi, the Genoese
+found no small compensation for their lost traffic in the East in the
+vast profits which they made as the bankers of the Spanish crown and
+outfitters of the Spanish armies and fleets both in the old world and
+the new, and Genoa, more fortunate than many of the other cities of
+Italy, was comparatively immune from foreign domination.
+
+At the end of the 17th century the city was bombarded by the French, and
+in 1746, after the defeat of Piacenza, surrendered to the Austrians, who
+were, however, soon driven out. A revolt in Corsica, which began in
+1729, was suppressed with the help of the French, who in 1768 took
+possession of the island for themselves (see CORSICA: _History_).
+
+The short-lived Ligurian republic was soon swallowed up in the French
+empire, not, however, until Genoa had been made to experience, by the
+terrible privations of the siege when Massena held the city against the
+Austrians (1800), all that was meant by a participation in the
+vicissitudes of the French Revolution. In 1814 Genoa rose against the
+French, on the assurance given by Lord William Bentinck that the allies
+would restore to the republic its independence. It had, however, been
+determined by a secret clause of the treaty of Paris that Genoa should
+be incorporated with the dominions of the king of Sardinia. The
+discontent created at the time by the provision of the treaty of Paris
+as confirmed by the congress of Vienna had doubtless no slight share in
+keeping alive in Genoa the republican spirit which, through the
+influence of a young Genoese citizen, Joseph Mazzini, assumed forms of
+permanent menace not only to the Sardinian monarchy but to all the
+established governments of the peninsula. Even the material benefits
+accruing from the union with Sardinia and the constitutional liberty
+accorded to all his subjects by King Charles Albert were unable to
+prevent the republican outbreak of 1848, when, after a short and sharp
+struggle, the city, momentarily seized by the republican party, was
+recovered by General Alfonzo La Marmora.
+
+  Among the earlier Genoese historians the most important are
+  Bartolommeo Fazio and Jacopo Bracelli, both of the 15th century, and
+  Paolo Partenopeo, Jacopo Bonfadio, Oberto Foglietta and Agostino
+  Giustiniano of the 16th. Paganetti wrote the ecclesiastical history of
+  the city; and Accinelli and Gaggero collected material for the
+  ecclesiastical archaeology. The memoirs of local writers and artists
+  were treated by Soprani and Ratti. Among more general works are
+  Brequigny, _Histoire des revolutions de Genes jusqu'en 1748_; Serra,
+  _La Storia dell' antica Liguria e di Genova_ (Turin, 1834); Varesi,
+  _Storia della repubblica di Genova sino al 1814_ (Genoa, 1835-1839);
+  Canale, _Storia dei Genovesi_ (Genoa, 1844-1854), _Nuova istoria della
+  repubblica di Genova_ (Florence, 1858), and _Storia della rep. di
+  Genova dall' anno 1528 al 1550_ (Genoa, 1874); Blumenthal, _Zur
+  Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsgeschichte Genua's im 12ten Jahrhundert_
+  (Kalbe an der Saale, 1872); Malleson, _Studies from Genoese History_
+  (London, 1875). The _Liber jurium reipublicae Genuensis_ was edited by
+  Ricotti in the 7th, 8th and 9th volumes of the _Monumenta historiae
+  patriae_ (Turin, 1854-1857). A great variety of interesting matter
+  will be found in the _Atti della Societa Ligure di storia patria_
+  (1861 sqq.), and in the _Giornale Ligustico di archeologia, storia, e
+  belle arti_. The history of the university has been written by Lorenzo
+  Isnardi, and continued by Em. Celesia (2 vols., Genoa).     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See _Notizie degli scavi_ (1898), 395 (A. d'Andrade), 464 (G.
+    Ghirardini).
+
+
+
+
+GENOVESI, ANTONIO (1712-1769), Italian writer on philosophy and
+political economy, was born at Castiglione, near Salerno, on the 1st of
+November 1712. He was educated for the church, and, after some
+hesitation, took orders in 1736 at Salerno, where he was appointed
+professor of eloquence at the theological seminary. During this period
+of his life he began the study of philosophy, being especially attracted
+by Locke. Dissatisfied with ecclesiastical life, Genovesi resigned his
+post, and qualified as an advocate at Rome. Finding law as distasteful
+as theology, he devoted himself entirely to philosophy, of which he was
+appointed extraordinary professor in the university of Naples. His first
+works were _Elementa Metaphysicae_ (1743 et seq.) and _Logica_ (1745).
+The former is divided into four parts, Ontosophy, Cosmosophy, Theosophy,
+Psychosophy, supplemented by a treatise on ethics and a dissertation on
+first causes. The _Logic_, an eminently practical work, written from the
+point of view of Locke, is in five parts, dealing with (1) the nature of
+the human mind, its faculties and operations; (2) ideas and their kinds;
+(3) the true and the false, and the various degrees of knowledge; (4)
+reasoning and argumentation; (5) method and the ordering of our
+thoughts. If Genovesi does not take a high rank in philosophy, he
+deserves the credit of having introduced the new order of ideas into
+Italy, at the same time preserving a just mean between the two extremes
+of sensualism and idealism. Although bitterly opposed by the partisans
+of scholastic routine, Genovesi found influential patrons, amongst them
+Bartolomeo Intieri, a Florentine, who in 1754 founded the first Italian
+or European chair of political economy (commerce and mechanics), on
+condition that Genovesi should be the first professor, and that it
+should never be held by an ecclesiastic. The fruit of Genovesi's
+professorial labours was the _Lezioni di Commercio_, the first complete
+and systematic work in Italian on economics. On the whole he belongs to
+the "Mercantile" school, though he does not regard money as the only
+form of wealth. Specially noteworthy in the _Lezioni_ are the sections
+on human wants as the foundation of economical theory, on labour as the
+source of wealth, on personal services as economic factors, and on the
+united working of the great industrial functions. He advocated freedom
+of the corn trade, reduction of the number of religious communities, and
+deprecated regulation of the interest on loans. In the spirit of his age
+he denounced the relics of medieval institutions, such as entails and
+tenures in mortmain. Gioja's more important treatise owes much to
+Genovesi's lectures. Genovesi died on the 22nd of September 1769.
+
+  See C. Ugoni, _Della letteratura italiana nella seconda meta del
+  secolo XVIII_ (1820-1822); A. Fabroni, _Vitae Italorum doctrina
+  excellentium_ (1778-1799); R. Bobba, _Commemorazione di A. Genovesi_
+  (Benevento, 1867).
+
+
+
+
+GENSONNE, ARMAND (1758-1793), French politician, the son of a military
+surgeon, was born at Bordeaux on the 10th of August 1758. He studied
+law, and at the outbreak of the Revolution was an advocate of the
+parlement of Bordeaux. In 1790 he became _procureur_ of the Commune, and
+in July 1791 was elected by the newly created department of the Gironde
+a member of the court of appeal. In the same year he was elected deputy
+for the department to the Legislative Assembly. As reporter of the
+diplomatic committee, in which he supported the policy of Brissot, he
+proposed two of the most revolutionary measures passed by the Assembly:
+the decree of accusation against the king's brothers (January 1, 1792),
+and the declaration of war against the king of Bohemia and Hungary
+(April 20, 1792). He was vigorous in his denunciations of the intrigues
+of the court and of the "Austrian committee"; but the violence of the
+extreme democrats, culminating in the events of the 10th of August,
+alarmed him; and when he was returned to the National Convention, he
+attacked the Commune of Paris (October 24 and 25). At the trial of Louis
+XVI. he supported an appeal to the people, but voted for the death
+sentence. As a member of the Committee of General Defence, and as
+president of the Convention (March 7-21, 1793), he shared in the bitter
+attacks of the Girondists on the Mountain; and on the fatal day of the
+2nd of June his name was among the first of those inscribed on the
+prosecution list. He was tried by the Revolutionary Tribunal on the 24th
+of October 1793, condemned to death and guillotined on the 31st of the
+month, displaying on the scaffold a stoic fortitude. Gensonne was
+accounted one of the most brilliant of the little band of brilliant
+orators from the Gironde, though his eloquence was somewhat cold and he
+always read his speeches.
+
+
+
+
+GENTIAN, botanically _Gentiana_, a large genus of herbaceous plants
+belonging to the natural order Gentianaceae. The genus comprises about
+300 species,--most of them perennial plants with tufted growth, growing
+in hilly or mountainous districts, chiefly in the northern hemisphere,
+some of the blue-flowered species ascending to a height of 16,000 ft. in
+the Himalaya Mountains. The leaves are opposite, entire and smooth, and
+often strongly ribbed. The flowers have a persistent 4- to 5-lobed calyx
+and a 4- to 5-lobed tubular corolla; the stamens are equal in number to
+the lobes of the corolla. The ovary is one-celled, with two stigmas,
+either separate and rolled back or contiguous and funnel-shaped. The
+fruit when ripe separates into two valves, and contains numerous small
+seeds. The majority of the genus are remarkable for the deep or
+brilliant blue colour of their blossoms, comparatively few having
+yellow, white, or more rarely red flowers; the last are almost
+exclusively found in the Andes.
+
+Only a few species occur in Britain. _G. amarella_ (felwort) and _G.
+campestris_ are small annual species growing on chalky or calcareous
+hills, and bear in autumn somewhat tubular pale purple flowers; the
+latter is most easily distinguished by having two of the lobes of the
+calyx larger than the other two, while the former has the parts of the
+calyx in fives, and equal in size. Some intermediate forms between these
+two species occur, although rarely, in England; one of these, _G.
+germanica_, has larger flowers of a bluer tint, spreading branches, and
+a stouter stem. Some of these forms flower in spring. _G. pneumonanthe_,
+the Calathian violet, is a rather rare perennial species, growing in
+moist heathy places from Cumberland to Dorsetshire. Its average height
+is from 6 to 9 in. It has linear leaves, and a bright blue corolla 1-1/2
+in. long, marked externally with five greenish bands, is without hairs
+in its throat, and is found in perfection about the end of August. It is
+the handsomest of the British species; two varieties of it are known in
+cultivation, one with spotted and the other with white flowers. _G.
+verna_ and _G. nivalis_ are small species with brilliant blue flowers
+and small leaves. The former is a rare and local perennial, occurring,
+however, in Teesdale and the county of Clare in Ireland in tolerable
+abundance. It has a tufted habit of growth, and each stem bears only one
+flower. It is sometimes cultivated as an edging for flower borders. _G.
+nivalis_ in Britain occurs only on a few of the loftiest Scottish
+mountains. It differs from the last in being an annual, and having a
+more isolated habit of growth, and in the stem bearing several flowers.
+On the Swiss mountains these beautiful little plants are very abundant;
+and the splendid blue colour of masses of gentian in flower is a sight
+which, when once seen, can never be forgotten. For ornamental purposes
+several species are cultivated. The great difficulty of growing them
+successfully renders them, however, less common than would otherwise be
+the case; although very hardy when once established, they are very
+impatient of removal, and rarely flower well until the third year after
+planting. Of the ornamental species found in British gardens some of the
+prettiest are _G. acaulis_, _G. verna_, _G. pyrenaica_, _G. bavarica_,
+_G. septemfida_ and _G. gelida_. Perhaps the handsomest and most easily
+grown is the first named, often called _Gentianella_, which produces its
+large intensely blue flowers early in the spring.
+
+All the species of the genus are remarkable for possessing an intense
+but pure bitter taste and tonic properties. About forty species are used
+in medicine in different parts of the world. The name of felwort given
+to _G. amarella_, but occasionally applied to the whole genus, is stated
+by Dr Prior to be given in allusion to these properties--_fel_ meaning
+gall, and _wort_ a plant. In the same way the Chinese call _G.
+asclepiadea_, and the Japanese _G. Buergeri_, "dragon's gall plants," in
+common with several other very bitter plants whose roots they use in
+medicine. _G. campestris_ is sometimes used in Sweden and other northern
+countries as a substitute for hops.
+
+By far the most important of the species used in medicine is _G. lutea_,
+a large handsome plant 3 or 4 ft. high, growing in open grassy places on
+the Alps, Apennines and Pyrenees, as well as on some of the mountainous
+ranges of France and Germany, extending as far east as Bosnia and the
+Danubian principalities. It has large oval strongly-ribbed leaves and
+dense whorls of conspicuous yellow flowers. Its use in medicine is of
+very ancient date. Pliny and Dioscorides mention that the plant was
+noticed by Gentius, a king of the Illyrians, living 180-167 B.C., from
+whom the name _Gentiana_ is supposed to be derived. During the middle
+ages it was much employed in the cure of disease, and as an ingredient
+in counter-poisons. In 1552 Hieronymus Bock (Tragus) (1498-1554), a
+German priest, physician and botanist, mentions the use of the root as a
+means of dilating wounds.
+
+The root, which is the part used in medicine, is tough and flexible,
+scarcely branched, and of a brownish colour and spongy texture. It has a
+pure bitter taste and faint distinctive odour. The bitter principle,
+known as _gentianin_, is a glucoside, soluble in water and alcohol. It
+can be decomposed into glucose and gentiopicrin by the action of dilute
+mineral acids. It is not precipitated by tannin or subacetate of lead. A
+solution of caustic potash or soda forms with gentianin a yellow
+solution, and the tincture of the root to which either of these alkalis
+has been added loses its bitterness in a few days. Gentian root also
+contains _gentianic acid_ (C14H10O5), which is inert and tasteless. It
+forms pale yellow silky crystals, very slightly soluble in water or
+ether, but soluble in hot strong alcohol and in aqueous alkaline
+solutions. This substance is also called _gentianin_, _gentisin_ and
+_gentisic acid_.
+
+The root also contains 12 to 15% of an uncrystallizable sugar called
+gentianose, of which fact advantage has long been taken in Switzerland
+and Bavaria for the production of a bitter cordial spirit called
+_Enzianbranntwein_. The use of this spirit, especially in Switzerland,
+has sometimes been followed by poisonous symptoms, which have been
+doubtfully attributed to inherent narcotic properties possessed by some
+species of gentian, the roots of which may have been indiscriminately
+collected with it; but it is quite possible that it may be due to the
+contamination of the root with that of _Veratrum album_, a poisonous
+plant growing at the same altitude, and having leaves extremely similar
+in appearance and size to those of _G. lutea_.
+
+Gentian is one of the most efficient of the class of substances which
+act upon the stomach so as to invigorate digestion and thereby increase
+the general nutrition, without exerting any direct influence upon any
+other portion of the body than the alimentary canal. Having a pleasant
+taste and being non-astringent (owing to the absence of tannic acid), it
+is the most widely used of all bitter tonics. The British Pharmacopoeia
+contains an aqueous extract (dose, 2-8 grains), a compound infusion with
+orange and lemon peel (dose, 1/2-1 ounce), and a compound tincture with
+orange peel and cardamoms (dose 1/2-1 drachm). It is used in dyspepsia,
+chlorosis, anaemia and various other diseases, in which the tone of the
+stomach and alimentary canal is deficient, and is sometimes added to
+purgative medicines to increase and improve their action. In veterinary
+medicine it is also used as a tonic, and enters into a well-known
+compound called _diapente_ as a chief ingredient.
+
+
+
+
+GENTIANACEAE (the gentian family), in botany, an order of Dicotyledons
+belonging to the sub-class Sympetalae or Gamopetalae, and containing
+about 750 species in 64 genera. It has a world-wide distribution, and
+representatives adapted to very various conditions, including, for
+instance, alpine plants, like the true gentians (_Gentiana_), meadow
+plants such as the British _Chlora perfoliata_ (yellow-wort) or
+_Erythraea Centaurium_ (centaury), marsh plants such as _Menyanthes
+trifoliata_ (bog-bean), floating water plants such as _Limnanthemum_, or
+steppe and sea-coast plants such as _Cicendia_. They are annual or
+perennial herbs, rarely becoming shrubby, and generally growing erect,
+with a characteristic forked manner of branching; the Asiatic genus
+_Crawfurdia_ has a climbing stem; they are often low-growing and
+caespitose, as in the alpine gentians.
+
+  The leaves are in decussating pairs (that is, each pair is in a plane
+  at right angles to the previous or succeeding pair), except in
+  _Menyanthes_ and a few allied aquatic or marsh genera, where they are
+  alternate or radical. Several genera, chiefly American, are
+  saprophytes, forming slender low-growing herbs, containing little or
+  no chlorophyll and with leaves reduced to scales; such are _Voyria_
+  and _Leiphaimos_, mainly tropical American. The inflorescence is
+  generally cymose, often dichasial, recalling that of Caryophyllaceae,
+  the lateral branches often becoming monochasial; it is sometimes
+  reduced to a few flowers or one only, as in some gentians. The flowers
+  are hermaphrodite, and regular with parts in 4's and 5's, with
+  reduction to 2 in the pistil; in _Chlora_ there are 6 to 8 members in
+  each whorl. The calyx generally forms a tube with teeth or segments
+  which usually overlap in the bud. The corolla shows great variety in
+  form; thus among the British genera it is rotate in _Chlora_,
+  funnel-shaped in _Erythraea_, and cylindrical, bell-shaped,
+  funnel-shaped or salver-shaped in _Gentiana_; the segments are
+  generally twisted to the right in the bud; the throat is often
+  fimbriate or bears scales. The stamens, as many as, and alternating
+  with, the corolla-segments, are inserted at very different heights on
+  the corolla-tube; the filaments are slender, the anthers are usually
+  attached dorsally, are versatile, and dehisce by two longitudinal
+  slits; after escape of the pollen they sometimes become spirally
+  twisted as in _Erythraea_. Dimorphic flowers are frequent, as in the
+  bog-bean (_Menyanthes_). There is considerable variation in the size,
+  shape and external markings of the pollen grains, and a division of
+  the order into tribes and subtribes based primarily on pollen
+  characters has been proposed. The form of the honey-secreting
+  developments of the disk at the base of the ovary also shows
+  considerable variety. The superior ovary is generally one-chambered,
+  with two variously developed parietal placentas, which occasionally
+  meet, forming two chambers; the ovules are generally very numerous and
+  anatropous or half-anatropous in form. The style, which varies much in
+  length, is simple, with an undivided or bilobed or bipartite stigma.
+  The fruit is generally a membranous or leathery capsule, splitting
+  septicidally into two valves; the seeds are small and numerous, and
+  contain a small embryo in a copious endosperm.
+
+  [Illustration: Central figure and figs. 1-4 after Curtis, _Flora
+  Londinensis_.
+
+  _Gentiana Amarella._
+
+    1, A small form, natural size.
+    2, Calyx and protruding style.
+    3, Corolla, laid open.
+    4, Capsule, bursting into two valves, and showing the seeds attached
+      to their margins.
+    5, Floral diagram.]
+
+  The brilliant colour of the flowers, often occurring in large numbers
+  (as in the alpine gentians), the presence of honey-glands and the
+  frequency of dimorphy and dichogamy, are adaptations for pollination
+  by insect visitors. In the true gentians (_Gentiana_) the flowers of
+  different species are adapted for widely differing types of insect
+  visitors. Thus _Gentiana lutea_, with a rotate yellow corolla and
+  freely exposed honey, is adapted to short-tongued insect visitors; _G.
+  Pneumonanthe_, with a long-tubed, bright blue corolla, is visited by
+  bumble bees; and _G. verna_, with a still longer narrower tube, is
+  visited by Lepidoptera.
+
+  _Gentiana_, the largest genus, contains nearly three hundred species,
+  distributed over Europe (including arctic), five being British, the
+  mountains of Asia, south-east Australia and New Zealand, the whole of
+  North America and along the Andes to Cape Horn; it does not occur in
+  Africa. Bitter principles are general in the vegetative parts,
+  especially in the rhizomes and roots, and have given a medicinal value
+  to many species, e.g. _Gentiana lutea_ and others.
+
+
+
+
+GENTILE, in the English Bible, the term generally applied to those who
+were not of the Jewish race. It is an adaptation of the Lat. _gentilis_,
+of or belonging to the same _gens_, the clan or family; as defined in
+Paulus ex Festo "gentilis dicitur et ex eodem genere ortus et is qui
+simili nomine; ut ait Cincius, gentiles mihi sunt, qui meo nomine
+appellantur." In post-Augustan Latin _gentilis_ became wider in meaning,
+following the usage of _gens_, in the sense of race, nation, and meant
+"national," belonging to the same race. Later still the word came to
+mean "foreign," i.e. other than Roman, and was so used in the Vulgate,
+with _gentes_, to translate the Hebrew _goyyim_, nations, LXX. [Greek:
+ethne], the non-Israelitish peoples (see further JEWS).
+
+
+
+
+GENTILE DA FABRIANO (c. 1370-c. 1450), Italian painter, was born at
+Fabriano about 1370. He is said to have been a pupil of Allegretto di
+Nuzio, and has been supposed to have received most of his early
+instruction from Fra Angelico, to whose manner his bears in some
+respects a close similarity. About 1411 he went to Venice, where by
+order of the doge and senate he was engaged to adorn the great hall of
+the ducal palace with frescoes from the life of Barbarossa. He executed
+this work so entirely to the satisfaction of his employers that they
+granted him a pension for life, and accorded him the privilege of
+wearing the habit of a Venetian noble. About 1422 he went to Florence,
+where in 1423 he painted an "Adoration of the Magi" for the church of
+Santa Trinita, which is preserved in the Florence Accademia; this
+painting is considered his best work now extant. To the same period
+belongs a "Madonna and Child," which is now in the Berlin Museum. He had
+by this time attained a wide reputation, and was engaged to paint
+pictures for various churches, more particularly Siena, Perugia, Gubbio
+and Fabriano. About 1426 he was called to Rome by Martin V. to adorn the
+church of St John Lateran with frescoes from the life of John the
+Baptist. He also executed a portrait of the pope attended by ten
+cardinals, and in the church of St Francesco Romano a painting of the
+"Virgin and Child attended by St Benedict and St Joseph," which was much
+esteemed by Michelangelo, but is no longer in existence. Gentile da
+Fabriano died about 1450. Michelangelo said of him that his works
+resembled his name, meaning noble or refined. They are full of a quiet
+and serene joyousness, and he has a naive and innocent delight in
+splendour and in gold ornaments, with which, however, his pictures are
+not overloaded.
+
+
+
+
+GENTILESCHI, ARTEMISIA and ORAZIO DE', Italian painters.
+
+ORAZIO (c. 1565-1646) is generally named Orazio Lomi de' Gentileschi; it
+appears that De' Gentileschi was his correct surname, Lomi being the
+surname which his mother had borne during her first marriage. He was
+born at Pisa, and studied under his half-brother Aurelio Lomi, whom in
+course of time he surpassed. He afterwards went to Rome, and was
+associated with the landscape-painter Agostino Tasi, executing the
+figures for the landscape backgrounds of this artist in the Palazzo
+Rospigliosi, and it is said in the great hall of the Quirinal Palace,
+although by some authorities the figures in the last-named building are
+ascribed to Lanfranco. His best works are "Saints Cecilia and Valerian,"
+in the Palazzo Borghese, Rome; "David after the death of Goliath," in
+the Palazzo Doria, Genoa; and some works in the royal palace, Turin,
+noticeable for vivid and uncommon colouring. At an advanced age
+Gentileschi went to England at the invitation of Charles I., and he was
+employed in the palace at Greenwich. Vandyck included him in his
+portraits of a hundred illustrious men. His works generally are strong
+in shadow and positive in colour. He died in England in 1646.
+
+ARTEMISIA (1590-1642), Orazio's daughter, studied first under Guido,
+acquired much renown for portrait-painting, and considerably excelled
+her father's fame. She was a beautiful and elegant woman; her likeness,
+limned by her own hand, is to be seen in Hampton Court. Her most
+celebrated composition is "Judith and Holofernes," in the Uffizi
+Gallery; certainly a work of singular energy, and giving ample proof of
+executive faculty, but repulsive and unwomanly in its physical horror.
+She accompanied her father to England, but did not remain there long;
+the best picture which she produced for Charles I. was "David with the
+head of Goliath." Artemisia refused an offer of marriage from Agostino
+Tasi, and bestowed her hand on Pier Antonio Schiattesi, continuing,
+however, to use her own surname. She settled in Naples, whither she
+returned after her English sojourn; she lived there in no little
+splendour, and there she died in 1642. She had a daughter and perhaps
+other children.
+
+
+
+
+GENTILI, ALBERICO (1552-1608), Italian jurist, who has great claims to
+be considered the founder of the science of international law, second
+son of Matteo Gentili, a physician of noble family and scientific
+eminence, was born on the 14th of January 1552 at Sanginesio, a small
+town of the march of Ancona which looks down from the slopes of the
+Apennines upon the distant Adriatic. After taking the degree of doctor
+of civil law at the university of Perugia, and holding a judicial office
+at Ascoli, he returned to his native city, and was entrusted with the
+task of recasting its statutes, but, sharing the Protestant opinions of
+his father, shared also, together with a brother, Scipio, afterwards a
+famous professor at Altdorf, his flight to Carniola, where in 1579
+Matteo was appointed physician to the duchy. The Inquisition condemned
+the fugitives as contumacious, and they soon received orders to quit the
+dominions of Austria.
+
+Alberico set out for England, travelling by way of Tubingen and
+Heidelberg, and everywhere meeting with the reception to which his
+already high reputation entitled him. He arrived at Oxford in the autumn
+of 1580, with a commendatory letter from the earl of Leicester, at that
+time chancellor of the university, and was shortly afterwards qualified
+to teach by being admitted to the same degree which he had taken at
+Perugia. His lectures on Roman law soon became famous, and the
+dialogues, disputations and commentaries, which he published henceforth
+in rapid succession, established his position as an accomplished
+civilian, of the older and severer type, and secured his appointment in
+1587 to the regius professorship of civil law. It was, however, rather
+by an application of the old learning to the new questions suggested by
+the modern relations of states that his labours have produced their most
+lasting result. In 1584 he was consulted by government as to the proper
+course to be pursued with Mendoza, the Spanish ambassador, who had been
+detected in plotting against Elizabeth. He chose the topic to which his
+attention had thus been directed as a subject for a disputation when
+Leicester and Sir Philip Sidney visited the schools at Oxford in the
+same year; and this was six months later expanded into a book, the _De
+legationibus libri tres_. In 1588 Alberico selected the law of war as
+the subject of the law disputations at the annual "Act" which took place
+in July; and in the autumn published in London the _De Jure Belli
+commentatio prima_. A second and a third _Commentatio_ followed, and the
+whole matter, with large additions and improvements, appeared at Hanau,
+in 1598, as the _De Jure Belli libri tres_. It was doubtless in
+consequence of the reputation gained by these works that Gentili became
+henceforth more and more engaged in forensic practice, and resided
+chiefly in London, leaving his Oxford work to be partly discharged by a
+deputy. In 1600 he was admitted to be a member of Gray's Inn, and in
+1605 was appointed standing counsel to the king of Spain. He died on the
+19th of June 1608, and was buried, by the side of Dr Matteo Gentili, who
+had followed his son to England, in the churchyard of St Helen's,
+Bishopsgate. By his wife, Hester de Peigni, he left two sons, Robert and
+Matthew, and a daughter, Anna, who married Sir John Colt. His notes of
+the cases in which he was engaged for the Spaniards were posthumously
+published in 1613 at Hanau, as _Hispanicae advocationis libri duo_. This
+was in accordance with his last wishes; but his direction that the
+remainder of his MSS. should be burnt was not complied with, since
+fifteen volumes of them found their way, at the beginning of the 19th
+century, from Amsterdam to the Bodleian library.
+
+The true history of Gentili and of his principal writings has only been
+ascertained in recent years, in consequence of a revived appreciation of
+the services which he rendered to international law. The movement to do
+him honour originated in 1875 in England, as the result of the inaugural
+lecture of Prof. T.E. Holland, and was warmly taken up in Italy. In
+spreading through Europe it encountered two curious cross-currents of
+opinion,--one the ultra-Catholic, which three centuries before had
+ordered his name to be erased from all public documents and placed his
+works in the _Index_; another the narrowly-Dutch, which is, it seems,
+needlessly careful of the supremacy of Grotius. These two currents
+resulted respectively in a bust of Garcia Moreno being placed in the
+Vatican, and in the unveiling in 1886, with much international oratory,
+of a fine statue of Grotius at Delft. The English committee, under the
+honorary presidency of Prince Leopold, in 1877 erected a monument to the
+memory of Gentili in St Helen's church, and saw to the publication of a
+new edition of the _De Jure Belli_. The Italian committee, of which
+Prince (afterwards King) Humbert was honorary president, was less
+successful. It was only in 1908, the tercentenary of the death of
+Alberico, that the statue of the great heretic was at length unveiled in
+his native city by the minister of public instruction, in the presence
+of numerous deputations from Italian cities and universities. Preceding
+writers had dealt with various international questions, but they dealt
+with them singly, and with a servile submission to the decisions of the
+church. It was left to Gentili to grasp as a whole the relations of
+states one to another, to distinguish international questions from
+questions with which they are more or less intimately connected, and to
+attempt their solution by principles entirely independent of the
+authority of Rome. He uses the reasonings of the civil and even the
+canon law, but he proclaims as his real guide the _Jus Naturae_, the
+highest common sense of mankind, by which historical precedents are to
+be criticized and, if necessary, set aside.
+
+His faults are not few. His style is prolix, obscure, and to the modern
+reader pedantic enough; but a comparison of his greatest work with what
+had been written upon the same subject by, for instance, Belli, or Soto,
+or even Ayala, will show that he greatly improved upon his predecessors,
+not only by the fulness with which he has worked out points of detail,
+but also by clearly separating the law of war from martial law, and by
+placing the subject once for all upon a non-theological basis. If, on
+the other hand, the same work be compared with the _De Jure Belli et
+Pacis_ of Grotius, it is at once evident that the later writer is
+indebted to the earlier, not only for a large portion of his
+illustrative erudition, but also for all that is commendable in the
+method and arrangement of the treatise.
+
+  The following is probably a complete list of the writings of Gentili,
+  with the places and dates of their first publication: _De juris
+  interpretibus dialogi sex_ (London, 1582); _Lectionum et epist. quae
+  ad jus civile pertinent libri tres_ (London, 1583-1584); _De
+  legationibus libri tres_ (London, 1585); _Legal. comitiorum Oxon.
+  actio_ (London, 1585-1586); _De divers. temp. appellationibus_ (Hanau,
+  1586); _De nascendi tempore disputatio_ (Witteb., 1586);
+  _Disputationum decas prima_ (London, 1587); _Conditionum liber
+  singularis_ (London, 1587); _De jure belli comm. prima_ (London,
+  1588); _secunda, ib._ (1588-1589); _tertia_ (1589); _De injustitia
+  bellica Romanorum_ (Oxon, 1590); _Ad tit. de Malef, et Math, de Prof.
+  et Med._ (Hanau, 1593); _De jure belli libri tres_ (Hanau, 1598); _De
+  armis Romanis, &c._ (Hanau, 1599); _De actoribus et de abusu mendacii_
+  (Hanau, 1599); _De ludis scenicis epist. duae_ (Middleburg, 1600); _Ad
+  I. Maccabaeorum et de linguarum mistura disp._ (Frankfurt, 1600);
+  _Lectiones Virgilianae_ (Hanau, 1600); _De nuptiis libri septem_
+  (1601); _In tit. si quis principi, et ad leg. Jul. maiest._ (Hanau,
+  1604); _De latin, vet. Bibl._ (Hanau, 1604); _De libro Pyano_ (Oxon,
+  1604); _Laudes Acad. Perus. et Oxon._ (Hanau, 1605); _De unione
+  Angliae et Scotiae_ (London, 1605); _Disputationes tres, de libris
+  jur. can., de libris jur. civ., de latinitate vet. vers._ (Hanau,
+  1605); _Regales disput. tres, de pot. regis absoluta, de unione
+  regnorum, de vi civium_ (London, 1605); _Hispanicae advocationis libri
+  duo_ (Hanau, 1613); _In tit. de verb. signif._ (Hanau, 1614); _De
+  legatis in test._ (Amsterdam, 1661). An edition of the _Opera omnia_,
+  commenced at Naples in 1770, was cut short by the death of the
+  publisher, Gravier, after the second volume. Of his numerous
+  unpublished writings, Gentili complained that four volumes were lost
+  "pessimo pontificiorum facinore," meaning probably that they were left
+  behind in his flight to Carniola.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Several tracts by the Abate Benigni in Colucci,
+  _Antichita Picene_ (1790); a dissertation by W. Reiger annexed to the
+  _Program of the Groningen Gymnasium_ for 1867; an inaugural lecture
+  delivered in 1874 by T.E. Holland, translated into Italian, with
+  additions by the author, by A. Saffi (1884); the preface to a new
+  edition of the _De jure belli_ (1877) and _Studies in International
+  Law_ (1898) (which see, for details as to the family and MSS. of
+  Gentili), by the same; works by Valdarnini and Foglietti (1875),
+  Speranza and De Giorgi (1876), Fiorini (a translation of the _De jure
+  belli_, with essay, 1877), A. Saffi (1878), L. Marson (1885), M. Thamm
+  (1896), B. Brugi (1898), T.A. Walker (an analysis of the principal
+  works of Gentili) in his _History of the Law of Nations_, vol.
+  i.(1899); H. Nezarel, in Pillet's _Fondateurs de droit international_
+  (1904); E. Agabiti (1908). See also E. Comba, in the _Rivista
+  Christiana_ (1876-1877); Sir T. Twiss, in the _Law Review_ (1878);
+  articles in the _Revue de droit international_ (1875-1878, 1883, 1886,
+  1908); O. Scalvanti, in the _Annali dell' Univ. di Perugia_, N.S.,
+  vol. viii. (1898).     (T. E. H.)
+
+
+
+
+GENTLE (through the Fr. _gentil_, from Lat. _gentilis_, belonging to the
+same _gens_, or family), properly an epithet of one born of a "good
+family"; the Latin _generosus_, "well born" (see GENTLEMAN), contrasted
+with "noble" on the one side and "simple" on the other. The word
+followed the wider application of the word "gentleman"; implying the
+manners, character and breeding proper to one to whom that name could be
+applied, courteous, polite; hence, with no reference to its original
+meaning, free from violence or roughness, mild, soft, kind or tender.
+With a physical meaning of soft to the touch, the word is used
+substantively of the maggot of the bluebottle fly, used as a bait by
+fishermen. At the end of the 16th century the French _gentil_ was again
+adapted into English in the form "gentile," later changed to "genteel."
+The word was common in the 17th and 18th centuries as applied to
+behaviour, manner of living, dress, &c., suitable or proper to persons
+living in a position in society above the ordinary, hence polite,
+elegant. From the early part of the 19th century it has also been used
+in an ironical sense, and applied chiefly to those who pay an excessive
+and absurd importance to the outward marks of respectability as evidence
+of being in a higher rank in society than that to which they properly
+belong.
+
+
+
+
+GENTLEMAN (from Lat. _gentilis_, "belonging to a race or _gens_," and
+"man"; Fr. _gentilhomme_, Span, _gentil hombre_, Ital. _gentil huomo_),
+in its original and strict signification, a term denoting a man of good
+family, the Lat. _generosus_ (its invariable translation in
+English-Latin documents). In this sense it is the equivalent of the Fr.
+_gentilhomme_, "nobleman," which latter term has in Great Britain been
+long confined to the peerage (see NOBILITY); and the term "gentry"
+("gentrice" from O. Fr. _genterise_ for _gentelise_) has much of the
+significance of the Fr. _noblesse_ or the Ger. _Adel_. This was what was
+meant by the rebels under John Ball in the 14th century when they
+repeated:
+
+  "When Adam delved and Eve span,
+   Who was then the gentleman?"
+
+Selden (_Titles of Honor_, 1672), discussing the title "gentleman,"
+speaks of "our English use of it" as "convertible with _nobilis_," and
+describes in connexion with it the forms of ennobling in various
+European countries. William Harrison, writing a century earlier, says
+"gentlemen be those whom their race and blood, or at the least their
+virtues, do make noble and known." But for the complete gentleman the
+possession of a coat of arms was in his time considered necessary; and
+Harrison gives the following account of how gentlemen were made in
+Shakespeare's day:
+
+  "... gentlemen whose ancestors are not known to come in with William
+  duke of Normandy (for of the Saxon races yet remaining we now make
+  none accompt, much less of the British issue) do take their beginning
+  in England after this manner in our times. Who soever studieth the
+  laws of the realm, who so abideth in the university, giving his mind
+  to his book, or professeth physic and the liberal sciences, or beside
+  his service in the room of a captain in the wars, or good counsel
+  given at home, whereby his commonwealth is benefited, can live without
+  manual labour, and thereto is able and will bear the port, charge and
+  countenance of a gentleman, he shall for money have a coat and arms
+  bestowed upon him by heralds (who in the charter of the same do of
+  custom pretend antiquity and service, and many gay things) and
+  thereunto being made so good cheap be called master, which is the
+  title that men give to esquires and gentlemen, and reputed for a
+  gentleman ever after. Which is so much the less to be disallowed of,
+  for that the prince doth lose nothing by it, the gentleman being so
+  much subject to taxes and public payments as is the yeoman or
+  husbandman, which he likewise doth bear the gladlier for the saving of
+  his reputation. Being called also to the wars (for with the government
+  of the commonwealth he medleth little) what soever it cost him, he
+  will both array and arm himself accordingly, and show the more manly
+  courage, and all the tokens of the person which he representeth. No
+  man hath hurt by it but himself, who peradventure will go in wider
+  buskins than his legs will bear, or as our proverb saith, now and then
+  bear a bigger sail than his boat is able to sustain."[1]
+
+In this way Shakespeare himself was turned, by the grant of his coat of
+arms, from a "vagabond" into a gentleman.
+
+The fundamental idea of "gentry," symbolized in this grant of
+coat-armour, had come to be that of the essential superiority of the
+fighting man; and, as Selden points out (p. 707), the fiction was
+usually maintained in the granting of arms "to an ennobled person though
+of the long Robe wherein he hath little use of them as they mean a
+shield." At the last the wearing of a sword on all occasions was the
+outward and visible sign of a "gentleman"; and the custom survives in
+the sword worn with "court dress." This idea that a gentleman must have
+a coat of arms, and that no one is a "gentleman" without one is,
+however, of comparatively late growth, the outcome of the natural desire
+of the heralds to magnify their office and collect fees for registering
+coats; and the same is true of the conception of "gentlemen" as a
+separate class. That a distinct order of "gentry" existed in England
+very early has, indeed, been often assumed, and is supported by weighty
+authorities. Thus, the late Professor Freeman (_Ency. Brit._ xvii. p.
+540 b, 9th ed.) said: "Early in the 11th century the order of
+'gentlemen' as a separate class seems to be forming as something new. By
+the time of the conquest of England the distinction seems to have been
+fully established." Stubbs (_Const. Hist._, ed. 1878, iii. 544, 548)
+takes the same view. Sir George Sitwell, however, has conclusively
+proved that this opinion is based on a wrong conception of the
+conditions of medieval society, and that it is wholly opposed to the
+documentary evidence. The fundamental social cleavage in the middle ages
+was between the _nobiles_, i.e. the tenants in chivalry, whether earls,
+barons, knights, esquires or franklins, and the _ignobiles_, i.e. the
+villeins, citizens and burgesses;[2] and between the most powerful noble
+and the humblest franklin there was, until the 15th century, no
+"separate class of gentlemen." Even so late as 1400 the word "gentleman"
+still only had the sense of _generosus_, and could not be used as a
+personal description denoting rank or quality, or as the title of a
+class. Yet after 1413 we find it increasingly so used; and the list of
+landowners in 1431, printed in _Feudal Aids_, contains, besides knights,
+esquires, yeomen and husbandmen (i.e. householders), a fair number who
+are classed as "gentilman."
+
+Sir George Sitwell gives a lucid explanation of this development, the
+incidents of which are instructive and occasionally amusing. The
+immediate cause was the statute I Henry V. cap. v. of 1413, which laid
+down that in all original writs of action, personal appeals and
+indictments, in which process of outlawry lies, the "estate degree or
+mystery" of the defendant must be stated, as well as his present or
+former domicile. Now the Black Death (1349) had put the traditional
+social organization out of gear. Before that the younger sons of the
+_nobiles_ had received their share of the farm stock, bought or hired
+land, and settled down as agriculturists in their native villages. Under
+the new conditions this became increasingly impossible, and they were
+forced to seek their fortunes abroad in the French wars, or at home as
+hangers-on of the great nobles. These men, under the old system, had no
+definite status; but they were _generosi_, men of birth, and, being now
+forced to describe themselves, they disdained to be classed with
+franklins (now sinking in the social scale), still more with yeomen or
+husbandmen; they chose, therefore, to be described as "gentlemen." On
+the character of these earliest "gentlemen" the records throw a lurid
+light. According to Sir George Sitwell (p. 76), "the premier gentleman
+of England, as the matter now stands, is 'Robert Erdeswyke of Stafford,
+gentilman,'" who had served among the men-at-arms of Lord Talbot at
+Agincourt (ib. note). He is typical of his class. "Fortunately--for the
+gentle reader will no doubt be anxious to follow in his footsteps--some
+particulars of his life may be gleaned from the public records. He was
+charged at the Staffordshire Assizes with housebreaking, wounding with
+intent to kill, and procuring the murder of one Thomas Page, who was cut
+to pieces while on his knees begging for his life." If any earlier
+claimant to the title of "gentleman" be discovered, Sir George Sitwell
+predicts that it will be within the same year (1414) and in connexion
+with some similar disreputable proceedings.[3]
+
+From these unpromising beginnings the separate order of "gentlemen" was
+very slowly evolved. The first "gentleman" commemorated on an existing
+monument was John Daundelyon of Margate (d. c. 1445); the first
+gentleman to enter the House of Commons, hitherto composed mainly of
+"valets," was "William Weston, gentylman"; but even in the latter half
+of the 15th century the order was not clearly established. As to the
+connexion of "gentilesse" with the official grant or recognition of
+coat-armour, that is a profitable fiction invented and upheld by the
+heralds; for coat-armour was but the badge assumed by gentlemen to
+distinguish them in battle, and many gentlemen of long descent never had
+occasion to assume it, and never did. This fiction, however, had its
+effect; and by the 16th century, as has been already pointed out, the
+official view had become clearly established that "gentlemen"
+constituted a distinct order, and that the badge of this distinction was
+the heralds' recognition of the right to bear arms. It is unfortunate
+that this view, which is quite unhistorical and contradicted by the
+present practice of many undoubtedly "gentle" families of long descent,
+has of late years been given a wide currency in popular manuals of
+heraldry.
+
+In this narrow sense, however, the word "gentleman" has long since
+become obsolete. The idea of "gentry" in the continental sense of
+_noblesse_ is extinct in England, and is likely to remain so, in spite
+of the efforts of certain enthusiasts to revive it (see A.C. Fox-Davies,
+_Armorial Families_, Edinburgh, 1895). That it once existed has been
+sufficiently shown; but the whole spirit and tendency of English
+constitutional and social development tended to its early destruction.
+The comparative good order of England was not favourable to the
+continuance of a class, developed during the foreign and civil wars of
+the 14th and 15th centuries, for whom fighting was the sole honourable
+occupation. The younger sons of noble families became apprentices in the
+cities, and there grew up a new aristocracy of trade. Merchants are
+still "citizens" to William Harrison; but he adds "they often change
+estate with gentlemen, as gentlemen do with them, by a mutual conversion
+of the one into the other." A frontier line between classes so
+indefinite could not be maintained, especially as in England there was
+never a "nobiliary prefix" to stamp a person as a gentleman by his
+surname, as in France or Germany.[4] The process was hastened, moreover,
+by the corruption of the Heralds' College and by the ease with which
+coats of arms could be assumed without a shadow of claim; which tended
+to bring the "science of armory" into contempt. The word "gentleman" as
+an index of rank had already become of doubtful value before the great
+political and social changes of the 19th century gave to it a wider and
+essentially higher significance. The change is well illustrated in the
+definitions given in the successive editions of the _Encyclopaedia
+Britannica_. In the 5th edition (1815) "a gentleman is one, who without
+any title, bears a coat of arms, or whose ancestors have been freemen."
+In the 7th edition (1845) it still implies a definite social status:
+"All above the rank of yeomen." In the 8th edition (1856) this is still
+its "most extended sense"; "in a more limited sense" it is defined in
+the same words as those quoted above from the 5th edition; but the
+writer adds, "By courtesy this title is generally accorded to all
+persons above the rank of common tradesmen when their manners are
+indicative of a certain amount of refinement and intelligence." The
+Reform Bill of 1832 has done its work; the "middle classes" have come
+into their own; and the word "gentleman" has come in common use to
+signify not a distinction of blood, but a distinction of position,
+education and manners. The test is no longer good birth, or the right to
+bear arms, but the capacity to mingle on equal terms in good society. In
+its best use, moreover, "gentleman" involves a certain superior standard
+of conduct, due, to quote the 8th edition once more, to "that
+self-respect and intellectual refinement which manifest themselves in
+unrestrained yet delicate manners." The word "gentle," originally
+implying a certain social status, had very early come to be associated
+with the standard of manners expected from that status. Thus by a sort
+of punning process the "gentleman" becomes a "gentle-man." Chaucer in
+the _Meliboeus_ (c. 1386) says: "Certes he sholde not be called a gentil
+man, that ... ne dooth his diligence and bisynesse, to kepen his good
+name"; and in the _Wife of Bath's Tale_:
+
+  "Loke who that is most vertuous alway
+   Prive and apert, and most entendeth ay
+   To do the gentil dedes that he can
+   And take him for the gretest gentilman,"
+
+and In the _Romance of the Rose_ (c. 1400) we find "he is gentil bycause
+he doth as longeth to a gentilman." This use develops through the
+centuries, until in 1714 we have Steele, in the _Tatler_ (No. 207),
+laying down that "the appellation of Gentleman is never to be affixed to
+a man's circumstances, but to his Behaviour in them," a limitation
+over-narrow even for the present day. In this connexion, too, may be
+quoted the old story, told by some--very improbably--of James II., of
+the monarch who replied to a lady petitioning him to make her son a
+gentleman, "I could make him a nobleman, but God Almighty could not make
+him a gentleman." Selden, however, in referring to similar stories "that
+no Charter can make a Gentleman, which is cited as out of the mouth of
+some great Princes that have said it," adds that "they without question
+understood Gentleman for _Generosus_ in the antient sense, or as if it
+came from _Gentilis_ in that sense, as _Gentilis_ denotes one of a noble
+Family, or indeed for a Gentleman by birth." For "no creation could make
+a man of another blood than he is." The word "gentleman," used in the
+wide sense with which birth and circumstances have nothing to do, is
+necessarily incapable of strict definition. For "to behave like a
+gentleman" may mean little or much, according to the person by whom the
+phrase is used; "to spend money like a gentleman" may even be no great
+praise; but "to conduct a business like a gentleman" implies a standard
+at least as high as that involved in the phrase "noblesse oblige." In
+this sense of a person of culture, character and good manners the word
+"gentleman" has supplied a gap in more than one foreign language.
+
+The evolution of this meaning of "gentleman" reflects very accurately
+that of English society; and there are not wanting signs that the
+process of evolution, in the one as in the other, is not complete. The
+indefinableness of the word mirrors the indefinite character of
+"society" in England; and the use by "the masses" of "gentleman" as a
+mere synonym for "man" has spread _pari passu_ with the growth of
+democracy. It is a protest against implied inferiority, and is cherished
+as the modern French _bourgeois_ cherishes his right of duelling with
+swords, under the _ancien regime_ a prerogative of the _noblesse_. Nor
+is there much justification for the denunciation by purists of the
+"vulgarization" and "abuse" of the "grand old name of gentleman." Its
+strict meaning has now fallen completely obsolete. Its current meaning
+varies with every class of society that uses it. But it always implies
+some sort of excellency of manners or morals. It may by courtesy be
+over-loosely applied by one common man to another; but the common man
+would understand the reproach conveyed in "You're no gentleman."
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Selden, _Titles of Honor_ (London, 1672); William
+  Harrison, _Description of England_, ed. G.F.J. Furnivall for the New
+  Shakspere Soc. (London, 1877-1878); Sir George Sitwell, "The English
+  Gentleman," in the _Ancestor_, No. 1 (Westminster, April 1902);
+  _Peacham's Compleat Gentleman_ (1634), with an introduction by G.S.
+  Gordon (Oxford, 1906); A. Smythe-Palmer, D.D., _The Ideal of a
+  Gentleman, or a Mirror for Gentlefolk: A Portrayal in Literature from
+  the Earliest Times_ (London, 1908), a very exhaustive collection of
+  extracts from authors so wide apart as Ptah-hotep (3300 B.C.) and
+  William Watson, arranged under headings: "The Historical Idea of a
+  Gentleman," "The Herald's Gentleman," "The Poet's Gentleman," &c.
+       (W. A. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Description of England_, bk. ii. ch. v. p. 128. Henry Peacham,
+    in his _Compleat Gentleman_ (1634), takes this matter more seriously.
+    "Neither must we honour or esteem," he writes, "those ennobled, or
+    made gentle in blood, who by mechanic and base means have raked up a
+    mass of wealth ... or have purchased an ill coat (of arms) at a good
+    rate; no more than a player upon the stage, for wearing a lord's cast
+    suit: since nobility hangeth not upon the airy esteem of vulgar
+    opinion, but is indeed of itself essential and absolute" (Reprint, p.
+    3). Elsewhere (p. 161) he deplores the abuse of heraldry, which had
+    even in his day produced "all the world over such a medley of coats"
+    that, but for the commendable activity of the earls marshals, he
+    feared that yeomen would soon be "as rare in _England_ as they are in
+    _France_." See also an amusing instance from the time of Henry VIII.,
+    given in "The Gentility of Richard Barker," by Oswald Barron, in the
+    _Ancestor_, vol. ii. (July 1902).
+
+  [2] Even this classification would seem to need modifying. For
+    certain of the great patrician families of the cities were certainly
+    _nobiles_.
+
+  [3] The designation "gentilman" is, indeed, found some two centuries
+    earlier. In the _Inquisitio maneriorum Ecclesiae S. Pauli Londin._ of
+    A.D. 1222 (W.A. Hale, _Domesday of St Paul's_, Camden Soc., 1858, p.
+    80) occurs the entry: _Adam gentilma dim acra, p' iii. d._ This is
+    probably the earliest record of the "grand old name of gentleman";
+    but Adam, who held half an acre at a rent of three pence--less by
+    half than that held by "Ralph the bondsman" (Rad' le bunde) in the
+    same list--was certainly not a "gentleman." "Gentilman" here was a
+    nickname, perhaps suggested by Adam's name, and thus in some sort
+    anticipating the wit of the famous couplet repeated by John Ball's
+    rebels.
+
+  [4] The prefix "de" attached to some English names is in no sense
+    "nobiliary." In Latin documents _de_ was the equivalent of the
+    English "of," as _de la_ of "at" (so de la Pole for Atte Poole, cf.
+    such names as Attwood, Attwater). In English this "of" was in the
+    15th century dropped; e.g. the grandson of Johannes de Stoke (John of
+    Stoke) in a 14th-century document becomes John Stoke. In modern
+    times, under the influence of romanticism, the prefix "de" has been
+    in some cases "revived" under a misconception, e.g. "de Trafford,"
+    "de Hoghton." Very rarely it is correctly retained as derived from a
+    foreign place-name, e.g. de Grey.
+
+
+
+
+GENTZ, FRIEDRICH VON (1764-1832), German publicist and statesman, was
+born at Breslau on the 2nd of May 1764. His father was an official, his
+mother an Ancillon, distantly related to the Prussian minister of that
+name. On his father's transference to Berlin, as director of the mint,
+the boy was sent to the Joachimsthal gymnasium there; his brilliant
+talents, however, did not develop until later, when at the university of
+Konigsberg he fell under the influence of Kant. But though his intellect
+was sharpened and his zeal for learning quickened by the great thinker's
+influence, Kant's "categorical imperative" did not prevent him from
+yielding to the taste for wine, women and high play which pursued him
+through life. When in 1785 he returned to Berlin, he received the
+appointment of secret secretary to the royal _Generaldirectorium_, his
+talents soon gaining him promotion to the rank of councillor for war
+(_Kriegsrath_). During an illness, which kept him virtuous by confining
+him to his room, he studied French and English, gaining a mastery of
+these languages which, at that time exceedingly rare, opened up for him
+opportunities for a diplomatic career.
+
+His interest in public affairs was, however, first aroused by the
+outbreak of the French Revolution. Like most quick-witted young men, he
+greeted this at first with enthusiasm; but its subsequent developments
+cooled his ardour and he was converted to more conservative counsels by
+Burke's _Essay on the French Revolution_, a translation of which into
+German (1794) was his first literary venture. This was followed, next
+year, by translations of works on the Revolution by Mallet du Pan and
+Mounier, and at this time he also founded and edited a monthly journal,
+the _Neue deutsche Monatsschrift_, in which for five years he wrote,
+mainly on historical and political questions, maintaining the principles
+of British constitutionalism against those of revolutionary France. The
+knowledge he displayed of the principles and practice of finance was
+especially remarkable. In 1797, at the instance of English statesmen, he
+published a translation of a history of French finance by Francois
+d'Ivernois (1757-1842), an eminent Genevese exile naturalized and
+knighted in England, extracts from which he had previously given in his
+journal. His literary output at this time, all inspired by a moderate
+Liberalism, was astounding, and included an essay on the results of the
+discovery of America, and another, written in French, on the English
+financial system (_Essai sur l'etat de l'administration des finances de
+la Grande-Bretagne_, London, 1800). Especially noteworthy, however, was
+the _Denkschrift_ or _Missive_ addressed by him to King Frederick
+William III. on his accession (1797), in which, _inter alia_, he urged
+upon the king the necessity for granting freedom to the press and to
+commerce. For a Prussian official to venture to give uncalled-for advice
+to his sovereign was a breach of propriety not calculated to increase
+his chances of favour; but it gave Gentz a conspicuous position in the
+public eye, which his brilliant talents and literary style enabled him
+to maintain. Moreover, he was from the first aware of the probable
+developments of the Revolution and of the consequences to Prussia of the
+weakness and vacillations of her policy. Opposition to France was the
+inspiring principle of the _Historisches Journal_ founded by him in
+1799-1800, which once more held up English institutions as the model,
+and became in Germany the mouthpiece of British policy towards the
+revolutionary aggressions of the French republic. In 1801 he ceased the
+publication of the _Journal_, because he disliked the regularity of
+journalism, and issued instead, under the title _Beitrage zur
+Geschichte_, &c., a series of essays on contemporary politics. The first
+of these was _Uber den Ursprung und Charakter des Krieges gegen die
+franzosische Revolution_ (1801), by many regarded as Gentz's
+masterpiece; another important brochure, _Von dem politischen Zustande
+von Europa vor und nach der Revolution_, a criticism of Hauterive's _De
+l'etat de la France a la fin de l'an VIII_, appeared the same year.
+
+This activity gained him recognition abroad and gifts of money from the
+British and Austrian governments; but it made his position as an
+official in Berlin impossible, for the Prussian government had no mind
+to abandon its attitude of cautious neutrality. Private affairs also
+combined to urge Gentz to leave the Prussian service; for, mainly
+through his own fault, a separation with his wife was arranged. In May
+1802, accordingly, he took leave of his wife and left with his friend
+Adam Muller for Vienna. In Berlin he had been intimate with the Austrian
+ambassador, Count Stadion, whose good offices procured him an
+introduction to the emperor Francis. The immediate result was the title
+of imperial councillor, with a yearly salary of 4000 gulden (December
+6th, 1802); but it was not till 1809 that he was actively employed.
+Before returning to Berlin to make arrangements for transferring himself
+finally to Vienna, Gentz paid a visit to London, where he made the
+acquaintance of Pitt and Granville, who were so impressed with his
+talents that, in addition to large money presents, he was guaranteed an
+annual pension by the British government in recognition of the value of
+the services of his pen against Bonaparte. From this time forward he was
+engaged in a ceaseless polemic against every fresh advance of the
+Napoleonic power and pretensions; with matchless sarcasm he lashed "the
+nerveless policy of the courts, which suffer indignity with
+resignation"; he denounced the recognition of Napoleon's imperial title,
+and drew up a manifesto of Louis XVIII. against it. The formation of the
+coalition and the outbreak of war for a while raised his hopes, in spite
+of his lively distrust of the competence of Austrian ministers; but the
+hopes were speedily dashed by Austerlitz and its results. Gentz used his
+enforced leisure to write a brilliant essay on "The relations between
+England and Spain before the outbreak of war between the two powers"
+(Leipzig, 1806); and shortly afterwards appeared _Fragmente aus der
+neuesten Geschichte des politischen Gleichgewichts in Europa_
+(translated _s.t. Fragments on the Balance of Power in Europe_, London,
+1806). This latter, the last of Gentz's works as an independent
+publicist, was a masterly expose of the actual political situation, and
+at the same time prophetic in its suggestions as to how this should be
+retrieved: "Through Germany Europe has perished, through Germany it must
+rise again." He realized that the dominance of France could only be
+broken by the union of Austria and Prussia, acting in concert with Great
+Britain. He watched with interest the Prussian military preparations,
+and, at the invitation of Count Haugwitz, he went at the outset of the
+campaign to the Prussian headquarters at Erfurt, where he drafted the
+king's proclamation and his letter to Napoleon. The writer was known,
+and it was in this connexion that Napoleon referred to him as "a
+wretched scribe named Gentz, one of those men without honour who sell
+themselves for money." In this mission Gentz had no official mandate
+from the Austrian government, and whatever hopes he may have cherished
+of privately influencing the situation in the direction of an alliance
+between the two German powers were speedily dashed by the campaign of
+Jena.
+
+The downfall of Prussia left Austria the sole hope of Germany and of
+Europe. Gentz, who from the winter of 1806 onwards divided his time
+between Prague and the Bohemian watering-places, seemed to devote
+himself wholly to the pleasures of society, his fascinating personality
+gaining him a ready reception in those exalted circles which were to
+prove of use to him later on in Vienna. But, though he published
+nothing, his pen was not idle, and he was occupied with a series of
+essays on the future of Austria and the best means of liberating Germany
+and redressing the balance of Europe; though he himself confessed to his
+friend Adam Muller (August 4th, 1806) that, in the miserable
+circumstances of the time, his essay on "the principles of a general
+pacification" must be taken as a "political poem."
+
+In 1809, on the outbreak of war between Austria and France, Gentz was
+for the first time actively employed by the Austrian government under
+Stadion; he drafted the proclamation announcing the declaration of war
+(15th of April), and during the continuance of hostilities his pen was
+ceaselessly employed. But the peace of 1810 and the fall of Stadion once
+more dashed his hopes, and, disillusioned and "hellishly blase," he once
+more retired to comparative inactivity at Prague. Of Metternich,
+Stadion's successor, he had at the outset no high opinion, and it was
+not till 1812 that there sprang up between the two men the close
+relations that were to ripen into life-long friendship. But when Gentz
+returned to Vienna as Metternich's adviser and henchman, he was no
+longer the fiery patriot who had sympathized and corresponded with Stein
+in the darkest days of German depression and in fiery periods called
+upon all Europe to free itself from foreign rule. Disillusioned and
+cynical, though clear-sighted as ever, he was henceforth before all
+things an Austrian, more Austrian on occasion even than Metternich; as,
+e.g., when, during the final stages of the campaign of 1814, he
+expressed the hope that Metternich would substitute "Austria" for
+"Europe" in his diplomacy and--strange advice from the old hater of
+Napoleon and of France--secure an Austro-French alliance by maintaining
+the husband of Marie Louise on the throne of France.
+
+For ten years, from 1812 onward, Gentz was in closest touch with all the
+great affairs of European history, the assistant, confidant, and adviser
+of Metternich. He accompanied the chancellor on all his journeys; was
+present at all the conferences that preceded and followed the war; no
+political secrets were hidden from him; and his hand drafted all
+important diplomatic documents. He was secretary to the congress of
+Vienna (1814-1815) and to all the congresses and conferences that
+followed, up to that of Verona (1822), and in all his vast knowledge of
+men and affairs made him a power. He was under no illusion as to their
+achievements; his memoir on the work of the congress of Vienna is at
+once an incisive piece of criticism and a monument of his own
+disillusionment. But the Liberalism of his early years was gone for
+ever, and he had become reconciled to Metternich's view that, in an age
+of decay, the sole function of a statesman was to "prop up mouldering
+institutions." It was the hand of the author of that offensive _Missive_
+to Frederick William III., on the liberty of the press, that drafted the
+Carlsbad decrees; it was he who inspired the policy of repressing the
+freedom of the universities; and he noted in his diary as "a day more
+important than that of Leipzig" the session of the Vienna conference of
+1819, in which it was decided to make the convocation of representative
+assemblies in the German states impossible, by enforcing the letter of
+Article XIII. of the Act of Confederation.
+
+As to Gentz's private life there is not much to be said. He remained to
+the last a man of the world, though tormented with an exaggerated terror
+of death. His wife he had never seen again since their parting at
+Berlin, and his relations with other women, mostly of the highest rank,
+were too numerous to record. But passion tormented him to the end, and
+his infatuation for Fanny Elssler, the celebrated _danseuse_, forms the
+subject of some remarkable letters to his friend Rahel, the wife of
+Varnhagen von Ense (1830-1831). He died on the 9th of June 1832.
+
+Gentz has been very aptly described as a mercenary of the pen, and
+assuredly no other such mercenary has ever carved out for himself a more
+remarkable career. To have done so would have been impossible, in spite
+of his brilliant gifts, had he been no more than the "wretched scribe"
+sneered at by Napoleon. Though by birth belonging to the middle class in
+a country of hide-bound aristocracy, he lived to move on equal terms in
+the society of princes and statesmen; which would never have been the
+case had he been notoriously "bought and sold." Yet that he was in the
+habit of receiving gifts from all and sundry who hoped for his backing
+is beyond dispute. He notes that at the congress of Vienna he received
+22,000 florins through Talleyrand from Louis XVIII., while Castlereagh
+gave him L600, accompanied by _les plus folles promesses_; and his diary
+is full of such entries. Yet he never made any secret of these gifts;
+Metternich was aware of them, and he never suspected Gentz of writing or
+acting in consequence against his convictions. As a matter of fact, no
+man was more free or outspoken in his criticism of the policy of his
+employers than this apparently venal writer. These gifts and pensions
+were rather in the nature of subsidies than bribes; they were the
+recognition by various powers of the value of an ally whose pen had
+proved itself so potent a weapon in their cause.
+
+It is, indeed, the very impartiality and objectivity of his attitude
+that make the writings of Gentz such illuminating documents for the
+period of history which they cover. Allowance must of course be made for
+his point of view, but less so perhaps than in the case of any other
+writer so intimately concerned with the policies which he criticizes.
+And, apart from their value as historical documents, Gentz's writings
+are literary monuments, classical examples of nervous and luminous
+German prose, or of French which is a model for diplomatic style.
+
+  A selection of Gentz's works (_Ausgewahlte Schriften_) was published
+  by Weick in 5 vols. (1836-1838); his lesser works (Mannheim,
+  1838-1840) in 5 vols. and _Memoires et lettres inedites_ (Stuttgart,
+  1841) were edited by G. Schlesier. Subsequently there have appeared
+  _Briefe an Chr. Garve_ (Breslau, 1857); correspondence
+  (_Briefwechsel_) with Adam Muller (Stuttgart, 1857); _Briefe an Pilat_
+  (2 vols., Leipzig, 1868); _Aus dem Nachlass Friedrichs von Gentz_ (2
+  vols.), edited by Count Anton Prokesch-Osten (Vienna, 1867); _Aus der
+  alten Registratur der Staats-Kanzlei: Briefe politischen Inhalts von
+  und an Friedrich von Gentz_, edited by C. von Klinkowstrom (Vienna,
+  1870); _Depeches inedites du chev. de Gentz aux Hospodars de Valachie
+  1813-1828_ (a correspondence on current affairs commissioned by the
+  Austrian government), edited by Count Anton von Prokesch-Osten the
+  younger (3 vols., Paris, 1876), incomplete, but partly supplemented in
+  _Osterreichs Teilnahme an den Befreiungskriegen_ (Vienna, 1887), a
+  collection of documents of the greatest value; _Zur Geschichte der
+  orientalischen Frage: Briefe aus dem Nachlass Friedrichs von Gentz_
+  (Vienna, 1877), edited by Count Prokesch-Osten the younger. Finally
+  Gentz's diaries, from 1800 to 1828, an invaluable mine of authentic
+  material, were edited by Varnhagen von Ense and published after his
+  death under the title _Tagebucher_, &c. (Leipzig, 1861; new ed., 4
+  vols., _ib._ 1873). Several lives of Gentz exist. The latest is by E.
+  Guglia, _Friedrich von Gentz_ (Vienna, 1901).     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+
+
+GEOCENTRIC, referred to the centre of the earth (Gr. [Greek: ge]) as an
+origin; a term designating especially the co-ordinates of a heavenly
+body referred to this origin.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 11, Slice 5, by Various
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