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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 5 + "Gassendi, Pierre" to "Geocentric" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: August 31, 2011 [EBook #37282] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 11 SL 5 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME XI SLICE V<br /><br /> +Gassendi, Pierre to Geocentric</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">GASSENDI, PIERRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">GEFLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">GASTEIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">GEGENBAUR, CARL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">GASTRIC ULCER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">GEGENSCHEIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">GASTRITIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76"> GEIBEL, EMANUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">GASTROPODA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">GEIGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">GASTROTRICHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">GEIGER, ABRAHAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">GATAKER, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">GEIJER, ERIK GUSTAF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">GATCHINA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">GATE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">GEIKIE, JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">GATEHOUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">GEIKIE, WALTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">GATES, HORATIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">GEILER VON KAISERSBERG, JOHANN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">GATESHEAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">GEINITZ, HANS BRUNO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">GATH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">GEISHA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">GATLING, RICHARD JORDAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">GEISLINGEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">GATTY, MARGARET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">GEISSLER, HEINRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">GAU, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">GELA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">GAUDEN, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">GELADA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">GAUDICHAUD-BEAUPRÉ, CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">GELASIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">GAUDRY, JEAN ALBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">GELATI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">GAUDY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">GELATIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">GAUERMANN, FRIEDRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">GELDERLAND</a> (duchy)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">GAUGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">GELDERLAND</a> (province of Holland)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">GAUHATI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">GELDERN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">GELL, SIR WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">GAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">GELLERT, CHRISTIAN FÜRCHTEGOTT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">GAULT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">GELLERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">GAUNTLET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99"> GELLIUS, AULUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">GAUR</a> (ruined city of India)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">GELLIVARA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">GAUR</a> (wild ox)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">GELNHAUSEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">GAUSS, KARL FRIEDRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">GELO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">GAUSSEN, FRANÇOIS SAMUEL ROBERT LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">GELSEMIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">GAUTIER, ÉMILE THÉODORE LÉON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">GELSENKIRCHEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">GAUTIER, THÉOPHILE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">GEM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">GAUTIER D'ARRAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">GEM, ARTIFICIAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">GAUZE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">GEMBLOUX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">GAVARNI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">GEMINI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">GAVAZZI, ALESSANDRO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">GEMINIANI, FRANCESCO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">GAVELKIND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">GEMISTUS PLETHO, GEORGIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">GAVESTON, PIERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">GEMMI PASS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">GAVOTTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">GENDARMERIE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">GAWAIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">GENEALOGY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">GAWLER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">GENELLI, GIOVANNI BUONAVENTURA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">GAY, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">GENERAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">GAY, MARIE FRANÇOISE SOPHIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">GENERATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">GAY, WALTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">GENESIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">GAYA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">GENET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">GAYAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">GENEVA</a> (New York, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">GAYANGOS Y ARCE, PASCUAL DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">GENEVA</a> (Switzerland)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">GAYARRÉ, CHARLES ÉTIENNE ARTHUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">GENEVA CONVENTION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">GAY-LUSSAC, JOSEPH LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">GENEVA, LAKE OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">GAZA, THEODORUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">GENEVIÈVE, ST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">GAZA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">GENEVIÈVE, OF BRABANT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">GAZALAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">GENGA, GIROLAMO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">GAZEBO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">GENISTA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">GAZETTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">GENIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">GEAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">GENUS, STÉPHANIE-FÉLICITÉ DU CREST DE SAINT-AUBIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">GEBER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">GENNA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">GEBHARD TRUCHSESS VON WALDBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">GENNADIUS II.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">GEBWEILER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">GENOA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">GECKO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">GENOVESI, ANTONIO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">GED, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">GENSONNÉ, ARMAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">GEDDES, ALEXANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">GENTIAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">GEDDES, ANDREW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">GENTIANACEAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">GEDDES, JAMES LORRAINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">GENTILE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">GEDDES, SIR WILLIAM DUGUID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">GENTILE DA FABRIANO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">GEDYMIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">GENTILESCHI, ARTEMISIA and ORAZIO DE’</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">GEE, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">GENTILI, ALBERICO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">GEEL, JACOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">GENTLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">GEELONG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">GENTLEMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">GEESTEMÜNDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">GENTZ, FRIEDRICH VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">GEFFCKEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">GEOCENTRIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">GEFFROY, MATHIEU AUGUSTE</a></td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503"></a>503</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">GASSENDI<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span><a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> [<span class="sc">Gassend</span>], <b>PIERRE</b> (1592-1655), French philosopher, +scientist and mathematician, was born of poor parents +at Champtercier, near Digne, in Provence, on the 22nd of January +1592. At a very early age he gave indications of remarkable +mental powers and was sent to the college at Digne. He showed +particular aptitude for languages and mathematics, and it is +said that at the age of sixteen he was invited to lecture on +rhetoric at the college. Soon afterwards he entered the university +of Aix, to study philosophy under P. Fesaye. In 1612 he was +called to the college of Digne to lecture on theology. Four +years later he received the degree of doctor of theology at Avignon, +and in 1617 he took holy orders. In the same year he was +called to the chair of philosophy at Aix, and seems gradually to +have withdrawn from theology. He lectured principally on the +Aristotelian philosophy, conforming as far as possible to the +orthodox methods. At the same time, however, he followed +with interest the discoveries of Galileo and Kepler, and became +more and more dissatisfied with the Peripatetic system. It was +the period of revolt against the Aristotelianism of the schools, +and Gassendi shared to the full the empirical tendencies of the +age. He, too, began to draw up objections to the Aristotelian +philosophy, but did not at first venture to publish them. In +1624, however, after he had left Aix for a canonry at Grenoble, +he printed the first part of his <i>Exercitationes paradoxicae adversus +Aristoteleos</i>. A fragment of the second book was published +later at La Haye (1659), but the remaining five were never +composed, Gassendi apparently thinking that after the <i>Discussiones +Peripateticae</i> of Francesco Patrizzi little field was left +for his labours.</p> + +<p>After 1628 Gassendi travelled in Flanders and Holland. +During this time he wrote, at the instance of Mersenne, his +examination of the mystical philosophy of Robert Fludd (<i>Epistolica +dissertatio in qua praecipua principia philosophiae Ro. +Fluddi deteguntur</i>, 1631), an essay on parhelia (<i>Epistola de +parheliis</i>), and some valuable observations on the transit of +Mercury which had been foretold by Kepler. He returned to +France in 1631, and two years later became provost of the +cathedral church at Digne. Some years were then spent in +travelling through Provence with the duke of Angoulême, +governor of the department. The only literary work of this +period is the <i>Life of Peiresc</i>, which has been frequently reprinted, +and was translated into English. In 1642 he was engaged by +Mersenne in controversy with Descartes. His objections to the +fundamental propositions of Descartes were published in 1642; +they appear as the fifth in the series contained in the works +of Descartes. In these objections Gassendi’s tendency towards +the empirical school of speculation appears more pronounced +than in any of his other writings. In 1645 he accepted the chair +of mathematics in the Collège Royal at Paris, and lectured for +many years with great success. In addition to controversial +writings on physical questions, there appeared during this period +the first of the works by which he is known in the history of +philosophy. In 1647 he published the treatise <i>De vita, moribus, +et doctrina Epicuri libri octo</i>. The work was well received, and +two years later appeared his commentary on the tenth book of +Diogenes Laërtius, <i>De vita, moribus, et placitis Epicuri, seu +Animadversiones in X. librum Diog. Laër</i>. (Lyons, 1649; last +edition, 1675). In the same year the more important <i>Syntagma +philosophiae Epicuri</i> (Lyons, 1649; Amsterdam, 1684) was +published.</p> + +<p>In 1648 ill-health compelled him to give up his lectures at the +Collège Royal. He travelled in the south of France, spending +nearly two years at Toulon, the climate of which suited him. +In 1653 he returned to Paris and resumed his literary work, +publishing in that year lives of Copernicus and Tycho Brahe. +The disease from which he suffered, lung complaint, had, however, +established a firm hold on him. His strength gradually +failed, and he died at Paris on the 24th of October 1655. A +bronze statue of him was erected by subscription at Digne in +1852.</p> + +<p>His collected works, of which the most important is the <i>Syntagma +philosophicum</i> (<i>Opera</i>, i. and ii.), were published in 1658 +by Montmort (6 vols., Lyons). Another edition, also in 6 folio +volumes, was published by N. Averanius in 1727. The first +two are occupied entirely with his <i>Syntagma philosophicum</i>; +the third contains his critical writings on Epicurus, Aristotle, +Descartes, Fludd and Lord Herbert, with some occasional +pieces on certain problems of physics; the fourth, his <i>Institutio +astronomica</i>, and his <i>Commentarii de rebus celestibus</i>; the +fifth, his commentary on the tenth book of Diogenes Laërtius, +the biographies of Epicurus, N.C.F. de Peiresc, Tycho Brahe, +Copernicus, Georg von Peuerbach, and Regiomontanus, with +some tracts on the value of ancient money, on the Roman +calendar, and on the theory of music, to all which is appended +a large and prolix piece entitled <i>Notitia ecclesiae Diniensis</i>; +the sixth volume contains his correspondence. The <i>Lives</i>, +especially those of Copernicus, Tycho and Peiresc, have been +justly admired. That of Peiresc has been repeatedly printed; +it has also been translated into English. Gassendi was one of +the first after the revival of letters who treated the <i>literature</i> +of philosophy in a lively way. His writings of this kind, though +too laudatory and somewhat diffuse, have great merit; they +abound in those anecdotal details, natural yet not obvious +reflections, and vivacious turns of thought, which made Gibbon +style him, with some extravagance certainly, though it was true +enough up to Gassendi’s time—“le meilleur philosophe des +littérateurs, et le meilleur littérateur des philosophes.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gassendi holds an honourable place in the history of physical +science. He certainly added little to the stock of human knowledge, +but the clearness of his exposition and the manner in which he, like +Bacon, urged the importance of experimental research, were of +inestimable service to the cause of science. To what extent any +place can be assigned him in the history of philosophy is more doubtful. +The <i>Exercitationes</i> on the whole seem to have excited more +attention than they deserved. They contain little or nothing +beyond what had been already advanced against Aristotle. The +first book expounds clearly, and with much vigour, the evil effects of +the blind acceptance of the Aristotelian dicta on physical and philosophical +study; but, as is the case with so many of the anti-Aristotelian +works of this period, the objections show the usual ignorance +of Aristotle’s own writings. The second book, which contains the +review of Aristotle’s dialectic or logic, is throughout Ramist in tone +and method. The objections to Descartes—one of which at least, +through Descartes’s statement of it in the appendix of objections +in the <i>Meditationes</i> has become famous—have no speculative value, +and in general are the outcome of the crudest empiricism. His +labours on Epicurus have a certain historical value, but the want of +consistency inherent in the philosophical system raised on Epicureanism +is such as to deprive it of genuine worth. Along with strong +expressions of empiricism we find him holding doctrines absolutely +irreconcilable with empiricism in any form. For while he maintains +constantly his favourite maxim “that there is nothing in the intellect +which has not been in the senses” (<i>nihil in intellectu quod non prius +fuerit in sensu</i>), while he contends that the imaginative faculty +(<i>phantasia</i>) is the counterpart of sense—that, as it has to do with +material images, it is itself, like sense, material, and essentially the +same both in men and brutes; he at the same time admits that the +intellect, which he affirms to be immaterial and immortal—the most +characteristic distinction of humanity—attains notions and truths of +which no effort of sensation or imagination can give us the slightest +apprehension (<i>Op.</i> ii. 383). He instances the capacity of forming +“general notions”; the very conception of universality itself (<i>ib.</i> +384), to which he says brutes, who partake as truly as men in the +faculty called <i>phantasia</i>, never attain; the notion of God, whom he +says we may imagine to be corporeal, but understand to be incorporeal; +and lastly, the reflex action by which the mind makes its +own phenomena and operations the objects of attention.</p> + +<p>The <i>Syntagma philosophicum</i>, in fact, is one of those eclectic +systems which unite, or rather place in juxtaposition, irreconcilable +dogmas from various schools of thought. It is divided, according to +the usual fashion of the Epicureans, into logic (which, with Gassendi +as with Epicurus, is truly <i>canonic</i>), physics and ethics. The logic, +which contains at least one praiseworthy portion, a sketch of the +history of the science, is divided into theory of right apprehension +(<i>bene imaginari</i>), theory of right judgment (<i>bene proponere</i>), theory +of right inference (<i>bene colligere</i>), theory of right method (<i>bene +ordinare</i>). The first part contains the specially empirical positions +which Gassendi afterwards neglects or leaves out of account. The +senses, the sole source of knowledge, are supposed to yield us immediately +cognition of individual things; phantasy (which Gassendi +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page504" id="page504"></a>504</span> +takes to be material in nature) reproduces these ideas; understanding +compares these ideas, which are particular, and frames +general ideas. Nevertheless, he at the same time admits that the +senses yield knowledge—not of things—but of qualities only, and +holds that we arrive at the idea of thing or substance by induction. +He holds that the true method of research is the analytic, rising from +lower to higher notions; yet he sees clearly, and admits, that inductive +reasoning, as conceived by Bacon, rests on a general proposition +not itself proved by induction. He ought to hold, and in +disputing with Descartes he did apparently hold, that the evidence +of the senses is the only convincing evidence; yet he maintains, and +from his special mathematical training it was natural he should +maintain, that the evidence of reason is absolutely satisfactory. +The whole doctrine of judgment, syllogism and method is a mixture +of Aristotelian and Ramist notions.</p> + +<p>In the second part of the <i>Syntagma</i>, the physics, there is more +that deserves attention; but here, too, appears in the most glaring +manner the inner contradiction between Gassendi’s fundamental +principles. While approving of the Epicurean physics, he rejects +altogether the Epicurean negation of God and particular providence. +He states the various proofs for the existence of an immaterial, +infinite, supreme Being, asserts that this Being is the author of the +visible universe, and strongly defends the doctrine of the foreknowledge +and particular providence of God. At the same time he +holds, in opposition to Epicureanism, the doctrine of an immaterial +rational soul, endowed with immortality and capable of free determination. +It is altogether impossible to assent to the supposition +of Lange (<i>Gesch. des Materialismus</i>, 3rd ed., i. 233), that all this +portion of Gassendi’s system contains nothing of his own opinions, +but is introduced solely from motives of self-defence. The positive +exposition of atomism has much that is attractive, but the hypothesis +of the <i>calor vitalis</i> (vital heat), a species of <i>anima mundi</i> (world-soul) +which is introduced as physical explanation of physical phenomena, +does not seem to throw much light on the special problems which +it is invoked to solve. Nor is his theory of the weight essential +to atoms as being due to an inner force impelling them to motion +in any way reconcilable with his general doctrine of mechanical +causes.</p> + +<p>In the third part, the ethics, over and above the discussion on +freedom, which on the whole is indefinite, there is little beyond +a milder statement of the Epicurean moral code. The final end of +life is happiness, and happiness is harmony of soul and body +(<i>tranquillitas animi et indolentia corporis</i>). Probably, Gassendi +thinks, perfect happiness is not attainable in this life, but it may +be in the life to come.</p> + +<p>The <i>Syntagma</i> is thus an essentially unsystematic work, and +clearly exhibits the main characteristics of Gassendi’s genius. He +was critical rather than constructive, widely read and trained +thoroughly both in languages and in science, but deficient in speculative +power and original force. Even in the department of natural +science he shows the same inability steadfastly to retain principles +and to work from them; he wavers between the systems of Brahe +and Copernicus. That his revival of Epicureanism had an important +influence on the general thinking of the 17th century may be admitted; +that it has any real importance in the history of philosophy +cannot be granted.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Gassendi’s life is given by Sorbière in the first +collected edition of the works, by Bugerel, <i>Vie de Gassendi</i> (1737; +2nd ed., 1770), and by Damiron, <i>Mémoire sur Gassendi</i> (1839). An +abridgment of his philosophy was given by his friend, the celebrated +traveller, Bernier (<i>Abrégé de la philosophie de Gassendi</i>, 8 vols., 1678; +2nd ed., 7 vols., 1684). The most complete surveys of his work are +those of G.S. Brett (<i>Philosophy of Gassendi</i>, London, 1908), Buhle +(<i>Geschichte der neuern Philosophie</i>, iii. 1, 87-222), Damiron (<i>Mémoires +pour servir à l’histoire de philosophie au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>), and P.F. Thomas +(<i>La Philosophie de Gassendi</i>, Paris, 1889). See also Ritter, <i>Geschichte +der Philosophie</i>, x. 543-571; Feuerbach, <i>Gesch. d. neu. Phil. von +Bacon bis Spinoza</i>, 127-150; F.X. Kiefl, <i>P. Gassendis Erkenntnistheorie +und seine Stellung zum Materialismus</i> (1893) and “Gassendi’s +Skepticismus” in <i>Philos. Jahrb.</i> vi. (1893); C. Güttler, “Gassend +oder Gassendi?” in <i>Archiv f. Gesch. d. Philos.</i> x. (1897), pp. +238-242.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. Ad.; X.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It was formerly thought that <i>Gassendi</i> was really the genitive +of the Latin form <i>Gassendus</i>. C. Güttler, however, holds that it is +a modernized form of the O. Fr. <i>Gassendy</i> (see paper quoted in +bibliography).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GASTEIN,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> in the duchy of Salzburg, Austria, a side valley of +the Pongau or Upper Salzach, about 25 m. long and 1¼ m. +broad, renowned for its mineral springs. It has an elevation +of between 3000 and 3500 ft. Behind it, to the S., tower the +mountains Mallnitz or Nassfeld-Tauern (7907 ft.) and Ankogel +(10,673 ft.), and from the right and left of these mountains two +smaller ranges run northwards forming its two side walls. The +river Ache traverses the valley, and near Wildbad-Gastein forms +two magnificent waterfalls, the upper, the Kesselfall (196 ft.), +and the lower, the Bärenfall (296 ft.). Near these falls is the +Schleierfall (250 ft.), formed by the stream which drains the +Bockhart-see. The valley is also traversed by the so-called +Tauern railway (opened up to Wildbad-Gastein in September +1905), which goes to Mallnitz, piercing the Tauern range by a +tunnel 9260 yds. in length. The principal villages of the valley +are Hof-Gastein, Wildbad-Gastein and Böckstein.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Hof-Gastein</span>, pop. (1900) 840, the capital of the valley, is +also a watering-place, the thermal waters being conveyed here +from Wildbad-Gastein by a conduit 5 m. long, constructed in +1828 by the emperor Francis I. of Austria. Hof-Gastein was, +after Salzburg, the richest place in the duchy, owing to its gold +and silver mines, which were already worked during the Roman +period. During the 16th century these mines were yielding +annually 1180 ℔ of gold and 9500 ℔ of silver, but since the +17th century they have been much neglected and many of them +are now covered by glaciers.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Wildbad-Gastein</span>, commonly called <i>Bad-Gastein</i>, one of +the most celebrated watering-places in Europe, is picturesquely +situated in the narrow valley of the Gasteiner Ache, at an +altitude of 3480 ft. The thermal springs, which issue from +the granite mountains, have a temperature of 77°-120° F., and +yield about 880,000 gallons of water daily. The water contains +only 0.35 to 1000 of mineral ingredients and is used for bathing +purposes. The springs are resorted to in cases of nervous +affections, senile and general debility, skin diseases, gout and +rheumatism. Wildbad-Gastein is annually visited by over +8500 guests. The springs were known as early as the 7th century, +but first came into fame by a successful visit paid to them by +Duke Frederick of Austria in 1436. Gastein was a favourite +resort of William I. of Prussia and of the Austrian imperial +family, and it was here that, on the 14th of August 1865, was +signed the agreement known as the Gastein Convention, which +by dividing the administration of the conquered provinces of +Schleswig and Holstein between Austria and Prussia postponed +for a while the outbreak of war between the two powers. It +was also here (August-September 1879) that Prince Bismarck +negotiated with Count Julius Andrássy the Austro-German +treaty, which resulted in the formation of the Triple Alliance.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Pröll, <i>Gastein, Its Springs and Climate</i> (Vienna, 5th ed., +1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GASTRIC ULCER<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (ulcer of the stomach), a disease of much +gravity, commonest in females, and especially in anaemic +domestic servants. It is connected in many instances with +impairment of the circulation in the stomach and the formation +of a clot in a small blood-vessel (thrombosis). It may be due +to an impoverished state of the blood (anaemia), but it may also +arise from disease of the blood-vessels, the result of long-continued +indigestion and gastric catarrh.</p> + +<p>When clotting takes place in a blood-vessel the nutrition of +that limited area of the stomach is cut off, and the patch undergoes +digestion by the unresisted action of the gastric juices, an +ulcer being formed. The ulcer is usually of the size of a silver +threepence or sixpence, round or oval, and, eating deeply, is apt +to make a hole right through the coats of the stomach. Its +usual site is upon the posterior wall of the upper curvature, near +to the pyloric orifice. It may undergo a healing process at any +stage, in which case it may leave but little trace of its existence; +while, on the other hand, it may in the course of cicatrizing +produce such an amount of contraction as to lead to stricture +of the pylorus, or to a peculiar hour-glass deformity of the stomach. +Perforation is in most cases quickly fatal, unless previously +the stomach has become adherent to some neighbouring organ, +by which the dangerous effects of this occurrence may be averted, +or unless the condition has been promptly recognized and an +operation has been quickly done. Usually there is but one ulcer, +but sometimes there are several ulcers.</p> + +<p>The symptoms of ulcer of the stomach are often indefinite and +obscure, and in some cases the diagnosis has been first made on +the occurrence of a fatal perforation. First among the symptoms +is pain, which is present at all times, but is markedly increased +after food. The pain is situated either at the lower end of the +breast-bone or about the middle of the back. Sometimes it is +felt in the sides. It is often extremely severe, and is usually +accompanied with localized tenderness and also with a sense of +oppression, and by an inability to wear tight clothing. The pain +is due to the movements of the stomach set up by the presence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505"></a>505</span> +of the food, as well as to the irritation of the inflamed nerve +filaments in the floor of the ulcer. Vomiting is a usual symptom. +It occurs either soon after the food is swallowed or at a later +period, and generally relieves the pain and discomfort. Vomiting +of blood (haematemesis) is a frequent and important symptom. +The blood may show itself in the form of a brown or coffee-like +mixture, or as pure blood of dark colour and containing clots. +It comes from some vessel or vessels which the ulcerative process +has ruptured. Blood is also found mixed with the discharges +from the bowels, rendering them dark or tarry-looking. The +general condition of the patient with gastric ulcer is, as a rule, +that of extreme ill-health, with pallor, emaciation and debility. +The tongue is red, and there is usually constipation. In most +of the cases the disease is chronic, lasting for months or years; +and in those cases where the ulcers are large or multiple, incomplete +healing may take place, relapses occurring from time +to time. But the ulcers may give rise to no marked symptoms, +and there have been instances where fatal perforation suddenly +took place, and where post-mortem examination revealed the +existence of long-standing ulcers which had given rise to no +suggestive symptoms. While gastric ulcer is to be regarded as +dangerous, its termination, in the great majority of cases, is +in recovery. It frequently, however, leaves the stomach in a +delicate condition, necessitating the utmost care as regards diet. +Occasionally the disease proves fatal by sudden haemorrhage, +but a fatal result is more frequently due to perforation and the +escape of the contents of the stomach into the peritoneal cavity, +in which case death usually occurs in from twelve to forty-eight +hours, either from shock or from peritonitis. Should the stomach +become adherent to another organ, and fatal perforation be +thus prevented, chronic “indigestion” may persist, owing to +interference with the natural movements of the stomach. +Stricture of the pylorus and consequent dilatation of the stomach +may be caused by the cicatrization of an ulcer.</p> + +<p>The patient should at once be sent to bed and kept there, and +allowed for a while nothing stronger than milk and water or +milk and lime water. But if bleeding has recently taken place +no food whatever should be allowed by the stomach, and the +feeding should be by nutrient enemata. As the symptoms +quiet down, eggs may be given beaten up with milk, and later, +bread and milk and home-made broths and soups. Thus the +diet advances to chicken and vegetables rubbed through a +sieve, to custard pudding and bread and butter. As regards +medicines, iron is the most useful, but no pills of any sort should +be given. Under the influence of rest and diet most gastric +ulcers get well. The presence of healthy-looking scars upon the +surface of the stomach, which are constantly found in operating +upon the interior of the abdomen, or as revealed in post-mortem +examinations, are evidence of the truth of this statement. It +is unlikely that under the treatment just described perforation +of the stomach will take place, and if the surgeon is called in +to assist he will probably advise that operation is inadvisable. +Moreover, he knows that if he should open the abdomen to search +for an ulcer of the stomach he might fail to find it; more than +that, his search might also be in vain if he opened the stomach +itself and examined the interior. Serious haemorrhages, however, +may make it necessary that a prompt and thorough search should +be made in order that the surgeon may endeavour to locate the +ulcer, and, having found it, secure the damaged vessel and save +the patient from death by bleeding.</p> + +<p>Perforation of a gastric ulcer having taken place, the septic +germs, which were harmless whilst in the stomach, escape with +the rest of the contents of the stomach into the general peritoneal +cavity. The immediate effects of this leakage are sudden and +severe pain in the upper part of the abdomen and a great shock +to the system (collapse). The muscles of the abdominal wall +become hard and resisting, and as peritonitis appears and +the intestines are distended with gas, the abdomen is distended +and becomes greatly increased in size and ceases to move, +the respiratory movements being short and quick. At first, +most likely, the temperature drops below normal, and the +pulse quickens. Later, the temperature rises. If nothing is +done, death from the septic poisoning of peritonitis is almost +certain.</p> + +<p>The treatment of ruptured gastric ulcer demands immediate +operation. An incision should be made in the upper part of +the middle line of the abdomen, and the perforation should be +looked for. There is not, as a rule, much difficulty in finding it, +as there are generally deposits of lymph near the spot, and other +signs of local inflammation; moreover, the contents of the +stomach may be seen escaping from the opening. The ulcer is +to be closed by running a “purse-string” suture in the healthy +tissue around it, and the place is then buried in the stomach by +picking up small folds of the stomach-wall above and below it +and fixing them together by suturing. This being done, the +surface of the stomach, and the neighbouring viscera which have +been soiled by the leakage, are wiped clean and the abdominal +wound is closed, provision being made for efficient drainage. A +large proportion of cases of perforated gastric ulcer thus treated +recover.</p> +<div class="author">(E. O.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GASTRITIS<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="gastêr">γαστήρ</span>, stomach), an inflammatory affection +of the stomach, of which the condition of catarrh, or irritation of +its mucous membrane, is the most frequent and most readily +recognized. This may exist in an acute or a chronic form, and +depends upon some condition, either local or general, which produces +a congested state of the circulation in the walls of the +stomach (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Digestive Organs</a></span>: <i>Pathology</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Acute Gastritis</i> may arise from various causes. The most +intense forms of inflammation of the stomach are the toxic +conditions which follow the swallowing of corrosive poisons, +such as strong mineral acids of alkalis which may extensively +destroy the mucous membrane. Other non-corrosive poisons +cause acute degeneration of the stomach wall (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poisons</a></span>). +Acute inflammatory conditions may be secondary to zymotic +diseases such as diphtheria, pyaemia, typhus fever and others. +Gastritis is also caused by the ingestion of food which has begun +to decompose, or may result from eating unsuitable articles +which themselves remain undigested and so excite acute catarrhal +conditions. These give rise to the symptoms well known as +characterizing an acute “bilious attack,” consisting in loss of +appetite, sickness or nausea, and headache, frontal or occipital, +often accompanied with giddiness. The tongue is furred, the +breath foetid, and there is pain or discomfort in the region of the +stomach, with sour eructations, and frequently vomiting, first of +food and then of bilious matter. An attack of this kind tends to +subside in a few days, especially if the exciting cause be removed. +Sometimes, however, the symptoms recur with such frequency +as to lead to the more serious chronic form of the disease.</p> + +<p>The treatment bears reference, in the first place, to any known +source of irritation, which, if it exist, may be expelled by an +emetic or purgative (except in cases due to poisoning). This, +however, is seldom necessary, since vomiting is usually present. +For the relief of sickness and pain the sucking of ice and counter-irritation +over the region of the stomach are of service. Further, +remedies which exercise a soothing effect upon an irritable +mucous membrane, such as bismuth or weak alkaline fluids, and +along with these the use of a light milk diet, are usually sufficient +to remove the symptoms.</p> + +<p><i>Chronic Gastric Catarrh</i> may result from the acute or may arise +independently. It is not infrequently connected with antecedent +disease in other organs, such as the lungs, heart, liver or kidneys, +and it is especially common in persons addicted to alcoholic +excess. In this form the texture of the stomach is more altered +than in the acute form, except in the toxic and febrile forms above +referred to. It is permanently in a state of congestion, and its +mucous membrane and muscular coat undergo thickening and +other changes, which markedly affect the function of digestion. +The symptoms are those of dyspepsia in an aggravated form +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dyspepsia</a></span>), of which discomfort and pain after food, with +distension and frequently vomiting, are the chief; and the +treatment must be conducted in reference to the causes giving +rise to it. The careful regulation of the diet, alike as to the +amount, the quality, and the intervals between meals, demands +special attention. Feeding on artificially soured milk may in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page506" id="page506"></a>506</span> +many cases be useful. Lavage or washing out of the stomach +with weak alkaline solutions has been used with marked success in +the treatment of chronic gastritis. Of medicinal agents, bismuth, +arsenic, nux vomica, and the mineral acids are all of acknowledged +efficacy, as are also preparations of pepsin.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GASTROPODA,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> the second of the five classes of animals +constituting the phylum Mollusca. For a discussion of the relationship +of the Gastropoda to the remaining classes of the +phylum, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mollusca</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Gastropoda are mainly characterized by a loss of symmetry, +produced by torsion of the visceral sac. This torsion may be resolved +into two successive movements. The first is a ventral flexure +in the antero-posterior or sagittal plane; the result of this is to +approximate the two ends of the alimentary canal. In development, +the openings of the mantle-cavity and the anus are always +originally posterior; later they are brought forward ventrally. +During this first movement flexure is also produced by the coiling +of the visceral sac and shell; primitively the latter was bowl-shaped; +but the ventral flexure, which brings together the two extremities +of the digestive tube, gives the visceral sac the outline of a more or +less acute cone. The shell necessarily takes this form also, and then +becomes coiled in a dorsal or anterior plane—that is to say, it +becomes exogastric. This condition may be seen in embryonic +<i>Patellidae</i>, <i>Fissurellidae</i> and <i>Trochidae</i> (fig. 1, A), and agrees with +the method of coiling of a mollusc without lateral torsion, such as +<i>Nautilus</i>. But ultimately the coil becomes ventral or endogastric, +in consequence of the second torsion movement then apparent.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:525px; height:198px" src="images/img506a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">From Lankester’s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Three stages in the development of Trochus, during the +process of torsion. (After Robert.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>A, Nearly symmetrical larva (veliger).</p> +<p>B, A stage 1½ hours later than A.</p> +<p>C, A stage 3½ hours later than B.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Foot.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>op</i>, Operculum.</p> +<p><i>pac</i>, Pallial cavity.</p> +<p><i>ve</i>, Velum.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The shell is represented as fixed, while the head and foot rotate +from left to right. In reality the head and foot are fixed and the +shell rotates from right to left.</p> + +<p>The second movement is a lateral torsion of the visceral mass, the +foot remaining a fixed point; this torsion occurs in a plane approximately +at right angles to that of the first movement, and carries the +pallial aperture and the anus from behind forwards. If, at this +moment, the animal were placed with mouth and ventral surface +turned towards the observer, this torsion carries the circumanal +complex in a clockwise direction (along the right side in dextral +forms) through 180° as compared with its primitive condition. The +(primitively) right-hand organs of the complex thus become left-hand, +and vice versa. The visceral commissure, while still surrounding +the digestive tract, becomes looped; its right half, with its +proper ganglion, passes to the left side over the dorsal face of the +alimentary canal (whence the name supra-intestinal), while the left +half passes below towards the right side, thus originating the name +infra-intestinal given to this half and to its ganglion. Next, the +shell, the coil of which was at first exogastric, being also included +in this rotation through 180°, exhibits an endogastric coiling (fig. 1, +B, C). This, however, is not generally retained in one plane, and the +spire projects, little by little, on the side which was originally left, +but finally becomes right (in dextral forms, with a clockwise direction, +if viewed from the side of the spire; but counter-clockwise in sinistral +forms). Finally, the original symmetry of the circumanal complex +vanishes; the anus leaves the centre of the pallial cavity and passes +towards the right side (left side in sinistral forms); the organs of this +side become atrophied and disappear. The essential feature of the +asymmetry of Gastropoda is the atrophy or disappearance of the +primitively left half of the circumanal complex (the right half in +sinistral forms), including the gill, the auricle, the osphradium, the +hypobranchial gland and the kidney.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:216px; height:237px" src="images/img506b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Lankester’s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Four stages in the +development of a Gastropod +showing the process of body +torsion. (After Robert.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p>A, Embryo without flexure.</p> +<p>B, Embryo with ventral flexure of the intestine.</p> +<p>C, Embryo with ventral flexure and exogastric shell.</p> +<p>D, Embryo with lateral torsion and an endogastric shell.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Anus.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Foot.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Mouth.</p> +<p><i>pa</i>, Mantle.</p> +<p><i>pac</i>, Pallial cavity.</p> +<p><i>ve</i>, Velum.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>In dextral Gastropods the only structure found on the topographically +right side of the rectum is the genital duct. But this is +not part of the primitive complex. It is absent in the most primitive +and symmetrical forms, such as <i>Haliotis</i> and <i>Pleurotomaria</i>. Originally +the gonads opened into the kidneys. In the most primitive +existing Gastropods the gonad opens into the right kidney (<i>Patellidae</i>, +<i>Trochidae</i>, <i>Fissurellidae</i>). The gonaduct, therefore, is derived from +the topographically right kidney. The transformation has been +actually shown to take place in the development of Paludina. In +a dextral Gastropod the shell is coiled in a right-handed spiral from +apex to mouth, and the spiral also +projects to the right of the median +plane of the animal.</p> + +<p>When the shell is sinistral the +asymmetry of the organs is usually +reversed, and there is a complete situs +<i>inversus viscerum</i>, the direction of the +spiral of the shell corresponding to +the position of the organs of the +body. <i>Triforis</i>, <i>Physa</i>, <i>Clausilia</i> are +examples of sinistral Gastropods, but +reversal also occurs as an individual +variation among forms normally dextral. +But there are forms in which +the involution is “hyperstrophic,” +that is to say, the turns of the spire +projecting but slightly, the spire, +after flattening out gradually, finally +becomes re-entrant and transformed +into a false umbilicus; at the same +time that part which corresponds to +the umbilicus of forms with a normal +coil projects and constitutes a false +spire; the coil thus appears to be +sinistral, although the asymmetry +remains dextral, and the coil of the +operculum (always the opposite to +that of the shell) sinistral (<i>e.g.</i> +<i>Lanistes</i> among Streptoneura, <i>Limacinidae</i> +among Opisthobranchia). The +same, <i>mutatis mutandis</i>, may occur +in sinistral shells.</p> + +<p>The problem of the causes of the +torsion of the Gastropod body has +been much discussed. E.R. Lankester +in the ninth edition of this +work attributed it to the pressure of the shell and visceral hump +towards the right side. He referred also to the nautiloid shell of +the larva falling to one side. But these are two distinct processes. +In the larva a nautiloid shell is developed which is coiled exogastrically, +that is, dorsally, and the pallial cavity is posterior or +ventral (fig. 2, C): the larva therefore resembles <i>Nautilus</i> in the +relations of body and shell. The shell then rotates towards the left +side through 180°, so that it becomes ventral or endogastric (fig. 2, +D). The pallial cavity, with its organs, is by this torsion moved +up the <i>right</i> side of the larva to the dorsal surface, and thus the left +organs become right and vice versa. In the subsequent growth of +the shell the spire comes to project on the right side, which was +originally the left. Neither the rotation of the shell as a whole nor +its helicoid spiral coiling is the immediate cause of the torsion of the +body in the individual, for the direction of the torsion is indicated +in the segmentation of the ovum, in which there is a complete +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page507" id="page507"></a>507</span> +reversal of the cleavage planes in sinistral as compared with dextral +forms. The facts, however, strongly suggest that the original cause +of the torsion was the weight of the exogastric shell and visceral +hump, which in an animal creeping on its ventral surface necessarily +fell over to one side. It is not certain that the projection of the spire +to the originally left side of the shell has anything to do with the +falling over of the shell to that side. The facts do not support such +a suggestion. In the larva there is no projection at the time the +torsion takes place. In some forms the coiling disappears in the +adult, leaving the shell simply conical as in <i>Patellidae</i>, <i>Fissurellidae</i>, +&c., and in some cases the shell is coiled in one plane, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Planorbis</i>. In +all these cases the torsion and asymmetry of the body are unaffected.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:463px; height:254px" src="images/img506c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig 3.</span>—Sketch of a model designed so as to show the effect of +torsion or rotation of the visceral hump in Streptoneurous Gastropoda.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>A, Unrotated ancestral condition.</p> +<p>B, Quarter-rotation.</p> +<p>C, Complete semi-rotation (the limit).</p> +<p><i>an</i>, Anus.</p> +<p><i>ln, rn</i>, Primarily left nephridium and primarily right nephridium.</p> +<p><i>lvg</i>, Primarily left (subsequently the sub-intestinal) visceral ganglion.</p> +<p><i>rvg</i>, Primarily right (subsequently the sub-intestinal) visceral ganglion.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>cerg</i>, Cerebral ganglion.</p> +<p><i>plg</i>, Pleural ganglion.</p> +<p><i>pedg</i>, Pedal ganglion.</p> +<p><i>abg</i>, Abdominal ganglion.</p> +<p><i>bucc</i>, Buccal mass.</p> +<p><i>W</i>, Wooden arc representing the base-line of the wall of the visceral hump.</p> +<p><i>x, x′</i>, Pins fastening the elastic cord (representing the visceral nerve loop) to <i>W</i>.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The characteristic torsion attains its maximum effect among the +majority of the Streptoneura. It is followed in some specialized +Heteropoda and in the Euthyneura by a torsion in the opposite +direction, or detorsion, which brings the anus farther back and untwists +the visceral commissure (see Euthyneura, below). This conclusion +has shown that the Euthyneura do not represent an archaic +form of Gastropoda, but are themselves derived from streptoneurous +forms. The difference between the two sub-classes has been shown +to be slight; certain of the more archaic Tectibranchia (<i>Actaeon</i>) +and Pulmonata (<i>Chilina</i>) still have the visceral commissure long +and not untwisted. The fact that all the Euthyneura are hermaphrodite +is not a fundamental difference; several Streptoneura are so, +likewise <i>Valvata</i>, <i>Oncidiopsis</i>, <i>Marsenina</i>, <i>Odostomia</i>, <i>Bathysciadium</i>, +<i>Entoconcha</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Classification.</i>—The class Gastropoda is subdivided as follows:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2">Sub-class I. Streptoneura.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2">   Order 1. Aspidobranchia.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    Sub-order</td> <td class="tcl">1. Docoglossa.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    ”    </td> <td class="tcl">2. Rhipidoglossa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2">   Order 2. Pectinibranchia.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    Sub-order</td> <td class="tcl">1. Taenioglossa.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    Tribe</td> <td class="tcl">1. Platypoda.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    ”   </td> <td class="tcl">2. Heteropoda.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    Sub-order</td> <td class="tcl">2. Stenoglossa.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    Tribe</td> <td class="tcl">1. Rachiglossa.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    ”   </td> <td class="tcl">2. Toxiglossa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2">Sub-class II. Euthyneura.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2">   Order 1. Opisthobranchia.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    Sub-order</td> <td class="tcl">1. Tectibranchia.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    Tribe</td> <td class="tcl">1. Bullomorpha.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    ”   </td> <td class="tcl">2. Aplysiomorpha.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    ”   </td> <td class="tcl">3. Pleurobranchomorpha.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    Sub-order</td> <td class="tcl">2. Nudibranchia.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    Tribe</td> <td class="tcl">1. Tritoniomorpha.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    ”   </td> <td class="tcl">2. Doridomorpha.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    ”   </td> <td class="tcl">3. Eolidomorpha.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    ”   </td> <td class="tcl">4. Elysiomorpha.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2">   Order 2. Pulmonata.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    Sub-order</td> <td class="tcl">1. Basommatophora.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    ”    </td> <td class="tcl">2. Stylommatophora.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    Tribe</td> <td class="tcl">1. Holognatha.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    ”   </td> <td class="tcl">2. Agnatha.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    ”   </td> <td class="tcl">3. Elasmognatha.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcr">    ”   </td> <td class="tcl">4. Ditremata.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="pt2 center">Sub-Class I.—<span class="sc">Streptoneura</span></p> + +<p>In this division the torsion of the visceral mass and visceral +commissure is at its maximum, the latter being twisted into a +figure of eight. The right half of the commissure with its ganglion +is supra-intestinal, the left half with its ganglion infra-intestinal. +In some cases each pleural ganglion is connected with the opposite +branch of the visceral commissure by anastomosis with the +pallial nerve, a condition which is called dialyneury; or there +may be a direct connective from the pleural ganglion to the +visceral ganglion of the opposite side, which is called zygoneury. +The head bears only one pair of tentacles. The radular teeth are +of several different kinds in each transverse row. The heart is +usually posterior to the branchia (proso-branchiate). The sexes +are usually separate.</p> + +<p>The old division into Zygobranchia and Azygobranchia must +be abandoned, for the Azygobranchiate Rhipidoglossa have +much greater affinity to the Zygobranchiate <i>Haliotidae</i> and +<i>Fissurellidae</i> than to the Azygobranchia in general. This is +shown by the labial commissure and pedal cords of the nervous +system, by the opening of the gonad into the right kidney, and by +other points. Further, the <i>Pleurotomariidae</i> have been discovered +to possess two branchiae. The sub-class is now divided into two +orders: the Aspidobranchia in which the branchia or ctenidium +is bipectinate and attached only at its base, and the Pectinibranchia +in which the ctenidium is monopectinate and attached +to the mantle throughout its length.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:340px; height:429px" src="images/img507a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—The Common Limpet (<i>Patella vulgata</i>) in its shell, seen from +the pedal surface. (Lankester.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>x</i>, <i>y</i>, The median antero-posterior axis.</p> + +<p><i>a</i>, Cephalic tentacle.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, Plantar surface of the foot.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, Free edge of the shell.</p> + +<p><i>d</i>, The branchial efferent vessel carrying aerated blood to the +auricle, and here interrupting the circlet of gill lamellae.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>e</i>, Margin of the mantle-skirt.</p> + +<p><i>f</i>, Gill lamellae (<i>not</i> ctenidia, but special pallial growths, comparable +with those of Pleurophyllidia).</p> + +<p><i>g</i>, The branchial efferent vessel.</p> + +<p><i>h</i>, Factor of the branchial advehent vessel.</p> + +<p><i>i</i>, Interspaces between the muscular bundles of the root of +the foot, causing the separate areae seen in fig. 5, <i>c</i>.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:276px; height:330px" src="images/img507b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Dorsal surface of the +Limpet removed from its shell and deprived of its black pigmented epithelium; +the internal organs are seen through the transparent body-wall. (Lankester.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>c</i>, Muscular bundles forming the root of the foot, and adherent to the shell.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Free mantle-skirt.</p> +<p><i>em</i>, Tentaculiferous margin of the same.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Smaller (left) nephridium.</p> +<p><i>k</i>, Larger (right) nephridium.</p> +<p><i>l</i>, Pericardium.</p> +<p><i>lx</i>, Fibrous septum, behind the pericardium.</p> +<p><i>n</i>, Liver.</p> +<p><i>int</i>, Intestine.</p> +<p><i>ecr</i>, Anterior area of the mantle-skirt over-hanging the head (cephalic hood).</p></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2">Order I. <span class="sc">Aspidobranchia.</span>—These are the most primitive Gastropods, +retaining to a great degree the original symmetry of the +organs of the pallial complex, having two kidneys, in some cases +two branchiae, and two auricles. The gonad has no accessory +organs and except in <i>Neritidae</i> +no duct, but discharges +into the right kidney.</p> + +<p>Forms adapted to terrestrial +life and to aerial respiration +occur in various +divisions of Gastropods, and +do not constitute a single +homogeneous group. Thus +the <i>Helicinidae</i>, which are +terrestrial, are now placed +among the Aspidobranchia. +In these there are neither +branchia nor osphradium, +and the pallial chamber +which retains its large opening +serves as a lung. Degeneration +of the shell +occurs in some members of +the order. It is largely +covered by the mantle in +some <i>Fissurellidae</i>, is entirely +internal in <i>Pupilia</i> +and absent in <i>Titiscaniidae</i>.</p> + +<p>The common limpet is a +specially interesting and +abundant example of the +more primitive Aspidobranchia. +The foot of the +limpet is a nearly circular +disk of muscular tissue; in +front, projecting from and +raised above it, are the head +and neck (figs. 4, 13). The +visceral hump forms a low +conical dome above the sub-circular +foot, and standing +out all round the base of this +dome so as completely to +overlap the head and foot, +is the circular mantle-skirt. +The depth of free mantle-skirt +is greatest in front, where the head and neck are covered +in by it. Upon the surface of the visceral dome, and extending +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508"></a>508</span> +to the edge of the free mantle-skirt, is the conical shell. When +the shell is taken away (best effected by immersion in hot +water) the surface of the visceral dome is found to be covered by a +black-coloured epithelium, which may be removed, enabling the +observer to note the position +of some organs lying +below the transparent integument +(fig. 5). The +muscular columns (<i>c</i>) attaching +the foot to the +shell form a ring incomplete +in front, external to +which is the free mantle-skirt. +The limits of the +large area formed by the +flap over the head and +neck (<i>ecr</i>) can be traced, +and we note the anal +papilla showing through +and opening on the right +shoulder, so to speak, of +the animal into the large +anterior region of the +sub-pallial space. Close +to this the small renal +organ (<i>i</i>, mediad) and the +larger renal organ (<i>k</i>, to +the right and posteriorly) +are seen, also the pericardium +(<i>l</i>) and a coil of +the intestine (<i>int</i>) embedded +in the compact +liver.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:289px; height:227px" src="images/img508a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—Anterior portion of the same +Limpet, with the overhanging cephalic +hood removed. (Lankester.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a</i>, Cephalic tentacle.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Foot.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Muscular substance forming the root of the foot.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, The capito-pedal organs of Lankester (= rudimentary ctenidia).</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Mantle-skirt.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Papilla of the larger nephridium.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Anus.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>h</i>, Papilla of the smaller nephridium.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Smaller nephridium.</p> +<p><i>k</i>, Larger nephridium.</p> +<p><i>l</i>, Pericardium.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Cut edge of the mantle-skirt.</p> +<p><i>n</i>, Liver.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Snout.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:303px; height:263px" src="images/img508b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 7.—The same specimen viewed +from the left front, so as to show the sub-anal tract (<i>ff</i>) of the larger nephridium, +by which it communicates with the pericardium. <i>o</i>, Mouth; other letters as in fig. 6.</td></tr></table> + +<p>On cutting away the +anterior part of the +mantle-skirt so as to +expose the sub-pallial +chamber in the region +of the neck, we find the +right and left renal papillae (discovered by Lankester in 1867) on +either side of the anal papilla (fig. 6), but no gills. If a similar +examination be made of the allied genus <i>Fissurella</i> (fig. 17, <i>d</i>), we +find right and left of the two renal apertures a right and left gill-plume +or ctenidium, which here as in <i>Haliotis</i> and <i>Pleurotomaria</i> +retain their original paired condition. In <i>Patella</i> no such plumes +exist, but right and left of the neck are seen a pair of minute oblong +yellow bodies (fig. 6, <i>d</i>), which were originally described by Lankester +as orifices possibly connected with the evacuation of the generative +products. On account of their position they were termed by him +the “capito-pedal orifices,” being placed near the junction of head +and foot. J.W. Spengel has, however, in a most ingenious way +shown that these bodies are the representatives of the typical pair +of ctenidia, here reduced to a mere rudiment. Near to each rudimentary +ctenidium Spengel has discovered an olfactory patch or +osphradium (consisting of modified epithelium) and an olfactory +nerve-ganglion (fig. 8). It will be remembered that, according to +Spengel, the osphradium of mollusca is definitely and intimately +related to the gill-plume or ctenidium, being always placed near the +base of that organ; further, +Spengel has shown +that the nerve-supply of +this olfactory organ is +always derived from the +visceral loop. Accordingly, +the nerve-supply +affords a means of testing +the conclusion that +we have in Lankester’s +capito-pedal bodies the +rudimentary ctenidia. +The accompanying diagrams +(figs. 9, 10) of +the nervous systems of +<i>Patella</i> and of <i>Haliotis</i>, +as determined by +Spengel, show the identity +in the origin of the +nerves passing from the +visceral loop to Spengel’s +olfactory ganglion of the +Limpet, and that of the +nerves which pass from +the visceral loop of <i>Haliotis</i> to the olfactory patch or osphradium, +which lies in immediate relation on the right and on the left side +to the right and left gill-plumes (ctenidia) respectively. The same +diagrams serve to demonstrate the streptoneurous condition of the +visceral loop in Aspidobranchia.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:370px; height:420px" src="images/img508c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—A, Section in a plane vertical to the surface of the neck +of <i>Patella</i> through <i>a</i>, the rudimentary ctenidium (Lankester’s organ), +and <i>b</i>, the olfactory epithelium (osphradium); <i>c</i>, the olfactory +(osphradial) ganglion. (After Spengel.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><br />B, Surface view of a rudimentary ctenidium of <i>Patella</i> excised +and viewed as a transparent object. (Lankester.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:182px; height:333px" src="images/img508d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—Nervous system +of <i>Patella</i>; the visceral loop is lightly shaded; the buccal ganglia are omitted. (After Spengel.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><i>ce</i>, Cerebral ganglia.</p> +<p><i>c’e</i>, Cerebral commissure.</p> +<p><i>pl</i>, Pleural ganglion.</p> +<p><i>pe</i>, Pedal ganglion.</p> +<p><i>p′e</i>, Pedal nerve.</p> +<p><i>s</i>, <i>s′</i>, Nerves (right and left) to the mantle.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, Olfactory ganglion, connected by nerve to the streptoneurous visceral loop.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Thus, then, we find that the limpet possesses a symmetrically +disposed pair of ctenidia in a rudimentary condition, and justifies +its position among Aspidobranchia. At the same time it possesses +a totally distinct series of <i>functional</i> gills, which are not derived +from the modification of the typical molluscan ctenidium. These gills +are in the form of delicate lamellae (fig. 4, <i>f</i>), which form a series +extending completely round the inner face of the depending mantle-skirt. +This circlet of gill-lamellae led Cuvier to class the limpets +as Cyclobranchiata, and, by erroneous identification of them with +the series of metamerically repeated ctenidia of <i>Chiton</i>, to associate +the latter mollusc with the former. The gill-lamellae of <i>Patella</i> are +processes of the mantle comparable with the plait-like folds often +observed on the roof of the branchial chamber in other Gastropoda +(<i>e.g.</i> <i>Buccinum</i> and <i>Haliotis</i>). They are +termed pallial gills. The only other molluscs +in which they are exactly represented +are the curious Opisthobranchs +<i>Phyllidia</i> and <i>Pleurophyllidia</i> (fig. 55). +In these, as in <i>Patella</i>, the typical ctenidia +are aborted, and the branchial function is +assumed by close-set lamelliform processes +arranged in a series beneath the +mantle-skirt on either side of the foot. In +fig. 4, <i>d</i>, the large branchial vein of <i>Patella</i> +bringing blood from the gill-series to the +heart is seen; where it crosses the series +of lamellae there is a short interval devoid +of lamellae.</p> + +<p>The heart in <i>Patella</i> consists of a single +auricle (not two as in <i>Haliotis</i> and +<i>Fissurella</i>) and a ventricle; the former +receives the blood from the branchial +vein, the latter distributes it through a +large aorta which soon leads into irregular +blood-lacunae.</p> + +<p>The existence of two renal organs in +<i>Patella</i>, and their relation to the pericardium +(a portion of the coelom), is +important. Each renal organ is a sac +lined with glandular epithelium (ciliated +cell, with concretions) communicating +with the exterior by its papilla, and by +a narrow passage with the pericardium. +The connexion with the pericardium of +the smaller of the two renal organs was +demonstrated by Lankester in 1867, at a +time when the fact that the renal organ +of the Mollusca, as a rule, opens into the +pericardium, and is therefore a typical +nephridium, was not known. Subsequent +investigations carried on under the direction +of the same naturalist have shown +that the larger as well as the smaller renal +sac is in communication with the pericardium. The walls of the renal +sacs are deeply plaited and thrown into ridges. Below the surface these +walls are excavated with blood-vessels, so that the sac is practically +a series of blood-vessels covered with renal epithelium, and forming +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page509" id="page509"></a>509</span> +a meshwork within a space communicating with the exterior. The +larger renal sac (remarkably enough, that which is aborted in other +Anisopleura) extends between the liver and the integument of the +visceral dome very widely. It also bends round the liver as shown +in fig. 12, and forms a large sac on half of the upper surface of the +muscular mass of the foot. Here it lies close upon the genital body +(ovary or testis), and in such intimate relationship with it that, +when ripe, the gonad bursts into the renal sac, and its products are +carried to the exterior by the papilla on the right side of the anus +(Robin, Dall). This fact led Cuvier erroneously to the belief that a +duct existed leading from the gonad to this papilla. The position +of the gonad, best seen in the diagrammatic section (fig. 13), is, as +in other Aspidobranchia, devoid of a special duct communicating +with the exterior. This condition, probably an archaic one, distinguishes +the Aspidobranchia from other Gastropoda.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:330px; height:465px" src="images/img509a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 10.—Nervous system of <i>Haliotis</i>; the visceral loop is lightly +shaded; the buccal ganglia are omitted. (After Spengel.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>ce</i>, Cerebral ganglion.</p> +<p><i>pl.pe</i>, The fused pleural and pedal ganglia.</p> +<p><i>pe</i>, The right pedal nerve.</p> +<p><i>ce.pl</i>, The cerebro-pleural connective.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>ce.pe</i>, The cerebro-pedal connective.</p> +<p><i>s</i>, <i>s′</i>, Right and left mantle nerves.</p> +<p><i>ab</i>, Abdominal ganglion or site of same.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, <i>o</i>, Right and left olfactory ganglia and osphardia receiving nerve from visceral loop.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"><tr><td> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:265px; height:493px" src="images/img509b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> <span class="sc">Fig</span>. 11.—Nervous system of +<i>Fissurella</i>. (From Gegenbaur, after Jhering.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>pl</i>, Pallial nerve.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Pedal nerve.</p> +<p><i>A</i>, Abdominal ganglia in the streptoneurous visceral commissure, with supra- and sub-intestine +ganglion on each side.</p> +<p><i>B</i>, Buccal ganglia.</p> +<p><i>C</i>, <i>C</i>, Cerebral ganglia.</p> +<p><i>es</i>, Cerebral commissure.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, Otocysts attached to the cerebro-pedal connectives.</p></td></tr></table> +</td> + +<td> +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:236px; height:270px" src="images/img509c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 12.—Diagram of the two +renal organs (nephridia), to show their relation to the rectum and +to the pericardium. (Lankester.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>f</i>, Papilla of the larger nephridium.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Anal papilla with rectum leading from it.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Papilla of the smaller nephridium, which is only represented by dotted outlines.</p> +<p><i>l</i>, Pericardium indicated by a dotted outline—at its right +side are seen the two reno-pericardial pores.</p> +<p><i>ff</i>, The sub-anal tract of the large nephridium given off near its +papilla and seen through the unshaded smaller nephridium.</p> +<p><i>ks.a</i>, Anterior superior lobe of the large nephridium.</p> +<p><i>ks.l</i>, Left lobe of same.</p> +<p><i>ks.p</i>, Posterior lobe of same.</p> +<p><i>ks.i</i>, Inferior sub-visceral lobe of same.</p></td></tr></table> + +</td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:445px; height:258px" src="images/img509d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—Diagram of a vertical antero-postero median section +of a Limpet. Letters as in figs. 6, 7, with following additions. +(Lankester.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>q</i>, Intestine in transverse section.</p> +<p><i>r</i>, Lingual sac (radular sac).</p> +<p><i>rd</i>, Radula.</p> +<p><i>s</i>, Lamellated stomach.</p> +<p><i>t</i>, Salivary gland.</p> +<p><i>u</i>, Duct of same.</p> +<p><i>v</i>, Buccal cavity</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>w</i>, Gonad.</p> +<p><i>br.a</i>, Branchial advehent vessel (artery).</p> +<p><i>br.v</i>, Branchial efferent vessel (vein).</p> +<p><i>bv</i>, Blood-vessel.</p> +<p><i>odm</i>, Muscles and cartilage of the odontophore.</p> +<p><i>cor</i>, Heart within the pericardium.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:450px; height:219px" src="images/img509e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>—Vertical section in a plane running right and left through +the anterior part of the visceral hump of <i>Patella</i> to show the two renal +organs and their openings into the pericardium. (J.T. Cunningham.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Large or external or right renal organ.</p> +<p><i>ab</i>, Narrow process of the same running <i>below</i> the intestine and leading by <i>k</i> into the pericardium.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Small or median renal organ.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Pericardium.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Rectum.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Liver.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>f</i>, Manyplies.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Epithelium of the dorsal surface.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Renal epithelium lining the renal sacs.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Aperture connecting the small sac with the pericardium.</p> +<p><i>k</i>, Aperture connecting the large sac with the pericardium.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The digestive tract of <i>Patella</i> offers some interesting features. +The odontophore is powerfully developed; the radular sac is extraordinarily +long, lying coiled in a space between the mass of the liver +and the muscular foot. The radula has 160 rows of teeth with twelve +teeth in each row. Two pairs of salivary ducts, each leading from a +salivary gland, open into the buccal chamber. The oesophagus leads +into a remarkable stomach, plaited like the manyplies of a sheep, +and after this the intestine takes a very large number of turns embedded +in the yellow liver, until at last it passes between the +two renal sacs to the anal papilla. A curious ridge (spiral? valve) +which secretes a slimy cord is found upon the inner wall of the intestine. +The general structure of the Molluscan intestine has not been +sufficiently investigated to render any comparison of this structure +of <i>Patella</i> with that of other Mollusca possible. The eyes of the +limpet deserve mention as examples of the most primitive kind of +eye in the Molluscan series. They are found one on each cephalic +tentacle, and are simply minute open pits or depressions of the +epidermis, the epidermic cells lining them being pigmented and +connected with nerves (compare fig. 14, art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cephalopoda</a></span>). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page510" id="page510"></a>510</span> +The limpet breeds upon the southern English coast in the early +part of April, but its development has not been followed. It has +simply been traced as far as the formation of a diblastula which +acquires a ciliated band, and becomes a nearly spherical trochosphere. +It is probable that the limpet takes several years to attain full +growth, and during that period it frequents the same spot, which +becomes gradually sunk below the surrounding surface, especially +if the rock be carbonate of lime. At low tide the limpet (being a +strictly intertidal organism) is exposed to the air, and (according to +trustworthy observers) quits its attachment and walks away in +search of food (minute encrusting algae), and then once more returns +to the identical spot, not an inch in diameter, which belongs, as it +were, to it. Several million limpets—twelve million in Berwickshire +alone—are annually used on the east coast of Britain as bait.</p> + +<p>Sub-order 1. <i>Docoglossa.</i>—Nervous system without dialyneury. +Eyes are open invaginations without crystalline lens. Two osphradia +present but no hypobranchial glands nor operculum. Teeth of radula +beam-like, and at most three marginal teeth on each side. Heart +has only a single auricle, neither heart nor pericardium traversed +by rectum. Shell conical without spire.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1.—<i>Acmaeidae.</i> A single bipectinate ctenidium on left side. +Acmaea, without pallial branchiae, British. Scurria, with +pallial branchiae in a circle beneath the mantle.</p> + +<p>Fam. 2.—<i>Tryblidiidae.</i> Muscle scar divided into numerous +impressions. <i>Tryblidium</i>, Silurian.</p> + +<p>Fam. 3.—<i>Patellidae</i>. No ctenidia but pallial branchiae in a circle +between mantle and foot. <i>Patella</i>, pallial branchiae forming +a complete circle, no epipodial tentacles, British. <i>Ancistromesus</i>, +radula with median central tooth. <i>Nacella</i>, epipodial +tentacles present. <i>Helcion</i>, circlet of branchiae interrupted +anteriorly, British.</p> + +<p>Fam. 4.—<i>Lepetidae.</i> Neither ctenidia nor pallial branchiae. +<i>Lepeta</i>, without eyes. <i>Pilidium.</i> <i>Propilidium.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 5.—<i>Bathysciadidae.</i> Hermaphrodite; head with appendage +on right side; radula without central tooth. <i>Bathysciadium</i>, +abyssal.</p> +</div> + +<p>Sub-order 2. <span class="sc">Rhipidoglossa.</span>—Aspidobranchia with a palliovisceral +anastomosis (dialyneurous); eye-vesicle closed, with +crystalline lens; ctenidia, osphradia and hypobranchial glands +paired or single. Radula with very numerous marginal teeth arranged +like the rays of a fan. Heart with two auricles; ventricle +traversed by the rectum, except in the <i>Helicinidae</i>. An epipodial +ridge on each side of the foot and cephalic expansions between the +tentacles often present.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1.—<i>Pleurotomariidae</i>. Shell spiral; mantle and shell with +an anterior fissure; two ctenidia; a horny operculum. <i>Pleurotomaria</i>, +epipodium without tentacles. Genus includes several +hundred extinct species ranging from the Silurian to the Tertiary. +Five living species from the Antilles, Japan and the +Moluccas. Moluccan species is 19 cm. in height.</p> + +<p>Fam. 2.—<i>Bellerophontidae.</i> 300 species, all fossil, from Cambrian +to Trias.</p> + +<p>Fam. 3.—<i>Euomphalidae.</i> Also extinct, from Cambrian to Cretaceous.</p> + +<p>Fam. 4.—<i>Haliotidae.</i> Spire of shell much reduced; two bipectinate +ctenidia, the right being the smaller; no operculum. +Haliotis.</p> + +<p>Fam. 5.—<i>Velainiellidae</i>, an extinct family from the Eocene.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:446px; height:256px" src="images/img510a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—<i>Halio tistuberculata.</i> <i>d</i>, Foot; <i>i</i>, tentacular processes +of the mantle. (From Owen, after Cuvier.)</td></tr></table> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 6.—<i>Fissurellidae.</i> Shell conical; slit or hole in anterior +part of mantle; two symmetrical ctenidia; no operculum. +<i>Emarginula</i>, mantle and shell with a slit, British. <i>Scutum</i>, +mantle split anteriorly and reflected over shell, which has no +slit. <i>Puncturella</i>, mantle and shell with a foramen in front of +the apex, British. <i>Fissurella</i>, mantle and shell perforated at +apex, British.</p> + +<p>Fam. 7.—<i>Cocculinidae.</i> Shell conical, symmetrical, without slit +or perforation. <i>Cocculina</i>, abyssal.</p> + +<p>Fam. 8.—<i>Trochidae.</i> Shell spirally coiled; a single ctenidium; +eyes perforated; a horny operculum; lobes between the +tentacles. <i>Trochus</i>, shell umbilicated, spire pointed and prominent, +British. <i>Monodonta</i>, no jaws, spire not prominent, +no umbilicus, columella toothed. <i>Gibbula</i>, with jaws, three +pairs of epipodial cirri without pigment spots at their bases, +British. <i>Margarita</i>, five to seven pairs of epipodial cirri with a +pigment spot at base of each.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"><tr><td> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:175px; height:394px" src="images/img510b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>—<i>Scutum</i>, +seen from the pedal surface. (Lankester.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>o</i>, Mouth.</p> +<p><i>T</i>, Cephalic tentacle.</p> +<p><i>br</i>, One of the two symmetrical gills placed on the neck.</p></td></tr></table></td> + +<td> +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:223px; height:316px" src="images/img510c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>—Dorsal aspect of a specimen of <i>Fissurella</i> from +which the shell has been removed, whilst the anterior area of the mantle-skirt has +been longitudinally slit and its sides reflected. (Lankester.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>a</i>, Cephalic tentacle.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Foot.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Left (archaic right) gill-plume.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Reflected mantle-flap.</p> +<p><i>fi</i>, The fissure or hole in the mantle-flap traversed by the longitudinal incision.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Right (archaic left) nephridium’s aperture.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Anus.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Left (archaic right) aperture of nephridium.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Snout.</p></td></tr></table> +</td></tr></table> + +<div class="list"> +<p class="pt2">Fam. 9.—<i>Stomatellidae.</i> Spire of shell much reduced; a single +ctenidium. <i>Stomatella</i>, foot truncated posteriorly, an operculum +present, no epipodial tentacles. <i>Gena</i>, foot elongated +posteriorly, no operculum.</p> + +<p>Fam. 10.—<i>Delphinulidae.</i> Shell spirally coiled; operculum +horny; intertentacular lobes absent. <i>Delphinula.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 11.—<i>Liotiidae</i>, shell globular, margin of aperture thickened. +<i>Liotia</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 12.—<i>Cyclostrematidae.</i> Shell flattened, umbilicated; foot +anteriorly truncated with angles produced into lobes. <i>Cyclostrema.</i> +<i>Teinostoma.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 13.—<i>Trochonematidae.</i> All extinct, Cambrian to Cretaceous.</p> + +<p>Fam. 14.—<i>Turbinidae.</i> Shell spirally coiled; epipodial tentacles +present; operculum thick and calcareous. <i>Turbo.</i> <i>Astralium.</i> +<i>Molleria.</i> <i>Cyclonema.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 15.—<i>Phasianellidae.</i> Shell not nacreous, without umbilicus, +with prominent spire and polished surface. <i>Phasianella.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 16.—<i>Umboniidae.</i> Shell flattened, not umbilicated, generally +smooth; operculum horny. <i>Umbonium.</i> <i>Isanda.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 17.—<i>Neritopsidae.</i> Shell semi-globular, with short spire; +operculum calcareous, not spiral. <i>Neritopsis.</i> <i>Naticopsis</i>, extinct.</p> + +<p>Fam. 18.—<i>Macluritidae.</i> Extinct, Cambrian and Silurian.</p> + +<p>Fam. 19.—<i>Neritidae.</i> Shell with very low spire, without umbilicus, +internal partitions frequently absorbed; a single +ctenidium; a cephalic penis present. <i>Nerita</i>, marine. <i>Neritina</i>, +freshwater, British. <i>Septaria</i>, shell boat-shaped.</p> + +<p>Fam. 20.—<i>Titiscaniidae.</i> Without shell and operculum, but +with pallial cavity and ctenidium. <i>Titiscania</i>, Pacific.</p> + +<p>Fam. 21.—<i>Helicinidae.</i> No ctenidium, but a pulmonary cavity; +heart with a single auricle, not traversed by the rectum. <i>Helicina.</i> +<i>Eutrochatella.</i> <i>Stoastoma.</i> <i>Bourceria.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 22.—<i>Hydrocenidae.</i> No ctenidium, but a pulmonary +cavity; operculum with an apophysis. <i>Hydrocena</i>, Dalmatia.</p> + +<p>Fam. 23.—<i>Proserpinidae.</i> No operculum. <i>Proserpina</i>, Central +America.</p> +</div> + +<p>Order 2. <span class="sc">Pectinibranchia.</span>—In this order there is no longer any +trace of bilateral symmetry in the circulatory, respiratory and +excretory organs, the topographically right half of the pallial complex +having completely disappeared, except the right kidney, which is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page511" id="page511"></a>511</span> +represented by the genital duct. There is usually a penis in the male. +The ctenidium is monopectinate and attached to the mantle along +its whole length, except in <i>Adeorbis</i> and <i>Valvata</i>; in the latter alone +it is bipectinate. There is a single well-developed, often pectinated +osphradium. The eye is always a closed vesicle, and the internal +cornea is extensive. In the radula there is a single central tooth or +none.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:663px; height:365px" src="images/img511a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.—Animal and shell of <i>Pyrula laevigata</i>. (From Owen.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Siphon.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Head-tentacles.</p> +<p><i>C</i>, Head, the letter placed near the right eye.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>d</i>, The foot, expanded as in crawling.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, The mantle-skirt reflected over the sides of the shell.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The former classification into Holochlamyda, Pneumochlamyda +and Siphonochlamyda has been abandoned, as it was founded on +adaptive characters not always indicative of true affinities. The +order is now divided into two sub-orders: the Taenioglossa, in +which there are three teeth on each side of the median tooth of the +radula, and the Stenoglossa, in which there is only one tooth on each +side of the median tooth. In the latter a pallial siphon, a well-developed +proboscis and an unpaired oesophageal gland are always +present, in the former they are usually absent. The siphon is an +incompletely tubular outgrowth of the mantle margin on the left +side, contained in a corresponding outgrowth of the edge of the +shell-mouth, and serving to conduct water to the respiratory cavity.</p> + +<p>The condition usually spoken of as a “proboscis” appears to be +derived from the condition of a simple rostrum (having the mouth +at its extremity) by the process of <i>incomplete introversion</i> of that +simple rostrum. There is no reason in the actual significance of +the word why the term “proboscis” should be applied to an alternately +introversible and eversible tube connected with an animal’s +body, and yet such is a very customary use of the term. The introversible +tube may be completely closed, as in the “proboscis” of +Nemertine worms, or it may have a passage in it leading into a +non-eversible oesophagus, as in the present case, and in the case of +the eversible pharynx of the predatory Chaetopod worms. The +diagrams here introduced (fig. 19) are intended to show certain +important distinctions which obtain amongst the various “introverts,” +or intro- and e-versible tubes so frequently met with in animal +bodies. Supposing the tube to be completely introverted and to +commence its eversion, we then find that eversion may take place, +either by a forward movement of the side of the tube near its attached +base, as in the proboscis of the Nemertine worms, the pharynx +of Chaetopods and the eye-tentacle of Gastropods, or by a forward +movement of the inverted apex of the tube, as in the proboscis of +the Rhabdocoel Planarians, and in that of Gastropods here under +consideration. The former case we call “pleurecbolic” (fig. 19, +A, B, C, H, I, K), the latter “acrecbolic” tubes or introverts (fig. +19, D, E, F, G). It is clear that, if we start from the condition of +full eversion of the tube and watch the process of introversion, we +shall find that the pleurecbolic variety is introverted by the apex +of the tube sinking inwards; it may be called acrembolic, whilst +conversely the acrecbolic tubes are pleurembolic. Further, it is +obvious enough that the process either of introversion or of eversion +of the tube may be arrested at any point, by the development of +fibres connecting the wall of the introverted tube with the wall of +the body, or with an axial structure such as the oesophagus; on +the other hand, the range of movement of the tubular introvert may +be unlimited or complete. The acrembolic proboscis or frontal +introvert of the Nemertine worms has a complete range. So has the +acrembolic pharynx of Chaetopods, if we consider the organ as terminating +at that point where the jaws are placed and the oesophagus +commences. So too the acrembolic eye-tentacle of the snail has a +complete range of movement, and also the pleurembolic proboscis of +the Rhabdocoel prostoma. The introverted rostrum of the Pectinibranch +Gastropods presents in contrast to these a limited range of +movement. The “introvert” in these Gastropods is not the pharynx +as in the Chaetopod worms, but a prae-oral structure, its apical +limit being formed by the true lips and jaws, +whilst the apical limit of the Chaetopod’s +introvert is formed by the jaws placed at the +junction of pharynx and oesophagus, so that +the Chaetopod’s introvert is part of the stomodaeum +or fore-gut, whilst that of the Gastropod +is external to the alimentary canal altogether, +being in front of the mouth, not behind it, as +is the Chaetopod’s. Further, the Gastropod’s +introvert is pleurembolic (and therefore acrecbolic), +and is limited both in eversion and in +introversion; it cannot be completely everted +owing to the muscular bands (fig. 19, G), nor +can it be fully introverted owing to the bands +(fig. 19, F) which tie the axial pharynx to the +adjacent wall of the apical part of the introvert. +As in all such intro- and e-versible +organs, eversion of the Gastropod proboscis is +effected by pressure communicated by the +muscular body-wall to the liquid contents +(blood) of the body-space, accompanied by +the relaxation of the muscles which directly +pull upon either the sides or the apex of the +tubular organ. The inversion of the proboscis +is effected directly by the contraction of these +muscles. In various members of the Pectinibranchia +the mouth-bearing cylinder is introversible +(<i>i.e.</i> is a <i>proboscis</i>)—with rare +exceptions these forms have a siphonate +mantle-skirt. On the other hand, many which have a siphonate +mantle-skirt are not provided with an introversible mouth-bearing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page512" id="page512"></a>512</span> +cylinder, but have a simple non-introversible rostrum, as it +has been termed, which is also the condition presented by the +mouth-bearing region in nearly all other Gastropoda. One of +the best examples of the introversible mouth-cylinder or proboscis +which can be found is that of the common whelk (<i>Buccinum +undatum</i>) and its immediate allies. In fig. 23 the proboscis is +seen in an everted state; it is only so carried when feeding, being +withdrawn when the animal is at rest. Probably its use is to enable +the animal to introduce its rasping and licking apparatus into very +narrow apertures for the purposes of feeding, <i>e.g.</i> into a small hole +bored in the shell of another mollusc.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:435px; height:556px" src="images/img511b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>—Diagrams explanatory of the nature of so-called +proboscides or “introverts.” (Lankester.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>A, Simple introvert completely introverted.</p> + +<p>B, The same, partially everted by eversion of the sides, as in the +Nemertine proboscis and Gastropod eye-tentacle = pleurecbolic.</p> + +<p>C, The same, fully everted.</p> + +<p>D, E, A similar simple introvert in course of eversion by the forward +movement, not of its sides, but of its apex, as in the proboscidean +Rhabdocoels = acrecbolic.</p> + +<p>F, Acrecbolic (= pleurembolic) introvert, formed by the snout of +the proboscidiferous Gastropod. <i>al</i>, alimentary canal; <i>d</i>, the true +mouth. The introvert is not a simple one with complete range both +in eversion and introversion, but is arrested in introversion by the +fibrous bands at <i>c</i>, and similarly in eversion by the fibrous bands at <i>b</i>.</p> + +<p>G, The acrecbolic snout of a proboscidiferous Gastropod, arrested +short of complete eversion by the fibrous band <i>b</i>.</p> + +<p>H, The acrembolic (= pleurecbolic) pharynx of a Chaetopod fully +introverted. <i>al</i>, alimentary canal; at <i>d</i>, the jaws; at a, the mouth; +therefore <i>a</i> to <i>d</i> is stomodaeum, whereas in the Gastropod (F) <i>a</i> to <i>d</i> +is inverted body-surface.</p> + +<p>I, Partial eversion of H.</p> + +<p>K, Complete eversion of H.</p> + +<p class="pt1"> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"><tr><td> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:277px; height:412px" src="images/img512a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.—Male of <i>Littorina littoralis</i>, +Lin., removed from its shell; the mantle-skirt cut along its right line of +attachment and thrown over to the left side of the animal so as to expose +the organs on its inner face.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>a</i>, Anus.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Intestine.</p> +<p><i>r</i>, Nephridium (kidney).</p> +<p><i>r′</i>, Aperture of the nephridium.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Heart.</p> +<p><i>br</i>, Ctenidium (gill-plume).</p> +<p><i>pbr</i>, Parabranchia (= the osphradium or olfactory patch).</p> +<p><i>x</i>, Glandular lamellae of the inner face of the mantle-skirt.</p> +<p><i>y</i>, Adrectal (purpuriparous) gland.</p> +<p><i>t</i>, Testis.</p> +<p><i>vd</i>, Vas deferens.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Penis.</p> +<p><i>mc</i>, Columella muscle (muscular process grasping the shell).</p> +<p><i>v</i>, Stomach.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Liver.</p> +<p><i>N.B.</i>—Note the simple snout or rostrum not introverted as a “proboscis.”</p></td></tr></table> +</td> + +<td> +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:162px; height:312px" src="images/img512b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 21.—Nervous system of <i>Paludina</i> +as a type of the streptoneurous condition. (From Gegenbaur, after Jhering.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>B</i>, Buccal (suboesophageal) ganglion.</p> +<p><i>C</i>, Cerebral ganglion.</p> +<p><i>Co</i>, Pleural ganglion.</p> +<p><i>P</i>, Pedal ganglion with otocyst attached.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Pedal nerve.</p> +<p><i>A</i>, Abdominal ganglion at the extremity of the twisted visceral “loop.”</p> +<p><i>sp</i>, Supra-intestinal visceral ganglion on the course of the right visceral cord.</p> +<p><i>sb</i>, Sub-intestinal ganglion on the course of the left visceral cord.</p></td></tr></table> +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The very large assemblage of forms coming under this order comprises +the most highly developed predaceous sea-snails, numerous +vegetarian species, a considerable number of freshwater and some +terrestrial forms. The partial dissection of a male specimen of the +common periwinkle, <i>Littorina littoralis</i>, drawn in fig. 20, will serve +to exhibit the disposition of viscera which prevails in the group. +The branchial chamber formed by the mantle-skirt overhanging +the head has been exposed by cutting along a line extending backward +from the letters vd to the base of the columella muscle mc, and +the whole roof of the chamber thus detached from the right side of +the animal’s neck has been thrown over to the left, showing the +organs which lie upon the roof. No opening into the body-cavity +has been made; the organs which lie in the coiled visceral hump +show through its transparent walls. The head is seen in front +resting on the foot and carrying a median non-retractile snout or +rostrum, and a pair of cephalic tentacles at the base of each of which +is an eye. In many Gastropoda the eyes are not thus sessile but +raised upon special eye-tentacles (figs. 25, 56). To the right of the +head is seen the muscular penis <i>p</i>, close to the termination of the vas +deferens (spermatic duct) <i>vd</i>. The testis <i>t</i> occupies a median +position in the coiled visceral mass. Behind the penis on the same +side is the hook-like columella muscle, a development of the retractor +muscle of the foot, which clings to the spiral column or columella of +the shell (see fig. 33). This columella muscle is the same thing as the +muscles adhering to the shell in <i>Patella</i>, and the posterior adductor of +Lamellibranchs.</p> + +<p>The surface of the neck is covered by integument forming the +floor of the branchial cavity. It has not been cut into. Of the +organs lying on the reflected mantle-skirt, that which in the natural +state lay nearest to the vas deferens on the right side of the median +line of the roof of the branchial chamber is the rectum <i>i′</i>, ending in +the anus <i>a</i>. It can be traced back to the intestine <i>i</i> near the surface +of the visceral hump, and it is found that the apex of the coil formed +by the hump is occupied by the liver <i>h</i> and the stomach <i>v</i>. Pharynx +and oesophagus are concealed in the head. The enlarged glandular +structure of the walls of the rectum is frequent in the Pectinibranchia, +as is also though not universal the gland marked <i>y</i>, next +to the rectum. It is the adrectal gland, and in the genera <i>Murex</i> +and <i>Purpura</i> secretes a colourless liquid which turns purple upon +exposure to the atmosphere, and was used by the ancients as a dye. +Near this and less advanced into the branchial chamber is the single +renal organ or nephridium <i>r</i> with its opening to the exterior <i>r′</i>. +Internally this glandular sac presents a second slit or aperture which +leads into the pericardium (as is now found to be the case in all +Mollusca). The heart <i>c</i> lying in the pericardium is seen in close +proximity to the renal organ, and consists of a single auricle receiving +blood from the gill, and of a single ventricle which pumps it +through the body by an anterior and posterior aorta. The surface +<i>x</i> of the mantle between the rectum and the gill-plume is thrown into +folds which in many sea-snails (whelks or <i>Buccinidae</i>, &c.) are very +strongly developed. The whole of this surface appears to be active +in the secretion of a mucous-like substance. The single gill-plume +<i>br</i> lies to the left of the median line in natural position. It corresponds +to the right of the two primitive ctenidia in the untwisted +archaic condition of the molluscan body, and does not project freely +into the branchial cavity, but its axis is attached (by concrescence) +to the mantle-skirt (roof of the branchial chamber). It is rare for +the gill-plume of a Pectinibranch Gastropod to stand out freely +as a plume, but occasionally this more archaic condition is exhibited +as in <i>Valvata</i> (fig. 30). Next beyond (to the left of) the gill-plume +we find the so-called parabranchia, which is here simple, but sometimes +lamellated as in <i>Purpura</i> (fig. 22). This organ has, without +reason, been supposed to represent the second ctenidium of the +typical mollusc, which it cannot do on account of its position. It +should be to the right of the anus were this the case. Spengel showed +that the parabranchia of Gastropods is the typical olfactory organ +or osphradium in a highly developed condition. The minute structure +of the epithelium which clothes it, as well as the origin of the +nerve which is distributed to the parabranchia, +proves it to be the same organ +which is found universally in molluscs at +the base of each gill-plume, and tests the +indrawn current of water by the sense of +smell. The nerve to this organ is given +off from the superior (original right, see +fig. 3) visceral ganglion.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:188px; height:211px" src="images/img512c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>—Female of +<i>Purpura lapillus</i> removed from its shell; the mantle-skirt cut along its +left line of attachment and thrown over to the right side of the animal +so as to expose the organs on its inner face.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>a</i>, Anus.</p> +<p><i>vg</i>, Vagina.</p> +<p><i>gp</i>, Adrectal purpuriparous gland.</p> +<p><i>r′</i>, Aperture of the nephridium (kidney).</p> +<p><i>br</i>, Ctenidium (branchial plume).</p> +<p><i>br′</i>, Parabranchia (= the comb-like osphradium or olfactory organ).</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The figures which are given here of +various Pectinibranchia are in most cases +sufficiently explained by the references +attached to them. As an excellent general +type of the nervous system, attention +may be directed to that of <i>Paludina</i> +drawn in fig. 21. On the whole the +ganglia are strongly individualized in the +Pectinibranchia, nerve-cell tissue being +concentrated in the ganglia and absent +from the cords. At the same time, the +junction of the visceral loop above the +intestine prevents in all Streptoneura the +shortening of the visceral loop, and it is +rare to find a fusion of the visceral +ganglia with either pleural, pedal or +cerebral—a fusion which can and does +take place where the visceral loop is not +above but below the intestine, <i>e.g.</i> in +the Euthyneura (fig. 48), Cephalopoda +and Lamellibranchia. As contrasted +with the Aspidobranchia, we find that in +the Pectinibranchia the pedal nerves are +distinctly nerves given off from the pedal +ganglia, rather than cord-like nerve-tracts +containing both nerve-cells or +ganglionic elements and nerve-fibres. +Yet in some Pectinibranchia (<i>Paludina</i>) +a ladder-like arrangement of the two +pedal nerves and their lateral branches has been detected. The +histology of the nervous system of Mollusca has yet to be seriously +inquired into.</p> + +<p>The alimentary canal of the Pectinibranchia presents little diversity +of character, except in so far as the buccal region is concerned. +Salivary glands are present, and in some carnivorous forms (<i>Dolium</i>) +these secrete free sulphuric acid (as much as 2% is present in the +secretion), which assists the animal in boring holes by means of its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page513" id="page513"></a>513</span> +rasping tongue through the shells of other molluscs upon which it +preys. A crop-like dilatation of the gut and a recurved intestine, +embedded in the compact yellowish-brown liver, the ducts of which +open into it, form the rest of the digestive tract and occupy a large +bulk of the visceral hump. The buccal region presents a pair of +shelly jaws placed laterally upon the lips, and a wide range of +variation in the form of the denticles of the lingual ribbon or radula.</p> + +<p>Well-developed glandular invaginations occur in different positions +on the foot in Pectinibranchia. The most important of these opens +by the ventral pedal pore, situated in the median line in the anterior +half of the foot. This organ is probably homologous with the byssogenous +gland of Lamellibranchs. The aperture, which was formerly +supposed to be an aquiferous pore, leads into an extensive and often +ramified cavity surrounded by glandular tubules. The gland has +been found in both sub-orders of the Pectinibranchia, in <i>Cyclostoma</i> +and <i>Cypraea</i> among the Taenioglossa, in <i>Hemifusus</i>, <i>Cassis</i>, <i>Nassa</i>, +<i>Murex</i>, <i>Fasciolariidae</i>, <i>Turbinellidae</i>, <i>Olividae</i>, <i>Marginellidae</i> and +<i>Conidae</i> among the Stenoglossa. It was discovered by J.T. Cunningham +that in <i>Buccinum</i> the egg-capsules are formed by this pedal +gland and not by any accessory organ of the generative system. +Such horny egg-capsules doubtless have the same origin in all other +species in which they occur, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Fusus</i>, <i>Pyrula</i>, <i>Purpura</i>, <i>Murex</i>, +<i>Nassa</i>, <i>Trophon</i>, <i>Voluta</i>, &c. The float of the pelagic <i>Janthina</i>, to +which the egg-capsules are attached, probably is also formed by the +secretion of the pedal gland.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:433px; height:253px" src="images/img513a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>—A, <i>Triton variegatum</i>, to show the proboscis or buccal +introvert (<i>e</i>) in a state of eversion.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Siphonal notch of the shell occupied by the siphonal fold of the mantle-skirt (Siphonochlamyda).</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Edge of the mantle-skirt resting on the shell.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Cephalic eye.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Cephalic tentacle.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Everted buccal introvert (proboscis).</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>f</i>, Foot.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Operculum.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Penis.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Under surface of the mantle-skirt forming the roof of the sub-pallial chamber.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="2">B, Sole of the foot of <i>Pyrula tuba</i>, to show a, the pore usually said +to be “aquiferous” but probably the orifice of a gland; <i>b</i>, median +line of foot.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Other glands opening on or near the foot are: (1) The suprapedal +gland opening in the middle line between the snout and the +anterior border of the foot. It is most commonly found in sessile +forms and in terrestrial genera such as <i>Cyclostoma</i>; (2) the anterior +pedal gland opening into the anterior groove of the foot, generally +present in aquatic species; (3) dorsal posterior mucous glands in +certain <i>Cyclostomatidae</i>.</p> + +<p>The foot of the Pectinibranchia, unlike the simple muscular disk +of the Isopleura and Aspidobranchia, is very often divided into +lobes, a fore, middle and hind lobe (pro-, meso- and meta-podium, +see figs. 24 and 25). Very usually, but not universally, the metapodium +carries an operculum. The division of the foot into lobes is +a simple case of that much greater elaboration or breaking up into +processes and regions which it undergoes in the class Cephalopoda. +Even among some Gastropoda (viz. the Opisthobranchia) we find +the lobation of the foot still further carried out by the development +of lateral lobes, the parapodia, whilst there are many Pectinibranchia, +on the other hand, in which the foot has a simple oblong +form without any trace of lobes.</p> + +<p>The development of the Pectinibranchia has been followed in +several examples, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Paludina</i>, <i>Purpura</i>, <i>Nassa</i>, <i>Vermetus</i>, <i>Neritina</i>. +As in other Molluscan groups, we find a wide variation in the early +process of the formation of the first embryonic cells, and their +arrangement as a diblastula, dependent on the greater or less amount +of food-yolk which is present in the egg-cell when it commences +its embryonic changes. In fig. 26 the early stages of <i>Paludina +vivipara</i> are represented. There is but very little food-material in +the egg of this Pectinibranch, and consequently the diblastula forms +by invagination; the blastopore or orifice of invagination coincides +with the anus, and never closes entirely. A well-marked trochosphere +is formed by the development of an equatorial ciliated band; +and subsequently, by the disproportionate growth of the lower +hemisphere, the trochosphere becomes a veliger. The primitive +shell-sac or shell-gland is well marked at this stage, and the pharynx +is seen as a new ingrowth (the stomodaeum), about to fuse with and +open into the primitively invaginated arch-enteron (fig. 26, F).</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:401px; height:346px" src="images/img513b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span>—Animal and shell of <i>Phorus exutus</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Snout (not introversible).</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Cephalic tentacles.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Right eye.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>d</i>, Pro- and meso-podium; to the right of this is seen the metapodium +bearing the sculptured operculum.</p></td></tr></table> + + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:450px; height:290px" src="images/img513c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>—Animal and shell of <i>Rostellaria rectirostris</i>. (From +Owen.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Snout or rostrum.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Cephalic tentacle.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Eye.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Propodium and mesopodium.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>e</i>, Metapodium.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Operculum.</p> +<p><i>h′</i>, Prolonged siphonal notch of the shell occupied by the siphon, +or trough-like process of the mantle-skirt.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">In other Pectinibranchia (and such variations are representative +for all Mollusca, and not characteristic only of Pectinibranchia) we +find that there is a very unequal division of the egg-cell at the commencement +of embryonic development, as in <i>Nassa</i>. Consequently +there is, strictly speaking, no invagination (emboly), but an overgrowth +(epiboly) of the smaller cells to enclose the larger. The +general features of this process and of the relation of the blastopore +to mouth and anus have been explained in treating of the development +of Mollusca generally. In such cases the blastopore may +entirely close, and both mouth and anus develop as new ingrowths +(stomodaeum and proctodaeum), whilst, according to the observations +of N. Bobretzky, the closed blastopore may coincide in +position with the mouth in some instances (<i>Nassa</i>, &c.), instead of +with the anus. But in these epibolic forms, just as in the embolic +<i>Paludina</i>, the embryo proceeds to develop its ciliated band and shell-gland, +passing through the earlier condition of a trochosphere to +that of the veliger. In the veliger stage many Pectinibranchia +(<i>Purpura</i>, <i>Nassa</i>, &c.) exhibit, in the dorsal region behind the head, +a contractile area of the body-wall. This acts as a larval heart, but +ceases to pulsate after a time. Similar rhythmically contractile +areas are found on the foot of the embryo Pulmonate <i>Limax</i> and on +the yolk-sac (distended foot-surface) of the Cephalopod <i>Loligo</i>. +The preconchylian invagination or shell-gland is formed in the +embryo behind the velum, on the surface opposite the blastopore. +It is surrounded by a ridge of cells which gradually extends over the +visceral sac and secretes the shell. In forms which are naked in the +adult state, the shell falls off soon after the reduction of the velum, +but in <i>Cenia</i>, <i>Runcina</i> and <i>Vaginula</i> the shell-gland and shell are not +developed, and the young animal when hatched has already the +naked form of the adult.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page514" id="page514"></a>514</span></p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:439px; height:699px" src="images/img514a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 26.—Development of the River-Snail, <i>Paludina vivipara</i>. +(After Lankester, 17.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>dc</i>, Directive corpuscle (outcast cell).</p> +<p><i>ae</i>, Arch-enteron or cavity lined by the enteric cell-layer or endoderm.</p> +<p><i>bl</i>, Blastopore.</p> +<p><i>vr</i>, Velum or circlet of ciliated cells.</p> +<p><i>dv</i>, Velar area or cephalic dome.</p> +<p><i>sm</i>, Site of the as yet unformed mouth.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>f</i>, Foot.</p> +<p><i>mes</i>, Rudiments of the skeleto-trophic tissues.</p> +<p><i>pi</i>, The pedicle of invagination, the future rectum.</p> +<p><i>shgl</i>, The primitive shell-sac or shell-gland.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Mouth.</p> +<p><i>an</i>, Anus.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>A, Diblastula phase (optical section).</p> + +<p>B, The diblastula has become a trochosphere by the development +of the ciliated ring vr (optical section).</p> + +<p>C, Side view of the trochosphere with commencing formation of the +foot.</p> + +<p>D, Further advanced trochosphere (optical section).</p> + +<p>E, The trochosphere passing to the veliger stage, dorsal view +showing the formation of the primitive shell-sac.</p> + +<p>F, Side view of the same, showing foot, shell-sac (<i>shgl</i>), velum (<i>vr</i>), +mouth and anus.</p> + +<p><i>N.B.</i>—In this development the blastopore is not elongated; it +persists as the anus. The mouth and stomodaeum form independently +of the blastopore.</p> + +<p class="pt2">One further feature of the development of the Pectinibranchia +deserves special mention. Many Gastropoda deposit their eggs, after +fertilization, enclosed in capsules; others, as <i>Paludina</i>, are viviparous; +others, again, as the Zygobranchia, agree with the Lamellibranch +Conchifera (the bivalves) in having simple exits for the ova +without glandular walls, and therefore discharge their eggs unenclosed +in capsules freely into the sea-water; such unencapsuled +eggs are merely enclosed each in its own delicate chorion. When +egg-capsules are formed they are often of large size, have tough +walls, and in each capsule are several eggs floating in a viscid fluid. +In some cases all the eggs in a capsule develop; in other cases one +egg only in a capsule (<i>Neritina</i>), or a small proportion (<i>Purpura, +Buccinum</i>), advance in development; the rest are arrested either +after the first process of cell-division (cleavage) or before that process. +The arrested embryos or eggs are then swallowed and digested by +those in the same capsule which have advanced in development. +This is clearly the same process in essence as that of the formation +of a vitellogenous gland from part of the primitive ovary, or of the +feeding of an ovarian egg by the absorption of neighbouring potential +eggs; but here the period at which the sacrifice of one egg to another +takes place is somewhat late. What it is that determines the arrest +of some eggs and the progressive development of others in the same +capsule is at present unknown.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:454px; height:366px" src="images/img514b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 27.—<i>Oxygyrus Keraudrenii</i>. +(From Owen.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Mouth and odontophore.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Cephalic tentacles.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Eye.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Propodium (<i>B</i>) and mesopodium.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Metapodium.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Operculum.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Mantle-chamber.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Ctenidium (gill-plume).</p> +<p><i>k</i>, Retractor muscle of foot.</p> +<p><i>l</i>, Optic tentacle.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Stomach.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>n</i>, Dorsal surface overhung by the mantle-skirt; the letter is close to the salivary gland.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, Rectum and anus.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Liver.</p> +<p><i>q</i>, Renal organ (nephridium).</p> +<p><i>s</i>, Ventricle.</p> +<p><i>u</i>, The otocyst attached to the cerebral ganglion.</p> +<p><i>w</i>, Testis.</p> +<p><i>x</i>, Auricle of the heart.</p> +<p><i>y</i>, Vesicle on genital duct.</p> +<p><i>z</i>, Penis.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">In the tribe of Pectinibranchia called Heteropoda the foot takes +the form of a swimming organ. The nervous system and sense +organs are highly developed. The odontophore also is remarkably +developed, its lateral teeth being mobile, and it serves as an efficient +organ for attacking the other pelagic forms on which the Heteropoda +prey. The sexes are distinct, as in all Streptoneura; and +genital ducts and accessory glands and pouches are present, as in +all Pectinibranchia. The Heteropoda exhibit a series of modifications +in the form and proportions of the visceral mass and foot, +leading from a condition readily comparable with that of a typical +Pectinibranch such as <i>Rostellaria</i>, with the three regions of the foot +strongly marked and a coiled visceral hump of the usual proportions, +up to a condition in which the whole body is of a tapering cylindrical +shape, the foot a plate-like vertical fin, and the visceral hump almost +completely atrophied. Three steps of this modification may be +distinguished as three families:—<i>Atlantidae</i>, <i>Carinariidae</i> and +<i>Pterotrachaeidae</i>. They are true Pectinibranchia which have taken +to a pelagic life, and the peculiarities of structure which they exhibit +are strictly adaptations consequent upon their changed mode of +life. Such adaptations are the transparency and colourlessness of +the tissues, and the modifications of the foot, which still shows in +<i>Atlanta</i> the form common in Pectinibranchia (compare fig. 27 and +fig. 24). The cylindrical body of <i>Pterotrachaea</i> is paralleled by the +slug-like forms of Euthyneura. J.W. Spengel has shown that the +visceral loop of the Heteropoda is streptoneurous. Special to the +Heteropoda is the high elaboration of the lingual ribbon, and, as an +agreement with some of the opisthobranchiate Euthyneura, but as +a difference from the Pectinibranchia, we find the otocysts closely +attached to the cerebral ganglia. This is, however, less of a difference +than it was at one time supposed to be, for it has been shown by +H. Lacaze-Duthiers, and also by F. Leydig, that the otocysts of +Pectinibranchia even when lying close upon the pedal ganglion (as +in fig. 21) yet receive their special nerve (which can sometimes be +readily isolated) from the cerebral ganglion (see fig. 11). Accordingly +the difference is one of position of the otocyst and not of its +nerve-supply. The Heteropoda are further remarkable for the high +development of their cephalic eyes, and for the typical character +of their osphradium (Spengel’s olfactory organ). This is a groove, +the edges of which are raised and ciliated, lying near the branchial +plume in the genera which possess that organ, whilst in <i>Firoloida</i>, +which has no branchial plume, the osphradium occupies a corresponding +position. Beneath the ciliated groove is placed an elongated +ganglion (olfactory ganglion) connected by a nerve to the supra-intestinal +(therefore the primitively dextral) ganglion of the long +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page515" id="page515"></a>515</span> +visceral nerve-loop, the strands of which cross one another—this +being characteristic of Streptoneura (Spengel).</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:709px; height:409px" src="images/img515a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 28.—<i>Carinaria mediterranea</i>. (From Owen.)<br /> +A, The animal. B, The shell removed. C, D, Two views of the shell of <i>Cardiopoda</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Mouth and odontophore.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Cephalic tentacles.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Eye.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, The fin-like mesopodium.</p> +<p><i>d</i>’, Its sucker.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Metapodium.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Salivary glands.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Border of the mantle-flap.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Ctenidium (gill-plume).</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Stomach.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>n</i>, Intestine.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, Anus.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Liver.</p> +<p><i>t</i>, Aorta, springing from the ventricle.</p> +<p><i>u</i>, Cerebral ganglion.</p> +<p><i>v</i>, Pleural and pedal ganglion.</p> +<p><i>w</i>, Testis.</p> +<p><i>x</i>, Visceral ganglion.</p> +<p><i>y</i>, Vesicula seminalis.</p> +<p><i>z</i>, Penis.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The Heteropoda belong to the “pelagic fauna” occurring near +the surface in the Mediterranean and great oceans in company with +the Pteropoda, the Siphonophorous Hydrozoa, Salpae, Leptocephali, +and other specially-modified transparent swimming representatives +of various groups of the animal kingdom. In development they pass +through the typical trochosphere and veliger stages provided with +boat-like shell.</p> + +<p>Sub-order 1.—<span class="sc">Taenioglossa</span>. Radula with a median tooth and +three teeth on each side of it. Formula 3 : 1 : 3.</p> + +<p>Tribe 1.—<span class="sc">Platypoda</span>. Normal Taenioglossa of creeping habit. +The foot is flattened ventrally, at all events in its anterior part +(<i>Strombidae</i>). Otocysts situated close to the pedal nerve-centres. +Accessory organs are rarely found on the genital ducts, but occur +in <i>Paludina, Cyclostoma, Naticidae, Calyptraeidae</i>, &c. Mandibles +usually present. This is the largest group of Mollusca, including +nearly sixty families, some of which are insufficiently known from +the anatomical point of view.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1.—<i>Paludinidae</i>. Pedal centres in the form of ganglionated +cords; kidney provided with a ureter; viviparous; fluviatile. +<i>Paludina</i>. <i>Neothauma</i>, from Lake Tanganyika. <i>Tylopoma</i>, +extinct, Tertiary.</p> +</div> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:429px; height:142px" src="images/img515b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 29</span>.—<i>Pterotrachea mutica</i> seen from the right side. +(After Keferstein.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Pouch for reception of the snout when retracted.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Pericardium.</p> +<p><i>ph</i>, Pharynx.</p> +<p><i>oc</i>, Cephalic eye.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Cerebral ganglion.</p> +<p><i>g’</i>, Pleuro-pedal ganglion.</p> +<p><i>pr</i>, Foot (mesopodium).</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>v</i>, Stomach.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Intestine.</p> +<p><i>n</i>, So-called nucleus.</p> +<p><i>br</i>, Branchial plume (ctenidium).</p> +<p><i>w</i>, Osphradium.</p> +<p><i>mt</i>, Foot (metapodium).</p> +<p><i>z</i>, Caudal appendage.</p></td></tr></table> + +<div class="list"> +<p class="pt2">Fam. 2.—<i>Cyclophoridae</i>. No ctenidium, pallial cavity transformed +into a lung; aperture of shell circular; terrestrial. +<i>Pomatias</i>, shell turriculated. <i>Diplommatina</i>. <i>Hybocystis</i>. <i>Cyclophorus</i>, +shell umbilicated, with a short spire and horny operculum. +Cyclosurus, shell uncoiled. <i>Dermatocera</i>, foot with a +horn-shaped protuberance at its posterior end. Spiraculum.</p> + +<p>Fam. 3.—<i>Ampullariidae</i>. To the left of the ctenidium a pulmonary +sac, separated from it by an incomplete septum, amphibious. +<i>Ampullaria</i>, shell dextral, coiled. <i>Lanistes</i>, shell +sinistral, spire short or obsolete. <i>Meladomus.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 4.—<i>Littorinidae.</i> Oesophageal pouches present; pedal +nerve-centres concentrated; a pedal penis near the right +tentacle. <i>Littorina</i>, shell not umbilicated, littoral habit. +<i>Lacuna</i>, foot with two posterior appendages, marine, entirely +aquatic. <i>Cremnoconchus</i>, entirely +aerial, Indian. <i>Risella. Tectarius.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 5.—<i>Fossaridae.</i> Head with two +lobes in some Rhipidoglossa. <i>Fossaria.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 6.—<i>Purpurinidae</i>, extinct.</p> + +<p>Fam. 7.—<i>Planaxidae.</i> Shell with +pointed spire; a short pallial +siphon. Planaxis.</p> + +<p>Fam. 8.—<i>Cyclostomatidae.</i> Pallial +cavity transformed into a lung; +pedal centres concentrated; a deep +pedal groove. <i>Cyclostoma</i>, shell +turbinated, operculum calcareous, +British. <i>Omphalotropis.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 9.—<i>Aciculidae.</i> Pallial cavity +transformed into a lung; operculum +horny; shell narrow and +elongated. <i>Acicula.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 10.—<i>Valvatidae.</i> Ctenidium bipectinate, +free; hermaphrodite; +fluviatile. <i>Valvata</i>, British.</p> + +<p>Fam. 11.—<i>Rissoidae.</i> Epipodial filaments +present; one or two pallial +tentacles. <i>Rissoa.</i> <i>Rissoina.</i> <i>Stiva.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 12.—<i>Litiopidae.</i> An epipodium +bearing three pairs of tentacles and +an operculigerous lobe with two +appendages; inhabitants of the +Sargasso weed. <i>Litiopa.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 13.—<i>Adeorbiidae.</i> Mantle with +two posterior appendages; ctenidium +large and capable of protrusion from +pallial cavity. <i>Adeorbis</i>, British.</p> + +<p>Fam. 14.—<i>Jeffreysiidae.</i> Head with +two long labial palps; shell ovoid; +operculum horny, semicircular, carinated. +<i>Jeffreysia.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 15.—<i>Homalogyridae.</i> Shell flattened; no cephalic tentacles. +<i>Homalogyra</i>, British. <i>Ammoniceras.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 16.—<i>Skeneidae.</i> Shell depressed, with rounded aperture; +cephalic tentacles long. <i>Skenea</i>, British.</p> + +<p>Fam. 17.—<i>Choristidae.</i> Shell spiral; four cephalic tentacles; +eyes absent; two pedal appendages. <i>Choristes.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 18.—<i>Assimineidae.</i> Eyes at free extremities of tentacles. +Assiminea, estuarine, British.</p> + +<p>Fam. 19.—<i>Truncatellidae.</i> Snout very long, bilobed; foot short. +<i>Truncatella.</i></p> +</div> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:191px; height:176px" src="images/img515c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 30.</span>—<i>Valvata cristata</i>, +Müll.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>o</i>, Mouth.</p> +<p><i>op</i>, Operculum.</p> +<p><i>br</i>, Ctenidium (branchial plume).</p> +<p><i>x</i>, Filiform appendage (? rudimentary ctenidium).</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">The freely projecting ctenidium of typical form not having its axis fused +to the roof of the branchial chamber is the notable character of this genus.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 20.—<i>Hydrobiidae.</i> Shell with prominent spire; penis +distant from right tentacle, generally +appendiculated; brackish water or +fluviatile. <i>Hydrobia</i>, British. <i>Baikalia</i>, +from Lake Baikal. <i>Pomatiopsis.</i> +<i>Bithynella.</i> <i>Lithoglyphus.</i> <i>Spekia</i>, +viviparous, from Lake Tanganyika. +<i>Tanganyicia.</i> <i>Limnotrochus</i>, from +Lake Tanganyika. <i>Chytra.</i> <i>Littorinida.</i> +<i>Bithynia</i>, British, fluviatile. +<i>Stenothyra.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 21.—<i>Melaniidae.</i> Spire of shell +somewhat elongated; mantle-border +fringed; viviparous; fluviatile. +<i>Melania.</i> <i>Faunus.</i> <i>Paludomus.</i> +<i>Melanopsis.</i> <i>Nassopsis.</i> <i>Bythoceras</i>, +from Lake Tanganyika.</p> + +<p>Fam. 22.—<i>Typhobiidae.</i> Foot wide; +shell turriculated, with carinated +whorls, the carinae tuberculated or +spiny. <i>Typhobia.</i> <i>Bathanalia</i>, from +Lake Tanganyika.</p> + +<p>Fam. 23.—<i>Pleuroceridae.</i> Like +<i>Melaniidae</i>, but mantle-border not +fringed and reproduction oviparous. +<i>Pleurocera.</i> <i>Anculotus.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 24.—<i>Pseudomelaniidae.</i> All extinct.</p> + +<p>Fam. 25.—<i>Subulitidae.</i> All extinct.</p> + +<p>Fam. 26.—<i>Nerineidae.</i> All extinct.</p> + +<p>Fam. 27.—<i>Cerithiidae.</i> Shell with numerous tuberculated whorls; +aperture canaliculated anteriorly; short pallial siphon. <i>Cerithium.</i> +<i>Bittium.</i> <i>Potamides.</i> <i>Triforis.</i> <i>Laeocochlis.</i> <i>Cerithiopsis.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 28.—<i>Modulidae.</i> Shell with short spire; no siphon. +<i>Modulus.</i></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page516" id="page516"></a>516</span></p> + +<p>Fam. 29.—<i>Vermetidae.</i> Animal fixed by the shell, the last whorls +of which are not in contact with each other; foot small; two +anterior pedal tentacles. <i>Vermetus.</i> <i>Siliquaria.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 30.—<i>Caecidae.</i> Shell almost completely uncoiled, in one +plane, with internal septa. <i>Caecum</i>, British.</p> + +<p>Fam. 31.—<i>Turritellidae.</i> Shell very long; head large; foot +broad. <i>Turritella</i>, British. <i>Mesalia.</i> <i>Mathilda.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 32.—<i>Struthiolariidae.</i> Shell conical; aperture slightly +canaliculated; siphon slightly developed. <i>Struthiolaria.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 33.—<i>Chenopodidae.</i> Shell elongated; aperture expanded; +siphon very short. +<i>Chenopus</i>, British. +<i>Alaria</i>, <i>Spinigera</i>, +<i>Diartema</i>, extinct.</p> + +<p style="clear: both;">Fam. 34.—<i>Strombidae.</i> +Foot narrow, compressed, +without sole. +<i>Strombus.</i> <i>Pteroceras.</i> +<i>Rostellaria.</i> <i>Terebellum.</i></p> +</div> +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:303px; height:284px" src="images/img516a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.</span>—Shell of <i>Crucibulum</i>, seen +from below so as to show the inner whorl +<i>b</i>, concealed by the cap-like outer whorl <i>a</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:300px; height:152px" src="images/img516b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 32.</span>—Animal and shell of <i>Ovula</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>b</i>, Cephalic tentacles.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Foot.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Mantle-skirt, which is naturally carried in a reflected condition so as +to cover the sides of the shell.</p></td></tr></table> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 35.—<i>Xenophoridae.</i> +Foot transversely +divided into +two parts. <i>Xenophorus.</i> +<i>Eotrochus</i>, +Silurian.</p> + +<p>Fam. 36.—<i>Capulidae.</i> +Shell conical, not +coiled, but slightly incurved +posteriorly; +a tongue-shaped projection +between snout +and foot. <i>Capulus.</i> <i>Thyca</i>, parasitic on asterids. <i>Platyceras</i>, +extinct.</p> + +<p>Fam. 37.—<i>Hipponycidae.</i> Shell conical; foot secreting a ventral +calcareous plate; animal fixed. <i>Hipponyx.</i> <i>Mitrularia.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 38.—<i>Calyptraeidae.</i> Shell with short spire; lateral cervical +lobes present; accessory genital glands. <i>Calyptraea</i>, British. +<i>Crepidula.</i> <i>Crucibulum.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 39.—<i>Naricidae.</i> Foot divided into two, posterior half +bearing the operculum; a wide epipodial velum; shell turbinated. +Narica.</p> + +<p>Fam. 40.—<i>Naticidae.</i> Foot large, with aquiferous system; +propodium reflected over head; eyes degenerate; burrowing +habit. <i>Natica</i>, British. <i>Amaura.</i> <i>Sigaretus.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 41.—<i>Lamellariidae.</i> Shell thin, more or less covered by the +mantle; no operculum. <i>Lamellaria.</i> <i>Velutina.</i> <i>Marsenina</i>, +<i>Oncidiopsis</i>, hermaphrodite.</p> + +<p>Fam. 42.—<i>Trichotropidae.</i> Shell with short spire, carinate and +pointed. <i>Trichotropis.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 43.—<i>Seguenziidae.</i> Shell trochiform, with canaliculated +aperture and twisted columella. <i>Seguenzia</i>, abyssal.</p> + +<p>Fam. 44.—<i>Janthinidae.</i> Shell thin; operculum absent; tentacles +bifid; foot secretes a float; pelagic. <i>Janthina.</i> <i>Recluzia.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 45.—<i>Cypraeidae.</i> Shell inrolled, solid, polished, aperture +very narrow in adult; short siphon; anus posterior; osphradium +with three lobes; mantle reflected over shell. <i>Cypraea.</i> +<i>Pustularia.</i> <i>Ovula.</i> <i>Pedicularia</i>, attached to corals. <i>Erato</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 46.—<i>Tritonidae.</i> Shell turriculated and siphonated, thick, +each whorl with varices; foot broad and truncated anteriorly; +pallial siphon well +developed; proboscis +present. <i>Triton.</i> <i>Persona.</i> +<i>Ranella.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 47.—<i>Columbellinidae.</i> +All extinct.</p> + +<p>Fam. 48.—<i>Cassididae.</i> +Shell ventricose, with +elongated aperture, +and short spire; proboscis +and siphon +long; operculum with +marginal nucleus. +<i>Cassis.</i> <i>Cassidaria.</i> +<i>Oniscia.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 49—<i>Oocorythidae.</i> +Shell globular and +ventricose; aperture +oval and canaliculated; operculum spiral. <i>Oocorys</i>, abyssal.</p> + +<p>Fam. 50.—<i>Doliidae.</i> Shell ventricose, with short spire, and wide +aperture; no varices and no operculum; foot very broad, with +projecting anterior angles; siphon long. <i>Dolium.</i> <i>Pyrula.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 51.—<i>Solariidae.</i> <i>Solarium.</i> <i>Torinia.</i> <i>Fluxina.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 52.—<i>Scalariidae.</i> Shell turriculated, with elongated spire; +proboscis short; siphon rudimentary. <i>Scalaria.</i> <i>Eglisia.</i> +Crossea. Aclis.</p> +</div> + +<p style="clear: both;">The three following families have neither radula nor jaws, and +are therefore called <i>Aglossa</i>. They have a well-developed proboscis +which is used as a suctorial organ; some are abyssal, but the majority +are either commensals or parasites of Echinoderms.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:202px; height:418px" src="images/img516c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 33.</span>—Section of the +shell of <i>Triton</i>, Cuv. (From Owen.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>a</i>, Apex.</p> +<p><i>ac</i>, Siphonal notch of the mouth of the shell.</p> +<p><i>ac</i> to <i>pc</i>, Mouth of the shell.</p> +<p><i>w, w</i>, Whorls of the shell.</p> +<p><i>s, s</i>. Sutures.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Occupying the axis, and exposed by the section, is seen the “columella” or +spiral pillar. The upper whorls of the shell are seen to be divided into separate +chambers by the formation of successively formed “septa.”</td></tr></table> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 53.—<i>Pyramidellidae.</i> Summit of spire heterostrophic; a +projection, the mentum, between head and foot; operculum +present. <i>Pyramidella.</i> <i>Turbonilla.</i> +<i>Odostomia</i>, British. <i>Myxa.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 54.—<i>Eulimidae.</i> Visceral mass +still coiled spirally; shell thin +and shining. <i>Eulima</i>, foot well +developed, with an operculum, +animal usually free, but some live +in the digestive cavity of Holothurians. +<i>Mucronalia</i>, foot reduced, +but still operculate, eyes +present, animal fixed by its very +long proboscis which is deeply +buried in the tissues of an Echinoderm, +no pseudopallium. <i>Stylifer</i>, +the operculum is lost, animal fixed +by a large proboscis which forms a +pseudopallium covering the whole +shell except the extremity of the +spire, parasitic on all groups of +Echinoderms. <i>Entosiphon</i>, visceral +mass still coiled; shell much reduced, +proboscis very long forming +a pseudopallium which covers the +whole body and projects beyond +in the form of a siphon, foot and +nervous system present, eyes, +branchia and anus absent, parasite +in the Holothurian <i>Deima +blakei</i> in the Indian Ocean.</p> + +<p>Fam. 55.—<i>Entoconchidae.</i> No shell; +visceral mass not coiled; no +sensory organs, nervous system, +branchia or anus; body reduced +to a more or less tubular sac; +hermaphrodite and viviparous; +parasitic in Holothurians; larvae +are veligers, with shell and operculum. +<i>Entocolax</i>, mouth at free +extremity, animal fixed by aboral +orifice of pseudopallium, Pacific. +<i>Entoconcha</i>, body elongated and +tubular, animal fixed by the oral +extremity, protandric hermaphrodite, +parasitic in testes of +Holothurians causing their abortion. +<i>Enteroxenos</i>, no pseudopallium +and no intestine, hermaphrodite, larvae with operculum.</p> +</div> + +<p>Tribe 2.—<span class="sc">Heteropoda.</span> Pelagic Taenioglossa with foot large +and laterally compressed to form a fin.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1. <i>Atlantidae.</i> Visceral sac and shell coiled in one plane; +foot divided transversely into two parts, posterior part bearing +an operculum, anterior part forming a fin provided with a +sucker. <i>Atlanta.</i> <i>Oxygyrus.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 2.—<i>Carinariidae.</i> Visceral sac and shell small in proportion to +the rest of the body, which cannot be withdrawn into the shell; +foot elongated, fin-shaped, with sucker, but without operculum. +<i>Carinaria.</i> <i>Cardiopoda.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 3.—<i>Pterotrachaeidae.</i> Visceral sac very much reduced; +without shell or mantle; anus posterior; foot provided with +sucker in male only. <i>Pterotrachaea.</i> <i>Firoloida.</i> <i>Pterosoma.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>Sub-order 2.—<span class="sc">Stenoglossa.</span> Radula narrow with one lateral +tooth on each side, and one median tooth or none.</p> + +<p>Tribe 1.—<span class="sc">Rachiglossa.</span> Radula with a median tooth and a single +tooth on each side of it. Formula 1 : 1 : 1. Rudimentary jaws +present.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:431px; height:137px" src="images/img516d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 34.</span>—Female <i>Janthina</i>, with egg-float (<i>a</i>) attached to the foot; +<i>b</i>, egg-capsules; <i>c</i>, ctenidium (gill-plume); <i>d</i>, cephalic tentacles.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1.—<i>Turbinellidae.</i> Shell solid, piriform, with thick folded +columella; lateral teeth of radula bicuspidate. <i>Turbinella.</i> +<i>Cynodonta.</i> <i>Fulgur.</i> <i>Hemifusus.</i> <i>Tudicla.</i> <i>Strepsidura.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 2.—<i>Fasciolariidae.</i> Shell elongated, with long siphon; +lateral teeth of radula multicuspidate. <i>Fasciolaria.</i> <i>Fusus.</i> +<i>Clavella.</i> <i>Latirus.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 3.—<i>Mitridae.</i> Shell fusiform and solid, aperture elongated, +columella folded; no operculum; eyes on sides of tentacles. +<i>Mitra.</i> <i>Turricula.</i> <i>Cylindromitra.</i> <i>Imbricaria.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 4.—<i>Buccinidae.</i> Foot large and broad; eyes at base of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page517" id="page517"></a>517</span> +tentacles; operculum horny. <i>Buccinum.</i> <i>Chrysodomus.</i> +<i>Liomesus.</i> <i>Cominella.</i> <i>Tritonidea.</i> <i>Pisania.</i> <i>Euthria.</i> +<i>Phos.</i> <i>Dipsacus.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 5.—<i>Nassidae.</i> Foot broad, with two slender posterior +appendages; operculum unguiculate. <i>Nassa</i>, marine, British. +<i>Canidia</i>, fluviatile. <i>Bullia.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 6.—<i>Muricidae.</i> Shell with moderately long spire and canal, +ornamented with ribs, often spiny; foot truncated anteriorly. +<i>Murex</i>, British. <i>Trophon</i>, British. <i>Typhis.</i> <i>Urosalpinx.</i> +<i>Lachesis.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 7.—<i>Purpuridae.</i> Shell thick, with short spire, last whorl +large and canal short; aperture wide; operculum horny. +<i>Purpura</i>, British. <i>Rapana.</i> <i>Monoceros.</i> <i>Sistrum.</i> <i>Concholepas.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 8.—<i>Haliidae.</i> Shell ventricose, thin and smooth, with wide +aperture; foot large and thick, without operculum. <i>Halia.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 9.—<i>Cancellariidae.</i> Shell ovoid, with short spire and folded +columella; foot small, no operculum; siphon short. <i>Cancellaria.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 10.—<i>Columbellidae.</i> Spire of shell prominent, aperture +narrow, canal very short, columella crenelated; foot large. +<i>Columbella.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 11.—<i>Coralliophilidae.</i> Shell irregular; radula absent; +foot and siphon short; sedentary animals, living in corals. +<i>Coralliophila.</i> <i>Rhizochilus.</i> <i>Leptoconchus.</i> <i>Magilus.</i> <i>Rapa.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 12.—<i>Volutidae.</i> Head much flattened and wide, with eyes +on sides; foot broad; siphon with internal appendages. +<i>Valuta.</i> <i>Guivillea.</i> <i>Cymba.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 13.—<i>Olividae.</i> Foot with anterior transverse groove; a +posterior pallial tentacle; generally burrowing. <i>Olivia.</i> +<i>Olivella.</i> <i>Ancillaria.</i> <i>Agaronia.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 14.—<i>Marginellidae.</i> Foot very large; mantle reflected over +shell. <i>Marginella.</i> <i>Pseudomarginella.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 15.—<i>Harpidae.</i> Foot very large; without operculum; +shell with short spire and longitudinal ribs; siphon long. +<i>Harpa.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>Tribe 2.—<span class="sc">Toxiglossa.</span> No jaws. No median tooth in radula. +Formula: 1 : 0 : 1. Poison-gland present whose duct traverses +the nerve-collar.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1.—<i>Pleurotomatidae.</i> Shell fusiform, with elongated spire; +margin of shell and mantle notched. <i>Pleurotoma.</i> <i>Clavatula.</i> +<i>Mangilia.</i> <i>Bela.</i> <i>Pusionella.</i> <i>Pontiothauma.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 2.—<i>Terebridae.</i> Shell turriculated, with numerous whorls; +aperture and operculum oval; eyes at summits of tentacles; +siphon long. <i>Terebra.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 3.—<i>Conidae.</i> Shell conical, with very short spire, and +narrow aperture with parallel borders; operculum unguiform +<i>Conus.</i></p> +</div></div> + +<p class="pt2 center">Sub-Class II.—<span class="sc">Euthyneura</span></p> + +<p>The most important general character of the Euthyneura +is the absence of torsion in the visceral commissure, and the +more posterior position of the anus and pallial organs. Comparative +anatomy and embryology prove that this condition is due, +not as formerly supposed to a difference in the relations of the +visceral commissure which prevented it from being included in +the torsion of the visceral hump, but to an actual detorsion which +has taken place in evolution and is repeated to a great extent +in individual development. In several of the more primitive +forms the same torsion occurs as in Streptoneura, viz. in <i>Actaeon</i> +and <i>Limacina</i> among Opisthobranchia, and <i>Chilina</i> among +Pulmonata. <i>Actaeon</i> is proso-branchiate, the visceral commissure +is twisted in <i>Actaeon</i> and <i>Chilina</i>, and even slightly still in <i>Bulla</i> +and <i>Scaphander</i>; in <i>Actaeon</i> and <i>Limacina</i> the osphradium is +to the left, innervated by the supra-intestinal ganglion. But +in the other members of the sub-class the detorsion of the visceral +mass has carried back the anus and circumanal complex from the +anterior dorsal region to the right side, as in <i>Bulla</i> and <i>Aplysia</i>, +or even to the posterior end of the body, as in <i>Philine</i>, <i>Oncidium</i>, +<i>Doris</i>, &c. Different degrees of the same process of detorsion are, +as we have seen, exhibited by the Heteropoda among the Streptoneura, +and both in them and in the Euthyneura the detorsion +is associated with degeneration of the shell. Where the modification +is carried to its extreme degree, not only the shell but the +pallial cavity, ctenidium and visceral hump disappear, and the +body acquires a simple elongated form and a secondary external +symmetry, as in <i>Pterotrachaea</i> and in <i>Doris</i>, <i>Eolis</i>, and other +Nudibranchia. These facts afford strong support to the hypothesis +that the weight of the shell is the original cause of the +torsion of the dorsal visceral mass in Gastropods. But this +hypothesis leaves the elevation of the visceral mass and the +exogastric coiling of the shell in the ancestral form unexplained. +In those Euthyneura in which the shell is entirely absent in the +adult, it is, except in the three genera <i>Cenia</i>, <i>Runcina</i> and +<i>Vaginula</i>, developed in the larva and then falls off. In other +cases (Tectibranchs) the reduced shell is enclosed by upgrowths +of the edge of the mantle and becomes internal, as in many +Cephalopods. A few Euthyneura in which the shell is not much +reduced retain an operculum in the adult state, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Actaeon</i>, +<i>Limacina</i>, and the marine Pulmonate, <i>Amphibola</i>. The detorted +visceral commissure shows a tendency to the concentration +of all its elements round the oesophagus, so that except in the +Bullomorpha and in <i>Aplysia</i> the whole nervous system is aggregated +in the cephalic region, either dorsally or ventrally. The +radula has a number of uniform teeth on each side of the median +tooth in each transverse row. The head in most cases bears +two pairs of tentacles. All the Euthyneura are hermaphrodite.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:357px; height:117px" src="images/img517.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 35.</span>—<i>Acera bullata.</i> A single row of teeth of the Radula. +(Formula, x.l.x.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the most primitive condition the genital duct is single +throughout its length and has a single external aperture; it is +therefore said to be monaulic. The hermaphrodite aperture is +on the right side near the opening of the pallial cavity, and a +ciliated groove conducts the spermatozoa to the penis, which is +situated more anteriorly. This is the condition in the Bullomorpha, +the Aplysiomorpha, and in one Pulmonate, <i>Pythia</i>. +In some cases while the original aperture remains undivided, +the seminal groove is closed and so converted into a canal. +This is the modification found in <i>Cavolinia longirostris</i> among +the Bullomorpha, and in all the <i>Auriculidae</i> except <i>Pythia</i>. A +further degree of modification occurs when the male duct takes +its origin from the hermaphrodite duct above the external +opening, so that there are two distinct apertures, one male and +one female, the latter being the original opening. The genital +duct is now said to be diaulic, as in <i>Valvata</i>, <i>Oncidiopsis</i>, <i>Actaeon</i>, +and <i>Lobiger</i> among the Bullomorpha, in the <i>Pleurobranchidae</i>, +in the Nudibranchia, except the Doridomorpha and most of +the Elysiomorpha, and in the Pulmonata. Originally in this +condition the female aperture is at some distance from the male, +as in the Basommatophora and in other cases; but in some +forms the female aperture itself has shifted and come to be +contiguous with the male opening and penis as in the Stylommatophora. +In all these cases the female duct bears a bursa +copulatrix or receptaculum seminis. In some forms this receptacle +acquires a separate external opening remaining connected +with the oviduct internally. There are thus two female openings, +one for copulation, the other for oviposition, as well as a male +opening. The genital duct is now trifurcated or triaulic, a +condition which is confined to certain Nudibranchs, viz. the +Doridomorpha and most of the Elysiomorpha.</p> + +<p>The Pteropoda, formerly regarded as a distinct class of the +Mollusca, were interpreted by E.R. Lankester as a branch of +the Cephalopoda, chiefly on account of the protrusible sucker-bearing +processes at the anterior end of <i>Pneumonoderma</i>. These +he considered to be homologous with the arms of Cephalopods. +He fully recognized, however, the similarity of Pteropods to +Gastropods in their general asymmetry and in the torsion of the +visceral mass in <i>Limacinidae</i>. It is now understood that they +are Euthyneurous Gastropods adapted to natatory locomotion +and pelagic life. The sucker-bearing processes of <i>Pneumonoderma</i> +are outgrowths of the proboscis. The fins of Pteropods +are now interpreted as the expanded lateral margins of the foot, +termed parapodia, not homologous with the siphon of Cephalopods +which is formed from epipodia. The Thecosomatous Pteropoda +are allied to <i>Bulla</i>, the Gymnosomatous forms to <i>Aplysia</i>. The +Euthyneura comprises two orders, Opisthobranchia and Pulmonata.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page518" id="page518"></a>518</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:441px; height:341px" src="images/img518a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 36.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>A, Veliger-larva of an Opisthobranch (<i>Polycera</i>). <i>f</i>, Foot; <i>op</i>, +operculum; <i>mn</i>, anal papilla; <i>ry</i>, <i>dry</i>, two portions of unabsorbed +nutritive yolk on either side of the intestine. The right otocyst is +seen at the root of the foot.</p> + +<p>B, Trochosphere of an Opisthobranch (<i>Pleurobranchidium</i>) +showing—<i>shgr</i>, the shell-gland or primitive shell-sac; <i>v</i>, the cilia of +the velum; <i>ph</i>, the commencing stomodaeum or oral invagination; +<i>ot</i>, the left otocyst; <i>pg</i>, red-coloured pigment spot.</p> + +<p>C, Diblastula of an Opisthobranch (<i>Polycera</i>) with elongated +blastopore <i>oi</i>.</p> + +<p>(All from Lankester.)</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:301px; height:157px" src="images/img518b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> <span class="sc">Fig. 37.</span>—<i>Phyllirhoë bucephala</i>, twice +the natural size, a transparent pisciform +pelagic Opisthobranch. The internal +organs are shown as seen by transmitted +light. (After W. Keferstein.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>a</i>, Mouth.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Radular sac.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Oesophagus.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Stomach.</p> +<p><i>c’</i>, Intestine.</p> +<p><i>f’</i>, Anus.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, <i>g′</i>, <i>g″</i>, <i>g″′</i>, The four lobes of the liver.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, The heart (auricle and ventricle).</p> +<p><i>l</i>, The renal sac (nephridium).</p> +<p><i>l′</i>, The ciliated communication of the renal sac with the pericardium.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, The external opening of the renal sac.</p> +<p><i>n</i>, The cerebral ganglion.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, The cephalic tentacles.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, The genital pore.</p> +<p><i>y</i>, The ovo-testes.</p> +<p><i>w</i>, The parasitic hydromedusa Mnestra, usually found attached in this +position by the aboral pole of its umbrella.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Order 1.—<span class="sc">Opisthobranchia</span>. Marine Euthyneura, the more +archaic forms of which have a relatively large foot and a small +visceral hump, from the base of which projects on the right side a +short mantle-skirt. The anus is placed in such forms far back beyond +the mantle-skirt. In front of the anus, and only partially covered +by the mantle-skirt, is the ctenidium with its free end turned backwards. +The heart lies in front of, instead of to the side of, the attachment +of the ctenidium—hence Opisthobranchia as opposed to +“Prosobranchia,” which correspond to the Streptoneura. A shell +is possessed in the adult state by but few Opisthobranchia, but all +pass through a veliger larval stage with a nautiloid shell (fig. 36). +Many Opisthobranchia have by a process of atrophy lost the typical +ctenidium and the mantle-skirt, +and have developed +other organs in their place. +As in some Pectinibranchia, +the free margin of the +mantle-skirt is frequently +reflected over the shell +when a shell exists; and, +as in some Pectinibranchia, +broad lateral outgrowths +of the foot (parapodia) are +often developed which may +be thrown over the shell +or naked dorsal surface of +the body.</p> + +<p>The variety of special +developments of structure +accompanying the atrophy +of typical organs in the +Opisthobranchia and +general degeneration of +organization is very great. +The members of the order +present the same wide +range of superficial appearance +as do the Pectinibranchiate +Streptoneura, +forms carrying well-developed +spiral shells and +large mantle-skirts being +included in the group, +together with flattened or +cylindrical slug-like forms. +But in respect of the substitution +of other parts for +the mantle-skirt and for +the gill which the more degenerate Opisthobranchia exhibit, this order +stands alone. Some Opisthobranchia are striking examples of degeneration +(some Nudibranchia), having none of those regions or +processes of the body developed which distinguish the archaic +Mollusca from such flat-worms as the Dendrocoel Planarians. Indeed, +were it not for their retention of the characteristic odontophore +we should have little or no indication that such forms as +<i>Phyllirhoë</i> and <i>Limapontia</i> really belong to the Mollusca at all. +The interesting little <i>Rhodope veranyii</i>, which has no odontophore, +has been associated by systematists both with these simplified +Opisthobranchs and with Rhabdocoel Planarians.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:444px; height:382px" src="images/img518c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 38.</span>—Three views of <i>Aplysia sp.</i>, in various conditions of +expansion and retraction. (After Cuvier.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>t</i>, Anterior cephalic tentacles.</p> +<p><i>t²</i>, Posterior cephalic tentacles.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Eyes.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Metapodium.</p> +<p><i>ep</i>, Epipodium.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>g</i>, Gill-plume (ctenidium).</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Mantle-flap reflected over the thin oval shell.</p> +<p><i>os</i>, <i>s</i>, Orifice formed by the unclosed border of the reflected +mantle-skirt, allowing the shell to show.</p> +<p><i>pe</i>, The spermatic groove.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:321px; height:398px" src="images/img519a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 39.—<i>Aplysia leporina</i> (<i>camelus</i>, +Cuv.), with epipodia and mantle reflected +away from the mid-line. (Lankester.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>a</i>, Anterior cephalic tentacle.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Posterior cephalic tentacle; between <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, the eyes.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Right epipodium.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Left epipodium.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Hinder part of visceral hump.</p> +<p><i>fp</i>, Posterior extremity of the foot.</p> +<p><i>fa</i>, Anterior part of the foot underlying the head.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, The ctenidium (branchial plume).</p> +<p><i>h</i>, The mantle-skirt tightly spread over the horny shell and pushed with it towards the left side.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, The spermatic groove.</p> +<p><i>k</i>, The common genital pore (male and female).</p> +<p><i>l</i>, Orifice of the grape-shaped (supposed poisonous) gland.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, The osphradium (olfactory organ of Spengel).</p> +<p><i>n</i>, Outline of part of the renal sac (nephridium) below the surface.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, External aperture of the nephridium.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Anus.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">In many respects the sea-hare (<i>Aplysia</i>), of which several species +are known (some occurring on the English coast), serves as a convenient +example of the fullest development of the organization +characteristic of Opisthobranchia. The woodcut (fig. 38) gives a +faithful representation of the great mobility of the various parts +of the body. The head is well marked and joined to the body by a +somewhat constricted neck. It carries two pairs of cephalic tentacles +and a pair of sessile eyes. The visceral hump is low and not drawn +out into a spire. The foot is long, carrying the oblong visceral mass +upon it, and projecting (as metapodium) a little beyond it (<i>f</i>). Laterally +the foot gives rise to a pair of mobile fleshy lobes, the parapodia +(<i>ep</i>), which can be thrown up so as to cover in the dorsal surface of +the animal. Such parapodia are common, though by no means +universal, among Opisthobranchia. The torsion of the visceral +hump is not carried out very fully, the consequence being that the +anus has a posterior position a little to the right of the median line +above the metapodium, whilst the branchial chamber formed by the +overhanging mantle-skirt faces the right side of the body instead of +lying well to the front as in Streptoneura and as in Pulmonate Euthyneura. +The gill-plume, which in <i>Aplysia</i> is the typical Molluscan ctenidium, +is seen in fig. 39 projecting from the branchial sub-pallial space. +The relation of the delicate shell to the mantle is peculiar, since it +occupies an oval area upon the visceral hump, the extent of which +is indicated in fig. 38, C, but may be better understood by a glance +at the figures of the allied genus <i>Umbrella</i> (fig. 40), in which the +margin of the mantle-skirt coincides, just as it does in the limpet, +with the margin of the shell. But in <i>Aplysia</i> the mantle is reflected +over the edge of the shell, and grows over its upper surface so as to +completely enclose it, excepting at the small central area <i>s</i> where +the naked shell is exposed. This enclosure of the shell is a permanent +development of the arrangement seen in many Streptoneura (<i>e.g.</i> +<i>Pyrula</i>, <i>Ovula</i>, see figs. 18 and 32), where the border of the mantle +can be, and usually is, drawn over the shell, though it is withdrawn +(as it cannot be in <i>Aplysia</i>) when they are irritated. From the fact +that <i>Aplysia</i> commences its life as a free-swimming veliger with a +nautiloid shell not enclosed in any way by the border of the mantle, +it is clear that the enclosure of the shell in the adult is a secondary +process. Accordingly, the shell of <i>Aplysia</i> must not be confounded +with a primitive shell in its shell-sac, such as we find realized in the +shells of <i>Chiton</i> and in the plugs which form in the remarkable +transitory “shell-sac” or “shell-gland” of Molluscan embryos (see +figs. 26, 60). <i>Aplysia</i>, like other Mollusca, develops a primitive shell-sac +in its trochosphere stage of development, which disappears and +is succeeded by a nautiloid shell (fig. 36). This forms the nucleus +of the adult shell, and, as the animal grows, becomes enclosed by a +reflection of the mantle-skirt. When the shell of an <i>Aplysia</i> enclosed +in its mantle is pushed well to the left, the sub-pallial space is fully +exposed as in fig. 39, and the various apertures of the body are seen. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page519" id="page519"></a>519</span> +Posteriorly we have the anus, in front of this the lobate gill-plume, +between the two (hence corresponding in position to that of the +Pectinibranchia) we have the aperture of the renal organ. In front, +near the anterior attachment of the gill-plume, is the osphradium +(olfactory organ) discovered +by J.W. +Spengel, yellowish in +colour, in the typical +position, and overlying +an olfactory ganglion +with typical nerve-connexion +(see fig. 43). To +the right of Spengel’s +osphradium is the opening +of a peculiar gland +which has, when dissected +out, the form of +a bunch of grapes; its +secretion is said to be +poisonous. On the +under side of the free +edge of the mantle are +situated the numerous +small cutaneous glands +which, in the large +<i>Aplysia camelus</i> (not +in other species), form +the purple secretion +which was known to +the ancients. In front +of the osphradium is +the single genital pore, +the aperture of the common +or hermaphrodite +duct. From this point +there passes forward to +the right side of the +head a groove—the +spermatic groove—down +which the spermatic +fluid passes. In +other Euthyneura this +groove may close up +and form a canal. At +its termination by the +side of the head is the +muscular introverted +penis. In the hinder +part of the foot (not +shown in any of the +diagrams) is the opening +of a large mucus-forming +gland very +often found in the +Molluscan foot.</p> + +<p>With regard to internal +organization we +may commence with +the disposition of the +renal organ (nephridium), the external opening of which has already +been noted. The position of this opening and other features of the +renal organ were determined by J.T. Cunningham.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:353px; height:177px" src="images/img519b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 40.—<i>Umbrella mediterranea</i>. <i>a</i>, mouth; <i>b</i>, cephalic tentacle; +<i>h</i>, gill (ctenidium). The free edge of the mantle is seen just below +the margin of the shell (compare with <i>Aplysia</i>, fig. 39). (From +Owen.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>There is considerable uncertainty with respect to the names of +the species of <i>Aplysia</i>. There are two forms which are very common +in the Gulf of Naples. One is quite black in colour, and measures when +outstretched 8 or 9 in. in length. The other is light brown and somewhat +smaller, its length usually not exceeding 7 in. The first is +flaccid and sluggish in its movements, and has not much power of +contraction; its epipodial lobes are enormously developed and extend +far forward along the body; it gives out when handled an abundance +of purple liquid, which is derived from cutaneous glands situated +on the under side of the free edge of the mantle. According to F. +Blochmann it is identical with <i>A. camelus</i> of Cuvier. The other +species is <i>A. depilans</i>; it is firm to the touch, and contracts forcibly +when irritated; the secretion of the mantle-glands is not abundant, +and is milky white in appearance. The kidney has similar relations +in both species, and is identical with the organ spoken of by many +authors as the triangular gland. Its superficial extent is seen when +the folds covering the shell are cut away and the shell removed; the +external surface forms a triangle with its base bordering the pericardium, +and its apex directed posteriorly and reaching the the left-hand +posterior corner of the shell-chamber. The dorsal surface of +the kidney extends to the left beyond the shell-chamber beneath the +skin in the space between the shell-chamber and the left parapodium.</p> + +<p>When the animal is turned on its left-hand side and the mantle-chamber +widely opened, the gill being turned over to the left, a +part of the kidney is seen beneath the skin between the attachment +of the gill and the right parapodium (fig. 39). On examination +this is found to be the under surface of the posterior limb of the +gland, the upper surface of which has just been described as lying +beneath the shell. In the posterior third of this portion, close to +that edge which is adjacent to the base of the gill, is the external +opening (fig. 39, <i>o</i>).</p> + +<p>When the pericardium is cut open from above in an animal +otherwise entire, the anterior face of the kidney is seen forming +the posterior wall of the pericardial chamber; on the deep edge of +this face, a little to the left of the attachment of the auricle to the +floor of the pericardium, is seen a depression; this depression contains +the opening from the pericardium into the kidney.</p> + +<p>To complete the account of the relations of the organ: the right +anterior corner can be seen superficially in the wall of the mantle-chamber +above the gill. Thus the base of the gill passes in a slanting +direction across the right-hand side of the kidney, the posterior +end being dorsal to the apex of the gland, and the anterior end +ventral to the right-hand corner.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:184px; height:340px" src="images/img519c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 41.</span>—Gonad, and +accessory glands and ducts of <i>Aplysia</i>. (Lankester.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>i</i>, Ovo-testis.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Hermaphrodite duct.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Albuminiparous gland.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Vesicula seminalis.</p> +<p><i>k</i>, Opening of the albuminiparous gland into the hermaphrodite duct.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Hermaphrodite duct (uterine portion).</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Vaginal portion of the uterine duct.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Spermatheca.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Its duct.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Genital pore.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>As so great a part of the whole surface of the kidney lies adjacent +to external surfaces of the body, the remaining part which faces +the internal organs is small; it consists of the left part of the under +surface; it is level with the floor of the pericardium, and lies over +the globular mass formed by the liver and convoluted intestine.</p> + +<p>Thus the renal organ of <i>Aplysia</i> is shown to conform to the +Molluscan type. The heart lying within the adjacent pericardium +has the usual form, a single auricle and +ventricle. The vascular system is not +extensive, the arteries soon ending in the +well-marked spongy tissue which builds +up the muscular foot, parapodia, and +dorsal body-wall.</p> + +<p>The alimentary canal commences with +the usual buccal mass; the lips are cartilaginous, +but not armed with horny +jaws, though these are common in other +Opisthobranchs; the lingual ribbon is +multidenticulate, and a pair of salivary +glands pour in their secretion. The oesophagus +expands into a curious gizzard, +which is armed internally with large +horny processes, some broad and thick, +others spinous, fitted to act as crushing +instruments. From this we pass to a +stomach and a coil of intestine embedded +in the lobes of a voluminous liver; a +caecum of large size is given off near the +commencement of the intestine. The liver +opens by two ducts into the digestive +tract.</p> + +<p>The generative organs lie close to the +coil of intestine and liver, a little to the +left side. When dissected out they appear +as represented in fig. 41. The +essential reproductive organ or gonad +consists of both ovarian and testicular +cells (see fig. 42). It is an ovo-testis. +From it passes a common or hermaphrodite +duct, which very soon becomes +entwined in the spire of a gland—the +albuminiparous gland. The latter opens +into the common duct at the point <i>k</i>, +and here also is a small diverticulum of +the duct <i>f</i>. Passing on, we find not +far from the genital pore a glandular +spherical body (the spermatheca <i>c</i>) opening +by means of a longish duct into +the common duct, and then we reach +the pore (fig. 39, <i>k</i>). Here the female apparatus terminates. But +when the male secretion of the ovo-testis is active, the seminal +fluid passes from the genital pore along the spermatic groove (fig. 39) +to the penis, and is by the aid of that eversible muscular organ introduced +into the genital pore of a second <i>Aplysia</i>, whence it passes +into the spermatheca, there to await the activity of the female +element of the ovo-testis of this second <i>Aplysia</i>. After an interval +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520"></a>520</span> +of some days—possibly weeks—the ova of the second <i>Aplysia</i> +commence to descend the hermaphrodite duct; they become enclosed +in a viscid secretion at the point where the albuminiparous +gland opens into the duct intertwined with it; and on reaching the +point where the spermathecal duct debouches they are impregnated +by the spermatozoa which escape now +from the spermatheca and meet the ova.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:374px; height:235px" src="images/img520a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 42.</span>—Follicles of the hermaphrodite gonads of Euthyneurous +Gastropods. <i>A</i>, of <i>Helix</i>; <i>B</i>, of <i>Eolis</i>; <i>a</i>, ova; <i>b</i>, developing +spermatozoa; <i>c</i>, common efferent duct.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:122px; height:513px" src="images/img520b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 43.</span>—Nervous system of <i>Aplysia</i>, as +a type of the long-looped Euthyneurous condition. The untwisted visceral loop +is lightly shaded. (After Spengel.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>ce</i>, Cerebral ganglion.</p> +<p><i>pl</i>, Pleural ganglion.</p> +<p><i>pe</i>, Pedal ganglion.</p> +<p><i>ab. sp</i>, Abdominal ganglion which represents also the supra-intestinal ganglion of Streptoneura +and gives off the nerve to the osphradium (olfactory organ) <i>o</i>, and another to an unlettered so-called +“genital” ganglion. The buccal nerves and ganglia are omitted.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The development of <i>Aplysia</i> from the +egg presents many points of interest from +the point of view of comparative embryology, +but in relation to the morphology +of the Opisthobranchia it is sufficient to +point to the occurrence of a trochosphere +and a veliger stage (fig. 36), and of a +shell-gland or primitive shell-sac (fig. 36, +<i>shgr</i>), which is succeeded by a nautiloid +shell.</p> + +<p>In the nervous system of <i>Aplysia</i> the +great ganglion-pairs are well developed and +distinct. The euthyneurous visceral loop +is long, and presents only one ganglion (in +<i>Aplysia camelus</i>, but two distinct ganglia +joined to one another in <i>Aplysia hybrida</i> +of the English coast), placed at its extreme +limit, representing both the right and left +visceral ganglia and the third or abdominal +ganglion, which are so often separately +present. The diagram (fig. 43) shows the +nerve connecting this abdomino-visceral +ganglion with the olfactory ganglion of +Spengel. It is also seen to be connected +with a more remote ganglion—the genital. +Such special irregularities in the development +of ganglia upon the visceral loop, +and on one or more of the main nerves +connected with it, are very frequent. Our +figure of the nervous system of <i>Aplysia</i> +does not give the small pair of buccal +ganglia which are, as in all glossophorous +Molluscs, present upon the nerves passing +from the cerebral region to the odontophore.</p> + +<p>For a comparison of various Opisthobranchs, +<i>Aplysia</i> will be found to present +a convenient starting-point. It is one of +the more typical Opisthobranchs, that is +to say, it belongs to the section Tectibranchia, +but other members of the suborder, +namely, <i>Bulla</i> and <i>Actaeon</i> (figs. 44 +and 45), are less abnormal than <i>Aplysia</i> +in regard to their shells and the form of the +visceral hump. They have naked spirally +twisted shells which may be concealed from +view in the living animal by the expansion +and reflection of the parapodia, but are not +enclosed by the mantle, whilst <i>Actaeon</i> is +remarkable for possessing an operculum +like that of so many Streptoneura.</p> + +<p>The great development of the parapodia +seen in <i>Aplysia</i> is usual in Tectibranchiate +Opisthobranchs. The whole surface of the +body becomes greatly modified in those +Nudibranchiate forms which have lost, not +only the shell, but also the ctenidium. Many +of these have peculiar processes developed +on the dorsal surface (fig. 46, A, B), or +retain purely negative characters (fig. 46, +D). The chief modification of internal +organization presented by these forms, as compared with <i>Aplysia</i>, +is found in the condition of the alimentary canal. The liver is no +longer a compact organ opening by a pair of ducts into the median +digestive tract, but we find very numerous hepatic diverticula on a +shortened axial tract (fig. 47). These diverticula extend usually one +into each of the dorsal papillae or “cerata” when these are present. +They are not merely digestive glands, but are sufficiently wide to act +as receptacles of food, and in them the digestion of food proceeds just +as in the axial portion of the canal. A precisely similar modification +of the liver or great digestive gland is found in the scorpions, where +the axial portion of the digestive canal is short and straight, and the +lateral ducts sufficiently wide to admit food into the ramifications +of the gland there to be digested; whilst in the spiders the gland is +reduced to a series of simple caeca.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:445px; height:198px" src="images/img520c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 44.—<i>Bulla vexillum</i> (Chemnitz), as seen crawling. <i>á</i>, oral +hood (compare with Tethys, fig. 46, B), possibly a continuation of +the epipodia; <i>b, b′</i>, cephalic tentacles. (From Owen.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The typical character is retained by the heart, pericardium, and +the communicating nephridium or renal organ in all Opisthobranchs. +An interesting example of this is furnished by the fish-like transparent +<i>Phyllirhoë</i> (fig. 37), in which it is possible most satisfactorily +to study in the living animal, by means of the microscope, the course +of the blood-stream, and also the reno-pericardial communication. +In many of the Nudibranchiate Opisthobranchs the nervous system +presents a concentration of the ganglia (fig. 48), contrasting greatly +with what we have seen in <i>Aplysia</i>. Not only are the pleural ganglia +fused to the cerebral, but also the visceral to these (see in further +illustration the condition attained by the Pulmonate <i>Limnaeus</i>, +fig. 59), and the visceral loop is astonishingly short and insignificant +(fig. 48, <i>e′</i>). That the parts are rightly thus identified is probable +from J.W. Spengel’s observation of the osphradium and its nerve-supply +in these forms; the nerve to that organ, which is placed +somewhat anteriorly—on the dorsal surface—being given off from +the hinder part (visceral) of the right compound ganglion—the +fellow to that marked A in fig. 48. The Eolid-like Nudibranchs, +amongst other specialities of structure, possess (in some cases at any +rate) apertures at the apices of the “cerata” or dorsal papillae, +which lead from the exterior into the hepatic caeca. Some amongst +them (<i>Tergipes, Eolis</i>) are also remarkable for possessing peculiarly +modified cells placed in sacs (cnidosacs) at the apices of these same +papillae, which resemble the “thread-cells” of the Coelentera. +According to T.S. Wright and J.H. Grosvenor these nematocysts +are derived from the hydroids on which the animals feed.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:199px; height:127px" src="images/img520d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 45.—<i>Actaeon. h</i>, shell; <i>b</i>, oral hood; <i>d</i>, foot; +<i>f</i>, operculum.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The development of many Opisthobranchia has been examined—<i>e.g.</i> +<i>Aplysia, Pleurobranchidium, Elysia, Polycera, Doris, Tergipes</i>. +All pass through trochosphere and veliger stages, and in all a nautiloid +or boat-like shell is developed, preceded by a well-marked +“shell-gland” (see fig. 36). The transition from the free-swimming +veliger larva with its nautiloid shell +(fig. 36) to the adult form has not +been properly observed, and many +interesting points as to the true nature +of folds (whether parapodia or mantle +or velum) have yet to be cleared up +by a knowledge of such development +in forms like <i>Tethys, Doris, Phyllidia</i>, +&c. As in other Molluscan groups, +we find even in closely-allied genera +(for instance, in <i>Aplysia</i> and <i>Pleurobranchidium</i>, +and other genera), the +greatest differences as to the <i>amount</i> +of food-material by which the egg-shell is encumbered. Some +form their diblastula by emboly, others by epiboly; and in the +later history of the further development of the enclosed cells (arch-enteron) +very marked variations occur in closely-allied forms, due +to the influence of a greater or less abundance of food-material +mixed with the protoplasm of the egg.</p> + +<p>Sub-order 1.—<span class="sc">Tectibranchia</span>. Opisthobranchs provided in the +adult state with a shell and a mantle, except <i>Runcina, Pleurobranchaea, +Cymbuliidae</i>, and some Aplysiomorpha. There is a +ctenidium, except in some Thecosomata and Gymnosomata, and an +osphradium.</p> + +<p>Tribe 1.—<span class="sc">Bullomorpha</span>. The shell is usually well developed, +except in <i>Runcina</i> and <i>Cymbuliidae</i>, and may be external or internal. +No operculum, except in <i>Actaeonidae</i> and <i>Limacinidae</i>. The pallial +cavity is always well developed, and contains the ctenidium, at least +in part; ctenidium, except in <i>Lophocercidae</i>, of folded type. With +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521"></a>521</span> +the exception of the <i>Aplustridae</i>, <i>Lophocercidae</i> and <i>Thecosomata</i>, +the head is devoid of tentacles, and its dorsal surface forms a digging +disk or shield. The edges of the foot form parapodia, often transformed +into fins. Posteriorly the mantle forms a large pallial lobe +under the pallial aperture. Stomach generally provided with +chitinous or calcified masticatory plates. Visceral commissure fairly +long, except in <i>Runcina, Lobiger</i> and <i>Thecosomata</i>. Hermaphrodite +genital aperture, connected with the penis by a ciliated +groove, except in <i>Actaeon, Lobiger</i> and <i>Cavolinia longirostris</i>, in +which the spermiduct is a closed tube. Animals either swim or +burrow.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:422px; height:497px" src="images/img521a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="center f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 46.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="2">A, <i>Eolis papillosa</i> (Lin.), dorsal view.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, Posterior and anterior cephalic tentacles.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>c</i>, The dorsal “cerata.”</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="2">B, <i>Tethys leporina</i>, dorsal view.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p> <i>a</i>, The cephalic hood.</p> +<p> <i>b</i>, Cephalic tentacles.</p> +<p> <i>c</i>, Neck.</p> +<p> <i>d</i>, Genital pore.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p> <i>e</i>, Anus.</p> +<p> <i>f</i>, Large cerata.</p> +<p> <i>g</i>, Smaller cerata.</p> +<p> <i>h</i>, Margin of the foot.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="2">C, <i>Doris</i> (<i>Actinocyclus</i>) <i>tuberculatus</i> (Cuv.), seen from the pedal +surface.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p> <i>m</i>, Mouth.</p> +<p> <i>b</i>, Margin of the head.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p> <i>f</i>, Sole of the foot.</p> +<p><i>sp</i>, The mantle-like epipodium.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="2">D, E, Dorsal and lateral view of <i>Elysia</i> (<i>Actaeon</i>) <i>viridis</i>. +<i>ep</i>, epipodial outgrowths. (After Keferstein.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"><tr><td> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:207px; height:391px" src="images/img521b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 47.—Enteric Canal of <i>Eolis papillosa</i>. (From +Gegenbaur, after Alder and Hancock.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>ph</i>, Pharynx.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Midgut, with its hepatic appendages <i>h</i>, all of which are not figured.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Hind gut.</p> +<p><i>an</i>, Anus.</p></td></tr></table></td> + +<td><table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:250px; height:215px" src="images/img521c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 48.—Central Nervous System of +<i>Fiona</i> (one of the Nudibranchia), showing a tendency +to fusion of the great ganglia. (From Gegenbaur, +after Bergh.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>A</i>, Cerebral, pleural and visceral ganglia united.</p> +<p><i>B</i>, Pedal ganglion.</p> +<p><i>C</i>, Buccal ganglion.</p> +<p><i>D</i>, Oesophageal ganglion connected with, the Buccal.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Nerve to superior cephalic tentacle.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Nerves to inferior cephalic tentacles.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Nerve to generative organs.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Pedal nerve.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Pedal commissure.</p> +<p><i>e′</i>, Visceral loop or commissure (?).</p></td></tr></table> +</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:265px; height:263px" src="images/img521d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 49.—<i>Cavolinia tridentata</i>, Forsk. +from the Mediterranean, magnified two +diameters. (From Owen.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>a</i>, Mouth.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Pair of cephalic tentacles.</p> +<p><i>C, C</i>, Pteropodial lobes of the foot.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Median web connecting these.</p> +<p><i>e, e</i>, Processes of the mantle-skirt reflected over the surface of the shell.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, The shell enclosing the visceral hump.</p> +<p><i>h</i>. The median spine of the shell.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:225px; height:126px" src="images/img521e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 50.—Shell of <i>Cavolinia +tridentata</i>, seen from the side.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>f</i>, Postero-dorsal surface.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Antero-ventral surface.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Median dorsal spine.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Mouth of the shell.</p></td></tr></table> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1.—<i>Actaeonidae.</i> Cephalic shield bifid posteriorly; margins +of foot slightly developed; genital duct diaulic; visceral commissure +streptoneurous; +shell thick, with +prominent spire and +elongated aperture; a +horny operculum. +<i>Actaeon</i>, British. <i>Solidula. +Tornatellaea</i>, extinct. +<i>Adelactaeon. +Bullina. Bullinula.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 2.—<i>Ringiculidae.</i> +Cephalic disk enlarged +anteriorly, forming an +open tube posteriorly; +shell external, thick, +with prominent spire; +no operculum. <i>Ringicula. +Pugnus.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 3.—<i>Tornatinidae.</i> +Margins of foot not +prominent; no radula; +shell external, with +inconspicuous spire. +<i>Tornatina</i>, British. <i>Retusa. +Volvula.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 4.—<i>Scaphandridae.</i> +Cephalic shield short, +truncated posteriorly; +eyes deeply embedded; +three calcareous stomachal +plates; shell external, +with reduced +spire. <i>Scaphander</i>, +British. <i>Atys. Smaragdinella. Cylichna</i>, British. <i>Amphisphyra</i>, +British.</p> + +<p>Fam. 5.—<i>Bullidae.</i> Margins of foot well developed; eyes superficial; +three chitinous stomachal plates; shell external, with +reduced spire. Bulla, British. <i>Haminea</i>, British.</p> + +<p>Fam. 6.—<i>Aceratidae.</i> Cephalic shield continuous with neck; +twelve to fourteen stomachal plates; a posterior pallial filament +passing through a notch in shell. <i>Acera</i>, British. <i>Cylindrobulla. +Volutella.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 7.—<i>Aplustridae.</i> Foot very broad; cephalic shield with +four tentacles; shell external, thin, without prominent spire. +<i>Aplustrum. Hydatina. Micromelo.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 8.—<i>Philinidae.</i> Cephalic shield broad, thick and simple; +shell wholly internal, thin, spire much reduced, aperture +very large. <i>Philine</i>, British. <i>Cryptophthalmus. Chelinodura. +Phanerophthalmus. Colpodaspis</i>, British. <i>Colobocephalus.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 9.—<i>Doridiidae.</i> Cephalic shield ending posteriorly in a +median point; shell internal, largely membranous; no radula +or stomachal plates. <i>Doridium. Navarchus.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 10.—<i>Gastropteridae.</i> Cephalic shield pointed behind; shell +internal, chiefly membranous, with calcified nucleus, nautiloid; +parapodia forming fins. <i>Gastropteron.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 11.—<i>Runcinidae.</i> Cephalic shield continuous with dorsal +integument; no shell; ctenidium projecting from mantle +cavity. <i>Runcina.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 12.—<i>Lophocercidae.</i> Shell external, globular or ovoid; foot +elongated, parapodia separate +from ventral surface; genital +duct diaulic. <i>Lobiger. Lophocercus.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>The next three families form the +group formerly known as Thecosomatous +Pteropods. They are +all pelagic, the foot being entirely +transformed into a pair of anterior +fins; eyes are absent, and the nerve +centres are concentrated on the ventral +side of the oesophagus.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 13.—<i>Limacinidae.</i> Dextral +animals, with shell coiled +pseudo-sinistrally; operculum +with sinistral spiral; pallial +cavity dorsal. <i>Limacina</i>, British. <i>Peraclis</i>, ctenidium present.</p> + +<p>Fam. 14.—<i>Cymbuliidae.</i> Adult without shell; a sub-epithelial +pseudoconch formed by connective tissue; pallial cavity +ventral. <i>Cymbulia. Cymbuliopsis. Gleba. Desmopterus.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 15.—<i>Cavoliniidae.</i> Shell not coiled, symmetrical; pallial +cavity ventral. <i>Cavolinia. Clio. Cuvierina.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>Tribe 2.—<span class="sc">Aplysiomorpha</span>. Shell more or less internal, much +reduced or absent. Head bears two pairs of tentacles. Parapodia +separate from ventral surface, and generally transformed into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page522" id="page522"></a>522</span> +swimming lobes. Visceral commissure much shortened, except in +<i>Aplysia</i>. Genital duct monaulic; hermaphrodite duct connected +with penis by a ciliated groove. Animals either swim or crawl.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1.—<i>Aplysiidae</i>. Shell partly or wholly internal, or absent; +foot long, with well-developed ventral surface. <i>Aplysia. +Dolabella. Dolabrifer. Aplysiella. Phyllaplysia. Notarchus</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>The next six families include the animals formerly known as +Gymnosomatous Pteropods, characterized by the absence of mantle +and shell, the reduction of the ventral surface of the foot, and the +parapodial fins at the anterior end of the body. They are all pelagic.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 2.—<i>Pneumonodermatidae</i>. Pharynx evaginable, with +suckers. <i>Pneumonoderma. Dexiobranchaea. Spongiobranchaea. +Schizobrachium</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 3.—<i>Clionopsidae</i>. No buccal appendages or suckers; a +very long evaginable proboscis; +a quadriradiate terminal branchia. +<i>Clionopsis</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 4.—<i>Notobranchaeidae</i>. Posterior +branchia triradiate. Notobranchaea.</p> + +<p>Fam. 5.—<i>Thliptodontidae</i>. Head +very large, not marked off from +the body; neither branchia nor +suckers; fins situated near the +middle of the body. <i>Thliptodon</i>.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"><tr><td> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:266px; height:416px" src="images/img522a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 51.—Embryo of <i>Cavolinia +tridentata</i>. (From Balfour, after Fol.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>a</i>, Anus.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Median portion of the foot.</p> +<p><i>pn</i>, Pteropodial lobe of the foot.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Heart.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Intestine.</p> +<p><i>m</i>. Mouth.</p> +<p><i>ot</i>, Otocyst.</p> +<p><i>q</i>, Shell.</p> +<p><i>r</i>, Nephridium.</p> +<p><i>s</i>, Oesophagus.</p> +<p>σ, Sac containing nutritive yolk.</p> +<p><i>mb</i>, Mantle-skirt.</p> +<p><i>mc</i>, Sub-pallial chamber.</p> +<p><i>Kn</i>, Contractile sinus.</p></td></tr></table></td> + +<td><table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:227px; height:652px" src="images/img522b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 52.—<i>Styliola acicula</i>, +Rang. sp. enlarged. (From Owen.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>C, C</i>, The wing-like lobes of the foot.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Median fold of same.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Copulatory organ.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Pointed extremity of the shell.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Anterior margin of the shell.</p> +<p><i>n</i>, Stomach.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, Liver.</p> +<p><i>u</i>. Hermaphrodite gonad.</p></td></tr></table> +</td></tr></table> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 6.—<i>Clionidae</i>. No branchia +of any kind; a short evaginable pharynx, bearing paired conical +buccal appendages or “cephalocones.” <i>Clione. Paraclione. +Fowlerina</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 7.—<i>Halopsychidae</i>. No branchia; two long and branched +buccal appendages. <i>Halopsyche</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>Tribe 3.—<span class="sc">Pleurobranchomorpha.</span> Two pairs of tentacles. +Foot without parapodia; no pallial cavity, but always a single +ctenidium situated on the right side between mantle and foot. +Genital duct diaulic, without open seminal groove; male and +female apertures contiguous. Visceral commissure short, tendency +to concentration of all ganglia in dorsal side of oesophagus.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1.—<i>Tylodinidae</i>. Shell external and conical; anterior +tentacles form a frontal veil; ctenidium extending only over +right side; a distinct osphradium. <i>Tylodina</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 2.—<i>Umbrellidae</i>. Shell external, conical, much flattened; +anterior tentacles very small, and situated with the mouth in +a notch of the foot below the head; ctenidium very large. +<i>Umbrella</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 3.—<i>Pleurobranchidae</i>. Shell covered by mantle, or absent; +anterior tentacles form a frontal veil; mantle contains spicules. +<i>Pleurobranchus. Berthella. Haliotinella. Oscanius</i>, British. +<i>Oscaniella. Oscaniopsis. Pleurobranchaea.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>Sub-order 2.—<span class="sc">Nudibranchia</span>. Shell absent in the adult; no +ctenidium or osphradium. Body generally slug-like, and externally +symmetrical. Visceral mass not marked off from the foot, except in +<i>Hedylidae.</i> Dorsal respiratory appendages frequently present. +Visceral commissure reduced; nervous system concentrated on +dorsal side of oesophagus. Marine; generally carnivorous, and +brightly coloured, affording many instances of protective resemblance.</p> + +<p>Tribe 1.—<span class="sc">Tritoniomorpha</span>. Liver wholly or partially contained +in the visceral mass. Anus lateral, on the right side. Usually two +rows of ramified dorsal appendages. Genital duct diaulic; male +and female apertures contiguous.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1.—<i>Tritoniidae.</i> Anterior tentacles form a frontal veil; +foot rather broad. <i>Tritonia</i>, British. <i>Marionia.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 2.—<i>Scyllaeidae.</i> No anterior tentacles; dorsal appendages +broad and foliaceous; foot very narrow; stomach with horny +plates. <i>Scyllaea</i>, pelagic.</p> + +<p>Fam. 3.—<i>Phyllirhoidae.</i> No anterior tentacles, and no dorsal +appendages; body laterally compressed, transparent; pelagic. +<i>Phyllirhoë.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 4.—<i>Tethyidae.</i> Head broad, surrounded by a funnel-shaped +velum or hood; no radula; dorsal appendages foliaceous. +<i>Tethys. Melibe.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 5.—<i>Dendronotidae.</i> Anterior tentacles forming a scalloped +frontal veil; dorsal appendages and tentacles similarly ramified. +<i>Dendronotus. Campaspe.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 6.—<i>Bornellidae.</i> Dorsum furnished on either side with +papillae, at the base of which are ramified appendages. <i>Bornella.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 7.—<i>Lomanotidae.</i> Body flattened, the two dorsal borders +prominent and foliaceous. <i>Lomanotus</i>, British.</p> +</div> + +<p>Tribe 2.—<span class="sc">Doridomorpha</span>. Body externally symmetrical; anus +median, posterior, and generally dorsal, surrounded by ramified +pallial appendages, constituting a secondary branchia. Liver not +ramified in the integuments. Genital duct triaulic. Spicules present +in the mantle.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"><tr><td> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:278px; height:396px" src="images/img522c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 53.—<i>Halopsyche gaudichaudii</i>, +Soul. (From Owen.) Much enlarged; the body-wall removed.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>a</i>, The mouth.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, The pteropodial lobes of the foot.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, The centrally-placed hind-foot.</p> +<p><i>d, l, e</i>, Three pairs of tentacle-like processes placed at the sides of +the mouth, and developed (in all probability) from the fore-foot.</p> +<p><i>o′</i>, Anus.</p> +<p><i>y</i>, Genital pore.</p> +<p><i>k</i>, Retractor muscles.</p> +<p><i>o</i> and <i>p</i>, The liver.</p> +<p><i>u, v, w</i>, Genitalia.</p></td></tr></table></td> + +<td><table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:157px; height:354px" src="images/img522d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 54.—<i>Ancula +cristata</i>, one of the pygobranchiate Opisthobranchs (dorsal view). (From Gegenbaur, +after Alder and Hancock.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>a</i>, Anus.</p> +<p><i>br</i>, Secondary branchia surrounding the anus.</p> +<p><i>t</i>, Cephalic tentacles.</p> +<p>External to the branchia are seen ten club-like processes of +the dorsal wall, these are the “cerata” which are characteristically +developed in another suborder of Opisthobranchs.</p></td></tr></table> +</td></tr></table> + +<div class="list"> +<p class="pt2">Fam. 1.—<i>Polyceratidae.</i> A more or less prominent frontal +veil; branchiae non-retractile. <i>Euplocamus. Polycera</i>, British. +<i>Thecacera</i>, British. <i>Aegirus</i>, British. <i>Plocamopherus. Palio. +Crimora. Triopa</i>, British. <i>Triopella.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 2.—<i>Goniodorididae.</i> Mantle-border projecting; frontal +veil reduced, and often covered by the anterior border of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page523" id="page523"></a>523</span> +mantle. <i>Goniodoris</i>, British. <i>Acanthodoris</i>, British. <i>Idalia</i>, +British. <i>Ancula</i>, British. <i>Doridunculus</i>. <i>Lamellidoris</i>. <i>Ancylodoris</i>, +the only fresh-water Nudibranch, from Lake Baikal.</p> + +<p>Fam. 3.—<i>Heterodorididae</i>. No branchia. <i>Heterodoris</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 4.—<i>Dorididae</i>. Mantle oval, covering the head and the +greater part of the body; anterior tentacles, ill-developed; +branchiae generally retractile. <i>Doris</i>, British. <i>Hexabranchus</i>. +<i>Chromodoris</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 5.—<i>Doridopsidae</i>. Pharynx suctorial; no radula; branchial +rosette on the dorsal surface, above the mantle-border. +<i>Doridopsis</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 6.—<i>Corambidae</i>. Anus and branchia posterior, below the +mantle-border. <i>Corambe</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 7.-<i>-Phyllidiidae</i>. Pharynx suctorial; branchiae surrounding +the body, between the mantle and foot. <i>Phyllidia</i>. +<i>Fryeria</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>The last three families constitute the sub-tribe Porostomata, +characterized by the reduction of the buccal mass, which is modified +into a suctorial apparatus.</p> + +<p>Tribe 3.—<span class="sc">Eolidomorpha</span> (<i>Cladohepatica</i>). The whole of the liver +contained in the integuments and tegumentary papillae. Genital +duct diaulic; male and female apertures contiguous. The anus is +antero-lateral, except in the <i>Proctonotidae</i>, in which it is median. +Tegumentary papillae not ramified, and containing cnidosacs with +nematocysts.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1.—<i>Eolididae</i>. Dorsal papillae spindle-shaped or club-shaped. +<i>Eolis</i>, British. <i>Facelina</i>, British. <i>Tergipes</i>, British. +<i>Gonieolis</i>. <i>Cuthona</i>. <i>Embletonia</i>. <i>Galvina</i>. <i>Calma</i>. <i>Hero</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 2.—<i>Glaucidae</i>. Body furnished with three pairs of lateral +lobes, bearing the tegumentary papillae; foot very narrow; +pelagic. <i>Glaucus</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 3.—<i>Hedylidae</i>. Body elongated; visceral mass marked +off from foot posteriorly; dorsal appendages absent, or reduced +to a single pair; spicules in the integument. <i>Hedyle</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 4.—<i>Pseudovermidae</i>. Head without tentacles; body +elongated; anus on right side. <i>Pseudovermis</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 5.—<i>Proctonotidae</i>. Anus posterior, median; anterior +tentacles, atrophied; foot broad. <i>Janus</i>, British. <i>Proctonotus</i>, +British.</p> + +<p>Fam. 6.—<i>Dotonidae</i>. Bases of the rhinophores surrounded by +a sheath; dorsal papillae tuberculated and club-shaped, in a +single row on either side of the dorsum; no cnidosacs. <i>Doto</i>, +British. <i>Gellina</i>. <i>Heromorpha</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 7.—<i>Fionidae</i>. Dorsal papillae with a membranous expansion; +male and female apertures at some distance from +each other; pelagic. <i>Fiona</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 8.—<i>Pleurophyllidae</i>. Anterior tentacles in the form of a +digging shield; mantle without appendages, but respiratory +papillae beneath the mantle-border. <i>Pleurophyllidia</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 9.—<i>Dermatobranchidae</i>. Like the last, but wholly without +branchiae. <i>Dermatobranchus</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>Tribe 4.—<span class="sc">Elysiomorpha</span>. Liver ramifies in integuments and extends +into dorsal papillae, but there are no cnidosacs. Genital duct +always triaulic, and male and female apertures distant from each +other. No mandibles, and radula uniserial. Never more than one +pair of tentacles, and these are absent in <i>Alderia</i> and some species +of <i>Limapontia</i>.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:290px; height:290px" src="images/img523a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 55.—Dorsal and Ventral View of +<i>Pleurophyllidia lineata</i> (Otto), one of the Eolidomorph Nudibranchs. (After Keferstein.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>b</i>, The mouth.</p> +<p><i>l</i>, The lamelliform sub-pallial gills, which (as in Patella) replace the +typical Molluscan ctenidium.</p></td></tr></table> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1.—<i>Hermaeidae</i>. Foot narrow; dorsal papillae linear or +fusiform, in several +series. <i>Hermaea</i>, +British. <i>Stiliger</i>. <i>Alderia</i>, +British.</p> + +<p>Fam. 2.—<i>Phyllobranchidae</i>. +Foot +broad; dorsal papillae +flattened and foliaceous. +<i>Phyllobranchus</i>. +<i>Cyerce</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 3.—<i>Plakobranchidae</i>. +Body depressed, +without dorsal +papillae, but with two +very large lateral expansions, +with dorsal +plications. <i>Plakobranchus</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 4.—<i>Elysiidae</i>. +Body elongated, with +lateral expansions; +tentacles large; foot +narrow. <i>Elysia</i>, +British. <i>Tridachia</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 5.—<i>Limapontiidae</i>. +No lateral expansions, +and no dorsal papillae; +body planariform; anus +dorsal, median and posterior. <i>Limapontia</i>, British. <i>Actaeonia</i>, +British. <i>Cenia</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>Order 2 (of the Euthyneura).—<span class="sc">Pulmonata</span>. Euthyneurous +Gastropoda, probably derived from ancestral forms similar to the +Tectibranchiate Opisthobranchia by adaptation to a terrestrial life. +The ctenidium is atrophied, and the edge of the mantle-skirt is fused +to the dorsal integument by concrescence, except at one point which +forms the aperture of the mantle-chamber, thus converted into a +nearly closed sac. Air is admitted to this sac for respiratory and +hydrostatic purposes, and it thus becomes a lung. An operculum +is present only in <i>Amphibola</i>; a contrast being thus afforded with the +operculate pulmonate Streptoneura (<i>Cyclostoma</i>, &c.), which differ +in other essential features of structure from the Pulmonata. The +Pulmonata are, like the other Euthyneura, hermaphrodite, with +elaborately developed copulatory organs and accessory glands. +Like other Euthyneura, they have very numerous small denticles +on the lingual ribbon. In aquatic Pulmonata the osphradium is +retained.</p> + +<p>In some Pulmonata (snails) the foot is extended at right angles +to the visceral hump, which rises from it in the form of a coil as in +Streptoneura; in others the visceral hump is not elevated, but is +extended with the foot, and the shell is small or absent (slugs).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:428px; height:558px" src="images/img523b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 56.</span>—A Series of Stylommatophorous Pulmonata, showing +transitional forms between snail and slug.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p>A, <i>Helix pomatia</i>. (From Keferstein.)</p> + +<p>B, <i>Helicophanta brevipes</i>. (From Keferstein, after Pfeiffer.)</p> + +<p>C, <i>Testacella haliotidea</i>. (From Keferstein.)</p> + +<p>D, <i>Arion ater</i>, the great black slug. (From Keferstein.)<br /></p> +<p>  <i>a</i>, Shell in A, B, C, shell-sac (closed) in D; <i>b</i>, orifice leading +into the sub-pallial chamber (lung).</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:133px; height:95px" src="images/img523c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 57.</span>—<i>Ancylus</i> +<i>fluviatilis</i>, a patelliform +aquatic Pulmonate.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Pulmonata are widely distinguished from a small number of +Streptoneura at one time associated with them on account of their +mantle-chamber being converted, as in Pulmonata, into a lung, and +the ctenidium or branchial plume aborted. The terrestrial Streptoneura +(represented in England by the common genus <i>Cyclostoma</i>) +have a twisted visceral nerve-loop, an operculum on the foot, a +complex rhipidoglossate or taenio-glossate radula, and are of distinct +sexes. The Pulmonata have a straight visceral nerve-loop, usually +no operculum even in the embryo, and a multidenticulate radula, +the teeth being equi-formal; and they are hermaphrodite. Some +Pulmonata (<i>Limnaea</i>, &c.) live in fresh waters although breathing +air. The remarkable discovery has been made +that in deep lakes such <i>Limnaei</i> do not +breathe air, but admit water to the lung-sac +and live at the bottom. The lung-sac serves +undoubtedly as a hydrostatic apparatus in +the aquatic Pulmonata, as well as assisting +respiration.</p> + +<p>The same general range of body-form is +shown in Pulmonata as in the Heteropoda +and in the Opisthobranchia; at one extreme +we have snails with coiled visceral hump, at +the other cylindrical or flattened slugs (see +fig. 56). Limpet-like forms are also found (fig. 57, <i>Ancylus</i>). The +foot is always simple, with its flat crawling surface extending from +end to end, but in the embryo <i>Limnaea</i> it shows a bilobed character, +which leads on to the condition characteristic of Pteropoda.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page524" id="page524"></a>524</span></p> + +<p>The adaptation of the Pulmonata to terrestrial life has entailed +little modification of the internal organization. In one genus +(<i>Planorbis</i>) the plasma of the blood is coloured red by haemoglobin, +this being the only instance of the presence of this body in the blood +of Glossophorous Mollusca, though it occurs in corpuscles in the blood +of the bivalves <i>Arca</i> and <i>Solen</i> (Lankester).</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:179px; height:451px" src="images/img524a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 58.</span>—Hermaphrodite +Reproductive Apparatus of the Garden Snail (<i>Helix hortensis</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p>τ, Ovo-testis.</p> +<p><i>ve</i>, Hermaphrodite duct.</p> +<p><i>Ed</i>, Albuminiparous gland.</p> +<p><i>u</i>, Uterine dilatation of the hermaphrodite duct.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Digitate accessory glands on the female duct.</p> +<p><i>ps</i>, Calciferous gland or dart-sac on the female duct.</p> +<p><i>Rf</i>, Spermatheca or receptacle of the sperm in copulation, opening into the female duct.</p> +<p><i>vd</i>, Male duct (vas deferens).</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Penis.</p> +<p><i>fl</i>, Flagellum.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The generative apparatus of the snail (<i>Helix</i>) may serve as an +example of the hermaphrodite apparatus common to the Pulmonata +and Opisthobranchia (fig. 58). From +the ovo-testis, which lies near the apex +of the visceral coil, a common hermaphrodite +duct <i>ve</i> proceeds, which +receives the duct of the compact white +albuminiparous gland, <i>Ed</i>, and then +becomes much enlarged, the additional +width being due to the development of +glandular folds, which are regarded as +forming a uterus <i>u</i>. Where these folds +cease the common duct splits into two +portions, a male and a female. The +male duct <i>vd</i> becomes fleshy and +muscular near its termination at the +genital pore, forming the penis <i>p</i>. +Attached to it is a diverticulum <i>fl</i>, in +which the spermatozoa which have +descended from the ovo-testis are +stored and modelled into sperm ropes +or spermatophores. The female portion +of the duct is more complex. Soon +after quitting the uterus it is joined by +a long duct leading from a glandular +sac, the spermatheca (<i>Rf</i>). In this duct +and sac the spermatophores received +in copulation from another snail are +lodged. In <i>Helix hortensis</i> the spermatheca +is simple. In other species of +<i>Helix</i> a second duct (as large in <i>Helix</i> +<i>aspersa</i> as the chief one) is given off +from the spermathecal duct, and in the +natural state is closely adherent to the +wall of the uterus. This second duct +has normally no spermathecal gland at +its termination, which is simple and +blunt. But in rare cases in <i>Helix</i> +<i>aspersa</i> a second spermatheca is found +at the end of this second duct. Tracing +the widening female duct onwards we +now come to the openings of the +digitate accessory glands <i>d</i>, <i>d</i>, which +probably assist in the formation of the +egg-capsule. Close to them is the remarkable +dart-sac <i>ps</i>, a thick-walled +sac, in the lumen of which a crystalline +four-fluted rod or dart consisting of +carbonate of lime is found. It is supposed +to act in some way as a stimulant +in copulation, but possibly has to do +with the calcareous covering of the +egg-capsule. Other Pulmonata exhibit +variations of secondary importance in +the details of this hermaphrodite apparatus.</p> + +<p>The nervous system of <i>Helix</i> is not +favourable as an example on account of the fusion of the ganglia +to form an almost uniform ring of nervous matter around the +oesophagus. The pond-snail (<i>Limnaeus</i>) furnishes, on the other +hand, a very beautiful case of distinct ganglia and connecting +cords (fig. 59). The demonstration which it affords of the extreme +shortening of the Euthyneurous visceral nerve-loop is most +instructive and valuable for comparison with and explanation of +the condition of the nervous centres in Cephalopoda, as also of +some Opisthobranchia. The figure (fig. 59) is sufficiently described +in the letterpress attached to it; the pair of buccal ganglia joined +by the connectives to the cerebrals are, as in most of our figures, +omitted. Here we need only further draw attention to the osphradium, +discovered by Lacaze-Duthiers, and shown by Spengel to +agree in its innervation with that organ in all other Gastropoda. +On account of the shortness of the visceral loop and the proximity +of the right visceral ganglion to the oesophageal nerve-ring, the nerve +to the osphradium and olfactory ganglion is very long. The position +of the osphradium corresponds more or less closely with that of the +vanished right ctenidium, with which it is normally associated. In +<i>Helix</i> and <i>Limax</i> the osphradium has not been described, and +possibly its discovery might clear up the doubts which have +been raised as to the nature of the mantle-chamber of those +genera. In <i>Planorbis</i>, which is sinistral (as are a few other genera +or exceptional varieties of various Anisopleurous Gastropods), +instead of being dextral, the osphradium is on the left side, +and receives its nerve from the left visceral ganglion, the +whole series of unilateral organs being reversed. This is, as +might be expected, what is found to be the case in all “reversed” +Gastropods.</p> + +<p>The shell of the Pulmonata, though always light and delicate, is in +many cases a well-developed spiral “house” into which the creature +can withdraw itself; and, although the foot possesses no operculum, +yet in <i>Helix</i> the aperture of the shell is closed in the winter by a +complete lid, the “hybernaculum” more or less calcareous in nature, +which is secreted by the foot. In <i>Clausilia</i> a peculiar modification of +this lid exists permanently in the adult, attached by an elastic stalk +to the mouth of the shell, and known as the “clausilium.” In +<i>Limnaeus</i> the permanent shell is preceded in the embryo by a well-marked +shell-gland or primitive shell-sac (fig. 60), at one time supposed +to be the developing anus, but shown by Lankester to be +identical with the “shell-gland” discovered by him in other Mollusca +(<i>Pisidium</i>, <i>Pleurobranchidium</i>, <i>Neritina</i>, &c.). As in other +Gastropoda Anisopleura, this shell-sac may abnormally develop +a plug of chitinous matter, but normally it flattens out and disappears, +whilst the cap-like rudiment of the permanent shell is shed +out from the dome-like surface of the visceral hump, in the centre of +which the shell-sac existed for a brief period.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:333px; height:305px" src="images/img524b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 59.</span>—Nervous System of the Pond-Snail, +<i>Limnaeus stagnalis</i>, as a type of the short-looped euthyneurous condition. The +short visceral “loop” with its three ganglia is lightly-shaded.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>ce</i>, Cerebral ganglion.</p> +<p><i>pe</i>, Pedal ganglion.</p> +<p><i>pl</i>, Pleural ganglion.</p> +<p><i>ab</i>, Abdominal ganglion.</p> +<p><i>sp</i>, Visceral ganglion of the left side; opposite to it is the visceral ganglion of +the right side, which gives off the long nerve to the olfactory ganglion and osphradium <i>o</i>.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">In <i>Planorbis</i> and in <i>Auricula</i> (Pulmonata, +allied to <i>Limnaeus</i>) the olfactory organ is +on the <i>left</i> side and receives its nerve from +the <i>left</i> visceral ganglion. (After Spengel.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>In <i>Clausilia</i>, according to the observations of C. Gegenbaur, the +primitive shell-sac does not flatten out and disappear, but takes the +form of a flattened closed sac. Within this closed sac a plate of calcareous +matter is developed, and after a time the upper wall of the +sac disappears, and the calcareous plate continues to grow as the +nucleus of the permanent shell. In the slug <i>Testacella</i> (fig. 56, C) +the shell-plate never attains a large size, though naked. In other +slugs, namely, <i>Limax</i> and <i>Arion</i>, the shell-sac remains permanently +closed over the shell-plate, which in the latter genus consists of a +granular mass of carbonate of lime. The permanence of the primitive +shell-sac in these slugs is a point of considerable interest. It is +clear enough that the sac is of a different origin from that of <i>Aplysia</i> +(described in the section treating of Opisthobranchia), being primitive +instead of secondary. It seems probable that it is identical +with one of the open sacs in which each shell-plate of a <i>Chiton</i> is +formed, and the series of plate-like imbrications which are placed +behind the single shell-sac on the dorsum of the curious slug, <i>Plectrophorus</i>, +suggest the possibility of the formation of a series of shell-sacs +on the back of that animal similar to those which we find in +<i>Chiton</i>. Whether the closed primitive shell-sac of the slugs (and +with it the transient embryonic shell-gland of all other Mollusca) is +precisely the same thing as the closed sac in which the calcareous +pen or shell of the Cephalopod <i>Sepia</i> and its allies is formed, +is a further question +which we shall consider +when dealing +with the Cephalopoda. +It is important here +to note that <i>Clausilia</i> +furnishes us with an +exceptional instance +of the <i>continuity</i> of the +shell or secreted product +of the primitive +shell-sac with the +adult shell. In most +other Mollusca (Anisopleurous +Gastropods, +Pteropods and Conchifera) +there is a want +of such continuity; +the primitive shell-sac +contributes no factor +to the permanent shell, +or only a very minute +knob-like particle +(<i>Neritina</i> and <i>Paludina</i>). +It flattens out +and disappears before +the work of forming +the permanent shell +commences. And just +as there is a break +at this stage, so (as +observed by A. Krohn +in <i>Marsenia</i> = <i>Echinospira</i>) +there <i>may</i> be a +break at a later stage, +the nautiloid shell +formed on the larva +being cast, and a new +shell of a different form +being formed afresh on +the surface of the visceral hump. It is, then, in this sense that we +may speak of primary, secondary and tertiary shells in Mollusca +recognizing the fact that they <i>may</i> be merely phases fused by continuity +of growth so as to form but one shell, or that in other cases +they <i>may</i> be presented to us as separate individual things, in virtue +of the non-development of the later phases, or in virtue of sudden +changes in the activity of the mantle-surface causing the shedding +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page525" id="page525"></a>525</span> +or disappearance of one phase of shell-formation before a later one +is entered upon.</p> + +<p>The development of the aquatic Pulmonata from the egg offers +considerable facilities for study, and that of <i>Limnaeus</i> has been +elucidated by E.R. Lankester, whilst H. Rabl has with remarkable +skill applied the method of sections to the study of the minute +embryos of <i>Planorbis</i>. The chief features in the development of +<i>Limnaeus</i> are exhibited in fig. 60. There is not a very large amount +of food-material present in the egg of this snail, and accordingly the +cells resulting from division are not so unequal as in many other +cases. The four cells first formed are of equal size, and then four +smaller cells are formed by division of these four so as to lie at one +end of the first four (the pole corresponding to that at which the +“directive corpuscles” are extruded and remain). The smaller cells +now divide and spread over the four larger cells; at the same time +a space—the cleavage cavity or blastocoel—forms in the centre of +the mulberry-like mass. Then the large cells recommence the +process of division and sink into the hollow of the sphere, leaving +an elongated groove, the blastopore, on the surface. The invaginated +cells (derived from the division of the four big cells) form the endoderm +or arch-enteron; the outer cells are the ectoderm. The blastopore +now closes along the middle part of its course, which coincides +in position with the future “foot.” One end of the blastopore +becomes nearly closed, and an ingrowth of ectoderm takes place +around it to form the stomodaeum or fore-gut and mouth. The +other extreme end closes, but the invaginated endoderm cells remain +in continuity with this extremity of the blastopore, and form the +“rectal peduncle” or “pedicle of invagination” of Lankester, +although the endoderm cells retain no contact with the middle region +of the now closed-up blastopore. The anal opening forms at a late +period by a very short ingrowth or proctodaeum coinciding with the +blind termination of the rectal peduncle (fig. 60, <i>pi</i>).</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:380px; height:357px" src="images/img525a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 60.</span>—Embryo of <i>Limnaeus stagnalis</i>, at a stage when the +Trochosphere is developing foot and shell-gland and becoming a +Veliger, seen as a transparent object under slight pressure. (Lankester.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>ph</i>, Pharynx (stomodaeal invagination).</p> +<p><i>v</i>, <i>v</i>, The ciliated band marking out the velum.</p> +<p><i>ng</i>, Cerebral nerve-ganglion.</p> +<p><i>re</i>, Stiebel’s canal (left side), probably an evanescent embryonic nephridium.</p> +<p><i>sh</i>, The primitive shell-sac or shell-gland.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>pi</i>, The rectal peduncle or pedicle of invagination; its attachment to the ectoderm +is coincident with the hindmost extremity of the elongated blastopore of fig. 3, C.</p> +<p><i>tge</i>, Mesoblastic (skeleto-trophic and muscular) cells investing <i>gs</i>, the bilobed arch-enteron +or lateral vesicles of invaginated endoderm, which will develop into liver.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, The foot.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The body-cavity and the muscular, fibrous and vascular tissues +are traced partly to two symmetrically disposed “mesoblasts,” +which bud off from the invaginated arch-enteron, partly to cells +derived from the ectoderm, which at a very early stage is connected +by long processes with the invaginated endoderm. The external +form of the embryo goes through the same changes as in other +Gastropods, and is not, as was held previously to Lankester’s observations, +exceptional. When the middle and hinder regions of the +blastopore are closing in, an equatorial ridge of ciliated cells is +formed, converting the embryo into a typical trochosphere.</p> + +<p>The foot now protrudes below the mouth, and the post-oral hemisphere +of the trochosphere grows more rapidly then the anterior or +velar area. The young foot shows a bilobed form. Within the velar +area the eyes and the cephalic tentacles commence to rise up, and +on the surface of the post-oral region is formed a cap-like shell and +an encircling ridge, which gradually increases in prominence and +becomes the freely depending mantle-skirt. The outline of the velar +area becomes strongly emarginated and can be traced through the +more mature embryos to the cephalic lobes or labial processes of the +adult <i>Limnaeus</i> (fig. 61).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:429px; height:265px" src="images/img525b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 61.</span>—A, B, C. Three views of <i>Limnaeus stagnalis</i>, in order to +show the persistence of the larval velar area <i>v</i>, as the circum-oral lobes +of the adult. <i>m</i>, Mouth; <i>f</i>, foot; <i>v</i>, velar area, the margin <i>v</i> corresponding +with the ciliated band which demarcates the velar area +or velum of the embryo Gastropod (see fig. 4, D, E, F, H, I, <i>v</i>). +(Original.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The increase of the visceral dome, its spiral twisting, and the +gradual closure of the space overhung by the mantle-skirt so as to +convert it into a lung-sac with a small contractile aperture, belong to +stages in the development later than any represented in our figures.</p> + +<p>We may now revert briefly to the internal organization at a period +when the trochosphere is beginning to show a prominent foot growing +out from the area where the mid-region of the elongated blastopore +was situated, and having therefore at one end of it the mouth and +at the other the anus. Fig. 60 represents such an embryo under +slight compression as seen by transmitted light. The ciliated band +of the left side of the velar area is indicated by a line extending +from <i>v</i> to <i>v</i>; the foot <i>f</i> is seen between the pharynx <i>ph</i> and the +pedicle of invagination <i>pi</i>. The mass of the arch-enteron or invaginated +endodermal sac has taken on a bilobed form, and its cells +are swollen (<i>gs</i> and <i>tge</i>). This bilobed sac becomes <i>entirely</i> the liver +in the adult; the intestine and stomach are formed from the pedicle +of invagination, whilst the pharynx, oesophagus and crop form from +the stomodaeal invagination <i>ph</i>. To the right (in the figure) of the +rectal peduncle is seen the deeply invaginated shell-gland <i>ss</i>, with a +secretion <i>sh</i> protruding from it. The shell-gland is destined in +<i>Limnaeus</i> to become very rapidly stretched out, and to disappear. +Farther up, within the velar area, the rudiments of the cerebral +nerve-ganglion <i>ng</i> are seen separating from the ectoderm. A remarkable +cord of cells having a position just below the integument occurs +on each side of the head. In the figure the cord of the left side is +seen, marked <i>re</i>. This paired organ consists of a string of cells which +are perforated by a duct opening to the exterior and ending internally +in a flame-cell. Such cannulated cells are characteristic of the nephridia +of many worms, and the organs thus formed in the embryo +<i>Limnaeus</i> are embryonic nephridia. The most important fact about +them is that they disappear, and are in no way connected with the +typical nephridium of the adult. In reference to their first observer +they were formerly called “Stiebel’s canals.” Other Pulmonata +possess, when embryos, Stiebel’s canals in a more fully developed +state, for instance, the common slug <i>Limax</i>. Here too they disappear +during embryonic life. Similar larval nephridia occur in +other Gastropoda. In the marine Streptoneura they are ectodermic +projections which ultimately fall off; in the Opisthobranchs they +are closed pouches; in <i>Paludina</i> and <i>Bithynia</i> they are canals as in +Pulmonata.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:429px; height:139px" src="images/img525c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 62.</span>—<i>Oncidium tonganum</i>, a littoral Pulmonate, found on the +shores of the Indian and Pacific Oceans (Mauritius, Japan).</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Marine Pulmonata.</i>—Whilst the Pulmonata are essentially a +terrestrial and fresh-water group, there is one genus of slug-like +Pulmonates which frequent the sea-coast (<i>Oncidium</i>, fig. 62). Karl +Semper has shown that these slugs have, in addition to the usual +pair of cephalic eyes, a number of eyes developed upon the dorsal +integument. These dorsal eyes are very perfect in elaboration, +possessing lens, retinal nerve-end cells, retinal pigment and optic +nerve. Curiously enough, however, they differ from the cephalic +Molluscan eye in the fact that, as in the vertebrate eye, the filaments +of the optic nerve penetrate the retina, and are connected with the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page526" id="page526"></a>526</span> +surfaces of the nerve-end cells nearer the lens instead of with the +opposite end. The significance of this arrangement is not known, +but it is important to note, as shown by V. Henson, S.J. Hickson and +others, that in the bivalves <i>Pecten</i> and <i>Spondylus</i>, which also have +eyes upon the mantle quite distinct from typical cephalic eyes, +there is the same relationship as in Oncidiidae of the optic nerve to +the retinal cells. In both Oncidiidae and <i>Pecten</i> the pallial eyes have +probably been developed by the modification of tentacles, such as +coexist in an unmodified form with the eyes. The Oncidiidae are, +according to K. Semper, pursued as food by the leaping fish <i>Periophthalmus</i>, +and the dorsal eyes are of especial value to them in aiding +them to escape from this enemy.</p> + +<p>Sub-order 1.—<span class="sc">Basommatophora</span>. Pulmonata with an external +shell. The head bears a single pair of contractile but not invaginable +tentacles, at the base of which are the eyes. Penis at some distance +from the female aperture, except in <i>Amphibola</i> and <i>Siphonaria</i>. +All have an osphradium, except the <i>Auriculidae</i>, which are terrestrial, +and it is situated outside the pallial cavity in those forms in +which water is not admitted into the lung. There is a veliger stage +in development, but the velum is reduced.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1.—<i>Auriculidae</i>. Terrestrial and usually littoral; genital + duct monaulic, the penis being connected with the aperture by + an open or closed groove; shell with a prominent spire, the + internal partitions often absorbed and the aperture denticulated. + <i>Auricula</i>. <i>Cassidula</i>. <i>Alexia</i>. <i>Melampus</i>. <i>Carychium</i>, + terrestrial, British. <i>Scarabus</i>. <i>Leuconia</i>, British. <i>Blauneria</i>. + <i>Pedipes</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 2.—<i>Otinidae</i>. Shell with short spire, and wide oval aperture; + tentacles short. <i>Otina</i>, British. <i>Camptonyx</i>, terrestrial.</p> + +<p>Fam. 3.—<i>Amphibolidae</i>. Shell spirally coiled; head broad, + without prominent tentacles; foot short, operculated; marine. + <i>Amphibola</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 4.—<i>Siphonariidae</i>. Visceral mass and shell conical; tentacles + atrophied; head expanded; genital apertures contiguous; + marine animals, with an aquatic pallial cavity containing + secondary branchial laminae. <i>Siphonaria</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 5.—<i>Gadiniidae</i>. Visceral mass and shell conical; head + flattened; pallial cavity aquatic, but without a branchia; + genital apertures separated. <i>Gadinia</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 6.—<i>Chilinidae</i>. Shell ovoid, with short spire, wide aperture + and folded columella; inferior pallial lobe thick; visceral + commissure still twisted. <i>Chilina</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 7.—<i>Limnaeidae</i>. Shell thin, dextral, with prominent spire + and oval aperture; no inferior pallial lobe. <i>Limnaea</i>, British. + <i>Amphipeplea</i>, British.</p> + +<p>Fam. 8.—<i>Pompholygidae</i>. Shell dextral, hyperstrophic, animal + sinistral. <i>Pompholyx</i>. <i>Choanomphalus</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 9.—<i>Planorbidae</i>. Visceral mass and shell sinistral; inferior + pallial lobe very prominent, and transformed into a branchia. + <i>Planorbis</i>, British. <i>Bulinus</i>. <i>Miratesta</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 10.—<i>Ancylidae</i>. Shell conical, not spiral; inferior pallial + lobe transformed into a branchia. <i>Ancylus</i>, British. <i>Latia</i>. + <i>Grundlachia</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 11.—<i>Physidae</i>. Visceral mass and shell sinistrally coiled; + shell thin, with narrow aperture; no inferior pallial lobe. <i>Physa</i>, + British. <i>Aplexa</i>, British.</p> +</div> + +<p>Sub-order 2.—<span class="sc">Stylommatophora</span>. Pulmonata with two pairs +of tentacles, except <i>Janellidae</i> and <i>Vertigo</i>; these tentacles are invaginable, +and the eyes are borne on the summits of the posterior +pair. Male and female genital apertures open into a common vestibule, +except in <i>Vaginulidae</i> and <i>Oncidiidae</i>. Except in <i>Oncidium</i>, +there is no longer a veliger stage in development.</p> + +<p>Tribe 1.—<span class="sc">Holognatha</span>. Jaw simple, without a superior appendage.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1.—<i>Selenitidae</i>. Radula with elongated and pointed teeth, + like those of the Agnatha; a jaw present. <i>Plutonia</i>. <i>Trigonochlamys</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 2.—<i>Zonitidae</i>. Shell external, smooth, heliciform or + flattened; radula with pointed marginal teeth. <i>Zonites</i>, + British. <i>Ariophanta</i>. <i>Orpiella</i>. <i>Vitrina</i>. <i>Helicarion</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 3.—<i>Limacidae</i>. Shell internal. <i>Limax</i>, British. <i>Parmacella</i>. + <i>Urocyclus</i>. <i>Parmarion</i>. <i>Amalia</i>. <i>Agriolimax</i>. + <i>Mesolimax</i>. <i>Monochroma</i>. <i>Paralimax</i>. <i>Metalimax</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 4.—<i>Philomycidae</i>. No shell; mantle covers the whole + surface of the body; radula with squarish teeth. <i>Philomycus</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 5.—<i>Ostracolethidae</i>. Shell largely chitinous, not spiral, its + calcareous apex projecting through a small hole in the mantle. + <i>Ostracolethe</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 6.—<i>Arionidae</i>. Shell internal, or absent; mantle restricted + to the anterior and middle part of the body; radula with + squarish teeth. <i>Arion</i>, British. <i>Geomalacus</i>. <i>Ariolimax</i>. <i>Anadenus</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 7.—<i>Helicidae</i>. Shell with medium spire, external or partly + covered by the mantle; genital aperture below the right posterior + tentacle; genital apparatus generally provided with a + dart-sac and multifid vesicles. <i>Helix</i>, British. <i>Bulimus</i>. + <i>Hemphillia</i>. <i>Berendtia</i>. <i>Cochlostyla</i>. <i>Rhodea</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 8.—<i>Endodontidae</i>. Shell external, spiral, generally ornamented + with ribs; borders of aperture thin and not reflected; + radula with square teeth; genital ducts without accessory +organs. <i>Endodonta.</i> <i>Punctum.</i> <i>Sphyradium.</i> <i>Laoma.</i> <i>Pyramidula.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 9.—<i>Orthalicidae.</i> Shell external, ovoid, the last whorl +swollen, aperture oval with a simple border; radular teeth in +oblique rows. <i>Orthalicus.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 10.—<i>Bulimulidae.</i> Jaw formed of folds imbricated externally +and meeting at an acute angle near the base. <i>Bulimulus.</i> +<i>Peltella.</i> <i>Amphibulimus.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 11.—<i>Cylindrellidae.</i> Shell turriculated, with numerous +whorls, the last more or less detached. <i>Cylindrella.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 12.—<i>Pupidae.</i> Shell external, with elongated spire and +numerous whorls, aperture generally narrow; male genital +duct without multifid vesicles. <i>Pupa</i>, British. <i>Eucalodium.</i> +<i>Vertigo</i>, British. <i>Buliminus</i>, British. <i>Clausilia</i>, British. <i>Balea.</i> +<i>Zospeum.</i> <i>Megaspira.</i> <i>Strophia.</i> <i>Anostoma.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 13.—<i>Stenogyridae.</i> Shell elongated, with a more or less +obtuse summit; aperture with a simple border. <i>Achatina.</i> +<i>Stenogyra.</i> <i>Ferussacia</i>, British. <i>Cionella.</i> <i>Caecilianella.</i> +<i>Azeca.</i> <i>Opeas.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 14.—<i>Helicteridae.</i> Shell bulimoid, dextral or sinistral; +radular teeth, expanded at their extremities and multicuspidate. +<i>Helicter.</i> <i>Tornatellina.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>Tribe 2.—<span class="sc">Agnatha.</span> No jaws; teeth narrow and pointed; +carnivorous.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1.—<i>Oleacinidae.</i> Shell oval, elongated, with narrow aperture; +neck very long; labial palps prominent. <i>Oleacina +(Glandina).</i> <i>Streptostyla.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 2.—<i>Testacellidae.</i> Shell globular or auriform, external or +partly covered by the mantle. <i>Streptaxis.</i> <i>Gibbulina.</i> <i>Aerope.</i> +<i>Rhytida.</i> <i>Daudebardia.</i> <i>Testacella.</i> <i>Chlamydophorus.</i> <i>Schizoglossa.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 3.—<i>Rathouisiidae.</i> No shell, a carinated mantle covering +the whole body; male and female apertures distant, the female +near the anus. <i>Rathouisia.</i> <i>Atopos.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>Tribe 3.—<span class="sc">Elasmognatha.</span> Jaw with a well-developed dorsal +appendage.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1.—<i>Succineidae.</i> Anterior tentacles much reduced; male +and female apertures contiguous but distinct; shell thin, +spiral, with short spire. <i>Succinea</i>, British. <i>Homalonyx.</i> <i>Hyalimax.</i> +<i>Neohyalimax.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 2.—<i>Janellidae.</i> Limaciform, with internal rounded shell; +mantle very small and triangular; pulmonary chamber with +tracheae; no anterior tentacles. <i>Janella.</i> <i>Aneitella.</i> <i>Aneitea.</i> +<i>Triboniophorus.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>Tribe 4.—<span class="sc">Ditremata.</span> Male and female apertures distant.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1.—<i>Vaginulidae.</i> No shell; limaciform; terrestrial; +female aperture on right side in middle of body; anus posterior. +<i>Vaginula.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 2.—<i>Oncidiidae.</i> No shell; limaciform; littoral; female +aperture posterior, near anus; a reduced pulmonary cavity +with a distinct aperture. <i>Oncidium.</i> <i>Oncidiella</i>, British. +<i>Peronia.</i></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—L. Boutan, “La Cause principale de l’asymétrie +des mollusques gastéropodes,” <i>Arch. de zool. expér.</i> (3), vii. (1899); +A. Lang, “Versuch einer Erklärung der Asymmetrie der Gastropoder,” +<i>Vierteljahrsschr. naturforsch. Gesellschaft</i>, Zürich, 36 (1892); +A. Robert, “Recherches sur le développement des Troques,” <i>Arch. +de zool. expér.</i> (3), x. (1903); P. Pelseneer, “Report on the Pteropoda,” +<i>Zool. “Challenger” Expedit.</i> pts. lviii., lxv., lxvi. (1887, +1888); P. Pelseneer, “Protobranches aériens et Pulmonés branchifères,” +<i>Arch. de biol.</i> xiv. (1895); W.A. Herdman, “On the Structure +and Functions of the Cerata or Dorsal Papillae in some Nudibranchiate +Mollusca,” <i>Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.</i> (1892); J.T. Cunningham, +“On the Structure and Relations of the Kidney in Aplysia,” +<i>Mitt. Zool. Stat. Neapel</i>, iv. (1883); Böhmig, “Zur feineren Anatomie +von <i>Rhodope veranyi</i>, Kölliker,” <i>Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool.</i> vol. lvi. (1893).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Treatises.</span>—S.P. Woodward, <i>Manual of the Mollusca</i> (2nd ed., +with appendix, London, 1869); E. Forbes and S. Hanley, <i>History +of British Mollusca</i> (4 vols., London, 1853); Alder and Hancock, +<i>Monograph of British Nudibranchiate Mollusca</i> (London, Roy. +Society, 1845); P. Pelseneer, <i>Mollusca. Treatise on Zool.</i>, edited +by E. Ray Lankester, pt. v. (1906); E. Ray Lankester, “Mollusca,” +in 9th ed. of this Encyclopaedia, to which this article is much indebted.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. T. C)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:217px; height:531px" src="images/img527.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From <i>Zeitschrift für Wissenschaft +Zoologie</i>, vol. xlix. p. 209, +by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><i>Chaetonotus maximus</i>, +Ehrb., ventral side. (After +Zelinka.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>Bo</i>, Bristles surrounding the mouth.</p> +<p><i>ds</i>, Dorsal bristles.</p> +<p><i>hCi</i>, Posterior lateral cilia.</p> +<p><i>Ke</i>, Cuticular dome.</p> +<p><i>Mr</i>, Oral cavity.</p> +<p><i>lT</i>, Lateral sensory hairs.</p> +<p><i>Pl</i>, Cuticular plates.</p> +<p><i>Sa</i>, Dorsal bristle of the basal part.</p> +<p><i>Sch</i>, Plates.</p> +<p><i>Se</i>, Lateral bristles.</p> +<p><i>Vb</i>, Point of union of ciliated tract.</p> +<p><i>vCi</i>, Anterior group of cilia.</p> +<p><i>vS</i>, Ventral bristles of the basal part.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">GASTROTRICHA<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span>, a small group of fairly uniform animals +which live among Rotifers and Protozoa at the bottom of ponds +and marshes, biding amongst the recesses of the algae and +sphagnum and other fresh-water plants and eating organic +débris and Infusoria. They are of minute size varying from one-sixtieth +to one-three-hundredth of an inch, and they move by +means of long cilia. Two ventral bands composed of regular +transverse rows of cilia are usually found. The head bears some +especially large cilia. The cuticle which covers the body is here +and there raised into overlapping scales which may be prolonged +into bristles. An enlarged, frontal scale may cover the head, and +a row of scales separates the ventral ciliated areas from one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page527" id="page527"></a>527</span> +another, whilst two series of alternating rows cover the back and +side. The body, otherwise circular in section, is slightly flattened +ventrally. The mouth is anterior and slightly ventral; it leads +into a protrusible pharynx armed with recurved teeth that can be +everted. This leads to a muscular +oesophagus with a triradiate lumen, +which acts as a sucking pump and +ends in a funnel-valve projecting +into the stomach. The last named +is oval and formed of four rows of +large cells; it is separated by a +sphincter from the rectum, which +opens posteriorly and dorsally. +The nitrogenous excretory apparatus +consists of a coiled tube on each +side of the stomach; internally the +tubes end in large flame-cells, and +externally by small pores which lie +on the edges of the ventral row of +scales. A cerebral ganglion rests on +the oesophagus and supplies the +cephalic cilia and hairs; it is continued +some way back as two dorsal +nerve trunks. The sense organs are +the hairs and bristles and in some +species eyes. The muscles are simple +and unstriated and for the most part +run longitudinally.</p> + +<p>The two ovaries lie at the level of +the juncture of the stomach and +rectum. The eggs become very +large, sometimes half the length of +the mother; they are laid amongst +water weeds. The male reproductive +system is but little known, a small +gland lying between the ovaries has +been thought to be a testis, and if +it be, the Gastrotricha are hermaphrodite.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Zelinka classifies the group as follows:—</p> + +<p>Sub-order 1.—<span class="sc">Euichthydina</span> with a +forked tail.</p> + +<p>(i.) Fam. Ichthydidae, without +bristles. Genera: <i>Ichthydium</i>, <i>Lepidoderma</i>.</p> + +<p>(ii.) Fam. Chaetonotidae, with +bristles. Genera: <i>Chaetonotus</i>, +<i>Chaetura</i>.</p> + +<p>Sub-order 2.—<span class="sc">Apodina</span>, tail not +forked. Genera: <i>Dasydytes</i>, <i>Gossea</i>, +<i>Stylochaeta</i>.</p> + +<p>The genus <i>Aspidiophorus</i> recently +described by Voigt seems in some +respects intermediate between <i>Lepidoderma</i> and <i>Chaetonotus</i>. +<i>Zelinkia</i> and <i>Philosyrtis</i> are two slightly aberrant forms described +by Giard from certain diatomaceous sands. Altogether there must +be some forty to fifty described species.</p> + +<p>The group is an isolated one and shows no clear affinities with any +of the great phyla. Those that are usually dwelt on are treated +with the Rotifers and Nematoda and Turbellaria.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—A.C. Stokes, <i>The Microscope</i> (Detroit, 1887-1888); +C. Zelinka, <i>Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.</i> xlix., 1890, p. 209; M. Voigt, +<i>Forschber. Plön.</i> Th. ix., 1904, p. 1; A. Giard, <i>C. R. Soc. Biol.</i> lvi. +pp. 1061 and 1063; E. Daday, <i>Termes. Fuzetek.</i> xxiv. p. 1; F. +Zschokke, <i>Denk. Schweiz. Ges.</i> xxxvii. p. 109; S. Hlava, <i>Zool. Anz.</i> +xxviii., 1905, p. 331.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. E. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">GATAKER, THOMAS<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1574-1654), English divine, was born +in London in September 1574, and educated at St John’s College, +Cambridge. From 1601 to 1611 he held the appointment of +preacher to the society of Lincoln’s Inn, which he resigned on +accepting the rectory of Rotherhithe. In 1642 he was chosen a +member of the assembly of divines at Westminster, and annotated +for that assembly the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Lamentations. +He disapproved of the introduction of the Covenant, +and declared himself in favour of episcopacy. He was one of +the forty-seven London clergymen who disapproved of the +trial of Charles I. He was married four times, and died in July +1654.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal works, besides some volumes of sermons are—<i>On +the Nature and Use of Lots</i> (1619), a curious treatise which led to his +being accused of favouring games of chance; <i>Dissertatio de stylo +Novi Testamenti</i> (1648); <i>Cinnus, sive Adversaria miscellanea, in +quibus Sacrae Scripturae primo, deinde aliorum scriptorum, locis +aliquam multis lux redditur</i> (1651), to which was afterwards subjoined +<i>Adversaria Posthuma</i>; and his edition of <i>Marcus Antoninus</i> +(1652), which, according to Hallam, is the “earliest edition of any +classical writer published in England with original annotations,” +and, for the period at which it was written, possesses remarkable +merit. His collected works were published at Utrecht in 1698.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GATCHINA<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span>, a town of Russia, in the government of St Petersburg, +29 m. by rail S. of the city of St Petersburg, in 59° 34′ N. and +30° 6′ E. Pop. (1860) 9184; (1897) 14,735. It is situated in a +flat, well-wooded, and partly marshy district, and on the south +side of the town are two lakes. Among its more important +buildings are the imperial palace, which was founded in 1770 by +Prince Orlov, and constructed according to the plans of the +Italian architect Rinaldi; a military orphanage, founded in +1803; and a school for horticulture. Among the few industrial +establishments is a porcelain factory. At Gatchina an alliance +was concluded between Russia and Sweden on the 29th of October +1799.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GATE<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span>, an opening into any enclosure for entrance or exit, +capable of being closed by a barrier at will. The word is of wide +application, embracing not only the defensive entrance ways into +a fortified place, with which this article mainly deals, or the +imposing architectural features which form the main entrances to +palaces, colleges, monastic buildings, &c., but also the common +five-barred barrier which closes an opening into a field. The most +general distinction that can be made between “door” and +“gate” is that of size, the greater entrance into a court containing +other buildings being the “gate,” the smaller entrances +opening directly into the particular buildings the “doors,” or +that of construction, the whole entrance way being a “gate” or +gateway, the barrier which closes it a “door.” A further distinction +is drawn by applying “door” to the solid barriers or +“valves” of wood, metal, &c., made in panels and fitted to a +framework, and “gate” to an openwork structure, whether of +metal or wood (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Door</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metal-work</a></span>). The +ultimate origin of the word is obscure; the early forms appear +with a palatalized initial letter, still surviving in such dialectical +forms as “yate,” or in Scots “yett.” It is probably connected +with the root of “get,” in the sense either of “means of access” +or of “holding,” “receptacle”; cf. Dutch <i>gat</i>, hole. There may be +a connexion, however, with “gate,” now usually spelled “gait,” +a manner of walking,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> but originally a way, passage; cf. Ger. +<i>Gasse</i>, narrow street, lane.</p> + +<p>The entrance through the enclosing walls of a city or fortification +has been from the earliest times a place of the utmost +importance, considered architecturally, socially or from the point +of view of the military engineer. In the East the “gate” was +and still is in many Mahommedan countries the central place of +civic life. Here was the seat of justice and of audience, the most +important market-place, the spot where men gathered to receive +and exchange news. The references in the Bible to the gates of +the city in all these varied aspects are innumerable (cf. Gen. xix. +1; Deut. xxv. 7; Ruth iv. 1; 2 Sam. xix. 8; 2 Kings vii. 1). Later +the seat of justice and of government is transferred to the gate of +the palace of the king (cf. Dan. ii. 49, and Esther ii. 19), and this +use is preserved to-day in the official title of the seat of government +of the Turkish empire at Constantinople, the “Sublime +Porte,” a translation of the Turkish <i>Bab Aliy</i> (<i>bab</i>, gate, and <i>aliy</i>, +high). A full account with many modern instances of Eastern +customs will be found in Sir Charles Warren’s article “Gate” in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528"></a>528</span> +Hastings’s <i>Dict. of Bible</i>. For the “pylon,” the typical gate of +Egyptian architecture, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>.</p> + +<p>The gates into a walled town or other fortified place were +necessarily in early times the chief points on which the attack +concentrated, and the features, common throughout the ages, of +flanking or surmounting towers and of galleries over the entrance +way, are found in the Assyrian gate at Khorsabad (cf. 2 Chron. +xxvi. 9; 2 Sam. xviii. 24). With the coming of peaceful times to +a city or the removal of the fear of sudden attack, the gateways +would take a form adapted more for ready exit and entrance +than for defence, though the possibility of defending them was +not forgotten. Such city gates often had separate openings +for entrance and exit, and again for foot passengers and for +vehicles. The Gallo-Roman gate at Autun has four entrances, +two just wide enough to admit carriages, and two narrow alleys +for foot passengers. A fine example of a Roman city gate, dating +from the time of Constantine, is at Trèves. It is four storeys +high, with ornamental windows, and decorated with columns +on each storey. The two outer wings project beyond the central +part, the two entrance ways are 14 ft. wide, and could be closed by +doors and a portcullis. The chambers in the storeys above were +used for the purposes of civil administration. In more modern +times city gateways have often followed the type of the Roman +triumphal arch, with a single wide opening and purely ornamental +superstructure. On the other hand, the defensive gate formed +by an archway entering as it were through a tower has been +constantly followed as a type of entrance to buildings of an +entirely peaceful character. A fine example of such a gateway, +originally built for defence, is at Battle Abbey; this was built +by Abbot Retlynge in 1338, when Edward III. granted a licence +to fortify and crenellate the abbey. Such gateways are typical +of Tudor palaces, as at St James’s or at Hampton Court, and are +the most common form in the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge. +The Tom Gate at Christ Church, Oxford, with its surmounted +domed bell tower, or the cupola resting on columns at Queen’s +College, Oxford, are further examples of the gate architecturally +considered.</p> + +<p>The changes the fortified gateway has undergone in construction +and the varying relative importance it has held in the scheme +of defence follow the lines of development taken by the history +of <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fortification and Siegecraft</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>). The following is a +short sketch of the main stages in its history. A good example +of the Roman fortified city gate still remains at Pompeii. Here +there is one passage way for vehicles, 14 ft. wide; this is open to +the sky. The two footways on either side are arched, with +openings in the centre on to the central way. The doors of the +gate are on the city side, but a portcullis (<i>cataracta</i>) closed it +on the country side. The gateways of the Roman permanent +camps (<i>castra stativa</i>) were four in number, the <i>porta praetoria</i> +and <i>Decumana</i> at either end, with <i>principalis dextra</i> and <i>sinistra</i> +on the side (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Camp</a></span>). At Pevensey (<i>Anderida</i>) a small +postern on the north side of the Roman walls was laid bare +in 1906-1907, in which the passage curves in the thickness of the +wall, and from a width admitting two men abreast narrows so +that one alone could block it. Flanking towers or bastions +guarded the main entrances, while in front were built outworks, +of palisades, &c., to protect it; these were known as <i>procastra</i> +or <i>antemuralia</i>, and the entrances to these were placed +so that they could be flanked from the main walls.</p> + +<p>In the defence of a fortified place the gate had not only to be +protected from sudden surprise, but also had to undergo protracted +attacks concentrated upon it during a siege. Thus until +the coming of gunpowder, the ingenuity of military engineers +was exhausted in accumulating the most complicated defences +round the gateways, and the strength of a fortified place could +be estimated by the fewness of its gates. Viollet-le-Duc (<i>Dict. +de l’arch. du moyen âge</i>, s.v. <i>Porte</i>) takes the Narbonne and Aude +gates (E. and W.) of Carcassonne as typical instances of this +complication. The following brief account of the Narbonne +Gate (fig. 1), one of the principal parts of the work on the fortifications +begun by Philip the Bold in 1285, will give some idea of +the varied means of defence, which may be found individually if +not always in such collective abundance in the fortified gateways +of the middle ages. Two massive towers flanked the actual +entrance and were linked across by an iron chain; over the +entrance (E) was a machicolation, further added to in time of +war by a hoarding of timber; and an outer portcullis fell in +front of the heavy iron-lined doors. On to the passage way +between the first and second doors opened a square machicolation +(G) from which the defenders in the upper chambers of the gate +could attack an enemy that had succeeded in breaking through +the first entrance or had been trapped by the falling of the first +portcullis. Another machicolation (I) opened from the roof in +front of the second portcullis and second door. So much for the +gate itself; but before an attack could reach that point, the +following defences had to be passed: an immense circular +barbican (A) protected the entrance across the moat and through +the outer <i>enceinte</i> of the city. This entrance was flanked by a +masked return of the wall (C), while palisades (P) still further +hampered the assailant in his passage across the “lists” to the +foot of the gate towers. Here sappers would find themselves +exposed to a fire from the loopholes and from the machicolated +hoardings above them, while the projecting horns with which +the face of the towers terminated forced them to uncover themselves +to a flanking fire from the indents in the main curtain on +either side of the towers.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:415px; height:316px" src="images/img528.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Plan of the Narbonne Gate of the city of Carcassonne.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The later history of the gateway is merged in that of modern +fortification. The more elaborate the gate defences the greater +was the inducement for the besieger to attack the walls, and +improvements in methods of siegecraft ultimately compelled the +defender to develop the <i>enceinte</i> from its medieval form of a ring +wall with flanking towers to the 17th century form of bastions, +curtains, tenailles and ravelins, all intimately connected in one +general scheme of defence. By Vauban’s time there is little to +distinguish the position and defences of the gateways from the +rest of the fortifications surrounding a town. A road from the +country usually entered one of the ravelins, sinking into the +glacis, crossing the ditch of the ravelin and piercing the parapet +almost at right angles to its proper direction (see fig. 2, which +also shows a typical arrangement of minor communications +such as ramps and staircases). From the interior of the ravelin +it passed across the main ditch to a gate in the curtain of the +enceinte. The road was in fact artificially made to wind in such a +way that it was kept under fire from the defences throughout, while +the part of it inside the works was bent so as to place a covering +mass between the enemy’s fire and troops using the road for a +sortie. Thus the gate itself was merely a barrier against a <i>coup +de main</i> and to keep out unauthorized persons. In conditions +precluding the making of a breach in the walls, <i>i.e.</i> in surprises +and assaults <i>de vive force</i>, the gateway and accompanying +drawbridge continue to play their part in the 16th, 17th and +18th centuries, but they seldom or never appear as the objectives +of a siege <i>en règle</i>. In Vauban’s works, and those of most other +engineers, there was generally a postern giving access to the +floor of the main ditch, in the centre of the curtain escarp. The +gates of Vauban’s and later fortresses are strong heavy wooden +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529"></a>529</span> +doors, and the gateways more or less ornamental archways, +exactly as in many private mansions of castellar form. In +modern fortresses the gate of a detached fort or an <i>enceinte de +sureté</i> is intended purely as a defence against an unexpected +rush. The usual method is to have two gates, the outer one a +lattice or portcullis of iron bars and the inner one a plate of half-inch +steel armour, backed by wood and loopholed. The defenders +of the gate can by this arrangement fire from the inner loopholes +through the outer gate upon the approaches, and also keep the +enemy under fire whilst he is trying to force the outer gate +itself. The ditches are crossed either by drawbridges or by ramps +leading the road down to the floor of the ditch.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:476px; height:349px" src="images/img529.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Plan of Gate Arrangements of an 18th Century Fortress.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The “gate” as a barrier to be removed and as an entrance +to be passed is of constant occurrence in figurative language +and in symbolical usage. The gates of the temple of Janus (<i>q.v.</i>) +at Rome stood open in war and closed in peace. The <i>pylon</i> of +ancient Egypt had a symbolical meaning in the Book of the Dead, +and religious significance attaches to the <i>torii</i>, one of the outward +signs of the Shinto religion in Japan, the Buddhist <i>toran</i>, and to +the Chinese <i>pai-loo</i>, the honorific gateways erected to ancestors. +The gates of heaven and hell, the gates of death and darkness, +the wide and narrow gates that lead to destruction and life +(Matt. vii. 13 and 14), are familiar metaphorical phrases in the +Bible. In Greek and Roman legend dreams pass through +gates of transparent horn if true, if deceptive and false +through opaque gates of ivory (Hom. <i>Od</i>. xix. 560 sq.; Virg. +<i>Aen</i>. vi. 893).</p> +<div class="author">(C. We.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The spelling “gait” is confined to this meaning—the only literary +one surviving. In the form “gate” it appears dialectally in this +sense and in such particular meanings as a right to run cattle on +common or private ground or as a passage way in mines. The principal +survival is in names of streets in the north and midlands of +England and in Scotland, <i>e.g.</i> Briggate at Leeds, Wheeler Gate and +Castle Gate at Nottingham, Gallow Tree Gate at Leicester, and +Canongate and Cowgate at Edinburgh.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GATEHOUSE<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span>. In the second half of the 16th century in +England the entrance gateway, which formed part of the principal +front of the earlier feudal castles, became a detached feature +attached to the mansions only by a wall enclosing the entrance +court. The gatehouse then constituted a structure of some +importance, and included sometimes many rooms as at Stanway +Hall, Gloucestershire, where it measures 44 ft. by 22 ft. and has +three storeys; at Westwood, Worcestershire, it had a frontage +of 54 ft. with two storeys; and at Burton Agnes, Yorkshire, +it was still larger and was flanked by great octagonal towers +at the angles and had three storeys. At a later period smaller +accommodation was provided so that it virtually became a lodge, +but being designed to harmonize with the mansion it presented +sometimes a monumental structure. On the continent of +Europe the gatehouse forms a much more important building, +as it formed part of the town fortifications, where it sometimes +defended the passage of a bridge across the stream or moat. +There are numerous examples in France and Germany.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GATES, HORATIO<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1728-1806), American general, was born +at Maldon in Essex, England, in 1728. He entered the English +army at an early age, and was rapidly promoted. He accompanied +General Braddock in his disastrous expedition against +Fort Duquesne in 1755, and was severely wounded in the battle +of July 9; and he saw other active service in the Seven Years’ +War. After the peace of 1763 he purchased an estate in Virginia, +where he lived till the outbreak of the War of Independence in +1775, when he was named by Congress adjutant-general. In 1776 +he was appointed to command the troops which had lately +retreated from Canada, and in August 1777, as a result of a +successful intrigue, was appointed to supersede General Philip +Schuyler in command of the Northern Department. In the two +battles of Saratoga (<i>q.v.</i>) his army defeated General Burgoyne, +who, on the 17th of October, was forced to surrender his whole +army. This success was, however, largely due to the previous +manœuvres of Schuyler and to Gates’s subordinate officers. The +intrigues of the Conway Cabal to have Washington superseded +by Gates completely failed, but Gates was president for a time +of the Board of War, and in 1780 was placed in chief command in +the South. He was totally defeated at Camden, S. C., by Cornwallis +on the 17th of August 1780, and in December was superseded +by Greene, though an investigation into his conduct +terminated in acquittal (1782). He then retired to his Virginian +estate, whence he removed to New York in 1790, after emancipating +his slaves and providing for those who needed assistance. +He died in New York on the 10th of April 1806.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GATESHEAD<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span>, a municipal, county and parliamentary +borough of Durham, England; on the S. bank of the Tyne +opposite Newcastle, and on the North Eastern railway. Pop. +(1891) 85,692; (1901) 109,888. Though one of the largest +towns in the county, neither its streets nor its public buildings, +except perhaps its ecclesiastical buildings, have much claim +to architectural beauty. The parish church of St Mary is an +ancient cruciform edifice surmounted by a lofty tower; but +extensive restoration was necessitated by a fire in 1854 which +destroyed a considerable part of the town. The town-hall, public +library and mechanic’s institute are noteworthy buildings. +Education is provided by a grammar school, a large day school +for girls, and technical and art schools. There is a service of +steam trams in the principal streets, and three fine bridges +connect the town with Newcastle-upon-Tyne. There are large +iron works (including foundries and factories for engines, boilers, +chains and cables), shipbuilding yards, glass manufactories, +chemical, soap and candle works, brick and tile works, breweries +and tanneries. The town also contains a depot of the North +Eastern railway, with large stores and locomotive works. Extensive +coal mines exist in the vicinity; and at Gateshead Fell are +large quarries for grindstones, which are much esteemed and are +exported to all parts of the world. Large gas-works of the +Newcastle and Gateshead Gas Company are also situated in the +borough. The parliamentary borough returns one member. +The corporation consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen, and 27 +councillors. Area, 3132 acres.</p> + +<p>Gateshead (Gateshewed) probably grew up during late Saxon +times, the mention of the church there in which Bishop Walcher +was murdered in 1080 being the first evidence of settlement. +The borough probably obtained its charter during the following +century, for Hugh de Puiset, bishop of Durham (1153-1195), +confirmed to his burgesses similar rights to those of the burgesses +of Newcastle, freedom of toll within the palatinate and other +privileges. The bishop had a park here in 1348, and in 1438 +Bishop Nevill appointed a keeper of the “tower.” The position +of the town led to a struggle with Newcastle over both fishing +and trading rights. An inquisition of 1322 declared that the +water of the Tyne was divided into three parts: the northern, +belonging to Northumberland; the southern to Durham; and +the central, common to all. At another inquisition held in 1336 +the men of Gateshead claimed liberty of trading and fishing +along the coast of Durham, and freedom to sell their fish where +they would. In 1552, on the temporary extinction of the +diocese of Durham, Gateshead was attached to Newcastle, but +in 1554 was regranted to Bishop Tunstall. As compensation +the bishop granted to Newcastle, at a nominal rent, the Gateshead +salt-meadows, with rights of way to the High Street, thus +abolishing the toll previously paid to the bishop. During the +next century Bishop Tunstall’s successors incorporated nearly +all the various trades of Gateshead, and Cromwell continued +this policy. The town government during this period was by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530"></a>530</span> +the bishop’s bailiff, and the holders of the burgages composed +the juries of the bishop’s courts leet and baron. No charter of +incorporation is extant, but in 1563 contests were carried on +under the name of the bailiffs, burgesses and commonalty, and +a list of borough accounts exists for 1696. The bishop appointed +the last borough bailiff in 1681, and though the inhabitants in +1772 petitioned for a bailiff the town remained under a steward +and grassmen until the 19th century. As part of the palatinate +of Durham, Gateshead was not represented in parliament until +1832. At the inquisition of 1336 the burgesses claimed an annual +fair on St Peter’s Day, and depositions in 1577 mention a borough +market held on Tuesday and Friday, but these were apparently +extinct in Camden’s day, and no grant of them is extant. The +medieval trade seems to have centred round the fisheries and the +neighbouring coal mines which are mentioned in 1364 and also +by Leland.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GATH<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span>, one of the five chief cities of the Philistines. It is +frequently mentioned in the historical books of the Old Testament, +and from Amos vi. 2 we conclude that, like Ashdod, it fell to +Sargon in 711. Its site appears to have been known in the 4th +century, but the name is now lost. Eusebius (in the <i>Onomasticon</i>) +places it near the road from Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrïn) to +Diospolis (Ludd) about five Roman miles from the former. The +Roman road between these two towns is still traceable, and its +milestones remain in places. East of the road at the required +distance rises a white cliff, almost isolated, 300 ft. high and +full of caves. On the top is the little mud village of Tell eṣ-Ṣāfi +(“the shining mound”), and beside the village is the mound +which marks the site of the Crusaders’ castle of Blanchegarde +(Alba Custodia), built in 1144. Tell eṣ-Ṣāfi was known by its +present name as far back as the 12th century; but it appears +not improbable that the strong site here existing represents +the ancient Gath. The cliff stands on the south side of the +mouth of the Valley of Elah, and Gath appears to have been +near this valley (1 Sam. xvii. 2, 52). This identification is not +certain, but it is at least much more probable than the theory +which makes Gath, Eleutheropolis, and Beit Jibrïn one and the +same place. The site was partially excavated by the Palestine +Exploration Fund in 1899, and remains extending in date +back to the early Canaanite period were discovered.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GATLING, RICHARD JORDAN<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1818-1903), American inventor, +was born in Hertford county, North Carolina, on the +12th of September 1818. He was the son of a well-to-do planter +and slave-owner, from whom he inherited a genius for mechanical +invention and whom he assisted in the construction and perfecting +of machines for sowing cotton seeds, and for thinning the plants. +He was well educated and was successively a school teacher and a +merchant, spending all his spare time in developing new inventions. +In 1839 he perfected a practical screw propeller for steamboats, +only to find that a patent had been granted to John +Ericsson for a similar invention a few months earlier. He established +himself in St Louis, Missouri, and taking the cotton-sowing +machine as a basis he adapted it for sowing rice, wheat and +other grains, and established factories for its manufacture. The +introduction of these machines did much to revolutionize the +agricultural system in the country. Becoming interested in the +study of medicine through an attack of smallpox, he completed a +course at the Ohio Medical College, taking his M.D. degree in 1850. +In the same year he invented a hemp-breaking machine, and in +1857 a steam plough. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was +living in Indianapolis, and devoted himself at once to the perfecting +of fire-arms. In 1861 he conceived the idea of the rapid fire +machine-gun which is associated with his name. By 1862 he +had succeeded in perfecting a gun that would discharge 350 +shots per minute; but the war was practically over before the +Federal authorities consented to its official adoption. From that +time, however, the success of the invention was assured, and +within ten years it had been adopted by almost every civilized +nation. Gatling died in New York City on the 26th of February +1903.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GATTY, MARGARET<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1809-1873), English writer, daughter of +the Rev. Alexander Scott (1768-1840), chaplain to Lord Nelson, +was born at Burnham, Essex, in 1809. She early began to draw +and to etch on copper, being a regular visitor to the print-room +of the British Museum from the age of ten. She also illuminated +on vellum, copying the old strawberry borders and designing +initials. In 1839 Margaret Scott married the Rev. Alfred Gatty, +D.D., vicar of Ecclesfield near Sheffield, subdean of York +cathedral, and the author of various works both secular and religious. +In 1842 she published in association with her husband a +life of her father; but her first independent work was <i>The Fairy +Godmother and other Tales</i>, which appeared in 1851. This was +followed in 1855 by the first of five volumes of <i>Parables from +Nature</i>, the last being published in 1871. It was under the <i>nom +de plume</i> of Aunt Judy, as a pleasant and instructive writer for +children, that Mrs Gatty was most widely known. Before starting +<i>Aunt Judy’s Magazine</i> in May 1866, she had brought out +<i>Aunt Judy’s Tales</i> (1858) and <i>Aunt Judy’s Letters</i> (1862), and +among the other children’s books which she subsequently +published were <i>Aunt Judy’s Song Book for Children</i> and <i>The +Mother’s Book of Poetry</i>. “Aunt Judy” was the nickname given +by her daughter Juliana Horatia Ewing (<i>q.v.</i>). The editor of the +magazine was on the friendliest terms with her young correspondents +and subscribers, and her success was largely due to the +sympathy which enabled her to look at things from the child’s +point of view. Besides other excellences her children’s books +are specially characterized by wholesomeness of sentiment and +cheerful humour. Her miscellaneous writings include, in addition +to several volumes of tales, <i>The Old Folks from Home</i>, an account +of a holiday ramble in Ireland; <i>The Travels and Adventures of +Dr Wolff the Missionary</i> (1861), an autobiography edited by +her; <i>British Sea Weeds</i> (1862); <i>Waifs and Strays of Natural +History</i> (1871); <i>A Book of Emblems</i> and <i>The Book of Sun-Dials</i> +(1872). She died at Ecclesfield vicarage on the 4th of +October 1873.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAU, JOHN<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1495-? 1553), Scottish translator, was born at +Perth towards the close of the 15th century. He was educated +in St Salvator’s College at St Andrews. He appears to have been +in residence at Malmö in 1533, perhaps as chaplain to the Scots +community there. In that year John Hochstraten, the exiled +Antwerp printer, issued a book by Gau entitled: <i>The Richt vay +to the Kingdome of Heuine</i>, of which the chief interest is that it is +the first Scottish book written on the side of the Reformers. It is +a translation of Christiern Pedersen’s <i>Den rette vey till Hiemmerigis +Rige</i> (Antwerp, 1531), for the most part direct, but showing +intimate knowledge in places of the German edition of Urbanus +Rhegius. Only one copy of Gau’s text is extant, in the library of +Britwell Court, Bucks. It has been assumed that all the copies +were shipped from Malmö to Scotland, and that the cargo was +intercepted by the Scottish officers on the look out for the +heretical works which were printed abroad in large numbers. +This may explain the silence of all the historians of the Reformed +Church—Knox, Calderwood and Spottiswood. Gau married in +1536 a Malmö citizen’s daughter, bearing the Christian name +Birgitta. She died in 1551, and he in or about 1553.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first reference to the <i>Richt Vay</i> appeared in Chalmers’s +<i>Caledonia</i>, ii. 616. Chalmers, who was the owner of the unique +volume before it passed into the Britwell Court collection, considered +it to be an original work. David Laing printed extracts for the +Bannatyne Club (<i>Miscellany</i>, iii., 1855). The evidence that the +book is a translation was first given by Sonnenstein Wendt in a +paper “Om Reformatorerna i Malmö,” in Rördam’s <i>Ny Kirkehistoriske +Samlinger</i>, ii. (Copenhagen, 1860). A complete edition was +edited by A.F. Mitchell for the Scottish Text Society (1888). See +also Lorimer’s <i>Patrick Hamilton</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAUDEN, JOHN<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1605-1662), English bishop and writer, +reputed author of the <i>Eikon Basilike</i>, was born in 1605 at Mayland, +Essex, where his father was vicar of the parish. Educated +at Bury St Edmunds school and at St John’s College, Cambridge, +he took his M.A. degree in 1625/6. He married Elizabeth, +daughter of Sir William Russell of Chippenham, Cambridgeshire, +and was tutor at Oxford to two of his wife’s brothers. He seems +to have remained at Oxford until 1630, when he became vicar of +Chippenham. His sympathies were at first with the parliamentary +party. He was chaplain to Robert Rich, second earl of +Warwick, and preached before the House of Commons in 1640. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page531" id="page531"></a>531</span> +In 1641 he was appointed to the rural deanery of Bocking. +Apparently his views changed as the revolutionary tendency of +the Presbyterian party became more pronounced, for in 1648/9 +he addressed to Lord Fairfax <i>A Religious and Loyal Protestation</i> +... against the proceedings of the parliament. Under +the Commonwealth he faced both ways, keeping his ecclesiastical +preferment, but publishing from time to time pamphlets on behalf +of the Church of England. At the Restoration he was made +bishop of Exeter. He immediately began to complain to Hyde, +earl of Clarendon, of the poverty of the see, and based claims for a +better benefice on a certain secret service, which he explained on +the 20th of January 1661 to be the sole invention of the <i>Eikon +Basilike, The Pourtraicture of his sacred Majestie in his Solitudes +and Sufferings</i> put forth within a few hours after the execution of +Charles I. as written by the king himself. To which Clarendon +replied that he had been before acquainted with the secret and +had often wished he had remained ignorant of it. Gauden +was advanced in 1662, not as he had wished to the see of +Winchester, but to Worcester. He died on the 23rd of May of +the same year.</p> + +<p>The evidence in favour of Gauden’s authorship rests chiefly on +his own assertions and those of his wife (who after his death sent +to her son John a narrative of the claim), and on the fact that it +was admitted by Clarendon, who <span class="correction" title="amended from sould">should</span> have had means of being +acquainted with the truth. Gauden’s letters on the subject are +printed in the appendix to vol. iii. of the <i>Clarendon Papers</i>. The +argument is that Gauden had prepared the book to inspire +sympathy with the king by a representation of his pious and +forgiving disposition, and so to rouse public opinion against his +execution. In 1693 further correspondence between Gauden, +Clarendon, the duke of York, and Sir Edward Nicholas was +published by Mr Arthur North, who had found them among the +papers of his sister-in-law, a daughter-in-law of Bishop Gauden; +but doubt has been thrown on the authenticity of these papers. +Gauden stated that he had begun the book in 1647 and was +entirely responsible for it. But it is contended that the work was +in existence at Naseby,<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and testimony to Charles’s authorship +is brought forward from various witnesses who had seen Charles +himself occupied with it at various times during his imprisonment. +It is stated that the MS. was delivered by one of the king’s agents +to Edward Symmons, rector of Raine, near Bocking, and that it +was in the handwriting of Oudart, Sir Edward Nicholas’s secretary. +The internal evidence has, as is usual in such cases, been brought +forward as a conclusive argument in favour of both contentions. +Doubt was thrown on Charles’s authorship in Milton’s <i>Eikonoklastes</i> +(1649), which was followed almost immediately by a royalist +answer, <i>The Princely Pelican. Royall Resolves—Extracted from +his Majesty’s Divine Meditations, with satisfactory reasons ... +that his Sacred Person was the only Author of them</i> (1649). The +history of the whole controversy, which has been several times +renewed, was dealt with in Christopher Wordsworth’s tracts in +a most exhaustive way. He eloquently advocated Charles’s +authorship. Since he wrote in 1829, some further evidence has +been forthcoming in favour of the Naseby copy. A correspondence +relating to the French translation of the work has also +come to light among the papers of Sir Edward Nicholas. None of +the letters show any doubt that King Charles was the author. +S.R. Gardiner (<i>Hist. of the Great Civil War</i>, iv. 325) regards Mr +Doble’s articles in the <i>Academy</i> (May and June 1883) as finally +disposing of Charles’s claim to the authorship, but this is by no +means the attitude of other recent writers. If Gauden was the +author, he may have incorporated papers, &c., by Charles, who +may have corrected the work and thus been joint-author. This +theory would reconcile the conflicting evidence, that of those who +saw Charles writing parts and read the MS. before publication, +and the deliberate statements of Gauden.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also the article by Richard Hooper in the <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>; +Christopher Wordsworth, <i>Who wrote Eikon Basilike?</i> two letters +addressed to the archbishop of Canterbury (1824), and <i>King Charles +the First, the Author of Icon Basilikè</i> (1828); H.J. Todd, <i>A Letter +to the Archbishop of Canterbury concerning Eikon Basilike</i> (1825); +<i>Bishop Gauden, The Author of the Icôn Basilikè</i> (1829); W.G. +Broughton, <i>A Letter to a Friend</i> (1826), <i>Additional Reasons ...</i> (1829), +supporting the contention in favour of Dr Gauden; Mr +E.J.L. Scott’s introduction to his reprint (1880) of the original +edition; articles in the <i>Academy</i>, May and June 1883, by Mr C.E. +Doble; another reprint edited by Mr Edward Almack for the King’s +Classics (1904); and Edward Almack, <i>Bibliography of the King’s +Book</i> (1896). This last book contains a summary of the arguments +on either side, a full bibliography of works on the subject, and +facsimiles of the title pages, with full descriptions of the various +extant copies.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See a note in Archbishop Tenison’s handwriting in his copy of the +<i>Eikon Basilike</i> preserved at Lambeth Palace, and quoted in Almack’s +<i>Bibliography</i>, p. 15.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAUDICHAUD-BEAUPRÉ, CHARLES<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1789-1854), French +botanist, was born at Angoulême on the 4th of September 1789. +He studied pharmacy first in the shop of a brother-in-law at +Cognac, and then under P.J. Robiquet at Paris, where from +R.L. Desfontaines and L.C. Richard he acquired a knowledge +of botany. In April 1810 he was appointed dispenser in the +military marine, and from July 1811 to the end of 1814 he served +at Antwerp. In 1817 he joined the corvette “Uranie” as +pharmaceutical botanist to the circumpolar expedition commanded +by D. de Freycinet. The wreck of the vessel on the +Falkland Isles, at the close of 1819, deprived him of more than +half the botanical collections he had made in various parts of +the world. In 1830-1833 he visited Chile, Peru and Brazil, and +in 1836-1837 he acted as botanist to “La Bonite” during its +circumnavigation of the globe. His theory accounting for the +growth of plants by the supposed coalescence of elementary +“phytons” involved him, during the latter years of his life, +in much controversy with his fellow-botanists, more especially +C.F.B. de Mirbel. He died in Paris on the 16th of January 1854.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides accounts of his voyages round the world, Gaudichaud-Beaupré +wrote “Lettres sur l’organographie et la physiologie,” +<i>Arch. de botanique</i>, ii., 1883; “Recherches générales sur l’organographie,” +&c. (prize essay, 1835), <i>Mém. de l’Académie des Sciences</i>, +t. viii. and kindred treatises, with memoirs on the potato-blight, the +multiplication of bulbous plants, the increase in diameter of dicotyledonous +plants, and other subjects; and <i>Réfutation de toutes les +objections contre les nouveaux principes physiologiques</i> (1852).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAUDRY, JEAN ALBERT<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1827-1908), French geologist and +palaeontologist, was born at St Germain-en-Laye on the 16th +of September 1827, and was educated at the college, Stanislas. +At the age of twenty-five he made explorations in Cyprus and +Greece, residing in the latter country from 1855 to 1860. He +then investigated the rich deposit of fossil vertebrata at Pikermi +and brought to light a remarkable mammalian fauna, Miocene +in age, and intermediate in its forms between European, Asiatic +and African types. He also published an account of the geology +of the island of Cyprus (<i>Mém. Soc. Géol. de France</i>, 1862). In +1853, while still in Cyprus, he was appointed assistant to A. +d’Orbigny, who was the first to hold the chair of palaeontology +in the museum of natural history at Paris. In 1872 he succeeded +to this important post; in 1882 he was elected member of the +Academy of Sciences; and in 1900 he presided over the meetings +of the eighth International Congress of Geology then held in +Paris. He died on the 27th of November 1908. He is distinguished +for his researches on fossil mammalia, and for the support +which his studies have rendered to the theory of evolution.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Publications.</span>—<i>Animaux fossiles et géologie de l’Attique</i> (2 vols., +1862-1867); <i>Cours de paléontologie</i> (1873); <i>Animaux fossiles du +Mont Lebéron</i> (1873); <i>Les Enchaînements du monde animal dans +les temps géologiques</i> (<i>Mammifères Tertiaires</i>, 1878; <i>Fossiles +primaires</i>, 1883; <i>Fossiles secondaires</i>, 1890); <i>Essai de paléontologie +philosophique</i> (1896). Brief memoir with portrait in <i>Geol. +Mag.</i> (1903), p. 49.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. B. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAUDY<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span>, an adjective meaning showy, very bright, gay, +especially with a sense of tasteless or vulgar extravagance, of +colour or ornament. The accurate origin of the various senses +which this word and the substantive “gaud” have taken are +somewhat difficult to trace. They are all ultimately to be referred +to the Lat. <i>gaudere</i>, to rejoice, <i>gaudium</i>, joy, some of them +directly, others to the French derivative <i>gaudir</i>, to rejoice, and +O. Fr. <i>gaudie</i>. As a noun, in the sense of rejoicing or feast, +“gaudy” is still used of a commemoration dinner at a college +at the university of Oxford. “Gaud,” meaning generally a toy, +a gay adornment, a piece of showy jewelry, is more specifically +applied to larger and more decorative beads in a rosary.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532"></a>532</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAUERMANN, FRIEDRICH<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1807-1862), Austrian painter, +son of the landscape painter Jacob Gauermann (1773-1843), +was born at Wiesenbach near Gutenstein in Lower Austria +on the 20th of September 1807. It was the intention of his father +that he should devote himself to agriculture, but the example +of an elder brother, who, however, died early, fostered his inclination +towards art. Under his father’s direction he began studies +in landscape, and he also diligently copied the works of the chief +masters in animal painting which were contained in the academy +and court library of Vienna. In the summer he made art tours +in the districts of Styria, Tirol and Salzburg. Two animal pieces +which he exhibited at the Vienna Exhibition of 1824 were regarded +as remarkable productions for his years, and led to his receiving +commissions in 1825 and 1826 from Prince Metternich and +Caraman, the French ambassador. His reputation was greatly +increased by his picture “The Storm,” exhibited in 1829, and +from that time his works were much sought after and obtained +correspondingly high prices. His “Field Labourer” was regarded +by many as the most noteworthy picture in the Vienna exhibition +of 1834, and his numerous animal pieces have entitled him to a +place in the first rank of painters of that class of subjects. The +peculiarity of his pictures is the representation of human and +animal figures in connexion with appropriate landscapes and in +characteristic situations so as to manifest nature as a living +whole, and he particularly excels in depicting the free life of +animals in wild mountain scenery. Along with great mastery +of the technicalities of his art, his works exhibit patient and keen +observation, free and correct handling of details, and bold and +clear colouring. He died at Vienna on the 7th of July 1862.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Many of his pictures have been engraved, and after his death a +selection of fifty-three of his works was prepared for this purpose +by the Austrian <i>Kunstverein</i> (Art Union).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAUGE<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Gage</span> (Med. Lat. <i>gauja</i>, <i>jaugia</i>, Fr. <i>jauge</i>, perhaps +connected with Fr. <i>jale</i>, a bowl, <i>galon</i>, gallon), a standard of +measurement, and also the name given to various instruments +and appliances by which measurement is effected. The word +seems to have been primarily used in connexion with the process +of ascertaining the contents of wine casks; the name gauger +is still applied to certain custom-house officials in the United +States, and in Scotland it means an exciseman. Thence it was +extended to other measurements, and used of the instruments +used in making them or of the standards to which they were +referred. In the mechanical arts gauges are employed in great +variety to enable the workmen to ascertain whether the object +he is making is of the proper dimensions (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tool</a></span>), and similar +gauges of various forms are employed to ascertain and to specify +the sizes of manufactured articles such as wire and screws. A +rain gauge is an apparatus for measuring the amount of the +rainfall at any locality, and a wind gauge indicates the pressure +and force of the wind. The boilers of steam engines are provided +with a water gauge and a steam or pressure gauge. The purpose +of the former is to enable the attendant to see whether or not +there is a sufficient quantity of water in the boiler. It consists of +two cocks or taps communicating with the interior, one being +placed at the lowest point to which it is permissible for the water +to fall, and the other at the point above which it should not rise; +a glass tube connects the two cocks, and when they are both open +the water in this stands at the same level as in the boiler. The +steam gauge shows the pressure of the steam in the boiler. One +of the commonest forms, known as the Bourdon gauge, depends +on the fact that a curved tube tends to straighten itself if the +pressure within it is greater than that outside it. This gauge +therefore consists of a curved or coiled tube of elastic material, +and preferably of elliptic section, connected with the boiler and +arranged with a multiplying gear so that its bending or unbending +actuates a pointer moving over a graduated scale. If the pressure +within the tube is less than that outside it, the tube tends to +bend or coil itself up further; with a pointer arranged as before, +the gauge then becomes a vacuum gauge, indicating how far +the pressure in the vessel to which it is attached is below that +of the atmosphere. In railway engineering the gauge of a line +is the distance between the two rails (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Railway</a></span>). In nautical +language, a ship is said to have the weather gage when she is +to windward of another, and similarly the lee gage when to +leeward of another; in this sense the word is usually spelt “gage,” +a spelling which prevails in America for all senses.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAUHATI<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span>, a town of British India, in the Kamrup district +of Eastern Bengal and Assam, mainly on the left or south, but +partly on the right bank of the Brahmaputra. Pop. (1901) +14,244. It is beautifully situated, with an amphitheatre of +wooded hills to the south, but is not very healthy. There are +many evidences, such as ancient earthworks and tanks, of its +historical importance. During the 17th century it was taken +and retaken by Mahommedans and Ahoms eight times in fifty +years, but in 1681 it became the residence of the Ahom governor +of lower Assam, and in 1786 the capital of the Ahom raja. On +the cession of Assam to the British in 1826 it was made the seat +of the British administration of Assam, and so continued till +1874, when the headquarters were removed to Shillong in the +Khasi hills, 67 m. distant, with which Gauhati is connected +by an excellent cart-road. Two much-frequented places of +Hindu pilgrimage are situated in the immediate vicinity, the +temple of Kamakhya on a hill 2 m. west of the town, and the +rocky island of Umananda in the mid-channel of the Brahmaputra. +Gauhati is still the headquarters of the district and of +the Brahmaputra Valley division, though no longer a military +cantonment. It is the river terminus of a section of the Assam-Bengal +railway. There are a second-grade college, a government +high school, a law class and a training school for masters. +Gauhati is an important centre of river trade, and the largest +seat of commerce in Assam. Cotton-ginning, flour-milling, and +an export trade in mustard seed, cotton, silk and forest produce +are carried on. Gauhati suffered very severely from the earthquake +of the 12th of June 1897.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (1855-  ), American artist, +was born in Jersey City, New Jersey, on the 31st of March 1855. +He was a pupil of J.G. Brown and L.E. Wilmarth, and he +became a painter of military pictures, portraying incidents of +the American Civil War. He was elected an associate of the +National Academy of Design in 1880, and in 1882 a full +academician, and in the latter year became a member of the +Society of American Artists. His important works include: +“Charging the Battery,” “News from Home,” “Cold Comfort +on the Outpost,” “Silenced,” “On the Look-out,” and “Guerillas +returning from a Raid.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAUL<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span>, the modern form of the Roman <i>Gallia</i>, the name +of the two chief districts known to the Romans as inhabited +by Celtic-speaking peoples, (<i>a</i>) <i>Gallia Cisalpina</i> (or <i>Citerior</i>, +“Hither”), <i>i.e.</i> north Italy between Alps and Apennines and +(<i>b</i>) the far more important <i>Gallia Transalpina</i> (or <i>Ulterior</i>, +“Further”), usually called <i>Gallia</i> (Gaul) simply, the land +bounded by the Alps, the Mediterranean, the Pyrenees, the +Atlantic, the Rhine, <i>i.e.</i> modern France and Belgium with parts +of Holland, Germany and Switzerland. The Greek form of +<i>Gallia</i> was <span class="grk" title="Galatia">Γαλατία</span>, but Galatia in Latin denoted another Celtic +region in central Asia Minor, sometimes styled <i>Gallograecia</i>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Gallia Cisalpina was mainly conquered by Rome by 222 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>; later it adopted Roman civilization; about 42 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it +was united with Italy and its subsequent history is merged in that +of the peninsula. Its chief distinctions are that during the later +Republic and earlier Empire it yielded excellent soldiers, and +thus much aided the success of Caesar against Pompey and of +Octavian against Antony, and that it gave Rome the poet Virgil +(by origin a Celt), the historian Livy, the lyrist Catullus, Cornelius +Nepos, the elder and the younger Pliny and other distinguished +writers.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Gaul proper first enters ancient history when the Greek +colony of Massilia was founded (? 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Roman armies +began to enter it about 218 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In 121 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the coast from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page533" id="page533"></a>533</span> +Montpellier to the Pyrenees (<i>i.e.</i> all that was not Massiliot) with +its port of Narbo (mod. <i>Narbonne</i>) and its trade route by Toulouse +to the Atlantic, was formed into the province of Gallia Narbonensis +and Narbo itself into a Roman municipality. Commercial +motives prompted the step, and Roman traders and land speculators +speedily flocked in. Gradually the province was extended +north of Massilia, up the Rhone, while the Greek town itself +became weak and dependent on Rome.</p> + +<p>It is not, however, until the middle of the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> that +we have any detailed knowledge of pre-Roman Gaul. The earliest +account is that contained in the <i>Commentaries</i> of Julius Caesar. +According to this authority, Gaul was at that time divided among +three peoples, more or less distinct from one another, the Aquitani, +the Gauls, who called themselves Celts, and the Belgae. The +first of these extended from the Pyrenees to the Garumna +(Garonne); the second, from that river to the Sequana (Seine) +and its chief tributary the Matrona (Marne), reaching eastward +presumably as far as the Rhenus (Rhine); and the third, from +this bounding line to the mouth of the last-named river, thus +bordering on the Germans. By implication Caesar recognizes +as a fourth division the province of Gallia Narbonensis. By +far the greater part of the country was a plain watered by +numerous rivers, the chief of which have already been mentioned, +with the exception of its great central stream, the Liger or Ligeris +(Loire). Its principal mountain ranges were Cebenna or Gebenna +(Cévennes) in the south, and Jura, with its continuation Vosegus +or Vogesus (Vosges), in the east. The tribes inhabiting Gaul in +Caesar’s time, and belonging to one or other of the three races +distinguished by him, were numerous. Prominent among them, +and dwelling in the division occupied by the Celts, were the +Helvetii, the Sequani and the Aedui, in the basins of the +Rhodanus and its tributary the Arar (Saône), who, he says, were +reckoned the three most powerful nations in all Gaul; the +Arverni in the mountains of Cebenna; the Senones and Carnutes +in the basin of the Liger; the Veneti and other Armorican tribes +between the mouths of the Liger and Sequana. The Nervii, +Bellovaci, Suessiones, Remi, Morini, Menapii and Aduatuci +were Belgic tribes; the Tarbelli and others were Aquitani; +while the Allobroges inhabited the north of the Provincia, having +been conquered in 121 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The ethnological divisions thus set +forth by Caesar have been much discussed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Celt</a></span>, and articles +on the chief tribes).</p> + +<p>The Gallic Wars (58-51) of Caesar (<i>q.v.</i>) added all the rest of +Gaul, north-west of the Cévennes, to the Rhine and the Ocean, +and in 49 also annexed Massilia. All Gaul was now Roman +territory. Now the second period of her history opens; it +remained for Roman territory to become romanized.</p> + +<p>Caesar had no time to organize his conquest; this work was +left to Augustus. As settled by him, and in part perhaps also +by his successor Tiberius, it fell into the following five administrative +areas.</p> + +<p>(i) <i>Narbonensis</i>, that is, the land between Alps, sea and +Cévennes, extending up the Rhone to Vienne, was as Augustus +found it, distinct in many ways from the rest of Gaul. By nature +it is a sun-steeped southern region, the home of the vine and +olive, of the minstrelsy of the Provençal and the exuberance of +Tartarin, distinct from the colder and more sober north. By +history it had already (in the time of Augustus) been Roman +for from 80 to 100 years and was familiar with Roman ways. It +was ready to be Italianized and it was civilized enough to need +no garrison. Accordingly, it was henceforward governed by a +proconsul (appointed by the senate) and freed from the burden +of troops, while its local government was assimilated to that of +Italy. The old Celtic tribes were broken up: instead, municipalities +of Roman citizens were founded to rule their territories. +Thus the Allobroges now disappear and the <i>colonia</i> of Vienna +takes their place: the Volcae vanish and we find Nemausus +(Nîmes). Thus thrown into Italian fashion, the province took +rapidly to Italian ways. By <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 70 it was “Italia verius quam +provincia” (Pliny). The Gauls obviously had a natural bias +towards the Italian civilization, and there soon became no +difference between Italy and southern Gaul. But though education +spread, the results were somewhat disappointing. Trade +flourished; the corporations of bargemen and the like on the +Rhone made money; the many towns grew rich and could afford +splendid public buildings. But no great writer and no great administrator +came from Narbonensis; itinerant lecturers and journalists +alone were produced in plenty, and at times minor poets.</p> + +<p>(ii.-iv.) Across the Cévennes lay Caesar’s conquests, Atlantic +in climate, new to Roman ways. The whole area, often collectively +styled “Gallia Comata,” often “Tres Provinciae,” was +divided into three provinces, each under a <i>legatus pro praetore</i> +appointed by the emperor, with a common capital at Lugudunum +(Lyons). The three provinces were: <i>Aquitania</i>, reaching from +the Pyrenees almost to the Loire; <i>Lugudunensis</i>, the land +between Loire and Seine, reaching from Brittany in the west to +Lyons in the south-east; and <i>Belgica</i> in the north. The +boundaries, it will be observed, were wholly artificial. Here also +it was found possible to dispense with garrisons, not because +the provinces were as peaceful as Narbonensis, but because the +Rhine army was close at hand. As befitted an unromanized +region, the local government was unlike that of Italy or Narbonensis. +Roman municipalities were not indeed unknown, but +very few: the local authorities were the magistrates of the old +tribal districts. Local autonomy was here carried to an extreme. +But the policy succeeded. The Gauls of the Three Provinces, or +some of them, revolted in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 21 under Florus and Sacrovir, in +68 under Vindex, and in 70 under Classicus and Tutor (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Civilis, +Claudius</a></span>). But all five leaders were romanized nobles, with +Roman names and Roman citizenship, and their risings were +directed rather against the Roman government than the Roman +empire. In general, the Gauls of these provinces accepted +Roman civilization more or less rapidly, and in due course became +hardly distinguishable from the Italian. In particular, they +eagerly accepted the worship of “Augustus and Rome,” devised +by the first emperor as a bond of state religion connecting +the provinces with Rome. Each August, despite the heat, +representatives from the 60 (or 64) tribes of Gallia Comata met +at Lyons, elected a priest, “sacerdos ad aram Augusti et Romae,” +and held games. The post of representative, and still more that +of priest, was eagerly coveted and provided a scope for the +ambitions which despotism usually crushes. It agrees with the +vigorous development of this worship that the Three Provinces, +though romanized, retained their own local feeling. Even in the +3rd century the cult of Celtic deities (Hercules Magusanus, +Deusoniensis, &c.) were revived, the Celtic <i>leuga</i> reintroduced +instead of the Roman mile on official milestones, and a brief +effort made to establish an independent, though romanized, Gaul +under Postumus and his short-lived successors (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 250-273). +Not only was the area too large and strong to lose its individuality: +it was also too rural and too far from the Mediterranean +to be romanized as fully and quickly as Narbonensis. It is even +probable that Celtic was spoken in forest districts into the 4th +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Town life, however, grew. The <i>chefs-lieux</i> of the +tribes became practically, though not officially, municipalities, +and many of these towns reached considerable size and magnificence +of public buildings. But they attest their tribal relations +by their appellations, which are commonly drawn from the name +of the tribe and not of the town itself. Thus the capitals of the +Remi and Parisii were actually Durocortorum and Lutetia: the +appellations in use were Remis or Remus, Parisiis or Parisius—these +forms being indeclinable nouns formed from a sort of +locative of the tribe names. Literature also flourished. In the +latest empire Ausonius, Symmachus, Apollinaris, Sidonius and +other Gaulish writers, chiefly of Gallia Comata, kept alive the +classical literary tradition, not only for Gaul but for the world.</p> + +<p>(v.) The fifth division of Gaul was the Rhenish military +frontier. Augustus had planned the conquest of Germany up to +the Elbe. His plans were foiled by the courage of Arminius and +the inability of the Roman exchequer to pay a larger army. +Instead, his successor Tiberius organized the Rhine frontier in +two military districts. The northern one was the valley of the +Meuse and that of the Rhine to a point just south of Bonn: the +southern was the rest of the Rhine valley to Switzerland. Each +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page534" id="page534"></a>534</span> +district was garrisoned at first by four, later by fewer legions, +which were disposed at various times in some of the following +fortresses: Vetera (Xanten), Novaesium (Neuss), Bonne (Bonn), +Moguntiacum (Mainz), Argentorate (Strassburg) and Vindonissa +(Windisch in Switzerland). At first the districts were purely +military, were called, after the garrisons, “exercitus Germanicus +superior” (south) and “inferior” (north). Later one or two +municipalities were founded—Colonia Agrippinensis at Cologne +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 51), Colonia Augusta Treverorum at Trier (date uncertain), +Colonia Ulpia Traiana outside Vetera—and about 80-90 <span class="scs">A.D.</span> the +two “Exercitus” were turned into the two provinces of Upper +and Lower Germany. The armies in these districts formed the +defence of Gaul against German invaders. They also helped to +keep Gaul itself in order and their presence explains why the four +provinces of Gaul proper contained no troops.</p> + +<p>These provincial divisions were modified by Diocletian but +without seriously affecting the life of Gaul. The whole country, +indeed, continued Roman and fairly safe from barbarian invasions +till after 400. In 407 a multitude of Franks, Vandals, &c., burst +over Gaul: Roman rule practically ceased and the three kingdoms +of the Visigoths, Burgundians and Franks began to form. There +were still a Roman general and Roman troops when Attila was +defeated in the <i>campi Catalaunici</i> in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 451, but the general, +Aetius, was “the last of the Romans,” and in 486 Clovis the +Frank ended the last vestige of Roman rule in Gaul.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For Roman antiquities in Gaul see, beside articles on the modern +towns (<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arles</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nîmes</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Orange</a></span> &c.), <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bibracte</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alesia</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Itius +Portus</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aqueduct</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Amphitheatre</a></span>, &c.; for +religion see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Druidism</a></span>; for the famous schools of Autun, Lyons, +Toulouse, Nîmes, Vienne, Marseilles and Narbonne, see J.E. Sandys, +<i>History of Classical Scholarship</i> (ed. 1906-1908), i. pp. 247-250; +for the Roman provinces, Th. Mommsen, <i>Provinces of the Roman +Empire</i> (trans. 1886), vol. i. chap. iii. See also Desjardins, <i>Géographie +historique et administrative de la Gaule romaine</i> (Paris, 1877); +Fustel de Coulanges, <i>Histoire des institutions politiques de l’ancienne +France</i> (Paris, 1877); for Caesar’s campaigns, article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caesar, +Julius</a></span>, and works quoted; for coins, art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span> and articles +in the <i>Numismatische Zeitschrift</i> and <i>Revue numismatique</i> (<i>e.g.</i> +Blanchet, 1907, pp. 461 foll.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. J. H.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> When Cisalpine Gaul became completely Romanized, it was +often known as “Gallia Togata,” while the Province was distinguished +as “Gallia Bracata” (<i>bracae</i>, incorrectly <i>braccae</i>, +“trousers”), from the long trousers worn by the inhabitants, and +the rest of Gaul as “Gallia Comata,” from the inhabitants wearing +their hair long.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAULT<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span>, in geology, one of the members of the Lower Cretaceous +System. The name is still employed provincially in parts +of England for a stiff blue clay of any kind; by the earlier +writers it was sometimes spelt “Galt” or “Golt.”</p> + +<p>The formation now known as Gault in England has been +variously designated “Blue Marle,” “Brick Earth,” “Golt +Brick Earth” and “Oak-tree-soil.” In certain parts of the +south of England the Gault appears as a well-marked deposit of +clay, lying between two sandy formations; the one above came +to be known as the “Upper Greensand,” the one below being +the “Lower Greensand” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greensand</a></span>). Since the typical +clayey Gault is continually taking on a sandy facies as it is traced +both horizontally and vertically; and since the fossils of the +Upper Greensand and Gault are inseparably related, it has been +proposed by A.J. Jukes-Browne that these two series of beds +should be regarded as the arenaceous and argillaceous phases of a +single formation, to which he has given the name “Selbornian” +(from the village of Selborne where the beds are well developed). +Lithologically, then, the Selbornian includes the blue and grey +clays and marls of the Gault proper; the glauconitic sands of the +Upper Greensand, and their local equivalent, the “malm,” +“malm rock” or “firestone,” which in places passes into the +micaceous sandstone containing sponge spicules and globules of +silica, the counterpart of the rock called “gaize” on the same +horizon in northern France. In Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and parts +of Norfolk the Selbornian is represented by the Red Chalk. The +malm is a ferruginous siliceous rock, the silica being mainly in the +colloidal condition in the form of globules and sponge spicules; +some quartz grains, mica and glauconite are usually present +along with from 2 to 25% of calcareous matter. Chert-bands and +nodules are common in the Upper Greensand of certain districts; +and calcareous concretions, locally recognized as cowstones +(Lyme Regis), doggers or buhrstones, are not infrequent.</p> + +<p>The principal divisions of the Selbornian stage with their +characteristic zonal fossils are as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Warminster Beds</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Pecten asper</i> and <i>Cardiaster fossarius</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Upper Gault</td> <td class="tcl">Devizes Beds or Merstham Beds with <i>Schloenbachia rostralus</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm cl" rowspan ="3">Lower Gault</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Hoplites lautus.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl"><i>H. interruptus.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl"><i>Acanthoceras mammillatum.</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The Gault (with Upper Greensand) crops out all round the Wealden +area; it extends beneath the London basin and reappears from +beneath the northern scarp of the Chalk along the foot of the Chiltern +Hills to near Tring. In the south of England the Gault clay is +fairly constant in the lower part, with the Greensand above; the +clay, however, passes into sand as it is followed westward and, as +already pointed out, the clay and sand appear to pass into a red +chalk towards the north-east. The Gault overlaps the Lower Greensand +towards the east, where it rests upon the old Paleozoic axis; +it also overlaps the same formation towards the west about Frome, +and thence passes unconformably across the Portlandian beds, Kimeridge +Clay, Corallian beds and Oxford Clay; in south Dorsetshire +it rests upon the Wealden Series. The Gault (with Upper Greensand) +passes on to the Jurassic and Rhaetic rocks near Axmouth, and oversteps +farther westward, in the Haldon Hills, on to the Permian. A +large outlier occurs on the Blackdown Hills of Devonshire. Good +localities for fossils are Folkestone—where many of the shells are +preserved with their original pearly nacre,—Burnham, Merstham, +Isle of Wight, the Blackdown and Haldon Hills, Warminster, +Hunstanton and Speeton, Black Venn near Lyme Regis, and Devizes +(malmstone and gaize). The beds are well developed in the vale of +Wardour, and in the Isle of Wight; the Gault forms the so-called +“blue slipper” at Ventnor which has been the cause of the landslip +or undercliff.</p> + +<p>The Gault of north France is very similar to that in the south +of England, but the French term <i>Albien</i> includes only a portion of +the Selbornian formation. The Gault of north-west Germany +embraces beds that would be classed as <i>Albien</i> and <i>Aptien</i> by French +authors; it comprises the “Flammenmergel”—a pale siliceous +marl shot with flame-shaped darker patches—a clay with <i>Belemnites +minimus</i>, and the “Gargasmergel” (Aptian). In the Diester and +Teutoberger Wald, and in the region of Halberstadt, the clays and +marls are replaced by sandstones, the so-called <i>Gault-Quader</i>. +Continental writers usually place the Gault or Albian at the summit +of the Lower Cretaceous; while with English geologists the practice +is to commence the Upper Cretaceous with this formation. In +addition to the fossils already noticed, the following may be mentioned: +<i>Acanthoceras Desmoceras Beaudanti</i>, <i>Hoplites splendens</i>, +<i>Hamites</i>, <i>Scaphites</i>, <i>Turrilites</i>, <i>Aporrhais retusa</i>, <i>Trigonia aliforme</i>, +also <i>Ichthyosaurus</i> and <i>Ornithocheirus</i> (Pterodactyl). From the clays, +bricks and tiles are made at Burham, Barnwell, Dunton Green, +Arlesey, Hitchin, &c. The cherts in the Greensand portion are used +for road metal, and in the Blackdown Hills, for scythe stones; +hearthstone is obtained about Merstham; phosphatic nodules occur +at several horizons.</p> + +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cretaceous System</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Albian</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aptian</a></span>; also A.J. Jukes-Browne, +“The Gault and Upper Greensand of England.” vol. i., +<i>Cretaceous Rocks of Britain</i>; <i>Mem. Geol. Survey</i>, 1900.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAUNTLET<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (a diminutive of the Fr. <i>gant</i>, glove), a large +form of glove, and especially the steel-plated glove of medieval +armour. To “run the gauntlet,” <i>i.e.</i> to run between two rows +of men who, armed with sticks, rope-ends or other weapons, +beat and strike at the person so running, was formerly a punishment +for military and naval offences. It was abolished in the +Prussian army by Scharnhorst. As a method of torturing +prisoners, it was employed among the North American Indians. +“Gauntlet” (earlier “gantlet”) in this expression is a corruption +of “gantlope,” from a Swedish <i>gatlope</i>, from <i>gata</i>, lane, and <i>lopp</i>, +a course (cf. Ger. <i>gassenlaufen</i>, to run the gauntlet). According +to the <i>New English Dictionary</i> the word became familiar in +England at the time of the Thirty Years’ War.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAUR<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Lakhnauti</span>, a ruined city of British India, in Malda +district of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The ruins are situated +about 8 m. to the south of English Bazar, the civil station of +the district of Malda, and on the eastern bank of the Bhagirathi, +an old channel of the Ganges. It is said to have been founded +by Lakshman, and its most ancient name was Lakshmanavati, +corrupted into Lakhnauti. Its known history begins with its +conquest in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1198 by the Mahommedans, who retained it +as the chief seat of their power in Bengal for more than three +centuries. When the Afghan kings of Bengal established their +independence, they transferred their seat of government (about +1350) to Pandua (<i>q.v.</i>), also in Malda district, and to build +their new capital they plundered Gaur of every monument that +could be removed. When Pandua was in its turn deserted +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1453), Gaur once more became the capital under the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535"></a>535</span> +name of Jannatabad; it remained so as long as the Mahommedan +kings retained their independence. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1564 Sulaiman +Kirani, a Pathan adventurer, abandoned it for Tanda, a place +somewhat nearer the Ganges. Gaur was sacked by Sher Shah +in 1539, and was occupied by Akbar’s general in 1575, when +Daud Shah, the last of the Afghan dynasty, refused to pay +homage to the Mogul emperor. This occupation was followed +by an outbreak of the plague, which completed the downfall of +the city, and since then it has been little better than a heap of +ruins, almost overgrown with jungle.</p> + +<p>The city in its prime measured 7½ m. from north to south, +with a breadth of 1 to 2 m. With suburbs it covered an area +of 20 to 30 sq. m., and in the 16th century the Portuguese +historian Faria y Sousa described it as containing 1,200,000 +inhabitants. The ramparts of this walled city, which was +surrounded by extensive suburbs, still exist; they were works +of vast labour, and were on the average about 40 ft. high, and +180 to 200 ft. thick at the base. The facing of masonry and the +buildings with which they were covered have now disappeared, +and the embankments themselves are overgrown with dense +jungle. The western side of the city was washed by the Ganges, +and within the space enclosed by these embankments and the +river stood the city of Gaur proper, with the fort containing +the palace in its south-west corner. Radiating north, south and +east from the city, other embankments are to be traced running +through the suburbs and extending in certain directions for 30 +or 40 m. Surrounding the palace is an inner embankment of +similar construction to that which surrounds the city, and even +more overgrown with jungle. A deep moat protects it on the +outside. To the north of the outer enbankment lies the Sagar +Dighi, a great reservoir, 1600 yds. by 800 yds., dating from +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1126.</p> + +<p>Fergusson in his <i>History of Eastern Architecture</i> thus describes +the general architectural style of Gaur:—“It is neither like that +of Delhi nor Jaunpore, nor any other style, but one purely local +and not without considerable merit in itself; its principal +characteristic being heavy short pillars of stone supporting +pointed arches and vaults in brick—whereas at Jaunpore, for +instance, light pillars carried horizontal architraves and flat +ceilings.” Owing to the lightness of the small, thin bricks, which +were chiefly used in the making of Gaur, its buildings have not +well withstood the ravages of time and the weather; while +much of its enamelled work has been removed for the ornamentation +of the surrounding cities of more modern origin. Moreover, +the ruins long served as a quarry for the builders of neighbouring +towns and villages, till in 1900 steps were taken for their preservation +by the government. The finest ruin in Gaur is that of the +Great Golden Mosque, also called Bara Darwaza, or twelve-doored +(1526). An arched corridor running along the whole front +of the original building is the principal portion now standing. +There are eleven arches on either side of the corridor and one at +each end of it, from which the mosque probably obtained its +name. These arches are surmounted by eleven domes in fair +preservation; the mosque had originally thirty-three.</p> + +<p>The Small Golden or Eunuch’s mosque, in the ancient suburb +of Firozpur, has fine carving, and is faced with stone fairly well +preserved. The Tantipara mosque (1475-1480) has beautiful +moulding in brick, and the Lotan mosque of the same period +is unique in retaining its glazed tiles. The citadel, of the +Mahommedan period, was strongly fortified with a rampart +and entered through a magnificent gateway called the Dakhil +Darwaza (? 1459-1474). At the south-east corner was a palace, +surrounded by a wall of brick 66 ft. high, of which a part is +standing. Near by were the royal tombs. Within the citadel +is the Kadam Rasul mosque (1530), which is still used, and close +outside is a tall tower called the Firoz Minar (perhaps signifying +“tower of victory”). There are a number of Mahommedan +buildings on the banks of the Sagar Dighi, including, notably, +the tomb of the saint Makhdum Shaikh Akhi Siraj (d. 1357), +and in the neighbourhood is a burning ghat, traditionally the +only one allowed to the use of the Hindus by their Mahommedan +conquerors, and still greatly venerated and frequented by them. +Many inscriptions of historical importance have been found in the +ruins.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M. Martin (Buchanan Hamilton), <i>Eastern India</i>, vol. iii. (1831); +G.H. Ravenshaw, <i>Gaur</i> (1878); James Fergusson, <i>History of Indian +and Eastern Architecture</i> (1876); <i>Reports of the Archaeological +Surveyor, Bengal Circle</i> (1900-1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAUR<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span>, the native name of the wild ox, <i>Bos</i> (<i>Bibos</i>) <i>gaurus</i>, +of India, miscalled bison by sportsmen. The gaur, which extends +into Burma and the Malay Peninsula, where it is known as +seladang, is the typical representative of an Indo-Malay group +of wild cattle characterized by the presence of a ridge on the +withers, the compressed horns, and the white legs. The gaur, +which reaches a height of nearly 6 ft. at the shoulder, is specially +characterized by the forward curve and great elevation of the +ridge between the horns. The general colour is blackish-grey. +Hill-forests are the resort of this species.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAUSS, KARL FRIEDRICH<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1777-1855), German mathematician, +was born of humble parents at Brunswick on the 30th +of April 1777, and was indebted for a liberal education to the +notice which his talents procured him from the reigning duke. +His name became widely known by the publication, in his +twenty-fifth year (1801), of the <i>Disquisitiones arithmeticae</i>. +In 1807 he was appointed director of the Göttingen observatory, +an office which he retained to his death: it is said that he never +slept away from under the roof of his observatory, except on +one occasion, when he accepted an invitation from Baron von +Humboldt to attend a meeting of natural philosophers at Berlin. +In 1809 he published at Hamburg his <i>Theoria motus corporum +coelestium</i>, a work which gave a powerful impulse to the true +methods of astronomical observation; and his astronomical +workings, observations, calculations of orbits of planets and +comets, &c., are very numerous and valuable. He continued +his labours in the theory of numbers and other analytical subjects, +and communicated a long series of memoirs to the Royal Society +of Sciences (<i>Königliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften</i>) at +Göttingen. His first memoir on the theory of magnetism, +<i>Intensitas vis magneticae terrestris ad mensuram absolutam +revocata</i>, was published in 1833, and he shortly afterwards +proceeded, in conjunction with Wilhelm Weber, to invent new +apparatus for observing the earth’s magnetism and its changes; +the instruments devised by them were the declination instrument +and the bifilar magnetometer. With Weber’s assistance he +erected in 1833 at Göttingen a magnetic observatory free from +iron (as Humboldt and F.J.D. Arago had previously done on a +smaller scale), where he made magnetic observations, and from +this same observatory he sent telegraphic signals to the neighbouring +town, thus showing the practicability of an electromagnetic +telegraph. He further instituted an association (<i>Magnetischer +Verein</i>), composed at first almost entirely of Germans, whose +continuous observations on fixed term-days extended from +Holland to Sicily. The volumes of their publication, <i>Resultate +am den Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins</i>, extend from +1836 to 1839; and in those for 1838 and 1839 are contained the +two important memoirs by Gauss, <i>Allgemeine Theorie des Erdmagnetismus, +and the Allgemeine Lehrsätze</i>—on the theory of +forces attracting according to the inverse square of the distance. +The instruments and methods thus due to him are substantially +those employed in the magnetic observatories throughout the +world. He co-operated in the Danish and Hanoverian measurements +of an arc and trigonometrical operations (1821-1848), +and wrote (1843, 1846) the two memoirs <i>Über Gegenstände der +höheren Geodäsie</i>. Connected with observations in general +we have (1812-1826) the memoir <i>Theoria combinationis observationum +erroribus minimis obnoxia</i>, with a second part and a +supplement. Another memoir of applied mathematics is the +<i>Dioptrische Untersuchungen</i> (1840). Gauss was well versed in +general literature and the chief languages of modern Europe, +and was a member of nearly all the leading scientific societies +in Europe. He died at Göttingen on the 23rd of February 1855. +The centenary of his birth was celebrated (1877) at his native +place, Brunswick.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gauss’s collected works were published by the Royal Society of +Göttingen, in 7 vols. 4to (Gött., 1863-1871), edited by E.J. Schering—(1) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page536" id="page536"></a>536</span> +the <i>Disquisitiones arithmeticae</i>, (2) <i>Theory of Numbers</i>, (3) +<i>Analysis</i>, (4) <i>Geometry and Method of Least Squares</i>, (5) <i>Mathematical +Physics</i>, (6) <i>Astronomy</i>, and (7) the <i>Theoria motus corporum +coelestium</i>. Additional volumes have since been published, <i>Fundamente +der Geometrie usw</i>. (1900), and <i>Geodatische Nachträge zu +Band iv</i>. (1903). They include, besides his various works and +memoirs, notices by him of many of these, and of works of other +authors in the <i>Göttingen gelehrte Anzeigen</i>, and a considerable amount +of previously unpublished matter, <i>Nachlass</i>. Of the memoirs in pure +mathematics, comprised for the most part in vols, ii., iii. and iv. +(but to these must be added those on <i>Attractions</i> in vol. v.), it may +be safely said there is not one which has not signally contributed +to the progress of the branch of mathematics to which it belongs, +or which would not require to be carefully analysed in a history of +the subject. Running through these volumes in order, we have in +the second the memoir, <i>Summatio quarundam serierum singularium</i>, +the memoirs on the theory of biquadratic residues, in which the notion +of complex numbers of the form <i>a</i> + <i>bi</i> was first introduced into the +theory of numbers; and included in the <i>Nachlass</i> are some valuable +tables. That for the conversion of a fraction into decimals (giving +the complete period for all the prime numbers up to 997) is a specimen +of the extraordinary love which Gauss had for long arithmetical +calculations; and the amount of work gone through in the construction +of the table of the number of the classes of binary quadratic +forms must also have been tremendous. In vol. iii. we have memoirs +relating to the proof of the theorem that every numerical equation +has a real or imaginary root, the memoir on the <i>Hypergeometric +Series</i>, that on <i>Interpolation</i>, and the memoir <i>Determinatio attractionis</i>—in +which a planetary mass is considered as distributed over +its orbit according to the time in which each portion of the orbit is +described, and the question (having an implied reference to the theory +of secular perturbations) is to find the attraction of such a ring. In +the solution the value of an elliptic function is found by means of +the <i>arithmetico-geometrical mean</i>. The <i>Nachlass</i> contains further researches +on this subject, and also researches (unfortunately very +fragmentary) on the lemniscate-function, &., showing that Gauss +was, even before 1800, in possession of many of the discoveries which +have made the names of N.H. Abel and K.G.J. Jacobi illustrious. +In vol. iv. we have the memoir <i>Allgemeine Auflösung</i>, on the graphical +representation of one surface upon another, and the <i>Disquisitiones +generales circa superficies curvas</i>. (An account of the treatment of +surfaces which he originated in this paper will be found in the article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Surface</a></span>.) And in vol. v. we have a memoir <i>On the Attraction of +Homogeneous Ellipsoids</i>, and the already mentioned memoir <i>Allgemeine +Lehrsätze</i>, on the theory of forces attracting according to the +inverse square of the distance.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Ca.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAUSSEN, FRANÇOIS SAMUEL ROBERT LOUIS<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1790-1863), +Swiss Protestant divine, was born at Geneva on the 25th of +August 1790. His father, Georg Markus Gaussen, a member of +the council of two hundred, was descended from an old Languedoc +family which had been scattered at the time of the religious +persecutions in France. At the close of his university career at +Geneva, Louis was in 1816 appointed pastor of the Swiss Reformed +Church at Satigny near Geneva, where he formed intimate relations +with J.E. Cellérier, who had preceded him in the pastorate, +and also with the members of the dissenting congregation at +Bourg-de-Four, which, together with the Église du témoignage, +had been formed under the influence of the preaching of James +and Robert Haldane in 1817. The Swiss revival was distasteful +to the pastors of Geneva (<i>Vénérable Compagnie des Pasteurs</i>), and +on the 7th of May 1817 they passed an ordinance hostile to it. +As a protest against this ordinance, in 1819 Gaussen published in +conjunction with Cellérier a French translation of the Second +Helvetic Confession, with a preface expounding the views he had +reached upon the nature, use and necessity of confessions of +faith; and in 1830, for having discarded the official catechism of +his church as being insufficiently explicit on the divinity of +Christ, original sin and the doctrines of grace, he was censured +and suspended by his ecclesiastical superiors. In the following +year he took part in the formation of a <i>Société Évangélique</i> +(<i>Evangelische Gesellschaft</i>). When this society contemplated, +among other objects, the establishment of a new theological +college, he was finally deprived of his charge. After some time +devoted to travel in Italy and England, he returned to Geneva +and ministered to an independent congregation until 1834, when +he joined Merle d’Aubigné as professor of systematic theology in +the college which he had helped to found. This post he continued +to occupy until 1857, when he retired from the active duties of +the chair. He died at Les Grottes, Geneva, on the 18th of June +1863.</p> + +<p>His best-known work, entitled <i>La Théopneustie ou pleine +inspiration des saintes écritures</i>, an elaborate defence of the +doctrine of “plenary inspiration,” was originally published in +Paris in 1840, and rapidly gained a wide popularity in France, as +also, through translations, in England and America. It was +followed in 1860 by a supplementary treatise on the canon +(<i>Le Canon des saintes écritures au double point de vue de la science +et de la foi</i>), which, though also popular, has hardly been so widely +read.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAUTIER, ÉMILE THÉODORE LÉON<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1832-1897), French +literary historian, was born at Hâvre on the 8th of August 1832. +He was educated at the École des Chartes, and became successively +keeper of the archives of the department of Haute-Marne +and of the imperial archives at Paris under the empire. In 1871 +he became professor of palaeography at the École des Chartes. +He was elected member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1887, +and became chief of the historical section of the national archives +in 1893. Léon Gautier rendered great services to the study of +early French literature, the most important of his numerous +works on medieval subjects being a critical text (Tours, 1872) +with translation and introduction of the <i>Chanson de Roland</i>, and +<i>Les Épopées françaises</i> (3 vols., 1866-1867; 2nd ed., 5 vols., 1878-1897, +including a <i>Bibliographie des chansons de geste</i>). He died in +Paris on the 25th of August 1897.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAUTIER, THÉOPHILE<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1811-1872), French poet and +miscellaneous writer, was born at Tarbes on the 31st of August +1811. He was educated at the grammar school of that town, and +afterwards at the Collège Charlemagne in Paris, but was almost as +much in the studios. He very early devoted himself to the study +of the older French literature, especially that of the 16th and the +early part of the 17th century. This study qualified him well to +take part in the Romantic movement, and enabled him to +astonish Sainte-Beuve by the phraseology and style of some +literary essays which, when barely eighteen years old, he put into +the critic’s hands. In consequence of this introduction he at +once came under the influence of the great Romantic <i>cénacle</i>, to +which, as to Victor Hugo in particular, he was also introduced by +his gifted but ill-starred schoolmate Gérard de Nerval. With +Gérard, Petrus Borel, Corot, and many other less known painters +and poets whose personalities he has delightfully sketched in the +articles collected under the titles of <i>Histoire du Romantisme</i>, &c., +he formed a minor romantic clique who were distinguished for a +time by the most extravagant eccentricity. A flaming crimson +waistcoat and a great mass of waving hair were the outward +signs which qualified Gautier for a chief rank among the enthusiastic +devotees who attended the rehearsals of <i>Hernani</i> with red +tickets marked “Hierro,” performed mocking dances round the +bust of Racine, and were at all times ready to exchange word or +blow with the <i>perruques</i> and <i>grisâtres</i> of the classical party. In +Gautier’s case these freaks were not inconsistent with real genius +and real devotion to sound ideals of literature. He began (like +Thackeray, to whom he presents in other ways some striking +points of resemblance) as an artist, but soon found that his true +powers lay in another direction.</p> + +<p>His first considerable poem, <i>Albertus</i> (1830), displayed a good +deal of the extravagant character which accompanied rather than +marked the movement, but also gave evidence of uncommon +command both of language and imagery, and in particular of a +descriptive power hardly to be excelled. The promise thus +given was more than fulfilled in his subsequent poetry, which, in +consequence of its small bulk, may well be noticed at once and by +anticipation. The <i>Comédie de la mort</i>, which appeared soon after +(1832), is one of the most remarkable of French poems, and +though never widely read has received the suffrage of every +competent reader. Minor poems of various dates, published in +1840, display an almost unequalled command over poetical form, +an advance even over <i>Albertus</i> in vigour, wealth and appropriateness +of diction, and abundance of the special poetical essence. +All these good gifts reached their climax in the <i>Émaux et camées</i>, +first published in 1856, and again, with additions, just before the +poet’s death in 1872. These poems are in their own way such as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page537" id="page537"></a>537</span> +cannot be surpassed. Gautier’s poetical work contains in little +an expression of his literary peculiarities. There are, in addition +to the peculiarities of style and diction already noticed, an extraordinary +feeling and affection for beauty in art and nature, and a +strange indifference to anything beyond this range, which has +doubtless injured the popularity of his work.</p> + +<p>But it was not, after all, as a poet that Gautier was to achieve +either profit or fame. For the theatre, he had but little gift, and +his dramatic efforts (if we except certain masques or ballets in +which his exuberant and graceful fancy came into play) are by +far his weakest. It was otherwise with his prose fiction. His +first novel of any size, and in many respects his most remarkable +work, was <i>Mademoiselle de Maupin</i> (1835). Unfortunately this +book, while it establishes his literary reputation on an imperishable +basis, was unfitted by its subject, and in parts by its treatment, +for general perusal, and created, even in France, a prejudice +against its author which he was very far from really deserving. +During the years from 1833 onwards, his fertility in novels and +tales was very great. <i>Les Jeunes-France</i> (1833), which may rank +as a sort of prose <i>Albertus</i> in some ways, displays the follies of the +youthful Romantics in a vein of humorous and at the same time +half-pathetic satire. <i>Fortunio</i> (1838) perhaps belongs to the same +class. <i>Jettatura</i>, written somewhat later, is less extravagant and +more pathetic. A crowd of minor tales display the highest +literary qualities, and rank with Mérimée’s at the head of all +contemporary works of the class. First of all must be mentioned +the ghost-story of <i>La Morte amoureuse</i>, a gem of the most perfect +workmanship. For many years Gautier continued to write +novels. <i>La Belle Jenny</i> (1864) is a not very successful attempt to +draw on his English experience, but the earlier <i>Militona</i> (1847) is +a most charming picture of Spanish life. In <i>Spirite</i> (1866) he +endeavoured to enlist the fancy of the day for supernatural +manifestations, and a <i>Roman de la momie</i> (1856) is a learned study +of ancient Egyptian ways. His most remarkable effort in this +kind, towards the end of his life, was <i>Le Capitaine Fracasse</i> (1863), +a novel, partly of the picaresque school, partly of that which +Dumas was to make popular, projected nearly thirty years earlier, +and before Dumas himself had taken to the style. This book +contains some of the finest instances of his literary power.</p> + +<p>Yet neither in poems nor in novels did the main occupation +of Gautier as a literary man consist. He was early drawn to +the more lucrative task of feuilleton-writing, and for more than +thirty years he was among the most expert and successful +practitioners of this art. Soon after the publication of <i>Mademoiselle +de Maupin</i>, in which he had not been too polite to +journalism, he became irrevocably a journalist. He was actually +the editor of <i>L’Artiste</i> for a time: but his chief newspaper +connexions were with <i>La Presse</i> from 1836 to 1854 and with the +<i>Moniteur</i> later. His work was mainly theatrical and art criticism. +The rest of his life was spent either at Paris or in travels of +considerable extent to Spain, the Netherlands, Italy, Turkey, +England, Algeria and Russia, all undertaken with a more or less +definite purpose of book-making. Having absolutely no political +opinions, he had no difficulty in accepting the Second Empire, +and received from it considerable favours, in return for which, +however, he in no way prostituted his pen, but remained a +literary man pure and simple. He died on the 23rd of December +1872.</p> + +<p>Accounts of his travels, criticisms of the theatrical and literary +works of the day, obituary notices of his contemporaries and, +above all, art criticism occupied him in turn. It has sometimes +been deplored that this engagement in journalism should have +diverted Gautier from the performance of more capital work in +literature. Perhaps, however, this regret springs from a certain +misconception. Gautier’s power was literary power pure and +simple, and it is as evident in his slightest sketches and criticisms +as in <i>Émaux et camées or La Morte amoureuse</i>. On the other hand, +his weakness, if he had a weakness, lay in his almost total indifference +to the matters which usually supply subjects for art +and therefore for literature. He has thus been accused of “lack +of ideas” by those who have not cleared their own minds of cant; +and in the recent set-back of the critical current against form and +in favour of “philosophic” treatment, comment upon him has +sometimes been unfavourable. But this injustice will, beyond +all question, be redressed again. He was neither immoral, +irreligious nor unduly subservient to despotism, but morals, +religion and politics (to which we may add science and material +progress) were matters of no interest to him. He was to all +intents a humanist, as the word was understood in the 15th +century. But he was a humorist as well, and this combination, +joined to his singularly kindly and genial nature, saved him +from some dangers and depravations as well as some absurdities +to which the humanist temper is exposed. As time goes on it +may be predicted that, though Gautier may not be widely read, +yet his writings will never cease to be full of indescribable charm +and of very definite instruction to men of letters. Besides those +of his works which have been already cited, we may notice <i>Une +Larme du diable</i> (1839), a charming mixture of humour and tenderness; +<i>Les Grotesques</i> (1844), a volume of early criticisms on some +oddities of 17th-century literature; <i>Caprices et zigzags</i> (1845), +miscellanies dealing in part with English life; <i>Voyage en Espagne</i> +(1845), <i>Constantinople</i> (1854), <i>Voyage en Russie</i> (1866), brilliant +volumes of travel; <i>Ménagerie intime</i> (1869) and <i>Tableaux de +siège</i> (1872), his two latest works, which display his incomparable +style in its quietest but not least happy form.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There is no complete edition of Gautier’s works, and the vicomte +Spoelberch de Lovenjoul’s <i>Histoire des œuvres de Théophile Gautier</i> +(1887) shows how formidable such an undertaking would be. But +since his death numerous further collections of articles have been +made: <i>Fusains et eaux-fortes</i> and <i>Tableaux à la plume</i> (1880); +<i>L’Orient</i> (2 vols., 1881); <i>Les Vacances du lundi</i> (new ed., 1888); +<i>La Nature chez elle</i> (new ed., 1891). In 1879 his son-in-law, E. +Bergerat, who had married his younger daughter Estelle (the elder, +Mme Judith Gautier—herself a writer of distinction—was at one +time Mme Catulle Mendès), issued a biography, <i>Théophile Gautier</i>, +which has been often reprinted. With it should be compared Maxime +du Camp’s volume in the <i>Grands Écrivains français</i> (1890) and the +numerous references in the <i>Journal des Goncourt</i>. Critical eulogies, +from Sainte-Beuve (repeatedly in the <i>Causeries</i>) and Baudelaire (two +articles in <i>L’Art romantique</i>) downwards, are numerous. The chief +of the decriers is Émile Faguet in his <i>Études littéraires sur le XIX<span class="sp">e</span> +siècle</i>. In 1902 and 1903 there appeared two respectable academic +<i>éloges</i> by H. Menai and H. Potez.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. Sa.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAUTIER D’ARRAS<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span>, French <i>trouvère</i>, flourished in the second +half of the 12th century. Nothing is known of his biography +except what may be gleaned from his works. He dedicated his +romance of <i>Éracle</i> to Theobald V., count of Blois (d. 1191); +among his other patrons were Marie, countess of Champagne, +daughter of Louis VII. and Eleanor of Guienne and Baldwin IV., +count of Hainaut. <i>Éracle</i>, the hero of which becomes emperor +of Constantinople as Heraclius, is purely a <i>roman d’aventures</i> +and enjoyed great popularity. His second romance, <i>Ille et +Galeron</i>, dedicated to Beatrix, the second wife of Frederick +Barbarossa, treats of a similar situation to that outlined in the +lay of “<i>Eliduc</i>” by Marie de France.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Œuvres de Gautier d’Arras</i>, ed. E. Löseth (2 vols., Paris, +1890); <i>Hist. litt. de la France</i>, vol. xxii. (1852); A. Dinaux, <i>Les +Trouvères</i> (1833-1843), vol. iii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAUZE<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span>, a light, transparent fabric, originally of silk, and +now sometimes made of linen or cotton, woven in an open manner +with very fine yarn. It is said to have been originally made at +Gaza in Palestine, whence the name. Some of the gauzes from +eastern Asia were brocaded with flowers of gold or silver. In +the weaving of gauze the warp threads, in addition to being +crossed as in plain weaving, are twisted in pairs from left to +right and from right to left alternately, after each shot of weft, +thereby keeping the weft threads at equal distances apart, and +retaining them in their parallel position. The textures are +woven either plain, striped or figured; and the material receives +many designations, according to its appearance and the purposes +to which it is devoted. A thin cotton fabric, woven in the same +way, is known as leno, to distinguish it from muslin made by +plain weaving. Silk gauze was a prominent and extensive +industry in the west of Scotland during the second half of the +18th century, but on the introduction of cotton-weaving it +greatly declined. In addition to its use for dress purposes silk +gauze is much employed for bolting or sifting flour and other +finely ground substances. The term gauze is applied generally +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538"></a>538</span> +to transparent fabrics of whatever fibre made, and to the fine-woven +wire-cloth used in safety-lamps, sieves, window-blinds, &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAVARNI<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span>, the name by which <span class="sc">Sulpice Guillaume Chevalier</span> +(1801-1866), French caricaturist, is known. He is said to have +taken the <i>nom de plume</i> from the place where he made his first +published sketch. He was born in Paris of poor parents, and +started in life as a workman in an engine-building factory. At +the same time he attended the free school of drawing. In his +first attempts to turn his abilities to some account he met with +many disappointments, but was at last entrusted with the +drawing of some illustrations for a journal of fashion. Gavarni +was then thirty-four years of age. His sharp and witty pencil +gave to these generally commonplace and unartistic figures a +life-likeness and an expression which soon won for him a name +in fashionable circles. Gradually he gave greater attention to +this more congenial work, and finally ceased working as an +engineer to become the director of the journal <i>Les Gens du monde</i>. +His ambition rising in proportion to his success, Gavarni from +this time followed the real bent of his inclination, and began a +series of lithographed sketches, in which he portrayed the most +striking characteristics, foibles and vices of the various classes +of French society. The letterpress explanations attached to his +drawings were always short, but were forcible and highly +humorous, if sometimes trivial, and were admirably adapted +to the particular subjects. The different stages through which +Gavarni’s talent passed, always elevating and refining itself, +are well worth being noted. At first he confined himself to the +study of Parisian manners, more especially those of the Parisian +youth. To this vein belong <i>Les Lorettes</i>, <i>Les Actrices</i>, <i>Les Coulisses</i>, +<i>Les Fashionables</i>, <i>Les Gentilshommes bourgeois</i>, <i>Les Artistes</i>, <i>Les +Débardeurs</i>, <i>Clichy</i>, <i>Les Étudiants de Paris</i>, <i>Les Baliverneries +parisiennes</i>, <i>Les Plaisirs champêtres</i>, <i>Les Bals masqués</i>, <i>Le Carnaval</i>, +<i>Les Souvenirs du carnaval</i>, <i>Les Souvenirs du bal Chicard</i>, <i>La Vie +des jeunes hommes</i>, <i>Les Patois de Paris</i>. He had now ceased to +be director of <i>Les Gens du monde</i>; but he was engaged as ordinary +caricaturist of <i>Le Charivari</i>, and, whilst making the fortune +of the paper, he made his own. His name was exceedingly +popular, and his illustrations for books were eagerly sought for +by publishers. <i>Le Juif errant</i>, by Eugène Sue (1843, 4 vols. +8vo), the French translation of Hoffman’s tales (1843, 8vo), the +first collective edition of Balzac’s works (Paris, Houssiaux, 1850, +20 vols. 8vo), <i>Le Diable à Paris</i> (1844-1846, 2 vols. 4to), <i>Les +Français peints par eux-mêmes</i> (1840-1843, 9 vols. 8vo), the +collection of <i>Physiologies</i> published by Aubert in 38 vols. 18mo +(1840-1842),—all owed a great part of their success at the time, +and are still sought for, on account of the clever and telling +sketches contributed by Gavarni. A single frontispiece or +vignette was sometimes enough to secure the sale of a new book. +Always desiring to enlarge the field of his observations, Gavarni +soon abandoned his once favourite topics. He no longer limited +himself to such types as the <i>lorette</i> and the Parisian student, +or to the description of the noisy and popular pleasures of the +capital, but turned his mirror to the grotesque sides of family +life and of humanity at large. <i>Les Enfants terribles</i>, <i>Les Parents +terribles</i>, <i>Les Fourberies des femmes</i>, <i>La Politique des femmes</i>, <i>Les +Maris vengés</i>, <i>Les Nuances du sentiment</i>, <i>Les Rêves</i>, <i>Les Petits Jeux +de société</i>, <i>Les Petits Malheurs du bonheur</i>, <i>Les Impressions de +menage</i>, <i>Les Interjections</i>, <i>Les Traductions en langue vulgaire</i>, <i>Les +Propos de Thomas Vireloque</i>, &c., were composed at this time, +and are his most elevated productions. But whilst showing the +same power of irony as his former works, enhanced by a deeper +insight into human nature, they generally bear the stamp of a +bitter and even sometimes gloomy philosophy. This tendency +was still more strengthened by a visit to England in 1849. He +returned from London deeply impressed with the scenes of misery +and degradation which he had observed among the lower classes +of that city. In the midst of the cheerful atmosphere of Paris he +had been struck chiefly by the ridiculous aspects of vulgarity +and vice, and he had laughed at them. But the debasement of +human nature which he saw in London appears to have affected +him so forcibly that from that time the cheerful caricaturist +never laughed or made others laugh again. What he had +witnessed there became the almost exclusive subject of his +drawings, as powerful, as impressive as ever, but better calculated +to be appreciated by cultivated minds than by the public, which +had in former years granted him so wide a popularity. Most of +these last compositions appeared in the weekly paper <i>L’Illustration</i>. +In 1857 he published in one volume the series entitled +<i>Masques et visages</i> (1 vol. 12mo), and in 1869, about two years +after his death, his last artistic work, <i>Les Douze Mois</i> (1 vol. fol.), +was given to the world. Gavarni was much engaged, during the +last period of his life, in scientific pursuits, and this fact must +perhaps be connected with the great change which then took +place in his manner as an artist. He sent several communications +to the Académie des Sciences, and till his death on the 23rd of +November 1866 he was eagerly interested in the question of +aerial navigation. It is said that he made experiments on a large +scale with a view to find the means of directing balloons; but +it seems that he was not so successful in this line as his fellow-artist, +the caricaturist and photographer, Nadar.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gavarni’s <i>Œuvres choisies</i> were edited in 1845 (4 vols. 4to) with +letterpress by J. Janin, Th. Gautier and Balzac, followed in 1850 +by two other volumes named <i>Perles et parures</i>; and some essays in +prose and in verse written by him were collected by one of his biographers, +Ch. Yriarte, and published in 1869. See also E. and J. de +Goncourt, <i>Gavarni, l’homme et l’œuvre</i> (1873, 8vo). J. Claretie has +also devoted to the great French caricaturist a curious and interesting +essay. A catalogue <i>raisonné</i> of Gavarni’s works was published +by J. Armelhault and E. Bocher (Paris, 1873, 8vo).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAVAZZI, ALESSANDRO<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1809-1889), Italian preacher and +patriot, was born at Bologna on the 21st of March 1809. He +at first became a monk (1825), and attached himself to the +Barnabites at Naples, where he afterwards (1829) acted as +professor of rhetoric. In 1840, having already expressed liberal +views, he was removed to Rome to fill a subordinate position. +Leaving his own country after the capture of Rome by the +French, he carried on a vigorous campaign against priests and +Jesuits in England, Scotland and North America, partly by +means of a periodical, the <i>Gavazzi Free Word</i>. While in England +he gradually went over (1855) to the Evangelical church, and +became head and organizer of the Italian Protestants in London. +Returning to Italy in 1860, he served as army-chaplain with +Garibaldi. In 1870 he became head of the Free Church (<i>Chiesa +libera</i>) of Italy, united the scattered Congregations into the +“Unione delle Chiese libere in Italia,” and in 1875 founded in +Rome the theological college of the Free Church, in which he +himself taught dogmatics, apologetics and polemics. He died +in Rome on the 9th of January 1889.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Amongst his publications are <i>No Union with Rome</i> (1871); <i>The +Priest in Absolution</i> (1877); <i>My Recollections of the Last Four Popes</i>, +&c., in answer to Cardinal Wiseman (1858); <i>Orations</i>, 2 decades +(1851).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAVELKIND<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span>,<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a peculiar system of tenure associated chiefly +with the county of Kent, but found also in other parts of England. +In Kent all land is presumed to be holden by this tenure until +the contrary is proved, but some lands have been disgavelled +by particular statutes. It is more correctly described as socage +tenure, subject to the custom of gavelkind. The chief peculiarities +of the custom are the following. (1) A tenant can alienate +his lands by feoffment at fifteen years of age. (2) There is no +escheat on attainder for felony, or as it is expressed in the old +rhyme—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“The father to the bough,</p> +<p class="i05">The son to the plough.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">(3) Generally the tenant could always dispose of his lands by +will. (4) In case of intestacy the estate descends not to the eldest +son but to all the sons (or, in the case of deceased sons, their +representatives) in equal shares. “Every son is as great a +gentleman as the eldest son is.” It is to this remarkable peculiarity +that gavelkind no doubt owes its local popularity. Though +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page539" id="page539"></a>539</span> +females claiming in their own right are postponed to males, +yet by representation they may inherit together with them. +(5) A wife is dowable of one-half, instead of one-third of the land. +(6) A widower may be tenant by courtesy, without having had +any issue, of one-half, but only so long as he remains unmarried. +An act of 1841, for commuting manorial rights in respect of lands +of copyhold and customary tenure, contained a clause specially +exempting from the operation of the act “the custom of gavelkind +as the same now exists and prevails in the county of Kent.” +Gavelkind is one of the most interesting examples of the +customary law of England; it was, previous to the Conquest, +the general custom of the realm, but was then superseded by +the feudal law of primogeniture. Its survival in this instance in +one part of the country is regarded as a concession extorted +from the Conqueror by the superior bravery of the men of Kent. +<i>Irish gavelkind</i> was a species of tribal succession, by which the +land, instead of being divided at the death of the holder amongst +his sons, was thrown again into the common stock, and redivided +among the surviving members of the sept. The equal division +amongst children of an inheritance in land is of common occurrence +outside the United Kingdom and is discussed under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Succession</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inheritance</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tenure</a></span>. Also Robinson, <i>On Gavelkind</i>; Digby, +<i>History of the Law of Real Property</i>; Pollock and Maitland, <i>History +of English Law</i>; Challis, <i>Real Property</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This word is generally taken to represent in O. Eng. <i>gafolgecynd</i>, +from <i>gafol</i>, payment, tribute, and <i>gecynd</i>, species, kind, and originally +to have meant tenure by payment of rent or non-military services, +cf. gafol-land, and thence to have been applied to the particular +custom attached to such tenure in Kent. <i>Gafol</i> apparently is +derived from the Teutonic root seen in “to give”; the Med. +Lat. <i>gabulum, gablum</i> gives the Fr. <i>gabelle</i>, tax.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAVESTON, PIERS<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (d. 1312), earl of Cornwall, favourite of +the English king Edward II., was the son of a Gascon knight, +and was brought up at the court of Edward I. as companion +to his son, the future king. Strong, talented and ambitious, +Gaveston gained great influence over young Edward, and early +in 1307 he was banished from England by the king; but he +returned after the death of Edward I. a few months later, and +at once became the chief adviser of Edward II. Made earl of +Cornwall, he received both lands and money from the king, and +added to his wealth and position by marrying Edward’s niece, +Margaret, daughter of Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester (d. +1295). He was regent of the kingdom during the king’s short +absence in France in 1308, and took a very prominent part at +Edward’s coronation in February of this year. These proceedings +aroused the anger and jealousy of the barons, and their wrath +was diminished neither by Gaveston’s superior skill at the +tournament, nor by his haughty and arrogant behaviour to +themselves. They demanded his banishment; and the king, +forced to assent, sent his favourite to Ireland as lieutenant, +where he remained for about a year. Returning to England in +July 1309, Edward persuaded some of the barons to sanction this +proceeding; but as Gaveston was more insolent than ever the +old jealousies soon broke out afresh. In 1311 the king was +forced to agree to the election of the “ordainers,” and the +ordinances they drew up provided <i>inter alia</i> for the perpetual +banishment of his favourite. Gaveston then retired to Flanders, +but returned secretly to England at the end of 1311. Soon he +was publicly restored by Edward, and the barons had taken up +arms. Deserted by the king he surrendered to Aymer de Valence, +earl of Pembroke (d. 1324), at Scarborough in May 1312, and was +taken to Deddington in Oxfordshire, where he was seized by Guy +de Beauchamp, earl of Warwick (d. 1315). Conveyed to Warwick +castle he was beheaded on Blacklow Hill near Warwick on the +19th of June 1312. Gaveston, whose body was buried in 1315 +at King’s Langley, left an only daughter.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1896); and +<i>Chronicles of the Reigns of Edward I. and Edward II.</i>, edited by W. +Stubbs. Rolls series (London, 1882-1883).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAVOTTE<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (a French word adopted from the Provençal <i>gavoto</i>), +properly the dance of the Gavots or natives of Gap, a district +in the Upper Alps, in the old province of Dauphiné. It is a +dance of a brisk and lively character, somewhat resembling +the minuet, but quicker and less stately (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dance</a></span>); hence +also the use of this name for a corresponding form of musical +composition.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAWAIN<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Walwain</i> (<i>Brut</i>), <i>Gauvain, Gaugain</i>; Lat. +<i>Walganus</i>, <i>Walwanus</i>; Dutch, <i>Walwein</i>, Welsh, <i>Gwalchmei</i>), +son of King Loth of Orkney, and nephew to Arthur on his +mother’s side, the most famous hero of Arthurian romance. +The first mention of his name is in a passage of William of Malmesbury, +recording the discovery of his tomb in the province of Ros +in Wales. He is there described as “<i>Walwen qui fuit haud +degener Arturis ex sorore nepos</i>.” Here he is said to have reigned +over Galloway; and there is certainly some connexion, the +character of which is now not easy to determine, between the +two. In the later <i>Historia</i> of <span class="correction" title="amended from Goeffrey">Geoffrey</span> of Monmouth, and its +French translation by Wace, Gawain plays an important and +“pseudo-historic” rôle. On the receipt by Arthur of the +insulting message of the Roman emperor, demanding tribute, +it is he who is despatched as ambassador to the enemy’s camp, +where his arrogant and insulting behaviour brings about the +outbreak of hostilities. On receipt of the tidings of Mordred’s +treachery, Gawain accompanies Arthur to England, and is slain +in the battle which ensues on their landing. Wace, however, +evidently knew more of Gawain than he has included in his +translation, for he speaks of him as</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>Li quens Walwains</p> +<p>Qui tant fu preudom de ses mains (11. 9057-58).</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and later on says</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>Prous fu et de mult grant mesure,</p> +<p>D’orgoil et de forfait n’ot qure</p> +<p>Plus vaut faire qu’il ne dist</p> +<p>Et plus doner qu’il ne pramist (10. 106-109).</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">The English Arthurian poems regard him as the type and model of +chivalrous courtesy, “the fine father of nurture,” and as Professor +Maynadier has well remarked, “previous to the appearance +of Malory’s compilation it was Gawain rather than Arthur, who +was the typical English hero.” It is thus rather surprising to +find that in the earliest preserved MSS. of Arthurian romance, <i>i.e.</i> +in the poems of Chrétien de Troyes, Gawain, though generally +placed first in the list of knights, is by no means the hero <i>par +excellence</i>. The latter part of the <i>Perceval</i> is indeed devoted to the +recital of his adventures at the <i>Chastel Merveilleus</i>, but of none of +Chrétien’s poems is he the protagonist. The anonymous author +of the <i>Chevalier à l’epée</i> indeed makes this apparent neglect of +Gawain a ground of reproach against Chrétien. At the same time +the majority of the short episodic poems connected with the cycle +have Gawain for their hero. In the earlier form of the prose +romances, <i>e.g.</i> in the <i>Merlin</i> proper, Gawain is a dominant +personality, his feats rivalling in importance those ascribed to +Arthur, but in the later forms such as the <i>Merlin</i> continuations, +the <i>Tristan</i>, and the final <i>Lancelot</i> compilation, his character and +position have undergone a complete change, he is represented as +cruel, cowardly and treacherous, and of indifferent moral +character. Most unfortunately our English version of the +romances, Malory’s <i>Morte Arthur</i>, being derived from these later +forms (though his treatment of Gawain is by no means uniformly +consistent), this unfavourable aspect is that under which the hero +has become known to the modern reader. Tennyson, who only +knew the Arthurian story through the medium of Malory, has, +by exaggeration, largely contributed to this misunderstanding. +Morris, in <i>The Defence of Guinevere</i>, speaks of “gloomy Gawain”; +perhaps the most absurdly misleading epithet which could possibly +have been applied to the “gay, gratious, and gude” knight of +early English tradition.</p> + +<p>The truth appears to be that Gawain, the Celtic and mythic +origin of whose character was frankly admitted by the late M. +Gaston Paris, belongs to the very earliest stage of Arthurian +tradition, long antedating the crystallization of such tradition into +literary form. He was certainly known in Italy at a very early +date; Professor Rajna has found the names of Arthur and +Gawain in charters of the early 12th century, the bearers of those +names being then grown to manhood; and Gawain is figured in +the architrave of the north doorway of Modena cathedral, a 12th-century +building. Recent discoveries have made it practically +certain that there existed, prior to the extant romances, a collection +of short episodic poems, devoted to the glorification of +Arthur’s famous nephew and his immediate kin (his brother +Ghaeris, or Gareth, and his son Guinglain), the authorship of +which was attributed to a Welshman, Bleheris; fragments of this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page540" id="page540"></a>540</span> +collection have been preserved to us alike in the first continuation +of Chrétien de Troyes <i>Perceval</i>, due to Wauchier de Denain, +and in our vernacular <i>Gawain</i> poems. Among these “Bleheris” +poems was one dealing with Gawain’s adventures at the Grail +castle, where the Grail is represented as non-Christian, and presents +features strongly reminiscent of the ancient Nature mysteries. +There is good ground for believing that as Grail quester and +winner, Gawain preceded alike Perceval and Galahad, and that +the solution of the mysterious Grail problem is to be sought +rather in the tales connected with the older hero than in those +devoted to the glorification of the younger knights. The explanation +of the very perplexing changes which the character of Gawain +has undergone appears to lie in a misunderstanding of the original +sources of that character. Whether or no Gawain was a sun-hero, +and he certainly possessed some of the features—we are +constantly told how his strength waxed with the waxing of the sun +till noontide, and then gradually decreased; he owned a steed +known by a definite name le Gringalet; and a light-giving sword, +Escalibur (which, as a rule, is represented as belonging to Gawain, +not to Arthur)—all traits of a sun-hero—he certainly has much in +common with the primitive Irish hero Cuchullin. The famous +head-cutting challenge, so admirably told in <i>Syr Gawayne and the +Grene Knighte</i>, was originally connected with the Irish champion. +Nor was the lady of Gawain’s love a mortal maiden, but the +queen of the other-world. In Irish tradition the other-world is +often represented as an island, inhabited by women only; and +it is this “Isle of Maidens” that Gawain visits in <i>Diu Crone</i>; +returning therefrom dowered with the gift of eternal youth. +The Chastel Merveilleus adventure, related at length by Chrétien +and Wolfram is undoubtedly such an “other-world” story. It +seems probable that it was this connexion which won for Gawain +the title of the “Maidens’ Knight,” a title for which no satisfactory +explanation is ever given. When the source of the name +was forgotten its meaning was not unnaturally misinterpreted, +and gained for Gawain the reputation of a facile morality, +which was exaggerated by the pious compilers of the later Grail +romances into persistent and aggravated wrong-doing; at the +same time it is to be noted that Gawain is never like Tristan and +Lancelot, the hero of an illicit connexion maintained under +circumstances of falsehood and treachery. Gawain, however, +belonged to the pre-Christian stage of Grail tradition, and it is not +surprising that writers, bent on spiritual edification, found him +somewhat of a stumbling-block. Chaucer, when he spoke of +Gawain coming “again out of faërie,” spoke better than he knew; +the home of that very gallant and courteous knight is indeed +Fairy-land, and the true Gawain-tradition is informed with +fairy glamour and grace.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Syr Gawayne</i>, the English poems relative to that hero, edited +by Sir Frederick Madden for the Bannatyne Club, 1839 (out of print +and difficult to procure); <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i>, vol. xxx.; +introduction and summary of episodic “Gawain” poems by Gaston +Paris; <i>The Legend of Sir Gawain</i>, by Jessie L. Weston, Grimm +Library, vol. vii.; <i>The Legend of Sir Perceval</i>, by Jessie L. Weston, +Grimm Library, vol. xvii.; “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight,” +“Sir Gawain at the Grail Castle” and “Sir Gawain and the Lady of +Lys,” vols. i., vi and vii. of <i>Arthurian Romances</i> (Nutt).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAWLER<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span>, a town of Gawler county, South Australia, on the +Para river, 24¾ m. by rail N.E. of Adelaide. It is one of the most +thriving places in the colony, being the centre of a large wheat-growing +district; it has also engineering works, foundries, flour-mills, +breweries and saw-mills, while gold, silver, copper and +lead are found in the neighbouring hills. The inhabitants of the +town and its extensive suburbs number about 7000; though the +population of the town itself in 1901 was 1996.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAY, JOHN<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1685-1732), English poet, was baptized on the +16th of September 1685 at Barnstaple, where his family had +long been settled. He was educated at the grammar school of the +town under Robert Luck, who had published some Latin and +English poems. On leaving school he was apprenticed to a silk +mercer in London, but being weary, according to Dr Johnson, +“of either the restraint or the servility of his occupation,” he +soon returned to Barnstaple, where he spent some time with his +uncle, the Rev. John Hanmer, the Nonconformist minister of the +town. He then returned to London, and though no details are +available for his biography until the publication of <i>Wine</i> in 1708, +the account he gives in <i>Rural Sports</i> (1713), of years wasted in +attending on courtiers who were profuse in promises never +kept, may account for his occupations. Among his early literary +friends were Aaron Hill and Eustace Budgell. In <i>The Present +State of Wit</i> (1711) Gay attempted to give an account of “all our +periodical papers, whether monthly, weekly or diurnal.” He +especially praised the <i>Tatler</i> and the <i>Spectator</i>, and Swift, who +knew nothing of the authorship of the pamphlet, suspected it +to be inspired by Steele and Addison. To Lintot’s <i>Miscellany</i> +(1712) Gay contributed “An Epistle to Bernard Lintot,” containing +some lines in praise of Pope, and a version of the story of +Arachne from the sixth book of the <i>Metamorphoses</i> of Ovid. In +the same year he was received into the household of the duchess +of Monmouth as secretary, a connexion which was, however, +broken before June 1714.</p> + +<p>The dedication of his <i>Rural Sports</i> (1713) to Pope was +the beginning of a lasting friendship. Gay could have no +pretensions to rivalry with Pope, who seems never to have +tired of helping his friend. In 1713 he produced a comedy, +<i>The Wife of Bath</i>, which was acted only three nights, and <i>The +Fan</i>, one of his least successful poems; and in 1714 <i>The Shepherd’s +Week</i>, a series of six pastorals drawn from English rustic life. +Pope had urged him to undertake this last task in order to +ridicule the Arcadian pastorals of Ambrose Philips, who had been +praised by the <i>Guardian</i>, to the neglect of Pope’s claims as the +first pastoral writer of the age and the true English Theocritus. +Gay’s pastorals completely achieved this object, but his ludicrous +pictures of the English swains and their loves were found to be +abundantly entertaining on their own account. Gay had just +been appointed secretary to the British ambassador to the court +of Hanover through the influence of Jonathan Swift, when the +death of Queen Anne three months later put an end to all his +hopes of official employment. In 1715, probably with some help +from Pope, he produced <i>What d’ye call it?</i> a dramatic skit on +contemporary tragedy, with special reference to Otway’s <i>Venice +Preserved</i>. It left the public so ignorant of its real meaning that +Lewis Theobald and Benjamin Griffin (1680-1740) published a +<i>Complete Key to what d’ye call it</i> by way of explanation. In 1716 +appeared his <i>Trivia, or the Art of Walking the Streets of London</i>, a +poem in three books, for which he acknowledged having received +several hints from Swift. It contains graphic and humorous +descriptions of the London of that period. In January 1717 he +produced the comedy of <i>Three Hours after Marriage</i>, which was +grossly indecent without being amusing, and was a complete +failure. There is no doubt that in this piece he had assistance +from Pope and Arbuthnot, but they were glad enough to have it +assumed that Gay was the sole author.</p> + +<p>Gay had numerous patrons, and in 1720 he published <i>Poems +on Several Occasions</i> by subscription, realizing £1000 or more. +In that year James Craggs, the secretary of state, presented +him with some South Sea stock. Gay, disregarding the prudent +advice of Pope and other of his friends, invested his all in South +Sea stock, and, holding on to the end, he lost everything. The +shock is said to have made him dangerously ill. As a matter of +fact Gay had always been a spoilt child, who expected everything +to be done for him. His friends did not fail him at this juncture. +He had patrons in William Pulteney, afterwards earl of Bath, +in the third earl of Burlington, who constantly entertained him +at Chiswick or at Burlington House, and in the third earl of +Queensberry. He was a frequent visitor with Pope, and received +unvarying kindness from Congreve and Arbuthnot. In 1724 +he produced a tragedy called <i>The Captives</i>. In 1727 he wrote +for Prince William, afterwards duke of Cumberland, his famous +<i>Fifty-one Fables in Verse</i>, for which he naturally hoped to gain +some preferment, although he has much to say in them of the +servility of courtiers and the vanity of court honours. He was +offered the situation of gentleman-usher to the Princess Louisa, +who was still a child. He refused this offer, which all his friends +seem to have regarded, for no very obvious reason, as an indignity. +As the <i>Fables</i> were written for the amusement of one royal child, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page541" id="page541"></a>541</span> +there would appear to have been a measure of reason in giving +him a sinecure in the service of another. His friends thought +him unjustly neglected by the court, but he had already received +(1722) a sinecure as lottery commissioner with a salary of £150 +a year, and from 1722 to 1729 he had lodgings in the palace at +Whitehall. He had never rendered any special services to the +court.</p> + +<p>He certainly did nothing to conciliate the favour of the government +by his next production, the <i>Beggars’ Opera</i>, a lyrical +drama produced on the 29th of January 1728 by Rich, in which +Sir Robert Walpole was caricatured. This famous piece, which +was said to have made “Rich gay and Gay rich,” was an innovation +in many respects, and for a time it drove Italian opera off +the English stage. Under cover of the thieves and highwaymen +who figured in it was disguised a satire on society, for Gay made +it plain that in describing the moral code of his characters he had +in mind the corruptions of the governing class. Part of the +success of the <i>Beggars’ Opera</i> may have been due to the acting +of Lavinia Fenton, afterwards duchess of Bolton, in the part of +Polly Peachum. The play ran for sixty-two nights, though the +representations, four of which were “benefits” of the author, +were not, as has sometimes been stated, consecutive. Swift is +said to have suggested the subject, and Pope and Arbuthnot +were constantly consulted while the work was in progress, but +Gay must be regarded as the sole author. He wrote a sequel, +<i>Polly</i>, the representation of which was forbidden by the lord +chamberlain, no doubt through the influence of Walpole. This +act of “oppression” caused no loss to Gay. It proved an +excellent advertisement for <i>Polly</i>, which was published by subscription +in 1729, and brought its author more than £1000. The +duchess of Queensberry was dismissed from court for enlisting +subscribers in the palace. The duke of Queensberry gave him a +home, and the duchess continued her affectionate patronage +until Gay’s death, which took place on the 4th of December +1732. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. The epitaph +on his tomb is by Pope, and is followed by Gay’s own mocking +couplet:—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Life is a jest, and all things show it,</p> +<p class="i05">I thought so once, and now I know it.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind"><i>Acis and Galatea</i>, an English pastoral opera, the music of which +was written by Handel, was produced at the Haymarket in +1732. The profits of his posthumous opera of <i>Achilles</i> (1733), and +a new volume of <i>Fables</i> (1738) went to his two sisters, who +inherited from him a fortune of £6000. He left two other pieces, +<i>The Distressed Wife</i> (1743), a comedy, and <i>The Rehearsal at +Goatham</i> (1754), a farce. The <i>Fables</i>, slight as they may appear, +cost him more labour than any of his other works. The narratives +are in nearly every case original, and are told in clear and lively +verse. The moral which rounds off each little story is never +strained. They are masterpieces in their kind, and the very +numerous editions of them prove their popularity. They have +been translated into Latin, French and Italian, Urdu and +Bengali.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See his <i>Poetical Works</i> (1893) in the Muses’ Library, with an introduction +by Mr John Underhill; also Samuel Johnson’s <i>Lives of the +Poets</i>, John Gay’s <i>Singspiele</i> (1898), edited by G. Sarrazin (<i>Englische +Textbibliothek II.</i>); and an article by Austin Dobson in vol. 21 of +the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>; <i>Gay’s Chair</i> (1820), edited +by Henry Lee, a fellow-townsman, contained a biographical sketch +by his nephew, the Rev. Joseph Baller.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAY, MARIE FRANÇOISE SOPHIE<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1776-1852), French +author, was born in Paris on the 1st of July 1776. Madame +Gay was the daughter of M. Nichault de la Valette and of +Francesca Peretti, an Italian lady. In 1793 she was married +to M. Liottier, an exchange broker, but she was divorced from +him in 1799, and shortly afterwards was married to M. Gay, +receiver-general of the department of the Roër or Ruhr. This +union brought her into intimate relations with many distinguished +personages; and her salon came to be frequented by all the +distinguished littérateurs, musicians, actors and painters of the +time, whom she attracted by her beauty, her vivacity and her +many amiable qualities. Her first literary production was a +letter written in 1802 to the <i>Journal de Paris</i>, in defence of +Madame de Staël’s novel, <i>Delphine</i>; and in the same year she +published anonymously her first novel <i>Laure d’Estell</i>. <i>Léonie +de Montbreuse</i>, which appeared in 1813, is considered by Sainte-Beuve +her best work; but <i>Anatole</i> (1815), the romance of a +deaf-mute, has perhaps a higher reputation. Among her other +works, <i>Salons célèbres</i> (2 vols., 1837) may be especially mentioned. +Madame Gay wrote several comedies and opera libretti which +met with considerable success. She was also an accomplished +musician, and composed both the words and music of a number +of songs. She died in Paris on the 5th of March 1852. For an +account of her daughter, Delphine Gay, Madame de Girardin, +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Girardin</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See her own <i>Souvenirs d’une vieille femme</i> (1834); also Théophile +Gautier, <i>Portraits contemporains</i>; and Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du +lundi</i>, vol. vi.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAY, WALTER<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1856-  ), American artist, was born at +Hingham, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of January 1856. In +1876 he became a pupil of Léon Bonnat in Paris. He received +an honourable mention in the Salon of 1885; a gold medal in +1888, and similar awards at Vienna (1894), Antwerp (1895), +Berlin (1896) and Munich (1897). He became an officer of the +Legion of Honour and a member of the Society of Secession, +Munich. Works by him are in the Luxembourg, the Tate +Gallery (London), and the Boston and Metropolitan (New York) +Museums of Art. His compositions are mainly figure subjects +portraying French peasant life.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAYA<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span>, a city and district of British India, in the Patna +division of Bengal. The city is situated 85 m. S. of Patna by +rail. Pop. (1901) 71,288. It consists of two distinct parts, +adjoining each other; the part containing the residences of the +priests is Gaya proper; and the other, which is the business +quarter, is called Sahibganj. The civil offices and residences of +the European inhabitants are situated here. Gaya derives its +sanctity from incidents in the life of Buddha. But a local +legend also exists concerning a pagan monster of great sanctity, +named Gaya, who by long penance had become holy, so that all +who saw or touched him were saved from perdition. Yama, the +lord of hell, appealed to the gods, who induced Gaya to lie down +in order that his body might be a place of sacrifice; and once +down, Yama placed a large stone on him to keep him there. The +tricked demon struggled violently, and, in order to pacify him, +Vishnu promised that the gods should take up their permanent +residence in him, and that any one who made a pilgrimage to the +spot where he lay should be delivered from the terrors of the +Hindu place of torment. This may possibly be a Brahmanic +rendering of Buddha’s life and work. There are forty-five sacred +spots (of which the temple of Vishnupada is the chief) in and +around the city, and these are visited by thousands of pilgrims +annually. During the Mutiny the large store of treasure here was +conveyed safely to Calcutta by Mr A. Money. The city contains +a government high school and an hospital, with a Lady Elgin +branch for women.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Gaya</span> comprises an area of 4712 sq. m. +Generally speaking, it consists of a level plain, with a ridge of +prettily wooded hills along the southern boundary, whence the +country falls with a gentle slope towards the Ganges. Rocky +hills occasionally occur, either detached or in groups, the loftiest +being Maher hill about 12 m. S.E. of Gaya city, with an elevation +of 1620 ft. above sea-level. The eastern part of the district is +highly cultivated; the portions to the north and west are less +fertile; while in the south the country is thinly peopled and +consists of hills, the jungles on which are full of wild animals. +The principal river is the Son, which marks the boundary between +Gaya and Shahabad, navigable by small boats throughout the +year, and by craft of 20-tons burden in the rainy season. Other +rivers are the Punpun, Phalgu and Jamuna. Two branches of +the Son canal system, the eastern main canal and the Patna +canal, intersect the district. In 1901 the population was +2,059,933, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. Among the +higher castes there is an unusually large proportion of Brahmans, +a circumstance due to the number of sacred places which the +district contains. The Gayawals, or priests in charge of the holy +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page542" id="page542"></a>542</span> +places, are held in high esteem by the pilgrims; but they are not +pure Brahmans, and are looked down upon by those who are. +They live an idle and dissolute life, but are very wealthy, from +contributions extorted from the pilgrims. Buddh Gaya, about +6 m. S. of Gaya city, is one of the holiest sites of Buddhism, as +containing the tree under which Sakyamuni attained enlightenment. +In addition to many ruins and sculptures, there is a +temple restored by the government in 1881. Another place of +religious interest is a temple of great antiquity, which crowns the +highest peak of the Barabar hills, and at which a religious fair is +held each September, attended by 10,000 to <span class="correction" title="amended from 20,0000">20,000</span> pilgrims. +At the foot of the hill are numerous rock caves excavated about +200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The opium poppy is largely cultivated. There are a +number of lac factories. Manufactures consist of common brass +utensils, black stone ornaments, pottery, tussur-silk and cotton +cloth. Formerly paper-making was an important manufacture +in the district, but it has entirely died out. The chief +exports are food grains, oil seeds, indigo, crude opium (sent to +Patna for manufacture), saltpetre, sugar, blankets, brass utensils, +&c. The imports are salt, piece goods, cotton, timber, bamboos, +tobacco, lac, iron, spices and fruits. The district is traversed by +four branches of the East Indian railway. In 1901 it suffered +severely from the plague.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>District Gazetteer</i> (1906); Sir A. Cunningham, <i>Mahabodhi</i> +(1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAYAL<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span>, a domesticated ox allied to the Gaur, but distinguished, +among other features, by the more conical and +straighter horns, and the straight line between them. Gayal +are kept by the natives of the hill-districts of Assam and parts +of Tenasserim and Upper Burma. Although it has received +a distinct name, <i>Bos</i> (<i>Bibos</i>) <i>frontalis</i>, there can be little doubt +that the gayal is merely a domesticated breed of the gaur, many +gayal-skulls showing characters approximating to those of the +gaur.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAYANGOS Y ARCE, PASCUAL DE<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1809-1897), Spanish +scholar and Orientalist, was born at Seville on the 21st of June +1809. At the age of thirteen he was sent to be educated at +Pont-le-Voy near Blois, and in 1828 began the study of Arabic +under Silvestre de Sacy. After a visit to England, where he +married, he obtained a post in the Spanish treasury, and was +transferred to the foreign office as translator in 1833. In 1836 he +returned to England, wrote extensively in English periodicals, and +translated Almakkari’s <i>History of the Mahommedan Dynasties in +Spain</i> (1840-1843) for the Royal Asiatic Society. In England he +also made the acquaintance of Ticknor, to whom he was very +serviceable. In 1843 he returned to Spain as professor of Arabic +at the university of Madrid, which post he held until 1881, when +he was made director of public instruction. This office he resigned +upon being elected senator for the district of Huelva. +His latter years were spent in cataloguing the Spanish manuscripts +in the British Museum; he had previously continued +Bergenroth’s catalogue of the manuscripts relating to England +in the Simancas archives. His best-known original work is his +dissertation on Spanish romances of chivalry in Rivadeneyra’s +<i>Biblioteca de autores españoles</i>. He died in London on the 4th +of October 1897.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAYARRÉ, CHARLES ÉTIENNE ARTHUR<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1805-1895), +American historian, was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, on the +9th of January 1805. After studying at the Collège d’Orléans he +began, in 1826, to study law in Philadelphia, and three years later +was admitted to the bar. In 1830 he was elected a member of the +House of Representatives of Louisiana, in 1831 was appointed +deputy attorney-general of his state, in 1833 became presiding +judge of the city court of New Orleans, and in 1834 was elected +as a Jackson Democrat to the United States Senate. On account +of ill-health, however, he immediately resigned without taking his +seat, and for the next eight years travelled in Europe and collected +historical material from the French and the Spanish archives. +In 1844-1845 and in 1856-1857 he was again a member of the +state House of Representatives, and from 1845 to 1853 was +secretary of state of Louisiana. He supported the Southern +Confederacy during the Civil War, in which he lost a large fortune, +and after its close lived chiefly by his pen. He died in New +Orleans on the 11th of February 1895. He is best known as the +historian of Louisiana. He wrote <i>Histoire de la Louisiane</i> (1847); +<i>Romance of the History of Louisiana</i> (1848); <i>Louisiana: its +Colonial History and Romance</i> (1851), reprinted in <i>A History of +Louisiana</i>; <i>History of Louisiana: the Spanish Domination</i> +(1854); <i>Philip II. of Spain</i> (1866); and <i>A History of Louisiana</i> +(4 vols., 1866), the last being a republication and continuation +of his earlier works in this field, the whole comprehending the +history of Louisiana from its earliest discovery to 1861. He +wrote also several dramas and romances, the best of the latter +being <i>Fernando de Lemos</i> (1872).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAY-LUSSAC, JOSEPH LOUIS<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1778-1850), French chemist +and physicist, was born at St Léonard, in the department of +Haute Vienne, on the 6th of December 1778. He was the elder +son of Antoine Gay, <i>procureur du roi</i> and judge at Pont-de-Noblac, +who assumed the name Lussac from a small property he +had in the neighbourhood of St Léonard. Young Gay-Lussac +received his early education at home under the direction of the +abbé Bourdieux and other masters, and in 1794 was sent to Paris to +prepare for the École Polytechnique, into which he was admitted +at the end of 1797 after a brilliant examination. Three years later +he was transferred to the École des Ponts et Chaussées, and +shortly afterwards was assigned to C.L. Berthollet, who wanted +an able student to help in his researches. The new assistant +scarcely came up to expectations in respect of confirming certain +theoretical views of his master’s by the experiments set him to +that end, and appears to have stated the discrepancy without +reserve; but Berthollet nevertheless quickly recognized the +ability displayed, and showed his appreciation not only by desiring +to be Gay-Lussac’s “father in science,” but also by making him in +1807 an original member of the Société d’Arcueil. In 1802 he was +appointed demonstrator to A.F. Fourcroy at the École Polytechnique, +where subsequently (1809) he became professor of +chemistry, and from 1808 to 1832 he was professor of physics at +the Sorbonne, a post which he only resigned for the chair of +chemistry at the Jardin des Plantes. In 1831 he was elected to +represent Haute Vienne in the chamber of deputies, and in 1839 +he entered the chamber of peers. He died in Paris on the 9th of +May 1850.</p> + +<p>Gay-Lussac’s earlier researches were mostly physical in +character and referred mainly to the properties of gases, vapour-tensions, +hygrometry, capillarity, &c. In his first memoir (<i>Ann. +de Chimie</i>, 1802) he showed that different gases are dilated in +the same proportion when heated from 0° to 100° C. Apparently +he did not know of Dalton’s experiments on the same point, +which indeed were far from accurate; but in a note he explained +that “le cit. Charles avait remarqué depuis 15 ans la même +propriété dans ces gaz; mais n’ayant jamais publié ses résultats, +c’est par le plus grand hasard que je les ai connus.” In consequence +of his candour in thus rescuing from oblivion the +observation which his fellow-citizen did not think worth publishing, +his name is sometimes dissociated from this law, which instead +is known as that of Charles. In 1804 he had an opportunity +of prosecuting his researches on air in somewhat unusual conditions, +for the French Academy, desirous of securing some observations +on the force of terrestrial magnetism at great elevations +above the earth, through Berthollet and J.E. Chaptal obtained +the use of the balloon which had been employed in Egypt, and +entrusted the task to him and J.B. Biot. In their first ascent +from the garden of the Conservatoire des Arts on the 24th of +August 1804 an altitude of 4000 metres (about 13,000 ft.) was +attained. But this elevation was not considered sufficient +by Gay-Lussac, who therefore made a second ascent by himself +oh the 16th of September, when the balloon rose 7016 metres +(about 23,000 ft.) above sea-level. At this height, with the +thermometer marking 9½ degrees below freezing, he remained +for a considerable time, making observations not only on +magnetism, but also on the temperature and humidity of the air, +and collecting several samples of air at different heights. The +magnetic observations, though imperfect, led him to the conclusion +that the magnetic effect at all attainable elevations above +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543"></a>543</span> +the earth’s surface remains constant; and on analysing the +samples of air he could find no difference of composition at +different heights. (For an account of both ascents see <i>Journ. +de phys.</i> for 1804.) On the 1st of October in the same year, in +conjunction with Alexander von Humboldt, he read a paper on +eudiometric analysis (<i>Ann. de Chim.</i>, 1805), which contained the +germ of his most important generalization, the authors noting +that when oxygen and hydrogen combine together by volume, +it is in the proportion of one volume of the former to two volumes +of the latter. But his law of combination by volumes was not +enunciated in its general form until after his return from a scientific +journey through Switzerland, Italy and Germany, on which with +Humboldt he started from Paris in March 1805. This journey +was interrupted in the spring of 1806 by the news of the death +of M.J. Brisson, and Gay-Lussac hurried back to Paris in the +hope, which was gratified, that he would be elected to the seat +thus vacated in the Academy. In 1807 an account of the +magnetic observations made during the tour with Humboldt +was published in the first volume of the <i>Mémoires d’Arcueil</i>, and +the second volume, published in 1809, contained the important +memoir on gaseous combination (read to the Société Philomathique +on the last day of 1808), in which he pointed out that +gases combining with each other in volume do so in the simplest +proportions—1 to 1, 1 to 2, 1 to 3—and that the volume of the +compound formed bears a simple ratio to that of the constituents.</p> + +<p>About this time Gay-Lussac’s work, although he by no means +entirely abandoned physical questions, became of a more chemical +character; and in three instances it brought him into direct +rivalry with Sir Humphry Davy. In the first case Davy’s +preparation of potassium and sodium by the electric current +spurred on Gay-Lussac and his collaborator L.J. Thénard, who +had no battery at their disposal, to search for a chemical method +of obtaining those metals, and by the action of red-hot iron on +fused potash—a method of which Davy admitted the advantages—they +succeeded in 1808 in preparing potassium, going on to +make a full study of its properties and to use it, as Davy also +did, for the reduction of boron from boracic acid in 1809. The +second concerned the nature of “oxymuriatic acid” (chlorine). +While admitting the possibility that it was an elementary body, +after many experiments they finally declared it to be a compound +(<i>Mém. d’Arcueil</i>, 1809). Davy, on the other hand, could see no +reason to suppose it contained oxygen, as they surmised, and +ultimately they had to accept his view of its elementary character. +The third case roused most feeling of all. Davy, passing through +Paris on his way to Italy at the end of 1813, obtained a few +fragments of iodine, which had been discovered by Bernard +Courtois (1777-1838) in 1811, and after a brief examination by +the aid of his limited portable laboratory perceived its analogy +to chlorine and inferred it to be an element. Gay-Lussac, it is +said, was nettled at the idea of a foreigner making such a discovery +in Paris, and vigorously took up the study of the new +substance, the result being the “Mémoire sur l’iode,” +which appeared in the <i>Ann. de chim.</i> in 1814. He too saw its +resemblance to chlorine, and was obliged to agree with Davy’s +opinion as to its simple nature, though not without some hesitation, +due doubtless to his previous declaration about chlorine. +Davy on his side seems to have felt that the French chemist was +competing with him, not altogether fairly, in trying to appropriate +the honour of discovering the character of the substance and of +its compound, hydriodic acid.</p> + +<p>In 1810 he published a paper which contains some classic +experiments on fermentation, a subject to which he returned +in a second paper published in 1815. At the same time he was +working with Thénard at the improvement of the methods of +organic analysis, and by combustion with oxidizing agents, +first potassium chlorate and subsequently copper oxide, he +determined the composition of a number of organic substances. +But his last great piece of pure research was on prussic acid. +In a note published in 1811 he described the physical properties +of this acid, but he said nothing about its chemical composition +till 1815, when he described cyanogen as a compound radicle, +prussic acid as a compound of that radicle with hydrogen alone, +and the prussiates (cyanides) as compounds of the radicle with +metals. The proof that prussic acid contains hydrogen but no +oxygen was a most important support to the hydrogen-acid +theory, and completed the downfall of Lavoisier’s oxygen theory; +while the isolation of cyanogen was of equal importance for the +subsequent era of compound radicles in organic chemistry.</p> + +<p>After this research Gay-Lussac’s attention began to be distracted +from purely scientific investigation. He had now secured +a leading if not the foremost place among the chemists of the +French capital, and the demand for his services as adviser in +technical problems and matters of practical interest made great +inroads on his available time. He had been a member of the +consultative committee on arts and manufactures since 1805; +he was attached to the “administration des poudres et salpêtres” +in 1818, and in 1829 he received the lucrative post of assayer to +the mint. In these new fields he displayed the powers so conspicuous +in his scientific inquiries, and he was now to introduce +and establish scientific accuracy where previously there had been +merely practical approximations. His services to industry included +his improvements in the processes for the manufacture +of sulphuric acid (1818) and oxalic acid (1829); methods of +estimating the amount of real alkali in potash and soda by the +volume of standard acid required for neutralization, and for +estimating the available chlorine in bleaching powder by a solution +of arsenious acid; directions for the use of the centesimal +alcoholometer published in 1824 and specially commended by +the Institute; and the elaboration of a method of assaying +silver by a standard solution of common salt, a volume on which +was published in 1833. Among his research work of this period +may be mentioned the improvements in organic analysis and the +investigation of fulminic acid made with the help of Liebig, who +gained the privilege of admission to his private laboratory in +1823-1824.</p> + +<p>Gay-Lussac was patient, persevering, accurate to punctiliousness, +perhaps a little cold and reserved, and not unaware of his +great ability. But he was also bold and energetic, not only in +his work but also in support and defence of his friends. His +early childish adventures, as told by Arago, herald the fearless +aeronaut and the undaunted investigator of volcanic eruptions +(Vesuvius was in full eruption when he visited it during his +tour in 1805); and the endurance he exhibited under the laboratory +accidents that befell him shows the power of will with which +he would face the prospect of becoming blind and useless for the +prosecution of the science which was his very life, and of which he +was one of the most distinguished ornaments. Only at the very +end, when the disease from which he was suffering left him no hope, +did he complain with some bitterness of the hardship of leaving +this world where the many discoveries being made pointed to +yet greater discoveries to come.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The most complete list of Gay-Lussac’s papers is contained in +the Royal Society’s <i>Catalogue of Scientific Papers</i>, which enumerates +148, exclusive of others written jointly with Humboldt, Thénard, +Welter and Liebig. Many of them were published in the <i>Annales de +chimie</i>, which after it changed its title to <i>Annales de chimie et +physique</i> he edited, with Arago, up to nearly the end of his life; but +some are to be found in the <i>Mémoires d’Arcueil</i> and the <i>Comptes +rendus</i>, and in the <i>Recherches physiques et chimiques</i>, published +with Thénard in 1811.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAZA, THEODORUS<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1400-1475), one of the Greek scholars +who were the leaders of the revival of learning in the 15th century, +was born at Thessalonica. On the capture of his native city by +the Turks in 1430 he fled to Italy. During a three years’ residence +in Mantua he rapidly acquired a competent knowledge of Latin +under the teaching of Vittorino da Feltre, supporting himself +meanwhile by giving lessons in Greek, and by copying manuscripts +of the ancient classics.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In 1447 he became professor of Greek +in the newly founded university of Ferrara, to which students +in great numbers from all parts of Italy were soon attracted +by his fame as a teacher. He had taken some part in the councils +which were held in Siena (1423), Ferrara (1438), and Florence +(1439), with the object of bringing about a reconciliation between +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page544" id="page544"></a>544</span> +the Greek and Latin Churches; and in 1450, at the invitation of +Pope Nicholas V., he went to Rome, where he was for some years +employed by his patron in making Latin translations from +Aristotle and other Greek authors. After the death of Nicholas +(1455), being unable to make a living at Rome, Gaza removed +to Naples, where he enjoyed the patronage of Alphonso the +Magnanimous for two years (1456-1458). Shortly afterwards he +was appointed by Cardinal Bessarion to a benefice in Calabria, +where the later years of his life were spent, and where he died +about 1475. Gaza stood high in the opinion of most of his +learned contemporaries, but still higher in that of the scholars +of the succeeding generation. His Greek grammar (in four +books), written in Greek, first printed at Venice in 1495, and +afterwards partially translated by Erasmus in 1521, although +in many respects defective, especially in its syntax, was for a +long time the leading text-book. His translations into Latin +were very numerous, including the <i>Problemata</i>, <i>De partibus +animalium</i> and <i>De generatione animalium</i> of Aristotle; the +<i>Historia plantarum</i> of Theophrastus; the <i>Problemata</i> of Alexander +Aphrodisias; the <i>De instruendis aciebus</i> of Aelian; the <i>De +compositione verborum</i> of Dionysius of Halicarnassus; and some +of the <i>Homilies</i> of John Chrysostom. He also turned into Greek +Cicero’s <i>De senectute</i> and <i>Somnium Scipionis</i>—with much success, +in the opinion of Erasmus; with more elegance than exactitude, +according to the colder judgment of modern scholars. He was +the author also of two small treatises entitled <i>De mensibus</i> and +<i>De origine Turcarum</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Voigt, <i>Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums</i> +(1893), and article by C.F. Bähr in Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine +Encyklopädie</i>. For a complete list of his works, see Fabricius, +<i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i> (ed. Harles), x.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> According to Voigt, Gaza came to Italy some ten years later from +Constantinople, where he had been a teacher or held some clerical +office.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAZA<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (or ‘<span class="sc">Azzah</span>, mod. <i>Ghuzzeh</i>), the most southerly of the +five princely Philistine cities, situated near the sea, at the point +where the old trade routes from Egypt, Arabia and Petra to +Syria met. It was always a strong border fortress and a place +of commercial importance, in many respects the southern +counterpart of Damascus. The earliest notice of it is in the +Tell el-Amarna tablets, in a letter from the local governor, who +then held it for Egypt, with which country it always stood in +close connexion. It never passed for long into Israelite hands, +though subject for a while to Hezekiah of Judah; from him it +passed to Assyria. In Amos i. 6 the city is denounced for giving +up Hebrew slaves to Edom. To Herodotus (iii. 5) the place +seemed as important as Sardis. The city withstood Alexander +the Great for five months (332 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and in 96 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was razed to +the ground by Alexander Jannaeus. It was rebuilt by Aulus +Gabinius, 57 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but on a new site; the old site was remembered +and spoken of as “Old” or “Desert Gaza”: compare Acts +viii. 26. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries Gaza was a thriving +Greek city, with good schools and famous temples, especially +one to the local god Marna (<i>i.e.</i> “Lord” or “Our Lord”). A +statue of this god has been found near Gaza; it much resembles +the Greek representation of Zeus. The struggle with Christianity +here was long and intense. Egyptian monks gradually won over +the country folk, and in 402, under the influence of Theodosius +and Porphyry the local bishop, the Marneion was destroyed +and the cross made politically supreme. In the 5th and 6th +centuries Gaza was held in high repute as a place of learning. +But after it passed into Moslem hands (635) it gradually lost +all save commercial importance, and even the Crusaders did +little to revive its old military glory. It finally was captured +by the Moslems in 1244. Napoleon captured it in 1799.</p> + +<p>The modern town (pop. 16,000) is divided into four quarters, +one of which is built on a low hill. A magnificent grove of very +ancient olives forms an avenue 4 m. long to the north. There +are many lofty minarets in various parts of the town, and a +fine mosque built of ancient materials. A 12th century church +towards the south side of the hill has also been converted into +a mosque. On the east is shown the tomb of Samson (an +erroneous tradition dating back to the middle ages). The ancient +walls are now covered up beneath green mounds of rubbish. +The water-supply is from wells sunk through the sandy soil to +the rock; of these there are more than twenty—an unusual +number for a Syrian town. The land for the 3 m. between +Gaza and the sea consists principally of sand dunes. There is +no natural harbour, but traces of ruins near the shore mark the +site of the old Maiuma Gazae or Port of Gaza, now called el +Mineh, which in the 5th century was a separate town and episcopal +see, under the title Constantia or Limena Gaza. Hāshem, an +ancestor of Mahomet, lies buried in the town. On the east are +remains of a race-course, the corners marked by granite shafts +with Greek inscriptions on them. To the south is a remarkable +hill, quite isolated and bare, with a small mosque and a graveyard. +It is called el Muntār, “the watch tower,” and is supposed +to be the mountain “before (or facing) Hebron,” to which +Samson carried the gates of Gaza (Judg. xvi. 3). The bazaars +of Gaza are considered good. An extensive pottery exists in +the town, and black earthenware peculiar to the place is manufactured +there. The climate is dry and comparatively healthy, +but the summer temperature often exceeds 110° Fahr. The +surrounding country is partly cornland, partly waste, and is +inhabited by wandering Arabs. The prosperity of Ghuzzeh +has partially revived through the growing trade in barley, of +which the average annual export to Great Britain for 1897-1899 +was over 30,000 tons. The dress of the people is Egyptian +rather than Syrian. Gaza is an episcopal see both of the Greek +and the Armenian church. The Church Missionary Society +maintains a mission, with schools for both sexes, and a hospital.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAZALAND<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span>, a district of Portuguese East Africa, extending +north from the Komati or Manhissa river, Delagoa Bay, to the +Pungwe river. It is a well-watered, fertile country. Gazaland +is one of the chief recruiting grounds for negro labour in the +Transvaal gold mines. The country derives its name from a +Swazi chief named Gaza, a contemporary of Chaka, the Zulu +king. Refugees from various clans oppressed by Dingaan +(Chaka’s successor) were welded into one tribe by Gaza’s son +Manikusa, who took the name of Sotshangana, his followers +being known generally as Matshangana. A section of them was +called Maviti or Landeens (<i>i.e.</i> couriers), a designation which +persists as a tribal name. Between 1833 and 1836 Manikusa +made himself master of the country as far north as the Zambezi +and captured the Portuguese posts at Delagoa Bay, Inhambane, +Sofala and Sena, killing nearly all the inhabitants. The Portuguese +reoccupied their posts, but held them with great difficulty, +while in the interior the Matshangana continued their ravages +unchecked, depopulating large regions. Manikusa died about +1860, and his son Umzila, receiving some help from the Portuguese +at Delagoa Bay in a struggle against a brother for the chieftainship, +ceded to them the territory south of the Manhissa river. +North of that stream as far as the Zambezi and inland to the +continental plateau Umzila established himself in independence, +a position he maintained till his death (<i>c.</i> 1884). His chief +rival was a Goanese named Gouveia, who came to Africa about +1850. Having obtained possession of a <i>prazo</i> in the Gorongoza +district, he ruled there as a feudal lord while acknowledging +himself a Portuguese subject. Gouveia recovered from the Matshangana +and other troublers of the peace much of the country +in the Zambezi valley, and was appointed by the Portuguese +captain-general of a large region. From 1868 onward the country +began to be better known. Probably the first European to +penetrate any distance inland from the Sofala coast since the +Portuguese gold-seekers of the 16th century was St Vincent W. +Erskine, who explored the region between the Limpopo and +Pungwe (1868-1875). Portugal’s hold on the coast had been +more firmly established at the time of Umzila’s death, and +Gungunyana, his successor, was claimed as a vassal, while efforts +were made to open up the interior. This led in 1890-1891 to +collisions on the borderland of the plateau with the newly +established British South Africa Company, and to the arrest +by the company’s agents of Gouveia, who was, however, set at +liberty and returned to Mozambique via Cape Town. An offer +made by Gungunyana (1891) to come under British protection +was not accepted. In 1892 Gouveia was killed in a war with a +native chief. Gungunyana maintained his independence until +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page545" id="page545"></a>545</span> +1895, when he was captured by a Portuguese force and exiled, +first to Lisbon and afterwards to Angola, where he died in 1906. +With the capture of Gungunyana opposition to Portuguese rule +largely ceased.</p> + +<p>In flora, fauna and commerce Gazaland resembles the neighbouring +regions of Portuguese East Africa. (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. McCall Theal, <i>History of South Africa since 1795</i>, vol. v. +(London, 1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAZEBO<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (usually explained as a comic Latinism, for “I will +gaze”; the <i>New English Dictionary</i> suggests a possible oriental +origin now lost), a term used in the 18th century for a structure +on the outer wall of a garden, having an upper storey with +windows on each side so as to overlook the road. Similar buildings +are found in Holland on the borders of the canals, which in +some cases form very picturesque features.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAZETTE<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span>, a name given to news-sheets or newspapers having +an abstract of current events (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Newspapers</a></span>). The <i>London +Gazette</i> is the title of the English official organ for announcements +by the government, and is published every Tuesday and Friday. +It contains all proclamations, orders of council, promotions and +appointments to commissions in the army and navy, all appointments +to offices of state, and such other orders, rules and regulations +as are directed by act of parliament to be published therein. +It also contains notices of proceedings in bankruptcy, dissolutions +of partnership, &c. By the Documentary Evidence Act 1868 the +production of a copy of the <i>Gazette</i> is prima facie evidence of royal +proclamations and government orders and regulations. Similar +gazettes are also published in Edinburgh and Dublin. Most +countries (the United States excepted) have official journals +containing information more or less similar to that of the <i>London +Gazette</i>, as the French <i>Journal officiel</i>, the German <i>Deutscher +Reichs-und Kgl. Preuss. Staats-Anzeiger</i>, &c. The word “gazetteer” +was originally applied to one who wrote for “gazettes,” +but is now only used for a geographical dictionary arranged on +an alphabetical plan.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEAR<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (connected with “garb,” properly elegance, fashion, +especially of dress, and with “gar,” to cause to do, only found in +Scottish and northern dialects; the root of the word is seen in the +Old Teut. <i>garwjan</i>, to make ready), an outfit, applied to the +wearing apparel of a person, or to the harness and trappings of a +horse or any draft animal, as riding-gear, hunting-gear, &c.; +also to household goods or stuff. The phrase “out of gear,” +though now connected with the mechanical application of the +word, was originally used to signify “out of harness” or condition, +not ready to work, not fit. The word is also used of +apparatus generally, and especially of the parts collectively in a +machine by which motion is transmitted from one part to another +by a series of cog-wheels, continuous bands, &c. It is used in a +special sense in reference to a bicycle, meaning the diameter of an +imaginary wheel, the circumference of which is equal to the +distance accomplished by one revolution of the pedals (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bicycle</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEBER.<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> The name Geber has long been used to designate the +author of a number of Latin treatises on alchemy, entitled <i>Summa +perfectionis magisterii, De investigatione perfectionis, De inventione +veritatis, Liber fornacum, Testamentum Geberi Regis Indiae and +Alchemia Geberi</i>, and these writings were generally regarded as +translations from the Arabic originals of Abu Abdallah Jaber +ben Hayyam (Haiyan) ben Abdallah al-Kufi, who is supposed to +have lived in the 8th or 9th century of the Christian era. About +him, however, there is considerable uncertainty. According to the +<i>Kitāb-al-Fihrist</i> (10th century), which gives his name as above, +the authorities disagree, some asserting him to have been a writer +on philosophy and rhetoric, and others claiming for him the first +place among the adepts of his time in the art of making gold and +silver. The writer of the <i>Kitāb-al-Fihrist</i> says he had been +assured that Jaber only wrote one book and even that he never +existed at all, but these statements he scouts as ridiculous, and +expressing the conviction that Jaber really did exist, and that his +works were numerous and important, goes on to quote the titles +of some 500 treatises attributed to him. He is said to have resided +most frequently at Kufa, where he prepared the “elixir,” but, +according to others, he never spent long in one place, having +reason to keep his whereabouts unknown. His patron or master +is variously given as Ja’far ben Yahya, and as Ja’far es-Sadiq; +in the Arabic <i>Book of Royalty</i>, professedly written by him, he +addresses the last-named as his master. In addition to these +details the Fihrist mentions a tradition that he originally came +from Khorasan. Another story given by d’Herbelot (<i>Bibliothèque +orientale</i>, s.v. “Giaber”) makes him a native of Harran +in Mesopotamia and a Sabaean. Leo Africanus, who in 1526 +gave an account of the Alchemists of Fez in Africa (see the +English translation of his <i>Africae descriptio</i> by John Pory, <i>A +Geographical History of Africa</i>, London, 1600, p. 155), states that +their principal authority was Geber, a Greek who had apostatized +to Mahommedanism and lived a century after Mahomet. In +Albertus Magnus the name Geber occurs only once and then with +the epithet “of Seville”; doubtless the reference is to the +Arabian Jabir ben Aflah, who lived in that city in the 11th +century, and wrote an astronomy in 9 books which is of importance +in the history of trigonometry.</p> + +<p>The great puzzle connected with the name Geber lies in the +character of the writings attributed to him, their style and matter +differentiating them strongly from those of even the best authors +of the later alchemical period, and making it difficult to account +for their existence at all. The researches of M.P.E. Berthelot +threw a great deal of light on this question. Taking the six +treatises enumerated above he concluded, after critical examination, +that the two last may be disregarded as of later date than the +others, and that the <i>De investigatione perfectionis</i>, the <i>De inventione</i> +and the <i>Liber fornacum</i> are merely extracts from or +summaries of the <i>Summa perfectionis</i> with later additions. The +<i>Summa</i> he therefore regarded as representative of the work of the +Latin Geber, and study of it convinced him that it contains no +indication of an Arabic origin, either in its method, which is +conspicuous for clearness of reasoning and logical co-ordination of +material, or in its facts, or in the words and persons quoted. +Without going so far as to deny that some words and phrases may +be taken from the writings of the Arabian Jaber, he was disposed +to hold that it is the original work of some unknown Latin +author, who wrote it in the second half of the 13th century and +put it under the patronage of the venerated name of Geber. The +MS. of this work in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris dates from +about the year 1300. Berthelot further investigated Arabic +MSS. existing in the Paris library and in the university of Leiden, +and containing works attributed to Jaber, and had translations +made of six treatises—two, of which he gives the titles as <i>Livre +de la royauté</i> and <i>Petit Livre de la miséricorde</i>,—from Paris, and +four—<i>Livre des balances, Livre de la miséricorde, Livre de la +concentration</i> and <i>Livre de la mercure orientale</i>—from Leiden. +Berthelot was not prepared to assert that these treatises were +actually written by Jaber, but he held it certain that they are +works written in Arabic between the 9th and 12th centuries, at a +period anterior to the relations of the Latins with the Arabs. In +style these treatises are entirely different from the <i>Summa</i> of +Geber. Their language is vague and allegorical, full of allusions +and pious Mussulman invocations; the author continually +announces that he is about to speak without mystery or reserve, +but all the same never gives any precise details of the secrets +he professes to reveal. He holds the doctrine that everything +endowed with an apparent quality possesses an opposite occult +quality in much the same terms as it is found in Latin writers of +the middle ages, but he makes no allusion to the theory of the +generation of the metals by sulphur and mercury, a theory +generally attributed to Geber, who also added arsenic to the list. +Again he fully accepts the influence of the stars on the production +of the metals, whereas the Latin Geber disputes it, and in general +the chemical knowledge of the two is on a different plane. Here +again the inference is that the Latin treatises printed from the +15th century onwards as the work of Geber are not authentic, +regarded as translations of the Arabic author Jaber, always +supposing that the Arabic MSS. transcribed and translated for +Berthelot are really, as they profess to be, the work of Jaber, and +as representative of his opinions and attainments.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page546" id="page546"></a>546</span></p> + +<p>But while Berthelot thus deprived the world of what were long +regarded as genuine Latin versions of Jaber’s works, he also gave +it something in their place, for among the Paris MSS. he found a +mutilated treatise, hitherto unpublished, entitled <i>Liber de +Septuaginta (Johannis), translatus a Magistro Renaldo Cremonensi</i>, +which he considered the only known Latin work that can be +regarded as a translation from the Arabic Jaber. The latter +states in the Arabic works referred to above that under that title +he collected 70 of the 500 little treatises or tracts of which he was +the author, and the titles of those tracts enumerated in the +<i>Kitāb-al-Fihrist</i> as forming the chapters of the <i>Liber de Septuaginta</i> +correspond in general with those of the Latin work, which +further is written in a style similar to that of the Arabic Jaber +and contains the same doctrines. Hence Berthelot felt justified +in assigning it to Jaber, although no Arabic original is known.</p> + +<p>The evidence collected by Berthelot has an important bearing on +the history of chemistry. Most of the chemical knowledge attributed +to the Arabs has been attributed to them on the strength +of the reputed Latin writings of Geber. If, therefore, these are +original works rather than translations, and contain facts and +doctrines which are not to be found in the Arabian Jaber, it +follows that, on the one hand, the chemical knowledge of the Arabs +has been overestimated and, on the other, that more progress was +made in the middle ages than has generally been supposed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M.P.E. Berthelot’s works on the history of alchemy and +especially his <i>Chimie au moyen âge</i> (3 vols., Paris, 1893), the third +volume of which contains a French translation of Jaber’s works +together with the Arabic text.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEBHARD TRUCHSESS VON WALDBURG<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1547-1601), +elector and archbishop of Cologne, was the second son of William, +count of Waldburg, and nephew of Otto, cardinal bishop of +Augsburg (1514-1573). Belonging thus to an old and distinguished +Swabian family, he was born on the 10th of November +1547, and after studying at the universities of Ingolstadt, Perugia, +Louvain and elsewhere began his ecclesiastical career at Augsburg. +Subsequently he held other positions at Strassburg, +Cologne and Augsburg, and in December 1577 was chosen elector +of Cologne after a spirited contest. Gebhard is chiefly noted for +his conversion to the reformed doctrines, and for his marriage +with Agnes, countess of Mansfeld, which was connected with this +step. After living in concubinage with Agnes he decided, perhaps +under compulsion, to marry her, doubtless intending at the same +time to resign his see. Other counsels, however, prevailed. +Instigated by some Protestant supporters he declared he would +retain the electorate, and in December 1582 he formally announced +his conversion to the reformed faith. The marriage with Agnes +was celebrated in the following February, and Gebhard remained +in possession of the see. This affair created a great stir in +Germany, and the clause concerning ecclesiastical reservation in +the religious peace of Augsburg was interpreted in one way by +his friends, and in another way by his foes; the former holding +that he could retain his office, the latter that he must resign. +Anticipating events Gebhard had collected some troops, and had +taken measures to convert his subjects to Protestantism. In +April 1583 he was deposed and excommunicated by Pope Gregory +XIII.; a Bavarian prince, Ernest, bishop of Liége, Freising and +Hildesheim, was chosen elector, and war broke out between the +rivals. The cautious Lutheran princes of Germany, especially +Augustus I., elector of Saxony, were not enthusiastic in support of +Gebhard, whose friendly relations with the Calvinists were not to +their liking; and although Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry +IV. of France, tried to form a coalition to aid the deposed elector, +the only assistance which he obtained came from John Casimir, +administrator of the Palatinate of the Rhine. The inhabitants of +the electorate were about equally divided on the question, and +Ernest, supported by Spanish troops, was too strong for Gebhard. +John Casimir, who acted as commander-in-chief, returned to the +Palatinate in October 1583, and early in the following year +Gebhard was driven from Bonn and took refuge in the Netherlands. +The electorate was soon completely in the possession of +Ernest, and the defeat of Gebhard was a serious blow to Protestantism, +and marks a stage in the history of the Reformation. +Living in the Netherlands he became very intimate with Elizabeth’s +envoy, Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, but he failed to +get assistance for renewing the war either from the English queen +or in any other quarter. In 1589 Gebhard took up his residence at +Strassburg, where he had held the office of dean of the cathedral +since 1574. Before his arrival some trouble had arisen in the +chapter owing to the fact that three excommunicated canons +persisted in retaining their offices. He joined this party, which +was strongly supported in the city, took part in a double election +to the bishopric in 1592, and in spite of some opposition retained +his office until his death at Strassburg on the 31st of May 1601. +Gebhard was a drunken and licentious man, who owes his prominence +rather to his surroundings than to his abilities.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M. Lossen, <i>Der kölnische Krieg</i> (Gotha, 1882), and the article +on Gebhard in band viii. of the <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i> +(Leipzig, 1878); J.H. Hennes, <i>Der Kampf um das Erzstift Köln</i> +(Cologne, 1878); L. Ennen, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Köln</i> (Cologne, 1863-1880); +and <i>Nuntiaturberichte aus Deutschland</i>. <i>Der Kampf um +Köln</i>, edited by J. Hansen (Berlin, 1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEBWEILER<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Guebwiller</i>), a town of Germany in the +imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, at the foot of the Vosges, +on the Lauch, 13 m. S. of Colmar, on the railway +Bollweiler-Lautenbach. +Pop. (1905) 13,259. Among the principal buildings +are the Roman Catholic church of St Leodgar, dating from the +12th century, the Evangelical church, the synagogue, the town-house, +and the old Dominican convent now used as a market and +concert hall. The chief industries are spinning and dyeing, and +the manufacture of cloth and of machinery; quarrying is carried +on and the town is celebrated for its white wines.</p> + +<p>Gebweiler is mentioned as early as 774. It belonged to the +religious foundation of Murbach, and in 1759 the abbots chose it +for their residence. In 1789, at the outbreak of the Revolution, +the monastic buildings were laid in ruins, and, though the archives +were rescued and removed to Colmar, the library perished.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GECKO<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span>,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the common name applied to all the species of the +<i>Geckones</i>, one of the three sub-orders of the <i>Lacertilia</i>. The +geckoes are small creatures, seldom exceeding 8 in. in length +including the tail. With the head considerably flattened, the +body short and thick, the legs not high enough to prevent the +body dragging somewhat on the ground, the eyes large and almost +destitute of eyelids, and the tail short and in some cases nearly as +thick as the body, the geckoes altogether lack the litheness and +grace characteristic of most lizards. Their colours also are dull, +and to the weird and forbidding aspect thus produced the general +prejudice against those creatures in the countries where they +occur, which has led to their being classed with toads and +snakes, is no doubt to be attributed. Their bite was supposed +to be venomous, and their saliva to produce painful cutaneous +eruptions; even their touch was thought sufficient to convey a +dangerous taint. It is needless to say that in this instance the +popular mind was misled by appearances. The geckoes are not +only harmless, but are exceedingly useful creatures, feeding on +insects, which, owing to the great width of their oesophagus, they +are enabled to swallow whole, and in pursuit of which they do not +hesitate to enter human dwellings, where they are often killed on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page547" id="page547"></a>547</span> +suspicion. The structure of the toes in these lizards forms one of +their most characteristic anatomical features.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:369px; height:270px" src="images/img546.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Leaf-tailed Gecko (<i>Gymnodactylus platurus</i>) of Australia.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:239px; height:213px" src="images/img547.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Lower Surface of the Toe of +(<i>a</i>) <i>Gecko</i>, (<i>b</i>) <i>Hemidactylus</i>—enlarged.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Most geckoes have adhesive digits and toes, by means of which +they are enabled not only to climb absolutely smooth and vertical +surfaces, for instance a window-pane, but to run along a white-washed +ceiling, back downwards. The adhesion is not produced +by sticky matter but by numerous transverse lamellae, each +of which is further beset with tiny hair-like excrescences. The +arrangement of the lamellae and pads differs much in the various +genera and is used for <span class="correction" title="amended from classificactory">classificatory</span> purposes. Those which +live on sandy ground have narrow digits without the adhesive +apparatus. Most species have sharp, curved claws, often +retractile between some of the +lamellae or into a special +sheath. The tail is very brittle +and can be quickly regenerated; +it varies much in size +and shape; the most extraordinary +is that of the leaf-tailed +gecko. <i>Ptychozoon +homalocephalon</i> of the Malay +countries has membranous expansions +on the sides of the +head, body, limbs and tail, which +look like parachutes, but more +probably they aid in concealing +the creature when it is +closely pressed to the similarly coloured bark of a tree. Most +geckoes are dull coloured, yellow to brown, and they soon change +colour from lighter to dark tints. They are insectivorous and +chiefly nocturnal, but are fond of basking in the sun, motionless +on the bark of a tree, or on a rock the colour of which is then +imitated to a nicety. Some species are more or less transparent.</p> + +<p>Geckoes, of which about 270 species are known, subdivided into +about 50 genera, are cosmopolitan within the warmer zones, +including New Zealand, and even the remotest volcanic islands. +This wide distribution is due partly to the great age of the +suborder (although fossils are unknown), partly to their being +able to exist for several months without food so that, concealed +in hollow trunks of trees, they may float about for a very long +time. Ships, also, act as distributors. In south Europe occur +only <i>Hemidactylus turcicus</i>, <i>Tarentola mauritanica (Platydactylus +facetanus)</i> and <i>Phyllodactylus europaeus</i>.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The Malay name <i>gē-koq</i> imitates the animal’s cry.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GED, WILLIAM<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1690-1749), the inventor of stereotyping, +was born at Edinburgh in 1690. In 1725 he patented his invention, +developed from the simple process of soldering together +loose types of Van der Mey. Ged, although he succeeded in +obtaining a cast in similar metal, of a type page, could not +persuade Edinburgh printers to take up his invention, and +finally entered into partnership with a London stationer named +Jenner and Thomas James, a typefounder. The partnership, +however, turned out very ill; and Ged, broken-hearted at his +want of success due to trade jealousy and the compositors’ +dislike of the innovation, died in poverty on the 19th of October +1749. Two prayer-books for the university of Cambridge and +an edition of Sallust were printed from his stereotype plates. +In his time the best type was imported from Holland, and Ged’s +daughter reports that he had repeated offers from the Dutch +which, from patriotic motives, he refused. His sons tried to +carry out his patent, and it was eventually perfected by Andrew +Wilson.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEDDES, ALEXANDER<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1737-1802), Scottish Roman Catholic +theologian, was born in Rathven, Banffshire, on the 14th of +September 1737. He was trained at the Roman Catholic +seminary at Scalan and at the Scottish College in Paris, where +he studied biblical philology, school divinity and modern +languages. In 1764 he officiated as a priest in Dundee, but in +May 1765 accepted an invitation to live with the earl of Traquair; +where, with abundance of leisure and the free use of an adequate +library, he made further progress in his favourite biblical studies. +After a second visit to Paris, which was employed by him in +reading and making extracts from rare books and manuscripts, +he was appointed in 1769 priest of Auchinhalrig and Preshome +in his native county. The freedom with which he fraternized +with his Protestant neighbours called forth the rebuke of his +bishop (George Hay), and ultimately, for hunting and for +occasionally attending the parish church of Cullen, where one +of his friends was minister, he was deprived of his charge and +forbidden the exercise of ecclesiastical functions within the +diocese. This happened in 1779; and in 1780 he went with his +friend Lord Traquair to London, where he spent the rest of his +life. Before leaving Scotland he had received the honorary +degree of LL.D. from the university of Aberdeen, and had been +made an honorary member of the Society of Antiquaries, in the +institution of which he had taken a very active part. In London +Geddes soon received an appointment in connexion with the +chapel of the imperial ambassador, and was also helped by Lord +Petre in his scheme for a new Catholic version of the Bible. +In 1786, supported also by such scholars as Benjamin Kennicott +and Robert Lowth, Geddes published a <i>Prospectus of a new +Translation of the Holy Bible</i>, a considerable quarto volume, in +which the defects of previous translations were fully pointed +out, and the means indicated by which these might be removed. +It was well received, and led to the publication in 1788 of <i>Proposals +for Printing</i>, with a specimen, and in 1790 of a <i>General +Answer to Queries, Counsels and Criticisms</i>. The first volume +of the translation itself, which was entitled <i>The Holy Bible ... +faithfully translated from corrected Texts of the Originals, with +various Readings, explanatory Notes and critical Remarks</i>, +appeared in 1792, and was the signal for a storm of hostility on +the part of both Catholics and Protestants. It was obvious +enough—no small offence in the eyes of some—that as a critic +Geddes had identified himself with C.F. Houbigant (1686-1783), +Kennicott and J.D. Michaelis, but others did not hesitate to +stigmatize him as the would-be “corrector of the Holy Ghost.” +Three of the vicars-apostolic almost immediately warned all the +faithful against the “use and reception” of his translation, on +the ostensible ground that it had not been examined and approved +by due ecclesiastical authority; and by his own bishop +(Douglas) he was in 1793 suspended from the exercise of his +orders in the London district. The second volume of the translation, +completing the historical books, published in 1797, found +no more friendly reception; but this circumstance did not discourage +him from giving forth in 1800 the volume of <i>Critical +Remarks on the Hebrew Scriptures</i>, which presented in a somewhat +brusque manner the then novel and startling views of +Eichhorn and his school on the primitive history and early +records of mankind.</p> + +<p>Geddes was engaged on a critical translation of the Psalms +(published in 1807) when he was seized with an illness of which +he died on the 26th of February 1802. <span class="correction" title="amended from Athough">Although</span> under ecclesiastical +censures, he had never swerved from a consistent profession +of faith as a Catholic; and on his death-bed he duly +received the last rites of his communion.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides pamphlets on the Catholic and slavery questions, as well +as several fugitive <i>jeux d’esprit</i>, and a number of unsigned articles +in the <i>Analytical Review</i>, Geddes also published a free metrical +version of <i>Select Satires of Horace</i> (1779), and a verbal rendering of +the <i>First Book of the Iliad of Homer</i> (1792). The <i>Memoirs</i> of his life +and writings by his friend John Mason Good appeared in 1803.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEDDES, ANDREW<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1783-1844), British painter, was born +at Edinburgh. After receiving a good education in the high +school and in the university of that city, he was for five years in +the excise office, in which his father held the post of deputy +auditor. After the death of his father, who had opposed his +desire to become an artist, he came to London and entered the +Royal Academy schools. His first contribution to the exhibitions +of the Royal Academy, a “St John in the Wilderness,” appeared +at Somerset House in 1806, and from that year onwards Geddes +was a fairly constant exhibitor of figure-subjects and portraits. +His well-known portrait of Wilkie, with whom he was on terms +of intimacy, was at the Royal Academy in 1816. He alternated +for some years between London and Edinburgh, with some +excursions on the Continent, but in 1831 settled in London, and +was elected associate of the Royal Academy in 1832; and he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page548" id="page548"></a>548</span> +died in London of consumption in 1844. A very able executant, +a good colourist, and a close student of character, he made his +chief success as a portrait-painter, but he produced occasional +figure subjects and landscapes, and executed some admirable +copies of the old masters as well. He was also a good etcher. +His portrait of his mother, and a portrait study, called “Summer,” +are in the National Gallery of Scotland, and his portrait of Sir +Walter Scott is in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Art in Scotland: its Origin and Progress</i>, by Robert Brydall +(1889); <i>The Scottish School of Painting</i>, by William D. McKay, +R.S.A. (1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEDDES, JAMES LORRAINE<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1827-1887), American soldier +and writer, was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on the 19th of +March 1827. In his boyhood he was taken to Canada, but in +1843 he returned to Scotland; then studied at Calcutta in the +military academy, entered the army, and after distinguishing +himself in the Punjab campaign, returned to Canada, whence +in 1857 he removed to Vinton, Iowa. In the American Civil +War he served in the Federal army first as lieutenant-colonel +and after February 1862 as colonel of volunteers, taking part +in the fighting at Shiloh, Vicksburg and Corinth. He was +captured at Shiloh and was imprisoned for a time at Madison, +Ga., and in Libby prison, Richmond, Va., and in 1865 was +brevetted brigadier-general of volunteers. He was principal +of the College for the Blind at Vinton after the war, and until +his death was connected with the Iowa College of Agriculture +at Ames, being military instructor and cashier in 1870-1882, +acting president in 1876-1877, librarian in 1877-1875, vice-president +and professor of military tactics in 1880-1882, and +treasurer in 1884-1887. He died at Ames on the 21st of +February 1887. He wrote a number of war songs, including +“The Soldiers’ Battle Prayer” and “The Stars and Stripes.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEDDES, SIR WILLIAM DUGUID<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1828-1900), Scottish +scholar and educationist, was born in Aberdeenshire. He was +educated at Elgin academy and university and King’s College, +Aberdeen, and after having held various scholastic posts he was +appointed in 1860 professor of Greek and in 1885 principal of +the (united) university of Aberdeen. He was knighted in 1892. +He died in Aberdeen on the 9th of February 1900. It is chiefly +as a teacher that Geddes will be remembered, and in his enthusiastic +and successful efforts to raise the standard of Greek at the +Scottish universities he has been compared with the humanists +of the Renaissance. Amongst other works he was the author +of <i>A Greek Grammar</i> (1855; 17th edition, 1883; new and revised +edition, 1893); a meritorious edition of the <i>Phaedo</i> of Plato +(2nd ed., 1885); and <i>The Problem of the Homeric Poems</i> (1878), +in which, while supporting Grote’s view that the <i>Iliad</i> consisted +of an original Achilleïs with insertions or additions by later +hands, he maintains that these insertions are due to the author +of the <i>Odyssey</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEDYMIN<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (d. 1342), grand-duke of Lithuania, was supposed +by the earlier chroniclers to have been the servant of Witen, +prince of Lithuania, but more probably he was Witen’s younger +brother and the son of Lutuwer, another Lithuanian prince. +Gedymin inherited a vast domain, comprising Lithuania proper, +Samogitia, Red Russia, Polotsk and Minsk; but these possessions +were environed by powerful and greedy foes, the most dangerous +of them being the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian knights of +the Sword. The systematic raiding of Lithuania by the knights +under the pretext of converting it had long since united all the +Lithuanian tribes against the common enemy; but Gedymin +aimed at establishing a dynasty which should make Lithuania +not merely secure but mighty, and for this purpose he entered +into direct diplomatic negotiations with the Holy See. At the +end of 1322 he sent letters to Pope John XXII. soliciting his +protection against the persecution of the knights, informing him +of the privileges already granted to the Dominicans and the +Franciscans in Lithuania for the preaching of God’s Word, and +desiring that legates should be sent to receive him also into the +bosom of the church. On receiving a favourable reply from the +Holy See, Gedymin issued circular letters, dated 25th of January +1325, to the principal Hanse towns, offering a free access into his +domains to men of every order and profession from nobles and +knights to tillers of the soil. The immigrants were to choose their +own settlements and be governed by their own laws. Priests +and monks were also invited to come and build churches at +Vilna and Novogrodek. Similar letters were sent to the Wendish +or Baltic cities, and to the bishops and landowners of Livonia +and Esthonia. In short Gedymin, recognizing the superiority +of western civilization, anticipated Ivan the Terrible and Peter +the Great by throwing open the semi-savage Russian lands to +influences of culture.</p> + +<p>In October 1323 representatives of the archbishop of Riga, +the bishop of Dorpat, the king of Denmark, the Dominican and +Franciscan orders, and the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order +assembled at Vilna, when Gedymin confirmed his promises and +undertook to be baptized as soon as the papal legates arrived. +A compact was then signed at Vilna, “in the name of the whole +Christian World,” between Gedymin and the delegates, confirming +the promised privileges. But the christianizing of Lithuania +was by no means to the liking of the Teutonic Knights, and they +used every effort to nullify Gedymin’s far-reaching design. This, +unfortunately, it was easy to do. Gedymin’s chief object was to +save Lithuania from destruction at the hands of the Germans. +But he was still a pagan reigning over semi-pagan lands; he +was equally bound to his pagan kinsmen in Samogitia, to his +orthodox subjects in Red Russia, and to his Catholic allies in +Masovia. His policy, therefore, was necessarily tentative and +ambiguous, and might very readily be misinterpreted. Thus +his raid upon Dobrzyn, the latest acquisition of the knights on +Polish soil, speedily gave them a ready weapon against him. +The Prussian bishops, who were devoted to the knights, at a synod +at Elbing questioned the authority of Gedymin’s letters and +denounced him as an enemy of the faith; his orthodox subjects +reproached him with leaning towards the Latin heresy; while +the pagan Lithuanians accused him of abandoning the ancient +gods. Gedymin disentangled himself from his difficulties by +repudiating his former promises; by refusing to receive the papal +legates who arrived at Riga in September 1323; and by dismissing +the Franciscans from his territories. These apparently retrogressive +measures simply amounted to a statesmanlike recognition +of the fact that the pagan element was still the strongest force +in Lithuania, and could not yet be dispensed with in the coming +struggle for nationality. At the same time Gedymin through his +ambassadors privately informed the papal legates at Riga that +his difficult position compelled him for a time to postpone his +steadfast resolve of being baptized, and the legates showed +their confidence in him by forbidding the neighbouring states +to war against Lithuania for the next four years, besides ratifying +the treaty made between Gedymin and the archbishop of Riga. +Nevertheless in 1325 the Order, disregarding the censures of the +church, resumed the war with Gedymin, who had in the meantime +improved his position by an alliance with Wladislaus Lokietek, +king of Poland, whose son Casimir now married Gedymin’s +daughter Aldona.</p> + +<p>While on his guard against his northern foes, Gedymin from +1316 to 1340 was aggrandizing himself at the expense of the +numerous Russian principalities in the south and east, whose +incessant conflicts with each other wrought the ruin of them all. +Here Gedymin’s triumphal progress was irresistible; but the +various stages of it are impossible to follow, the sources of its +history being few and conflicting, and the date of every salient +event exceedingly doubtful. One of his most important +territorial accretions, the principality of Halicz-Vladimir, was +obtained by the marriage of his son Lubart with the daughter +of the Haliczian prince; the other, Kiev, apparently by conquest. +Gedymin also secured an alliance with the grand-duchy of +Muscovy by marrying his daughter, Anastasia, to the grand-duke +Simeon. But he was strong enough to counterpoise the +influence of Muscovy in northern Russia, and assisted the republic +of Pskov, which acknowledged his overlordship, to break +away from Great Novgorod. His internal administration bears +all the marks of a wise ruler. He protected the Catholic as well +as the orthodox clergy, encouraging them both to civilize his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page549" id="page549"></a>549</span> +subjects; he raised the Lithuanian army to the highest state +of efficiency then attainable; defended his borders with a chain +of strong fortresses; and built numerous towns including Vilna, +the capital (<i>c.</i> 1321). Gedymin died in the winter of 1342 of +a wound received at the siege of Wielowa. He was married +three times, and left seven sons and six daughters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Teodor Narbutt, <i>History of the Lithuanian nation</i> (Pol.) +(Vilna, 1835); Antoni Prochaska, <i>On the Genuineness of the Letters +of Gedymin</i> (Pol.) (Cracow, 1895); Vladimir Bonifatovich Antonovich, +<i>Monograph concerning the History of Western and South-western +Russia</i> (Rus.) (Kiev, 1885).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEE, THOMAS<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1815-1898), Welsh Nonconformist preacher +and journalist, was born at Denbigh on the 24th of January 1815. +At the age of fourteen he went into his father’s printing office, but +continued to attend the grammar school in the afternoons. In +1837 he went to London to improve his knowledge of printing, +and on his return to Wales in the following year ardently threw +himself into literary, educational and religious work. Among his +publications were the well-known quarterly magazine <i>Y Traethodydd</i> +(“The Essayist”), <i>Gwyddoniadur Cymreig</i> (“Encyclopaedia +Cambrensis”), and Dr Silvan Evans’s <i>English-Welsh +Dictionary</i> (1868), but his greatest achievement in this field was +the newspaper <i>Baner Cymru</i> (“The Banner of Wales”), founded +in 1857 and amalgamated with <i>Yr Amserau</i> (“The Times”) +two years later. This paper soon became an oracle in Wales, +and played a great part in stirring up the nationalist movement in +the principality. In educational matters he waged a long and +successful struggle on behalf of undenominational schools and for +the establishment of the intermediate school system. He was an +enthusiastic advocate of church disestablishment, and had a +historic newspaper duel with Dr John Owen (afterwards bishop +of St David’s) on this question. The Eisteddfod found in him +a thorough friend and a wise counsellor. His commanding +presence, mastery of diction, and resonant voice made him an +effective platform speaker. He was ordained to the Calvinistic +Methodist ministry at Bala in 1847, and gave his time and talents +ungrudgingly to Sunday school and temperance work. Throughout +his life he believed in the itinerant unpaid ministry rather +than in the settled pastorate. He died on the 28th of September +1898, and his funeral was the most imposing ever seen in North +Wales.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEEL, JACOB<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1789-1862), Dutch scholar and critic, was born +at Amsterdam on the 12th of November 1789. In 1823 he was +appointed sub-librarian, and in 1833 chief librarian and honorary +professor at Leiden, where he died on the 11th of November 1862. +Geel materially contributed to the development of classical +studies in Holland. He was the author of editions of Theocritus +(1820), of the Vatican fragments of Polybius (1829), of the +<span class="grk" title="’Olumpiakos">Ὀλυμπιακός</span> of Dio Chrysostom (1840) and of numerous essays in +the <i>Rheinisches Museum</i> and <i>Bibliotheca critica nova</i>, of which he +was one of the founders. He also compiled a valuable catalogue +of the MSS. in the Leiden library, wrote a history of the Greek +sophists, and translated various German works into Dutch.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEELONG,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a seaport of Grant county, Victoria, Australia, +situated on an extensive land-locked arm of Port Phillip known +as Corio Bay, 45 m. by rail S.W. of Melbourne. Pop. of the city +proper (1901) 12,399; with the adjacent boroughs of Geelong +West, and Newton-and-Chilwell, 23,311. Geelong slopes to the +bay on the north and to the Barwon river on the south, and its +position in this respect, as well as the shelter it obtains from the +Bellarine hills, renders it one of the healthiest towns in Victoria. +As a manufacturing centre it is of considerable importance. +The first woollen mill in the colony was established here, and the +tweeds, cloths and other woollen fabrics of the town are noted +throughout Australia. There are extensive tanneries, flour-mills +and salt works, while at Fyansford, 3 m. distant, there are +important cement works and paper-mills. The extensive vineyards +in the neighbourhood of the town were destroyed under +the Phylloxera Act, but replanting subsequently revived this +industry. Corio Bay, a safe and commodious harbour, is entered +by two channels across its bar, one of which has a depth of 23½ ft. +There is extensive quayage, and the largest wool ships are able +to load alongside the wharves, which are connected by rail with +all parts of the colony. The facilities given for shipping wool +direct to England from this port have caused a very extensive +wool-broking trade to grow up in the town. The country +surrounding Geelong is agricultural, but there are large limestone +quarries east of the town, and in the Otway Forest, 23 m. distant, +coal is worked. Geelong was incorporated in 1849.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEESTEMÜNDE,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a seaport town of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Hanover, on the right bank of the Weser, at the +mouth of the Geeste, which separates it from Bremerhaven, 32 m. +N. from Bremen by rail. Pop. (1905) 23,625. The interest of the +place is purely naval and commercial, its origin dating no farther +back than 1857, when the construction of the harbour was begun. +The great basin, which can accommodate large sea-going vessels, +was completed in 1863, the petroleum basin was opened in 1874, +and additional wharves have been constructed for the reception +of vessels engaged in the fishing industry. The fish market of +Geestemünde is the most important in Germany, and the auction +hall practically determines the price of fish throughout the empire. +The whole port is protected by powerful fortifications. Among +the industrial establishments of the town are shipbuilding yards, +foundries, engineering works and saw-mills.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEFFCKEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1830-1896), German +diplomatist and jurist, was born on the 9th of December 1830 at +Hamburg, of which city his father was senator. After studying +law at Bonn, Göttingen and Berlin, he was attached in 1854 to +the Prussian legation at Paris. For ten years (1856-1866) he +was the diplomatic representative of Hamburg in Berlin, first +as chargé d’affaires, and afterwards as minister-resident, being +afterwards transferred in a like capacity to London. Appointed +in 1872 professor of constitutional history and public law in the +reorganized university of Strassburg, Geffcken became in 1880 a +member of the council of state of Alsace-Lorraine. Of too nervous +a temperament to withstand the strain of the responsibilities of +his position, he retired from public service in 1882, and lived +henceforth mostly at Munich, where he died, suffocated by an +accidental escape of gas into his bedchamber, on the 1st of May +1896. Geffcken was a man of great erudition and wide knowledge +and of remarkable legal acumen, and from these qualities proceeded +the personal influence he possessed. He was moreover a +clear writer and made his mark as an essayist. He was one of the +most trusted advisers of the Prussian crown prince, Frederick +William (afterwards the emperor Frederick), and it was he (it is +said, at Bismarck’s suggestion) who drew up the draft of the New +German federal constitution, which was submitted to the crown +prince’s headquarters at Versailles during the war of 1870-71. +It was also Geffcken who assisted in framing the famous document +which the emperor Frederick, on his accession to the +throne in 1888, addressed to the chancellor. This memorandum +gave umbrage, and on the publication by Geffcken in the +<i>Deutsche Rundschau</i> (Oct. 1888) of extracts from the emperor +Frederick’s private diary during the war of 1870-71, he was, at +Bismarck’s instance, prosecuted for high treason. The Reichsgericht +(supreme court), however, quashed the indictment, and +Geffcken was liberated after being under arrest for three months. +Publications of various kinds proceeded from his pen. Among +these are <i>Zur Geschichte des orientalischen Krieges 1853-1856</i> +(Berlin, 1881); <i>Frankreich, Russland und der Dreibund</i> (Berlin, +1894); and <i>Staat und Kirche</i> (1875), English translation by +E.F. Fairfax (1877). His writings on English history have been +translated by S.J. Macmullan and published as <i>The British +Empire, with essays on Prince Albert, Palmerston, Beaconsfield, +Gladstone, and reform of the House of Lords</i> (1889).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEFFROY, MATHIEU AUGUSTE<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1820-1895), French +historian, was born in Paris. After studying at the École +Normale Supérieure he held history professorships at various +lycées. His French thesis for the doctorate of letters, <i>Étude sur +les pamphlets politiques et religieux de Milton</i> (1848), showed +that he was attracted towards foreign history, a study for which +he soon qualified himself by mastering the Germanic and +Scandinavian languages. In 1851 he published a <i>Histoire des +états scandinaves</i>, which is especially valuable for clear arrangement +and for the trustworthiness of its facts. Later, a long +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550"></a>550</span> +stay in Sweden furnished him with valuable documents for a +political and social history of Sweden and France at the end of +the 18th century. In 1864 and 1865 he published in the <i>Revue +des deux mondes</i> a series of articles on Gustavus III. and the +French court, which were republished in book form in 1867. +To the second volume he appended a critical study on <i>Marie +Antoinette et Louis XVI apocryphes</i>, in which he proved, by +evidence drawn from documents in the private archives of the +emperor of Austria, that the letters published by Feuillet de +Conches (<i>Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette et Madame Elisabeth</i>, +1864-1873) and Hunolstein (<i>Corresp. inédite de Marie Antoinette</i>, +1864) are forgeries. With the collaboration of Alfred von +Arneth, director of the imperial archives at Vienna, he edited +the <i>Correspondance secrète entre Marie-Thérèse et le comte de +Mercy-Argenteau</i> (3 vols., 1874), the first account based on trustworthy +documents of Marie Antoinette’s character, private +conduct and policy. The Franco-German War drew Geffroy’s +attention to the origins of Germany, and his <i>Rome et les Barbares: +étude sur la Germanie de Tacite</i> (1874) set forth some of the results +of German scholarship. He was then appointed to superintend +the opening of the French school of archaeology at Rome, and +drew up two useful reports (1877 and 1884) on its origin and early +work. But his personal tastes always led him back to the study +of modern history. When the Paris archives of foreign affairs +were thrown open to students, it was decided to publish a collection +of the instructions given to French ambassadors since 1648 +(<i>Recueil des instructions données aux ambassadeurs et ministres +de France depuis le traité de Westphalie</i>), and Geffroy was commissioned +to edit the volumes dealing with Sweden (vol. ii., 1885) +and Denmark (vol. xiii., 1895). In the interval he wrote <i>Madame +de Maintenon d’après sa correspondance authentique</i> (2 vols., +1887), in which he displayed his penetrating critical faculty in +discriminating between authentic documents and the additions +and corrections of arrangers like La Beaumelle and Lavallée. +His last works were an <i>Essai sur la formation des collections +d’antiques de la Suède</i> and <i>Des institutions et des mœurs du +paganisme scandinave: l’Islande avant le Christianisme</i>, both +published posthumously. He died at Bièvre on the 16th of +August 1895.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEFLE,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a seaport of Sweden on an inlet of the Gulf of Bothnia, +chief town of the district (<i>län</i>) of Gefleborg, 112 m. N.N.W. of +Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900) 29,522. It is the chief port of +the district of Kopparberg, with its iron and other mines and +forests. The exports consist principally of timber and wood-pulp, +iron and steel. The harbour, which has two entrances +about 20 ft. deep, is usually ice-bound in mid-winter. Large +vessels generally load in the roads at Gråberg, 6 m. distant. +There are slips and shipbuilding yards, and a manufacture of +sail-cloth. The town is an important industrial centre, having +tobacco and leather factories, electrical and other mechanical +works, and breweries. At Skutskär at the mouth of the Dal +river are wood-pulp and saw mills, dealing with the large +quantities of timber floated down the river; and there are large +wood-yards in the suburb of Bomhus. Gefle was almost destroyed +by fire in 1869, but was rebuilt in good style, and has the advantage +of a beautiful situation. The principal buildings are a +castle, founded by King John III. (1568-1592), but rebuilt later, +a council-house erected by Gustavus III., who held a diet here in +1792, an exchange, and schools of commerce and navigation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEGENBAUR, CARL<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1826-1903), German anatomist, was +born on the 21st of August 1826 at Würzburg, the university of +which he entered as a student in 1845. After taking his degree +in 1851 he spent some time in travelling in Italy and Sicily, +before returning to Würzburg as <i>Privatdocent</i> in 1854. In 1855 +he was appointed extraordinary professor of anatomy at Jena, +where after 1865 his fellow-worker, Ernst Haeckel, was professor +of zoology, and in 1858 he became the ordinary professor. In +1873 he was appointed to Heidelberg, where he was professor +of anatomy and director of the Anatomical Institute until his +retirement in 1901. He died at Heidelberg on the 14th of June +1903. The work by which perhaps he is best known is his +<i>Grundriss der vergleichenden Anatomie</i> (Leipzig, 1874; 2nd +edition, 1878). This was translated into English by W.F. +Jeffrey Bell (<i>Elements of Comparative Anatomy</i>, 1878), with +additions by E. Ray Lankester. While recognizing the importance +of comparative embryology in the study of descent, Gegenbaur +laid stress on the higher value of comparative anatomy +as the basis of the study of homologies, <i>i.e.</i> of the relations +between corresponding parts in different animals, as, for example, +the arm of man, the foreleg of the horse and the wing of a fowl. +A distinctive piece of work was effected by him in 1871 in supplementing +the evidence adduced by Huxley in refutation of the +theory of the origin of the skull from expanded vertebrae, which, +formulated independently by Goethe and Oken, had been +championed by Owen. Huxley demonstrated that the skull +is built up of cartilaginous pieces; Gegenbaur showed that “in +the lowest (gristly) fishes, where hints of the original vertebrae +might be most expected, the skull is an unsegmented gristly +brain-box, and that in higher forms the vertebral nature of the +skull cannot be maintained, since many of the bones, notably +those along the top of the skull, arise in the skin.” Other publications +by Gegenbaur include a <i>Text-book of Human Anatomy</i> +(Leipzig, 1883, new ed. 1903), the <i>Epiglottis</i> (1892) and <i>Comparative +Anatomy of the Vertebrates in relation to the Invertebrates</i> +(Leipzig, 2 vols., 1898-1901). In 1875 he founded the <i>Morphologisches +Jahrbuch</i>, which he edited for many years. In 1901 +he published a short autobiography under the title <i>Erlebtes und +Erstrebtes</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Fürbringer in <i>Heidelberger Professoren aus dem 19ten Jahrhundert</i> +(Heidelberg, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEGENSCHEIN<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (Ger. <i>gegen</i>, opposite, and <i>schein</i>, shine), an +extremely faint luminescence of the sky, seen opposite the direction +of the sun. Germany was the country in which it was first +discovered and described. The English rendering “counterglow” +is also given to it. Its faintness is such that it can be +seen only by a practised eye under favourable conditions. It +is invisible during the greater part of June, July, December +and January, owing to its being then blotted out by the superior +light of the Milky Way. It is also invisible during moonlight +and near the horizon, and the neighbourhood of a bright star +or planet may interfere with its recognition. When none of +these unfavourable conditions supervene it may be seen at nearly +any time when the air is clear and the depression of the sun +below the horizon more than 20°. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zodiacal Light</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEIBEL, EMANUEL<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1815-1884), German poet, was born +at Lübeck on the 17th of October 1815, the son of a pastor in +the city. He was originally intended for his father’s profession, +and studied at Bonn and Berlin, but his real interests lay not in +theology but in classical and romance philology. In 1838 he +accepted a tutorship at Athens, where he remained until 1840. +In the same year he brought out, in conjunction with his friend +Ernst Curtius, a volume of translations from the Greek. His +first poems, <i>Zeitstimmen</i>, appeared in 1841; a tragedy, <i>König +Roderich</i>, followed in 1843. In the same year he received a +pension from the king of Prussia, which he retained until his +invitation to Munich by the king of Bavaria in 1851 as honorary +professor at the university. In the interim he had produced +<i>König Sigurds Brautfahrt</i> (1846), an epic, and <i>Juniuslieder</i> +(1848, 33rd ed. 1901), lyrics in a more spirited and manlier style +than his early poems. A volume of <i>Neue Gedichte</i>, published at +Munich in 1857, and principally consisting of poems on classical +subjects, denoted a further considerable advance in objectivity, +and the series was worthily closed by the <i>Spätherbstblätter</i>, published +in 1877. He had quitted Munich in 1869 and returned +to Lübeck, where he died on the 6th of April 1884. His works +further include two tragedies, <i>Brunhild</i> (1858, 5th ed. 1890), and +<i>Sophonisbe</i> (1869), and translations of French and Spanish +popular poetry. Beginning as a member of the group of political +poets who heralded the revolution of 1848, Geibel was also the +chief poet to welcome the establishment of the Empire in 1871. +His strength lay not, however, in his political songs but in his +purely lyric poetry, such as the fine cycle <i>Ada</i> and his still popular +love-songs. He may be regarded as the leading representative +of German lyric poetry between 1848 and 1870.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551"></a>551</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Geibel’s <i>Gesammelte Werke</i> were published in 8 vols. (1883, 4th ed. +1906); his <i>Gedichte</i> have gone through about 130 editions. An excellent +selection in one volume appeared in 1904. For biography and +criticism, see K. Goedeke, <i>E. Geibel</i> (1869); W. Scherer’s address on +Geibel (1884); K.T. Gaedertz, <i>Geibel-Denkwurdigkeiten</i> (1886); +C.C.T. Litzmann, <i>E. Geibel, aus Erinnerungen, Briefen und Tagebüchern</i> +(1887), and biographies by C. Leimbach (2nd ed., 1894), and +K.T. Gaedertz (1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEIGE<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>gigue</i>, <i>gige</i>; O. Ital. and Span. <i>giga</i>; Prov. +<i>gigua</i>; O. Dutch <i>gighe</i>), in modern German the violin; in medieval +German the name applied to the first stringed instruments +played with a bow, in contradistinction to those whose strings +were plucked by fingers or plectrum such as the cithara, rotta and +fidula, the first of these terms having been very generally used +to designate various instruments whose strings were plucked. +The name <i>gîge</i> in Germany, of which the origin is uncertain,<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and +its derivatives in other languages, were in the middle ages applied +to rebecs having fingerboards. As the first bowed instruments +in Europe were, as far as we know, those of the rebab type, both +boat-shaped and pear-shaped, it seems probable that the name +clung to them long after the bow had been applied to other +stringed instruments derived from the cithara, such as the fiddle +(videl) or vielle. In the romances of the 12th and 13th centuries +the <i>gîge</i> is frequently mentioned, and generally associated with +the rotta. Early in the 16th century we find definite information +concerning the Geige in the works of Sebastian Virdung (1511), +Hans Judenkünig (1523), Martin Agricola (1532), Hans Gerle +(1533); and from the instruments depicted, of two distinct types +and many varieties, it would appear that the principal idea +attached to the name was still that of the bow used to vibrate the +strings. Virdung qualifies the word <i>Geige</i> with <i>Klein</i> (small) and +<i>Gross</i> (large), which do not represent two sizes of the same +instrument but widely different types, also recognized by +Agricola, who names three or four sizes of each, discant, alto, +tenor and bass. Virdung’s <i>Klein Geige</i> is none other than the +rebec with two C-shaped soundholes and a raised fingerboard cut +in one piece with the vaulted back and having a separate flat +soundboard glued over it, a change rendered necessary by the +arched bridge. Agricola’s <i>Klein Geige</i> with three strings was of a +totally different construction, having ribs and wide incurvations +but no bridge; there was a rose soundhole near the tailpiece +and two C-shaped holes in the shoulders. Agricola (<i>Musica +instrumentalis</i>) distinctly mentions three kinds of <i>Geigen</i> with +three, four and five strings. From him we learn that only one +position was as yet used on these instruments, one or two higher +notes being occasionally obtained by sliding the little finger +along. A century later Agricola’s <i>Geige</i> was regarded as antiquated +by Praetorius, who reproduces one of the bridgeless ones +with five strings, a rose and two C-shaped soundholes, and calls +it an old fiddle; under <i>Geige</i> he gives the violins.</p> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The words <i>gîge</i>, <i>gîgen</i>, <i>geic</i> appear suddenly in the M. H. German +of the 12th century, and thence passed apparently into the Romance +languages, though some would reverse the process (<i>e.g.</i> Weigand, +<i>Deutsches Wörterbuch</i>). An elaborate argument in the <i>Deutsches +Wörterbuch</i> of J. and W. Grimm (Leipzig, 1897) connects the word +with an ancient common Teut. root <i>gag</i>—meaning to sway to and +fro, as preserved in numerous forms: <i>e.g.</i> M.H.G <i>gagen</i>, <i>gugen</i>, +“to sway to and fro” (<i>gugen</i>, <i>gagen</i>, the rocking of a cradle), the +Swabian <i>gigen</i>, <i>gagen</i>, in the same sense, the Tirolese <i>gaiggern</i>, to +sway, doubt, or the old Norse <i>geiga</i>, to go astray or crooked. The +reference is to the swaying motion of the violin bow. The English +“jig” is derived from <i>gîge</i> through the O. Fr. <i>gigue</i> (in the sense +of a stringed instrument); the modern French gigue (a dance) is +the English “jig” re-imported (Hatzfeld and Darmesteter, <i>Dictionnaire</i>). +This opens up another possibility, of the origin of the name +of the instrument in the dance which it accompanied.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEIGER, ABRAHAM<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1810-1874), Jewish theologian and +orientalist, was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 24th of May +1810, and educated at the universities of Heidelberg and Bonn. +As a student he distinguished himself in philosophy and in philology, +and at the close of his course wrote on the relations of +Judaism and Mahommedanism a prize essay which was afterwards +published in 1833 under the title <i>Was hat Mohammed aus +dem Judentum aufgenommen?</i> (English trans. <i>Judaism and +Islam</i>, Madras, 1898). In November 1832 he went to Wiesbaden +as rabbi of the synagogue, and became in 1835 one of the most +active promoters of the <i>Zeitschrift für jüdische Theologie</i> (1835-1839 +and 1842-1847). From 1838 to 1863 he lived in Breslau, +where he organized the reform movement in Judaism and wrote +some of his most important works, including <i>Lehr- und Lesebuch +zur Sprache der Mischna</i> (1845), <i>Studien</i> from Maimonides (1850), +translation into German of the poems of Juda ha-Levi (1851), +and <i>Urschrift und Übersetzungen der Bibel in ihrer Abhängigkeit +von der innern Entwickelung des Judentums</i> (1857). The last-named +work attracted little attention at the time, but now +enjoys a great reputation as a new departure in the methods of +studying the records of Judaism. The <i>Urschrift</i> has moreover +been recognized as one of the most original contributions to +biblical science. In 1863 Geiger became head of the synagogue of +his native town, and in 1870 he removed to Berlin, where, in +addition to his duties as chief rabbi, he took the principal charge +of the newly established seminary for Jewish science. The +<i>Urschrift</i> was followed by a more exhaustive handling of one of +its topics in <i>Die Sadducäer und Pharisäer</i> (1863), and by a more +thorough application of its leading principles in an elaborate +history of Judaism (<i>Das Judentum und seine Geschichte</i>) in 1865-1871. +Geiger also contributed frequently on Hebrew, Samaritan +and Syriac subjects to the <i>Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen +Gesellschaft</i>, and from 1862 until his death (on the 23rd of October +1874) he was editor of a periodical entitled <i>Jüdische Zeitschrift +für Wissenschaft und Leben</i>. He also published a Jewish prayerbook +(<i>Israëlitisches Gebetbuch</i>) and a variety of minor monographs +on historical and literary subjects connected with the fortunes of +his people.</p> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + +<p>An <i>Allgemeine Einleitung</i> and five volumes of <i>Nachgelassene +Schriften</i> were edited in 1875 by his son <span class="sc">Ludwig Geiger</span> (b. 1848), +who in 1880 became extraordinary professor in the university of +Berlin. Ludwig Geiger published a large number of biographical +and literary works and made a special study of German humanism. +He edited the <i>Goethe-Jahrbuch</i> from 1880, <i>Vierteljahrsschrift für +Kultur und Litteratur der Renaissance</i> (1885-1886), <i>Zeitschr. für +die Gesch. der Juden im Deutschland</i> (1886-1891), <i>Zeitschr. für +vergleichende Litteraturgeschichte und Renaissance-Litteratur</i> +(1887-1891). Among his works are <i>Johann Reuchlin, sein Leben +und seine Werke</i> (Leipzig, 1871); and <i>Johann Reuchlin’s Briefwechsel</i> +(Tübingen, 1875); <i>Renaissance und Humanismus in +Italien und Deutschland</i> (1882, 2nd ed. 1901); <i>Gesch. des geistigen +Lebens der preussischen Hauptstadt</i> (1892-1894); <i>Berlin’s geistiges +Leben</i> (1894-1896).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also J. Derenbourg in <i>Jüd. Zeitschrift</i>, xi. 299-308; E. +Schrieber, <i>Abraham Geiger als Reformator des Judentums</i> (1880), +art. (with portrait) in <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>Abraham Geiger’s nephew <span class="sc">Lazarus Geiger</span> (1829-1870), +philosopher and philologist, born at Frankfort-on-Main, was +destined to commerce, but soon gave himself up to scholarship +and studied at Marburg, Bonn and Heidelberg. From 1861 till +his sudden death in 1870 he was professor in the Jewish high +school at Frankfort. His chief aim was to prove that the +evolution of human reason is closely bound up with that of +language. He further maintained that the origin of the Indo-Germanic +language is to be sought not in Asia but in central +Germany. He was a convinced opponent of rationalism in religion. +His chief work was his <i>Ursprung und Entwickelung der menschlichen +Sprache und Vernunft</i> (vol. i., Stuttgart, 1868), the principal +results of which appeared in a more popular form as <i>Der Ursprung +der Sprache</i> (Stuttgart, 1869 and 1878). The second volume of the +former was published in an incomplete form (1872, 2nd ed. 1899) +after his death by his brother Alfred Geiger, who also published a +number of his scattered papers as <i>Zur Entwickelung der Menschheit</i> +(1871, 2nd ed. 1878; Eng. trans. D. Asher, <i>Hist. of the +Development of the Human Race</i>, Lond., 1880).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L.A. Rosenthal, <i>Laz. Geiger: seine Lehre vom Ursprung d. +Sprache und Vernunft und sein Leben</i> (Stuttgart, 1883); E. Peschier, +<i>L. Geiger, sein Leben und Denken</i> (1871); J. Keller, <i>L. Geiger und +d. Kritik d. Vernunft</i> (Wertheim, 1883) and <i>Der Ursprung d. Vernunft</i> +(Heidelberg, 1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEIJER, ERIK GUSTAF<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1783-1847), Swedish historian, was +born at Ransäter in Värmland, on the 12th of January 1783, of a +family that had immigrated from Austria in the 17th century. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page552" id="page552"></a>552</span> +He was educated at the university of Upsala, where in 1803 he +carried off the Swedish Academy’s great prize for his <i>Äreminne +öfver Sten Sture den äldre</i>. He graduated in 1806, and in 1810 +returned from a year’s residence in England to become <i>docent</i> in +his university. Soon afterwards he accepted a post in the public +record office at Stockholm, where, with some friends, he founded +the “Gothic Society,” to whose organ <i>Iduna</i> he contributed a +number of prose essays and the songs <i>Manhem</i>, <i>Vikingen</i>, <i>Den +siste kämpen</i>, <i>Den siste skalden</i>, <i>Odalbonden</i>, <i>Kolargossen</i>, which he +set to music. About the same time he issued a volume of hymns, +of which several are inserted in the Swedish Psalter.</p> + +<p>Geijer’s lyric muse was soon after silenced by his call to be +assistant to Erik Michael Fant, professor of history at Upsala, +whom he succeeded in 1817. In 1824 he was elected a member of +the Swedish Academy. A single volume of a great projected +work, <i>Svea Rikes Häfder</i>, itself a masterly critical examination of +the sources of Sweden’s legendary history, appeared in 1825. +Geijer’s researches in its preparation had severely strained his +health, and he went the same year on a tour through Denmark +and part of Germany, his impressions from which are recorded in +his <i>Minnen</i>. In 1832-1836 he published three volumes of his +<i>Svenska folkets historia</i> (Eng. trans. by J.H. Turner, 1845), a +clear view of the political and social development of Sweden +down to 1654. The acute critical insight, just thought, and +finished historical art of these incomplete works of Geijer entitle +him to the first place among Swedish historians. His chief other +historical and political writings are his <i>Teckning af Sveriges +tillsånd</i> 1718-1772 (Stockholm, 1838), and <i>Feodalism och +republikanism, ett bidrag till Samhällsförfattningens historia</i> (1844), +which led to a controversy with the historian Anders Fryxell +regarding the part played in history by the Swedish aristocracy. +Geijer also edited, with the aid of J.H. Schröder, a continuation +of Fant’s <i>Scriptores rerum svecicarum medii aevi</i> (1818-1828), and, +by himself, Thomas Thorild’s <i>Samlade skrifter</i> (1819-1825), and +<i>Konung Gustaf III</i>.’s <i>efterlemnade Papper</i> (4 vols., 1843-1846). +Geijer’s academic lectures, of which the last three, published in +1845 under the title <i>Om vår tids inre samhällsforhållanden, i +synnerhet med afseende på Fäderneslandet</i>, involved him in another +controversy with Fryxell, but exercised a great influence over his +students, who especially testified to their attachment after the +failure of a prosecution against him for heresy. A number of his +extempore lectures, recovered from notes, were published in 1856. +He also wrote a life of Charles XIV. (Stockholm, 1844). Failing +health forced Geijer to resign his chair in 1846, after which he +removed to Stockholm for the purpose of completing his <i>Svenska +folkets historia</i>, and died there on the 23rd of April 1847. His +<i>Samlade skrifter</i> (13 vols., 1840-1855; new ed., 1873-1877) include +a large number of philosophical and political essays contributed +to reviews, particularly to <i>Litteraturbladet</i> (1838-1839), a periodical +edited by himself, which attracted great attention in its day +by its pronounced liberal views on public questions, a striking +contrast to those he had defended in 1828-1830, when, as again +in 1840-1841, he represented Upsala University in the Swedish +diet. His poems were collected and published as <i>Skaldestycken</i> +(Upsala, 1835 and 1878).</p> + +<p>Geijer’s style is strong and manly. His genius bursts out in +sudden flashes that light up the dark corners of history. A few +strokes, and a personality stands before us instinct with life. +His language is at once the scholar’s and the poet’s; with his +profoundest thought there beats in unison the warmest, the +noblest, the most patriotic heart. Geijer came to the writing of +history fresh from researches in the whole field of Scandinavian +antiquity, researches whose first-fruits are garnered in numerous +articles in <i>Iduna</i>, and his masterly treatise <i>Om den gamla nordiska +folkvisan</i>, prefixed to the collection of Svenska folkvisor which he +edited with A.A. Afzelius (3 vols., 1814-1816). The development +of freedom is the idea that gives unity to all his historical +writings.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For Geijer’s biography, see his own <i>Minnen</i> (1834), which contains +copious extracts from his letters and diaries; B.E. Malmström, +<i>Minnestal öfver E.G. Geijer</i>, addressed to the Upsala students +(June 6, 1848), and printed among his <i>Tal och esthetiska afhandlingar</i> +(1868), and <i>Grunddragen af Svenska vitterhetens häfder</i> (1866-1868); +and S.A. Hollander, <i>Minne af E.G. Geijer</i> (Örebro, 1869). See also +lives of Geijer by J. Hellstenius (Stockholm, 1876) and J. Niekson +(Odense, 1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1835-  ), Scottish geologist, +was born at Edinburgh on the 28th of December 1835. He was +educated at the high school and university of Edinburgh, and +in 1855 was appointed an assistant on the Geological Survey. +Wielding the pen with no less facility than the hammer, he +inaugurated his long list of works with <i>The Story of a Boulder; +or, Gleanings from the Note-Book of a Geologist</i> (1858). His ability +at once attracted the notice of his chief, Sir Roderick Murchison, +with whom he formed a lifelong friendship, and whose biographer +he subsequently became. With Murchison some of his earliest +work was done on the complicated regions of the Highland +schists; and the small geological map of Scotland published in +1862 was their joint work: a larger map was issued by Geikie in +1892. In 1863 he published an important essay “On the Phenomena +of the Glacial Drift of Scotland,” <i>Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow</i>, +in which the effects of ice action in that country were for the first +time clearly and connectedly delineated. In 1865 appeared +Geikie’s <i>Scenery of Scotland</i> (3rd edition, 1901), which was, he +claimed, “the first attempt to elucidate in some detail the history +of the topography of a country.” In the same year he was +elected F.R.S. At this time the Edinburgh school of geologists—prominent +among them Sir Andrew Ramsay, with his <i>Physical +Geology and Geography of Great Britain</i>—were maintaining the +supreme importance of denudation in the configuration of land-surfaces, +and particularly the erosion of valleys by the action of +running water. Geikie’s book, based on extensive personal +knowledge of the country, was an able contribution to the +doctrines of the Edinburgh school, of which he himself soon +began to rank as one of the leaders.</p> + +<p>In 1867, when a separate branch of the Geological Survey +was established for Scotland, he was appointed director. On +the foundation of the Murchison professorship of geology and +mineralogy at the university of Edinburgh in 1871, he became +the first occupant of the chair. These two appointments he +continued to hold till 1881, when he succeeded Sir Andrew +Ramsay in the joint offices of director-general of the Geological +Survey of the United Kingdom and director of the museum of +practical geology, London, from which he retired in February +1901. A feature of his tenure of office was the impetus given to +microscopic petrography, a branch of geology to which he had +devoted special study, by a splendid collection of sections of +British rocks. Later he wrote two important and interesting +Survey Memoirs, <i>The Geology of Central and Western Fife and +Kinross</i> (1900), and <i>The Geology of Eastern Fife</i> (1902).</p> + +<p>From the outset of his career, when he started to investigate the +geology of Skye and other of the Western Isles, he took a keen +interest in volcanic geology, and in 1871 he brought before the +Geological Society of London an outline of the Tertiary volcanic +history of Britain. Many difficult problems, however, remained +to be solved. Here he was greatly aided by his extensive travels, +not only throughout Europe, but in western America. While the +canyons of the Colorado confirmed his long-standing views on +erosion, the eruptive regions of Wyoming, Montana and Utah +supplied him with valuable data in explanation of volcanic +phenomena. The results of his further researches were given in an +elaborate and charmingly written essay on “The History of Volcanic +Action during the Tertiary Period in the British Isles,” +<i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i>, (1888). His mature views on volcanic +geology were given to the world in his presidential addresses +to the Geological Society in 1891 and 1892, and afterwards +embodied in his great work on <i>The Ancient Volcanoes of Great +Britain</i> (1897). Other results of his travels are collected in his +<i>Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad</i> (1882).</p> + +<p>His experience as a field geologist resulted in an admirable +text-book, <i>Outlines of Field Geology</i> (5th edition, 1900). After +editing and practically re-writing Jukes’s <i>Student’s Manual of +Geology</i> in 1872, he published in 1882 a <i>Text-Book</i> and in 1886 a +<i>Class-Book</i> of geology, which have taken rank as standard works +of their kind. A fourth edition of his <i>Text-Book</i>, in two vols., was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page553" id="page553"></a>553</span> +issued in 1903. His writings are marked in a high degree by charm +of style and power of vivid description. His literary ability has +given him peculiar qualifications as a writer of scientific biography, +and the <i>Memoir of Edward Forbes</i> (with G. Wilson), and +those of his old chiefs, Sir R.I. Murchison (2 vols., 1875) and Sir +Andrew Crombie Ramsay (1895), are models of what such works +should be. His <i>Founders of Geology</i> consists of the inaugural +course of Lectures (founded by Mrs G.H. Williams) at Johns +Hopkins University, Baltimore, delivered in 1897. In 1897 he +issued an admirable <i>Geological Map of England and Wales, with +Descriptive Notes</i>. In 1898 he delivered the Romanes Lectures, +and his address was published under the title of <i>Types of Scenery +and their Influence on Literature</i>. The study of geography owes +its improved position in Great Britain largely to his efforts. +Among his works on this subject is <i>The Teaching of Geography</i> +(1887). His <i>Scottish Reminiscences</i> (1904) and <i>Landscape in +History and other Essays</i> (1905) are charmingly written and full +of instruction. He was foreign secretary of the Royal Society +from 1890 to 1894, joint secretary from 1903 to 1908, president +in 1909, president of the Geological Society in 1891 and 1892, +and president of the British Association, 1892. He received the +honour of knighthood in 1891.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEIKIE, JAMES<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1839-  ), Scottish geologist, younger +brother of Sir Archibald Geikie, was born at Edinburgh on the +23rd of August 1839. He was educated at the high school and +university of Edinburgh. He served on the Geological Survey +from 1861 until 1882, when he succeeded his brother as Murchison +professor of geology and mineralogy at the university of +Edinburgh. He took as his special subject of investigation the +origin of surface-features, and the part played in their formation +by glacial action. His views are embodied in his chief work, <i>The +Great Ice Age and its Relation to the Antiquity of Man</i> (1874; +3rd ed., 1894). He was elected F.R.S. in 1875. James +Geikie became the leader of the school that upholds the all-important +action of land-ice, as against those geologists who +assign chief importance to the work of pack-ice and icebergs. +Continuing this line of investigation in his <i>Prehistoric Europe</i> +(1881), he maintained the hypothesis of five inter-Glacial periods +in Great Britain, and argued that the palaeolithic deposits of +the Pleistocene period were not post- but inter- or pre-Glacial. +His <i>Fragments of Earth Lore: Sketches and Addresses, Geological +and Geographical</i> (1893) and <i>Earth Sculpture</i> (1898) are mainly +concerned with the same subject. His <i>Outlines of Geology</i> (1886), +a standard text-book of its subject, reached its third edition +in 1896; and in 1905 he published an important manual on +<i>Structural and Field Geology</i>. In 1887 he displayed another side +of his activity in a volume of <i>Songs and Lyrics by H. Heine and +other German Poets, done into English Verse</i>. From 1888 he was +honorary editor of the <i>Scottish Geographical Magazine</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEIKIE, WALTER<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1795-1837), Scottish painter, was born at +Edinburgh on the 9th of November 1795. In his second year +he was attacked by a nervous fever by which he permanently lost +the faculty of hearing, but through the careful attention of his +father he was enabled to obtain a good education. Before he had +the advantage of the instruction of a master he had attained considerable +proficiency in sketching both figures and landscapes from +nature, and in 1812 he was admitted into the drawing academy +of the board of Scottish manufactures. He first exhibited +in 1815, and was elected an associate of the Royal Scottish +Academy in 1831, and a fellow in 1834. He died on the 1st of +August 1837, and was interred in the Greyfriars churchyard, +Edinburgh. Owing to his want of feeling for colour, Geikie was +not a successful painter in oils, but he sketched in India ink with +great truth and humour the scenes and characters of Scottish +lower-class life in his native city. A series of etchings which +exhibit very high excellence were published by him in 1829-1831, +and a collection of eighty-one of these was republished posthumously +in 1841, with a biographical introduction by Sir Thomas +Dick Lauder, Bart.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEILER<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Geyler</span>) <b>VON KAISERSBERG, JOHANN</b> (1445-1510), +“the German Savonarola,” one of the greatest of the +popular preachers of the 15th century, was born at Schaffhausen +on the 16th of March 1445, but from 1448 passed his childhood +and youth at Kaisersberg in Upper Alsace, from which place his +current designation is derived. In 1460 he entered the university +of Freiburg in Baden, where, after graduation, he lectured for +some time on the <i>Sententiae</i> of Peter Lombard, the commentaries +of Alexander of Hales, and several of the works of Aristotle. A +living interest in theological subjects, awakened by the study of +John Gerson, led him in 1471 to the university of Basel, a centre +of attraction to some of the most earnest spirits of the time. +Made a doctor of theology in 1475, he received a professorship +at Freiburg in the following year; but his tastes, no less than the +spirit of the age, began to incline him more strongly to the vocation +of a preacher, while his fervour and eloquence soon led to his +receiving numerous invitations to the larger towns. Ultimately +he accepted in 1478 a call to the cathedral of Strassburg, where +he continued to work with few interruptions until within a short +time of his death on the 10th of March 1510. The beautiful +pulpit erected for him in 1481 in the nave of the cathedral, when +the chapel of St Lawrence had proved too small, still bears +witness to the popularity he enjoyed as a preacher in the immediate +sphere of his labours, and the testimonies of Sebastian +Brant, Beatus Rhenanus, Johann Reuchlin, Melanchthon and +others show how great had been the influence of his personal +character. His sermons—bold, incisive, denunciatory, abounding +in quaint illustrations and based on texts by no means confined +to the Bible,—taken down as he spoke them, and circulated +(sometimes without his knowledge or consent) by his friends, +told perceptibly on the German thought as well as on the German +speech of his time.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among the many volumes published under his name only two +appear to have had the benefit of his revision, namely, <i>Der Seelen +Paradies von waren und volkomnen Tugenden</i>, and that entitled <i>Das +irrig Schaf</i>. Of the rest, probably the best-known is a series of +lectures on his friend Seb. Brant’s work, <i>Das Narrenschiff</i> or the +<i>Navicula</i> or <i>Speculum fatuorum</i>, of which an edition was published +at Strassburg in 1511 under the following title:—<i>Navicula sive +speculum fatuorum praestantissimi sacrarum literarum doctoris Joannis +Geiler Keysersbergii</i>.</p> + +<p>See F.W. von Ammon, <i>Geyler’s Leben, Lehren und Predigten</i> +(1826); L. Dacheux, <i>Un Réformateur catholique à la fin du XV<span class="sp">e</span> +siècle</i>, J.G. de K. (Paris, 1876); R. Cruel, <i>Gesch. der deutschen +Predigt</i>, pp. 538-576 (1879); P. de Lorenzi, <i>Geiler’s ausgewählte +Schriften</i> (4. vols., 1881); T.M. Lindsay, <i>History of the Reformation</i>, +i. 118 (1906); and G. Kawerau in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, +vi. 427.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEINITZ, HANS BRUNO<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1814-1900), German geologist, was +born at Altenburg, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, +on the 16th of October 1814. He was educated at the universities +of Berlin and Jena, and gained the foundations of his +geological knowledge under F.A. Quenstedt. In 1837 he took +the degree of Ph.D. with a thesis on the Muschelkalk of Thuringia. +In 1850 he became professor of geology and mineralogy in the +Royal Polytechnic School at Dresden, and in 1857 he was made +director of the Royal Mineralogical and Geological Museum; +he held these posts until 1894. He was distinguished for his +researches on the Carboniferous and Cretaceous rocks and fossils +of Saxony, and in particular for those relating to the fauna and +flora of the Permian or Dyas formation. He described also the +graptolites of the local Silurian strata; and the flora of the +Coal-formation of Altai and Nebraska. From 1863 to 1878 he +was one of the editors of the <i>Neues Jahrbuch</i>. He was awarded +the Murchison medal by the Geological Society of London in 1878. +He died at Dresden on the 28th of January 1900. His son +<span class="sc">Franz Eugene Geinitz</span> (b. 1854), professor of geology in the +university of Rostock, became distinguished for researches on +the geology of Saxony, Mecklenburg, &c.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>H.B. Geinitz’s publications were <i>Das Quadersandsteingebirge oder +Kreidegebirge in Deutschland</i> (1849-1850); <i>Die Versteinerungen der +Steinkohlenformation in Sachsen</i> (1855); <i>Dyas, oder die Zechsteinformation +und das Rothliegende</i> (1861-1862); <i>Das Elbthalgebirge in +Sachsen</i> (1871-1875).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEISHA<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (a Chino-Japanese word meaning “person of pleasing +accomplishments”), strictly the name of the professional dancing +and singing girls of Japan. The word is, however, often loosely +used for the girls and women inhabiting Shin Yoshiwara, the +prostitutes’ quarter of Tokyo. The training of the true Geisha +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page554" id="page554"></a>554</span> +or singing girl, which includes lessons in dancing, begins often +as early as her seventh year. Her apprenticeship over, she +contracts with her employer for a number of years, and is seldom +able to reach independence except by marriage. There is a +capitation fee of two <i>yen</i> per month on the actual singing girls, +and of one <i>yen</i> on the apprentices.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Jukichi Inouye, <i>Sketches of Tokyo Life</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEISLINGEN<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span>, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Württemberg, +on the Thierbach, 38 m. by rail E.S.E. of Stuttgart. Pop. +(1905) 7050. It has shops for the carving and turning of bone, +ivory, wood and horn, besides iron-works, machinery factories, +glass-works, brewing and bleaching works, &c. The church of +St Mary contains wood-carving by Jörg Syrlin the Younger. +Above the town lie the ruins of the castle of Helfenstein, which +was destroyed in 1552. Having been for a few years in the +possession of Bavaria, the town passed to Württemberg in 1810.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Weitbrecht, <i>Wanderungen durch Geislingen und seine Umgebung</i> +(Stuttgart, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEISSLER, HEINRICH<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1814-1879), German physicist, was +born at the village of Igelshieb in Saxe-Meiningen on the 26th +of May 1814 and was educated as a glass-blower. In 1854 he +settled at Bonn, where he speedily gained a high reputation for +his skill and ingenuity of conception in the fabrication of chemical +and physical apparatus. With Julius Plücker, in 1852, he ascertained +the maximum density of water to be at 3.8° C. He +also determined the coefficient of expansion for ice between +−24° and −7°, and for water freezing at 0°. In 1869, in conjunction +with H.P.J. Vogelsang, he proved the existence of +liquid carbon dioxide in cavities in quartz and topaz, and later +he obtained amorphous from ordinary phosphorus by means of +the electric current. He is best known as the inventor of the +sealed glass tubes which bear his name, by means of which are +exhibited the phenomena accompanying the discharge of electricity +through highly rarefied vapours and gases. Among other +apparatus contrived by him were a vaporimeter, mercury air-pump, +balances, normal thermometer, and areometer. From +the university of Bonn, on the occasion of its jubilee in 1868, he +received the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. He died +at Bonn on the 24th of January 1879.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A.W. Hofmann, <i>Ber. d. deut. chem. Ges.</i> p. 148 (1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GELA<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span>, a city of Sicily, generally and almost certainly identified +with the modern Terranova (<i>q.v.</i>). It was founded by Cretan +and Rhodian colonists in 688 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and itself founded Acragas +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agrigentum</a></span>) in 582 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It also had a treasure-house at +Olympia. The town took its name from the river to the east +(Thucydides vi. 2), which in turn was so called from its winter +frost (<span class="grk" title="gela">γέλα</span> in the Sicel dialect; cf. Lat. <i>gelidus</i>). The Rhodian +settlers called it Lindioi (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lindus</a></span>). Gela enjoyed its greatest +prosperity under Hippocrates (498-491 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), whose dominion +extended over a considerable part of the island. Gelon, who +seized the tyranny on his death, became master of Syracuse in +485 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and transferred his capital thither with half the inhabitants +of Gela, leaving his brother Hiero to rule over the rest. +Its prosperity returned, however, after the expulsion of Thrasybulus +in 466 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> but in 405 it was besieged by the Carthaginians +and abandoned by Dionysius’ order, after his failure (perhaps +due to treachery) to drive the besiegers away (E.A. Freeman, +<i>Hist. of Sic.</i> iii. 562 seq.). The inhabitants later returned and +rebuilt the town, but it never regained its position. In 311 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Agathocles put to death 5000 of its inhabitants; and finally, +after its destruction by the Mamertines about 281 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Phintias +of Agrigentum transferred the remainder to the new town of +Phintias (now Licata, <i>q.v.</i>). It seems that in Roman times they +still kept the name of Gelenses or Geloi in their new abode (Th. +Mommsen in <i>C.I.L.</i> x., Berlin, 1883, p. 737).</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Aeschylus died there in 456 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GELADA<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span>, the Abyssinian name of a large species of baboon, +differing from the members of the genus <i>Papio</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baboon</a></span>) +by the nostrils being situated some distance above the extremity +of the muzzle, and hence made the type of a separate genus, +under the name of <i>Theropithecus gelada</i>. In the heavy mantle +of long brown hair covering the fore-quarters of the old males, +with the exception of the bare chest, which is reddish flesh-colour, +the gelada recalls the Arabian baboon (<i>Papio hamadryas</i>), and +from this common feature it has been proposed to place the two +species in the same genus. The gelada inhabits the mountains of +Abyssinia, where, like other baboons, it descends in droves to +pillage cultivated lands. A second species, or race, <i>Theropithecus +obscurus</i>, distinguished by its darker hairs and the presence of +a bare flesh-coloured ring round each eye, inhabits the eastern +confines of Abyssinia.</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GELASIUS<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span>, the name of two popes.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Gelasius I</span>., pope from 492 to 496, was the successor of Felix +III. He confirmed the estrangement between the Eastern and +Western churches by insisting on the removal of the name of +Acacius, bishop of Constantinople, from the diptychs. He is the +author of <i>De duabus in Christo naturis adversus Eutychen et +Nestorium</i>. A great number of his letters has also come down +to us. His name has been attached to a <i>Liber Sacramentorum</i> +anterior to that of St Gregory, but he can have composed only +certain parts of it. As to the so-called <i>Decretum Gelasii de libris +recipiendis et non recipiendis</i>, it also is a compilation of documents +anterior to Gelasius, and it is difficult to determine Gelasius’s +contributions to it. At all events, as we know it, it is of Roman +origin, and 6th-century or later.</p> +<div class="author">(L. D.*)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Gelasius II</span>. (Giovanni Coniulo), pope from the 24th of +January 1118 to the 29th of January 1119, was born at Gaeta +of an illustrious family. He became a monk of Monte Cassino, +was taken to Rome by Urban II., and made chancellor and +cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria in Cosmedin. Shortly after his +unanimous election to succeed Paschal II. he was seized by +Cencius Frangipane, a partisan of the emperor Henry V., but freed +by a general uprising of the Romans in his behalf. The emperor +drove Gelasius from Rome in March, pronounced his election +null and void, and set up Burdinus, archbishop of Braga, as +antipope under the name of Gregory VIII. Gelasius fled to +Gaeta, where he was ordained priest on the 9th of March and on +the following day received episcopal consecration. He at once +excommunicated Henry and the antipope and, under Norman +protection, was able to return to Rome in July; but the disturbances +of the imperialist party, especially of the Frangipani, +who attacked the pope while celebrating mass in the church +of St Prassede, compelled Gelasius to go once more into exile. +He set out for France, consecrating the cathedral of Pisa on the +way, and arrived at Marseilles in October. He was received +with great enthusiasm at Avignon, Montpellier and other cities, +held a synod at Vienne in January 1119, and was planning to +hold a general council to settle the investiture contest when he +died at Cluny. His successor was Calixtus II.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His letters are in J.P. Migne, <i>Patrol. Lat.</i> vol. 163. The original +life by Pandulf is in J.M. Watterich, <i>Pontif. Roman. vitae</i> (Leipzig, +1862), and there is an important digest of his bulls and official acts +in Jaffé-Wattenbach, <i>Regesta pontif. Roman.</i> (1885-1888).</p> + +<p>See J. Langen, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis +Innocenz III.</i> (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle +Ages</i>, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G.W. Hamilton (London, 1896); A. +Wagner, <i>Die unteritalischen Normannen und das Papsttum, 1086-1150</i> +(Breslau, 1885); W. von Giesebrecht, <i>Geschichte der deutschen +Kaiserzeit</i>, Bd. iii. (Brunswick, 1890); G. Richter, <i>Annalen der +deutschen Geschichte im Mittelalter</i>, iii. (Halle, 1898); H.H. Milman, +<i>Latin Christianity</i>, vol. 4 (London, 1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. H. Ha.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GELATI<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span>, a Georgian monastery in Russian Transcaucasia, +in the government of Kutais, 11 m. E. of the town of Kutais, +standing on a rocky spur (705 ft. above sea-level) in the valley of +the Rion. It was founded in 1109 by the Georgian king David +the Renovator. The principal church, a sandstone cathedral, +dates from the end of the preceding century, and contains the +royal crown of the former Georgian kingdom of Imeretia, besides +ancient MSS., ecclesiological furniture, and fresco portraits of +the kings of Imeretia. Here also, in a separate chapel, is the +tomb of David the Renovator (1089-1125) and part of the iron +gate of the town of Ganja (now Elisavetpol), which that monarch +brought away as a trophy of his capture of the place.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GELATIN<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Gelatine</span>, the substance which passes into +solution when “collagen,” the ground substance of bone, +cartilage and white fibrous tissue, is treated with boiling water +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page555" id="page555"></a>555</span> +or dilute acids. It is especially characterized by its property of +forming a jelly at ordinary temperature, becoming liquid when +heated, and resolidifying to a jelly on cooling. The word is +derived from the Fr. <i>gélatine</i>, and Ital. <i>gelatina</i>, from the Lat. +<i>gelata</i>, that which is frozen, congealed or stiff. It is, therefore, in +origin cognate with “jelly,” which came through the Fr. <i>gélee</i> +from the same Latin original.</p> + +<p>The “collagen,” obtained from tendons and connective +tissues, also occurs in the cornea and sclerotic coat of the eye, +and in fish scales. Cartilage was considered to be composed of a +substance chondrigen, which gave chondrin or cartilage-glue on +boiling with water. Recent researches make it probable that +cartilage contains (1) chondromucoid, (2) chondroitin-sulphuric +acid, (3) collagen, (4) an albumoid present in old but not in +young cartilage; whilst chondrin is a mixture of gelatin and +mucin. “Bone collagen,” or “ossein,” constitutes, with calcium +salts, the ground substance of bones. Gelatin consists of two +substances, glutin and chondrin; the former is the main constituent +of skin-gelatin, the latter of bone-gelatin.</p> + +<p>True gelatigenous tissue occurs in all mature vertebrates, with +the single exception, according to E.F.I. Hoppe-Seyler, of the +<i>Amphioxus lanceolatus</i>. Gelatigenous tissue was discovered by +Hoppe-Seyler in the cephalopods <i>Octopus</i> and <i>Sepiola</i>, but in an +extension of his experiments to other invertebrates, as cockchafers +and <i>Anodon</i> and <i>Unio</i>, no such tissue could be detected. +Neither glutin nor chondrin occurs ready formed in the animal +kingdom, but they separate when the tissues are boiled with +water. A similar substance, vegetable gelatin, is obtained from +certain mosses.</p> + +<p>Pure gelatin is an amorphous, brittle, nearly transparent +substance, faintly yellow, tasteless and inodorous, neutral in +reaction and unaltered by exposure to dry air. Its composition +is in round numbers C = 50, H = 7, N = 18, O = 25%; +sulphur is also present in an amount varying from 0.25 to +0.7%.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Nothing is known with any certainty as to its chemical constitution, +or of the mode in which it is formed from albuminoids. +It exhibits in a general way a connexion with that large and important +class of animal substances called <i>proteids</i>, being, like them, +amorphous, soluble in acids and alkalis, and giving in solution a +left-handed rotation of the plane of polarization. Nevertheless, the +ordinary well-recognized reactions for proteids are but faintly +observed in the case of gelatin, and the only substances which at +once and freely precipitate it from solution are mercuric chloride, +strong alcohol and tannic acid.</p> + +<p>Although gelatin in a dry state is unalterable by exposure to air, +its solution exhibits, like all the proteids, a remarkable tendency +to putrefaction; but a characteristic feature of this process in the +case of gelatin is that the solution assumes a transient acid reaction. +The ultimate products of this decomposition are the same as are +produced by prolonged boiling with acid. It has been found that +oxalic acid, over and above the action common to all dilute acids +of preventing the solidification of gelatin solutions, has the further +property of preventing in a large measure this tendency to putrefy +when the gelatin is treated with hot solutions of this acid, and then +freed from adhering acid by means of calcium carbonate. Gelatin +so treated has been called <i>metagelatin</i>.</p> + +<p>In spite of the marked tendency of gelatin solutions to develop +ferment-organisms and undergo putrefaction, the stability of the +substance in the dry state is such that it has even been used, and +with some success, as a means of preserving perishable foods. The +process, invented by Dr Campbell Morfit, consists in impregnating +the foods with gelatin, and then drying them till about 10% or +less of water is present. Milk gelatinized in this way is superior in +several respects to the products of the ordinary condensation process, +more especially in the retention of a much larger proportion of +albuminoids.</p> + +<p>Gelatin has a marked affinity for water, abstracting it from admixture +with alcohol, for example. Solid gelatin steeped for some +hours in water absorbs a certain amount and swells up, in which +condition a gentle heat serves to convert it into a liquid; or this +may be readily produced by the addition of a trace of alkali or +mineral acid, or by strong acetic acid. In the last case, however, +or if we use the mineral acids in a more concentrated form, the +solution obtained has lost its power of solidifying, though not that +of acting as a glue. This property is utilized in the preparation +of liquid glue (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glue</a></span>). By prolonged boiling of strong aqueous +solutions at a high, or of weak solutions at a lower temperature, the +characteristic properties of gelatin are impaired and ultimately +destroyed. After this treatment it acts less powerfully as a glue, +loses its tendency to solidify, and becomes increasingly soluble in +cold water; nevertheless the solutions yield on precipitation with +alcohol a substance identical in composition with gelatin.</p> + +<p>By prolonged boiling in contact with hydrolytic agents, such as +sulphuric acid or caustic alkali, it yields quantities of leucin and +glycocoll (so-called “sugar of gelatin,” this being the method by +which glycocoll was first prepared), but no tyrosin. In this last +respect it differs from the great body of proteids, the characteristic +solid products of the decomposition of which are leucin and tyrosin.</p> +</div> + +<p>Gelatin occurs in commerce in varying degrees of purity; the +purer form obtained from skins and bones (to which this article +is restricted) is named gelatin; a preparation of great purity is +“patent isinglass,” while isinglass (<i>q.v.</i>) itself is a fish-gelatin; +less pure forms constitute glue (<i>q.v.</i>), while a dilute aqueous +solution appears in commerce as size (<i>q.v.</i>). The manufacture +follows much the same lines as that of glue; but it is essential +that the raw materials must be carefully selected, and in view of +the consumption of most of the gelatin in the kitchen—for soups, +jellies, &c.—great care must be taken to ensure purity and +cleanliness.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the manufacture of bone-gelatin the sorted bones are degreased +as in the case of glue manufacture, and then transferred +to vats containing a dilute hydrochloric acid, by which means most +of the mineral matter is dissolved out, and the bones become flexible. +Instead of hydrochloric acid some French makers use phosphoric +acid. After being well washed with water to remove all traces of +hydrochloric acid, the bones are bleached by leading in sulphur +dioxide. They are now transferred to the extractors, and heated +by steam, care being taken that the temperature does not exceed +85° C. The digestion is repeated, and the runnings are clarified, +concentrated, re-bleached and jellied as with glue. Skin-gelatin +is manufactured in the same way as skin-glue. After steeping in +lime pits the selected skins are digested three times; the first and +second runnings are worked up for gelatin, while the third are +filtered for “size.”</p> + +<p>Vegetable gelatin is manufactured from a seaweed, genus <i>Laminaria</i>; +from the tengusa, an American seaweed, and from Irish moss. +The <i>Laminaria</i> is first extracted with water, and the residue with +sodium carbonate; the filtrate is acidified with hydrochloric acid +and the precipitated alginic acid washed and bleached. It is then +dissolved in an alkali, the solution concentrated, and cooled down +by running over horizontal glass plates. Flexible colourless sheets +resembling animal gelatin are thus obtained. In America the weed +is simply boiled with water, the solution filtered, and cooled to a +thick jelly. Irish moss is treated in the same way. Both tengusa +and Irish moss yield a gelatin suitable for most purposes; tengusa +gelatin clarifies liquids in the same way as isinglass, and forms a +harder and firmer jelly than ordinary gelatin.</p> + +<p><i>Applications of Gelatin.</i>—First and foremost is the use of gelatin +as a food-stuff—in jellies, soups, &c. Referring to the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glue</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Isinglass</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Size</a></span> for the special applications of these forms of +gelatin, we here enumerate the more important uses of ordinary +gelatin. In photography it is employed in carbon-processes, its +use depending on the fact that when treated with potassium bichromate +and exposed to light, it is oxidized to insoluble compounds; +it plays a part in many other processes. A solution of +gelatin containing readily crystallized salts—alum, nitre, &c.—solidifies +with the formation of pretty designs; this is the basis of +the so-called “crystalline glass” used for purposes of ornamentation. +It is also used for coating pills to prevent them adhering +together and to make them tasteless. Compounded with various +mineral salts, the carbonates and phosphates of calcium, magnesium +and aluminium, it yields a valuable ivory substitute. It also plays +a part in the manufacture of artificial leather, of India inks, and of +artificial silk (the Vanduara Company processes).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GELDERLAND<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Gelders</span>, or <span class="sc">Guelders</span>, formerly a duchy of +the Empire, on the lower Rhine and the Yssel, bounded by +Friesland, Westphalia, Brabant, Holland and the Zuider Zee; +part of which has become the province of Holland, dealt with +separately below. The territory of the later duchy of Gelderland +was inhabited at the beginning of the Christian era by the Teutonic +tribes of the Sicambri and the Batavi, and later, during the +period of the decline of the Roman empire, by the Chamavi and +other Frank peoples. It formed part of the Caroling kingdom of +Austrasia, and was divided into <i>pagi</i> or <i>gauen</i>, ruled by official +counts (<i>comites-graven</i>). In 843, by the treaty of Verdun, it +became part of Lotharingia (Lorraine), and in 879 was annexed +to the kingdom of East Francia (Germany) by the treaty of +Meerssen. The nucleus of the later county and duchy was the +<i>gau</i> or district surrounding the town of Gelder or Gelre, lying +between the Meuse and the Niers, and since 1715 included in +Rhenish Prussia.</p> + +<p>The early history is involved in much obscurity. There were in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page556" id="page556"></a>556</span> +the 11th century a number of counts ruling in various parts of +what was afterwards known as Gelderland. Towards the close +of that century Gerard of Wassenburg, who besides the county of +Gelre ruled over portions of Hamalant and Teisterbant, acquired +a dominant position amongst his neighbours. He is generally +reckoned as the first hereditary count of Gelderland (d. 1117/8). +His son, Gerard II.—the Long—(d. 1131), married Irmingardis, +daughter and heiress of Otto, count of Zutphen, and +their son, Henry I. (d. 1182), inherited both countships. His +successors Otto I. (1182-1207) and Gerard III. (1207-1229) +were lovers of peace and strong supporters of the Hohenstaufen +emperors, through whose favour they were able to increase their +territories by acquisitions in the districts of Veluwe and Betuwe. +He acted as guardian to his nephew Floris IV. of Holland during +his minority. Otto II., the Lame (1220-1271), fortified several +towns and bestowed privileges upon them for the purpose of +encouraging trade. He became a person of so much importance +that he was urged to be a candidate for the dignity of emperor. +He preferred to support the claims of his cousin, William II. of +Holland. In return for the loan of a considerable sum of money +William gave to him the city of Nijmwegen in pledge. His son +Reinald I. (d. 1326) married Irmingardis, heiress of Limburg, +and in right of his wife laid claim to the duchy against Adolf of +Berg, who had sold his rights to John I. of Brabant. War +followed, and on the 5th of June 1288 Reinald, who meantime +had also sold his rights to the count of Luxemburg, was defeated +and taken prisoner at the battle of Woeringen. In this battle the +count of Luxemburg was slain, and Reinald had to surrender his +claims as the price of his defeat to John of Brabant. In 1310, in +return for his support, Reinald received from the emperor Henry +VII. for all his territories <i>privilegium de non evocando</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the +exemption of his subjects from the liability to be sued before any +court outside his jurisdiction. In 1317 he was made a prince of +the Empire. A wound received at the battle of Woeringen had +affected his brain, and an insurrection against him was in 1316 +headed by his son Reinald, who assumed the government under +the title of “Son of the Count.” Reinald I. was finally in 1320 +immured in prison, where he died in 1326.</p> + +<p>Reinald II., the Black (1326-1343), was one of the foremost +princes in the Netherlands of his day. He married (1) Sophia, +heiress of Mechlin, and (2) in 1331 Eleanor, sister of Edward III. +of England. By purchase or conquest he added considerably to +his territories. He did much to improve the condition of the +country, to foster trade, to promote the prosperity of the towns, +and to maintain order and security in his lands by wise laws and +firm administration. In 1338 the title of duke was bestowed +upon him by the emperor Louis the Bavarian, who at the same +time granted to him the fief of East Friesland. He died in 1343, +leaving three daughters by his first marriage, and two sons, +Reinald and Edward, both minors, by Eleanor of England. His +elder son was ten years of age, and succeeded to the duchy under +the guardianship of his mother Eleanor. Declared of age two +years later, the youthful Reinald III. found himself involved in +many difficulties through the struggles between the rival factions +named after the two noble families of Bronkhorst and Hekeren. +What was the quarrel between them, and what the causes they +represented, cannot now be ascertained with certainty. There is +good reason, however, to believe that they were the counterparts +of the contemporary Cod and Hook parties in Holland, and of +the Schieringers and Vetkoopers in Friesland. In Gelderland the +quarrel between them was converted into a dynastic struggle, +the Hekeren recognizing Duke Reinald, while the Bronkhorsten +set up his younger brother Edward. At the battle of Tiel (1361) +Reinald was defeated and taken prisoner, and Edward held the +duchy till 1371. He was a good and successful ruler, and his +death by an arrow wound, after a brilliant victory over the duke +of Brabant near Baesweller (August 1371), was a loss to his +country. He was in his thirty-fifth year and left no heirs. +Reinald was now taken from the prison in which he had been +confined to reign once more, but his health was broken and he +died childless three years afterwards. The war of factions again +broke out, the half-sisters of Reinald III. and Edward both +claiming the inheritance; the elder, Matilda (Machteld), in her +own right, the younger Maria on behalf of her seven-year-old boy +William of Jülich, as the only male representative of the family. +The Hekeren supported Matilda, the Bronkhorsten William of +Jülich. The war of succession lasted till 1379, and ended in +William’s favour, the emperor Wenceslas (Wenzel) recognizing +him as duke four years later.</p> + +<p>Duke William was able, restless and adventurous, an ideal +knight of the palmy days of chivalry. He took part in no less +than five crusades with the Teutonic order against the heathen +Lithuanians and Prussians. In 1393 he inherited the duchy of +Jülich, and died in 1402. He was succeeded by his brother, +Reinald IV. (d. 1423), in the united sovereignty of Gelderland, +Zutphen and Jülich, who, in accordance with a promise made +before his accession, ceded the town of Emmerich to Duke Adolf +of Cleves. He took the part of his brother-in-law, John of Arkel, +against William VI. of Holland, and in a war of several years’ +duration was not successful in preventing the Arkel territory +being incorporated in Holland. On his death without legitimate +issue, Gelderland passed to the young Arnold of Egmont, grandson +of his sister Johanna, who had married John, lord of Arkel, +their daughter Maria (d. 1415) being the wife of John, count of +Egmont (d. 1451). Arnold was recognized as duke in 1424 by +the emperor Sigismund, but in the following year the emperor +revoked his decision and bestowed the duchy upon Adolf of Berg. +Arnold in retaliation laid claim to the duchy of Jülich, which had +likewise been granted to Adolf by Sigismund, and a war followed +in which the cities and nobles of Gelderland stood by Arnold; it +ended in Arnold retaining Gelderland and Zutphen, and Gerard, +the son of Adolf (d. 1437), being acknowledged as duke of Jülich. +To gain the support of the estates of Gelderland in this war of +succession, Arnold had been compelled to make many concessions +limiting the ducal prerogatives, and granting large powers to a +council consisting of representatives of the nobles and the four +chief cities, and his extravagance and exactions led to continual +conflicts, in which the prince was compelled to yield to the demands +of his subjects. In his later years a conspiracy was formed +against him, headed by his wife, the violent and ambitious +Catherine of Cleves, and his son Adolf. Arnold was at first +successful and Adolf had to go into exile; but he returned, and in +1465, having taken his father prisoner by treachery, interned him +in the castle of Buren. Charles the Bold of Burgundy now seized +the opportunity to intervene. In 1471 he forced Adolf to release +his father, who sold the reversion of the duchy to the duke of +Burgundy for 92,000 golden gulden. On the 23rd of February +1473 Arnold died, and Charles of Burgundy became duke of +Gelderland. His succession was not unopposed. Nijmwegen +offered an heroic resistance and only fell after a long siege. After +Charles’s death in 1477 Adolf was released from the captivity in +which he had been held, and placed himself at the head of a party +in the powerful city of Ghent, which sought to settle the disputed +succession by forcing a match between him and Mary, the heiress +of Burgundy. On the 29th of June 1477, however, he was killed +at the siege of Tournai; and Mary gave her hand to Maximilian +of Austria, afterwards emperor. Catherine, Adolf’s sister, made +an attempt to assert the rights of his son Charles to the duchy, +but by 1483 Maximilian had crushed all opposition and established +himself as duke of Gelderland.</p> + +<p>Charles of Egmont, however, did not surrender his claims, but +with the aid of the French collected an army, and in the course +of 1492 and 1493 succeeded in reconquering his inheritance. The +efforts of Maximilian to recover the country were vain, and the +successive governors of the Netherlands, Philip the Fair and his +sister Margaret, fared no better. In 1507 Charles of Egmont +invaded Holland and Brabant, captured Harderwijk and Bommel +in 1511, threatened Amsterdam in 1512, and took Groningen. +It was, undoubtedly, a great and heroic achievement for the ruler +of a petty state like Gelderland thus to assert and maintain his +independence for a long period against the overwhelming power +of the house of Austria. It was not till 1528 that the emperor +Charles V. could force him to accept the compromise of the treaty +of Gorichen, by which he received Gelderland and Zutphen for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page557" id="page557"></a>557</span> +life as fiefs of the Empire. In 1534 the duke, who was childless, +attempted to transfer the reversion of Gelderland to France, but +this project was violently resisted by the estates of the duchy, and +Charles was compelled by them in 1538 to appoint as his successor +William V.—the Rich—of Cleves (d. 1592). Charles died the +same year, and William, with the aid of the French, succeeded in +maintaining his position in Gelderland for several years. The +Habsburg power was, however, in the end too great for him, and +he was forced to cede the duchy to Charles V. by the treaty of +Venloo, signed on the 7th of September 1543.</p> + +<p>Gelderland was now definitely amalgamated with the Habsburg +dominions in the Netherlands, until the revolt of the Low +Countries led to its partition. In 1579 the northern and greater +part, comprising the three “quarters” of Nijmwegen, Arnhem +and Zutphen, joined the Union of Utrecht and became the +province of Gelderland in the Dutch republic. Only the quarter +of Roermonde remained subject to the crown of Spain, and was +called Spanish Gelderland. By the treaty of Utrecht (1715) this +was ceded to Prussia with the exception of Venloo, which fell to +the United Provinces, and Roermonde, which, with the remaining +Spanish Netherlands, passed to Austria. Of this, part was ceded +to France at the peace of Basel in 1795, and the whole by the +treaty of Lunéville in 1801, when it received the name of the +department of the Roer. By the peace of Paris of 1814 the bulk +of Gelderland was incorporated in the United Netherlands, the +remainder falling to Prussia, where it forms the circle of +Düsseldorf.</p> + +<p>The rise of the towns in Gelderland began in the 13th century, +river commerce and markets being the chief cause of their +prosperity, but they never attained to the importance of the +larger cities in Holland and Utrecht, much less to that of the +great Flemish municipalities. They differed also from the Flemish +cities in the nature of their privileges and immunities, as they did +not possess the rights of communes, but only those of “free +cities” of the Rhenish type. The power of the feudal lord over +them was much greater. The states of Gelderland first became a +considerable power in the land during the reign of Arnold of +Egmont (1423-1473). Their claim to large privileges and a +considerable share in the government of the county were formulated +in a document drawn up at Nijmwegen in April 1436. +These the duke had to concede, and to agree further to the appointment +of a council to assist him in his administration. From this +time the absolute authority of the sovereign in Gelderland was +broken. The states consisted of two members—the nobility and +the towns. The towns were divided into four separate districts +or “quarters” named after the chief town in each—Nijmwegen, +Arnhem, Zutphen and Roermonde. In the time of the republic, +as has been stated above, the province of Gelderland comprised +the three first-named “quarters” only. The three quarters had +each of them peculiar rights and customs, and their representatives +met together in a separate assembly before taking part in +the diet (<i>landdag</i>) of the states. The nobility possessed great +influence in Gelderland and retained it in the time of the +republic.</p> +<div class="author">(G. E.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GELDERLAND<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (<i>Guelders</i>), a province of Holland, bounded S. +by Rhenish Prussia and North Brabant, W. by Utrecht and +South Holland, N. by the Zuider Zee, N.E. by Overysel, and S.E. +by the Prussian province of Westphalia. It has an area of 1906 +sq. m. and a pop. (1900) of 566,549. Historically it was part of +the duchy of Gelderland, which is treated separately above.</p> + +<p>The main portion of Gelderland north of the Rhine and the +Old Ysel forms as it were an extension of the province of Overysel, +being composed of diluvial sand and gravel, covered with sombre +heaths and patches of fen. South of this line, however, the soil +consists of fertile river-clay. The northern portion is divided by +the New (or Gelders) Ysel into two distinct regions, namely, the +Veluwe (“bad land”) on the west, and the former countship of +Zutphen on the east. In this last division the ground slopes +downwards from south-east to north-west (131 to 26 ft.) and is +intersected by several fertilizing streams which flow in the same +direction to join the Ysel. The extreme eastern corner is occupied +by older Tertiary loam, which is used for making bricks, and +upon this and the river-banks are the most fertile spots, woods, +cultivated land, pastures, towns and villages. The highlands of +the Veluwe lying west of the Ysel really extend as far as the +Crooked Rhine and the Vecht in the province of Utrecht, but are +slightly detached from the Utrecht hills by the so-called Gelders +valley, which forms the boundary between the two provinces. +This valley extends from the Rhine along the Grift, the Luntersche +Beek, and the Eem to the Zuider Zee, and would still offer an +outlet in this direction to the Rhine at high water if it were not for +the river dikes. The two main ridges of the Veluwe hills (164 and +360 ft.) extend from the neighbourhood of Arnhem north to +Harderwyk and north-east to Hattem. In the south they stretch +themselves along the banks of the Rhine, forming a strip of +picturesque river scenery made up of the varied elements of +sandhills and trees, clay-lands and pastures. A large number of +country-houses and villas are to be found here, and the riverside +villages of Dieren, Velp and Renkum. All over the Veluwe are +heaths, scantily cultivated, with fields of rye and buckwheat, +cattle of inferior quality, and sheep, and a sparse population. +There is also a considerable cultivation of wood, especially of fir +and copse, while tobacco plantations are found at Nykerk and +Wageningen.</p> + +<p>The southern division of the province presents a very different +aspect, and contains many old towns and villages. It is watered +by the three large rivers, the Rhine, the Waal and the Maas, and +has a level clay soil, varied only by isolated hills and a sandy, +wooded stretch between Nijmwegen and the southern border. +The region enclosed between the Rhine and the Waal and +watered by the Linge is called the Betuwe (“good land”), and +gave its name to the Germanic tribe of Batavians, who are sometimes +wrongly regarded as the parent stock of the Dutch people. +There is here a denser population, occupied in the cultivation +of wheat, beetroot and fruit, the breeding of excellent cattle, +shipping and industrial pursuits. The principal centres of +population, such as Zutphen, Arnhem (the chief town of the +province), Nijmwegen and Tiel, lie along the large rivers. Smaller, +but of equal antiquity, are the riverside towns of Doesburg, +which is strongly fortified; Wageningen, with the State agricultural +schools; Doetinchem, with a bridge over the Old Ysel +which is mentioned as early as the 14th century; Zalt-Bommel, +with an old church (1304), and a railway bridge over the Waal; +and Kuilenburg, with a fine railway bridge (1863-1868) over the +Rhine. Five m. S. of Zalt-Bommel, on the Maas, is the medieval +castle of Ammerzode or Ammersooi, also called Amelroy during +the French occupation in 1674. It is in an excellent state of +preservation and has been restored in modern times. The first +authentic record of the castle is its possession by John de Herlar +of the noble family of Loo at the end of the 13th century. In +1480 it passed by marriage to the powerful lords van Arkel, and +was partly destroyed by fire at the end of the 16th century. +The chapel dates from the 15th century, and the keep from +1564. Among the family portraits are works by Albert Dürer. +Zetten, on the railway between Nijmwegen and Tiel, is famous +for the charitable institutions founded here by the preacher +Otto Gerhard Heldring (d. 1876). They comprise a penitentiary +(1849) for women; an educational home (1858) for girls; a +theological training college (1864); and a Magdalen hospital. +Nykerk, Harderwyk and Elburg are fishing towns on the Zuider +Zee. Apeldoorn is situated on the edge of the sand-grounds. +Heerenberg on the south-eastern border is remarkable for its +ancient castle near the seat of the powerful lords van den Bergh. +Other ancient and historical towns bordering on the Prussian +frontier are Zevenaar, which was for long the cause of dispute +between the houses of Cleves and Gelder and was finally attached +to the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1816; Breedevoort, once +the seat of a lordship of the same name belonging to the counts +van Loon or Lohn, who built a castle here in the beginning of +the 13th century which was destroyed in 1646—the lordship +was presented to Prince William III. in 1697; Winterswyk, now +an important railway junction, and of growing industrial importance; +and Borkeloo, or Borkulo, the seat of an ancient +lordship dating from the first half of the 12th century, which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page558" id="page558"></a>558</span> +finally came into the possession of Prince William V. of Orange +Nassau in 1777. The castle was formerly of importance.</p> + +<p>Gelderland is intersected by the main railway lines, which +are largely supplemented by steam-tram railways. Steam-tramways +connect Arnhem and Zutphen, Wageningen, Nijmwegen, +Velp, Doetinchem (by way of Dieren and Doesburg), whence +there are various lines to Emmerich and Gendringen on the +Prussian borders. Groenlo and Lichtenvorde, Borkulo and +Deventer are also connected.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GELDERN<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span>, a town of Germany, in Rhenish Prussia, on the +Niers, 28 m. N. W. of Düsseldorf, at the junction of railways to +Wesel and Cologne. Pop. (1905) 6551. It has an Evangelical +and two Roman Catholic churches and a town hall with a fine +council chamber. Its industries include the manufacture of +buttons, shoes, cigars and soap. The town dates from about +1100 and was early an important fortified place; until 1371 it +was the residence of the counts and dukes of Gelderland. Having +passed to Spain, its fortifications were strengthened by Philip +II., but they were razed by Frederick the Great, the town having +been in the possession of Prussia since 1703.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Nettesheim, <i>Geschichte der Stadt und des Amtes Geldern</i> +(Crefeld, 1863); Henrichs, <i>Beiträge zur innern Geschichte der Stadt +Geldern</i> (Geldern, 1893); and Real, <i>Chronik der Stadt und Umgegend +von Geldern</i> (Geldern, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GELL, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1777-1836), English classical archaeologist, +was born at Hopton in Derbyshire. He was educated at +Jesus College, Cambridge, and subsequently elected a fellow of +Emmanuel College (B.A. 1798, M.A. 1804). About 1800 he was +sent on a diplomatic mission to the Ionian islands, and on his +return in 1803 he was knighted. He went with Princess (afterwards +Queen) Caroline to Italy in 1814 as one of her chamberlains, +and gave evidence in her favour at the trial in 1820 (see +G.P. Clerici, <i>A Queen of Indiscretions</i>, Eng. trans., London, +1907). He died at Naples on the 4th of February 1836. His +numerous drawings of classical ruins and localities, executed +with great detail and exactness, are preserved in the British +Museum. Gell was a thorough dilettante, fond of society and +possessed of little real scholarship. None the less his topographical +works became recognized text-books at a time when +Greece and even Italy were but superficially known to English +travellers. He was a fellow of the Royal Society and the Society +of Antiquaries, and a member of the Institute of France and the +Berlin Academy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His best-known work is <i>Pompeiana; the Topography, Edifices and +Ornaments of Pompeii</i> (1817-1832), in the first part of which he was +assisted by J.P. Gandy. It was followed in 1834 by the <i>Topography +of Rome and its Vicinity</i> (new ed. by E.H. Bunbury, 1896). He +wrote also <i>Topography of Troy and its Vicinity</i> (1804); <i>Geography +and Antiquities of Ithaca</i> (1807); <i>Itinerary of Greece, with a Commentary +on Pausanias and Strabo</i> (1810, enlarged ed. 1827); <i>Itinerary +of the Morea</i> (1816; republished as <i>Narrative of a Journey in +the Morea</i>, 1823). All these works have been superseded by later +publications.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GELLERT, CHRISTIAN FÜRCHTEGOTT<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1715-1769), German +poet, was born at Hainichen in the Saxon Erzgebirge on the 4th +of July 1715. After attending the famous school of St Afra in +Meissen, he entered Leipzig University in 1734 as a student of +theology, and on completing his studies in 1739 was for two years +a private tutor. Returning to Leipzig in 1741 he contributed +to the <i>Bremer Beiträge</i>, a periodical founded by former disciples +of Johann Christoph Gottsched, who had revolted from the +pedantry of his school. Owing to shyness and weak health +Gellert gave up all idea of entering the ministry, and, establishing +himself in 1745 as <i>privatdocent</i> in philosophy at the university +of Leipzig, lectured on poetry, rhetoric and literary style with +much success. In 1751 he was appointed extraordinary professor +of philosophy, a post which he held until his death at Leipzig +on the 13th of December 1769.</p> + +<p>The esteem and veneration in which Gellert was held by the +students, and indeed by persons in all classes of society, was +unbounded, and yet due perhaps less to his unrivalled popularity +as a lecturer and writer than to his personal character. He was +the noblest and most amiable of men, generous, tender-hearted +and of unaffected piety and humility. He wrote in order to +raise the religious and moral character of the people, and to this +end employed language which, though at times prolix, was always +correct and clear. He thus became one of the most popular +German authors, and some of his poems enjoyed a celebrity out +of proportion to their literary value. This is more particularly +true of his <i>Fabeln und Erzählungen</i> (1746-1748) and of his +<i>Geistliche Oden und Lieder</i> (1757). The fables, for which he took +La Fontaine as his model, are simple and didactic. The +“spiritual songs,” though in force and dignity they cannot +compare with the older church hymns, were received by Catholics +and Protestants with equal favour. Some of them were set to +music by Beethoven. Gellert wrote a few comedies: <i>Die +Betschwester</i> (1745), <i>Die kranke Frau</i> (1748), <i>Das Los in der +Lotterie</i> (1748), and <i>Die zärtlichen Schwestern</i> (1748), the last of +which was much admired. His novel <i>Die schwedische Gräfin +von G.</i> (1746), a weak imitation of Richardson’s <i>Pamela</i>, is +remarkable as being the first German attempt at a psychological +novel. Gellert’s <i>Briefe</i> (letters) were regarded at the time as +models of good style.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Gellert’s <i>Sämtliche Schriften</i> (first edition, 10 vols., Leipzig, +1769-1774; last edition, Berlin, 1867). <i>Sämtliche Fabeln und Erzählungen</i> +have been often published separately, the latest edition in +1896. A selection of Gellert’s poetry (with an excellent introduction) +will be found in F. Muncker, <i>Die Bremer Beiträge</i> (Stuttgart, 1899). +A translation by J.A. Murke, <i>Gellert’s Fables and other Poems</i> +(London, 1851). For a further account of Gellert’s life and work +see lives by J.A. Cramer (Leipzig, 1774), H. Döring (Greiz, 1833), +and H.O. Nietschmann (2nd ed., Halle, 1901); also <i>Gellerts +Tagebuch aus dem Jahre 1761</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1863) and <i>Gellerts +Briefwechsel mit Demoiselle Lucius</i> (Leipzig, 1823).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GELLERT<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Killhart</span>, in Welsh traditional history, the dog +of Llewellyn, prince of Wales. The dog, a greyhound, was +left to guard the cradle in which the infant heir slept. A wolf +enters, and is about to attack the child, when Gellert flies at him. +In the struggle the cradle is upset and the infant falls underneath. +Gellert kills the wolf, but when Prince Llewellyn arrives and +sees the empty cradle and blood all around, he does not for the +moment notice the wolf, but thinks Gellert has killed the baby. +He at once stabs him, but almost instantly finds his son safe +under the cradle and realizes the dog’s bravery. Gellert is +supposed to have been buried near the village of Beddgelert +(“grave of Gellert”), Snowdon, where his tomb is still pointed +out to visitors. The date of the incident is traditionally given +as 1205. The incident has given rise to a Welsh proverb, “I +repent as much as the man who slew his greyhound.” The whole +story is, however, only the Welsh version of a tale long before +current in Europe, which is traced to the Indian Panchatantra +and perhaps as far back as 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.A. Clouston, <i>Popular Tales and Fictions</i> (1887); D.E. +Jenkins, <i>Beddgelert, its Facts, Fairies and Folklore</i> (Portmadoc, +1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GELLIUS, AULUS<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (<i>c</i>. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 130-180), Latin author and grammarian, +probably born at Rome. He studied grammar and +rhetoric at Rome and philosophy at Athens, after which he +returned to Rome, where he held a judicial office. His teachers +and friends included many distinguished men—Sulpicius +Apollinaris, Herodes Atticus and Fronto. His only work, the +<i>Noctes Atticae</i>, takes its name from having been begun during +the long nights of a winter which he spent in Attica. He afterwards +continued it at Rome. It is compiled out of an Adversaria, +or commonplace book, in which he had jotted down everything +of unusual interest that he heard in conversation or read in +books, and it comprises notes on grammar, geometry, philosophy, +history and almost every other branch of knowledge. The work, +which is utterly devoid of sequence or arrangement, is divided +into twenty books. All these have come down to us except +the eighth, of which nothing remains but the index. The +<i>Noctes Atticae</i> is valuable for the insight it affords into the nature +of the society and pursuits of those times, and for the numerous +excerpts it contains from the works of lost ancient authors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editio princeps (Rome, 1469); the best editions are those of +Gronovius (1706) and M. Hertz (1883-1885; editio minor, 1886, +revised by C. Hosius, 1903, with bibliography). There is a translation +in English by W. Beloe (1795), and in French by various +hands (1896). See Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i> i. (1906), 210.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page559" id="page559"></a>559</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GELLIVARA<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Gellivare</span>], a mining town of Sweden in the +district (<i>län</i>) of Norrbotten, 815 m. N. by E. of Stockholm by +rail. It lies in the well-nigh uninhabited region of Swedish +Lapland, 43 m. N. of the Arctic Circle. It owes its importance +to the iron mines in the mountain Malmberget 4½ m. to the north, +rising to 2024 ft. above sea-level (830 ft. above Gellivara town). +During the dark winter months work proceeds by the aid of +electric light. In 1864 the mines were acquired by an English +company, but abandoned in 1867. In 1884 another English +company took them up and completed a provisional railway +from Malmberget to Luleå at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia +(127 m. S.S.E.), besides executing a considerable portion of the +preliminary works for the continuation of the line on the +Norwegian side from Ofoten Fjord upwards (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Narvik</a></span>). But +this company, after extracting some 150,000 tons of ore in 1888-1889, +went into liquidation in the latter year. Two years later +the mines passed into the hands of a Swedish company, and the +railway was acquired by the Swedish Government. The output +of ore was insignificant until 1892, when it stood at 178,000 tons; +but in 1902 it amounted to 1,074,000 tons. Three miles S.W. +rises the hill Gellivara Dundret (2700 ft.), from which the sun is +visible at midnight from June 5 to July 11. The population +of the parish (about 6500 sq. m.) in 1900 was 11,745; the greater +part of the population being congregated at the town of Gellivara +and at Malmberget.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GELNHAUSEN<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span>, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Hesse-Nassau, on the Kinzig, 27 m. E.N.E. of Frankfort-on-Main, +on the railway to Bebra. Pop. 4500. It is romantically +situated on the slope of a vine-clad hill, and is still surrounded +by ancient walls and towers. On an island in the river are the +ivy-covered ruins of the imperial palace which Frederick I. +(Barbarossa) built before 1170, and which was destroyed by the +Swedes during the Thirty Years’ War. It has an interesting +and beautiful church (the Marien Kirche), with four spires (of +which that on the transept is curiously crooked), built in the +13th century, and restored in 1876-1879; also several other +ancient buildings, notably the town-hall, the Fürstenhof (now +administrative offices), and the Hexenthurm. India-rubber +goods are manufactured, and wine is made. Gelnhausen became +an imperial town in 1169, and diets of the Empire were frequently +held within its walls. In 1634 and 1635 it suffered severely from +the Swedes. In 1803 the town became the property of Hesse-Cassel, +and in 1866 passed to Prussia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GELO<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span>, son of Deinomenes, tyrant of Gela and Syracuse. On +the death of Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela (491 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Gelo, who +had been his commander of cavalry, succeeded him; and in 485, +his aid having been invoked by the Gamori (the oligarchical +landed proprietors) of Syracuse who had been driven out by +the populace, he seized the opportunity of making himself despot. +From this time Gelo paid little attention to Gela, and devoted +himself to the aggrandizement of Syracuse, which attained +extraordinary wealth and influence. When the Greeks solicited +his aid against Xerxes, he refused it, since they would not give +him command of the allied forces (Herodotus vii. 171). In the +same year the Carthaginians invaded Sicily, but were totally +defeated at Himera, the result of the victory being that Gelo +became lord of all Sicily. After he had thus established his +power, he made a show of resigning it; but his proposal was +rejected by the multitude, and he reigned without opposition +till his death (478). He was honoured as a hero, and his memory +was held in such respect that when all the brazen statues of +tyrants were condemned to be sold in the time of Timoleon +(150 years later) an exemption was made in favour of the statue +of Gelo.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Herodotus vii.; Diod. Sic. xi. 20-38; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sicily</a></span>: <i>History</i>, +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syracuse</a></span>; for his coins see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>: <i>Sicily</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GELSEMIUM<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span>, a drug consisting of the root of <i>Gelsemium +nitidum</i>, a clinging shrub of the natural order Loganiaceae, having +a milky juice, opposite, lanceolate shining leaves, and axillary +clusters of from one to five large, funnel-shaped, very fragrant +yellow flowers, whose perfume has been compared with that of +the wallflower. The fruit is composed of two separable jointed +pods, containing numerous flat-winged seeds. The stem often +runs underground for a considerable distance, and indiscriminately +with the root it is used in medicine. The plant is a native of +the United States, growing on rich clay soil by the side of streams +near the coast, from Virginia to the south of Florida. In the +United States it is commonly known as the wild, yellow or +Carolina jessamine, although in no way related to the true +jessamines, which belong to the order Oleaceae. It was first +described in 1640 by John Parkinson, who grew it in his garden +from seed sent by Tradescant from Virginia; at the present time +it is but rarely seen, even in botanical gardens, in Great <span class="correction" title="amended from Britian">Britain</span>.</p> + +<p>The drug contains a volatile oil and two potent alkaloids, +gelseminine and gelsemine. Gelseminine is a yellowish, bitter +substance, readily soluble in ether and alcohol. It is not employed +therapeutically. Gelsemine has the formula C<span class="su">11</span>H<span class="su">19</span>NO<span class="su">2</span>, +and is a colourless, odourless, intensely bitter solid, which is +insoluble in water, but readily forms a soluble hydrochloride.</p> +<p>The dose of this salt is from <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">60</span>th to <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">20</span>th of a grain. The British +Pharmacopoeia contains a tincture of gelsemium, the dose of +which is from five to fifteen minims.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:337px; height:461px" src="images/img559.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><i>Gelsemium nitidum</i>, half natural size; flower, nat. size.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The drug is essentially a nerve poison. It has no action on +the skin and no marked action on the alimentary or circulatory +systems. Its action on the cerebrum is slight, consciousness +being retained even after toxic doses, but there may be headache +and giddiness. The drug rapidly causes failure of vision, diplopia, +ptosis or falling of the upper eyelid, dilatation of the pupil, and +a lowering of the intra-ocular tension. This last action is +doubtful. The symptoms appear to be due to a paralysis of +the motor cells that control the internal and external ocular +muscles. The most marked action of the drug is upon the anterior +cornua of grey matter in the spinal cord. It can be shown by a +process of experimental exclusion that to an arrest of function +of these cells is due the paralysis of all the voluntary muscles of +the body that follows the administration of gelsemium or gelsemine. +Just before death the sensory part of the spinal cord +is also paralysed, general anaesthesia resulting. The drug kills +by its action on the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata. +Shortly after the administration of even a moderate dose the +respiration is slowed and is ultimately arrested, this being the +cause of death. In cases of poisoning the essential treatment is +artificial respiration, which may be aided by the subcutaneous +exhibition of strychnine.</p> + +<p>Though the drug is still widely used, the rational indications +for its employment are singularly rare and uncertain. The conditions +in which it is most frequently employed are convulsions, +bronchitis, severe and purposeless coughing, myalgia or muscular +pain, neuralgia and various vague forms of pain.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page560" id="page560"></a>560</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GELSENKIRCHEN<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span>, a town of Germany in the Prussian +province of Westphalia, 27 m. W. of Dortmund on the railway +Duisburg-Hamm. Pop. (1905) 147,037. It has coal mines, iron +furnaces, steel and boiler works, and soap, glass and chemical +factories. In 1903 various neighbouring industrial townships +were incorporated with the town.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEM<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (Lat. <i>gemma</i>, a bud,—from the root <i>gen</i>, meaning +“to produce,”—or precious stone; in the latter sense the Greek +term is <span class="grk" title="psêphos">ψῆφος</span>), a word applied in a wide sense to certain minerals +which, by reason of their brilliancy, hardness and rarity, are valued +for personal decoration; it is extended to include pearl. In a +restricted sense the term is applied only to precious stones after +they have been cut and polished as jewels, whilst in their raw +state the minerals are conveniently called “gem-stones.” Sometimes, +again, the term “gem” is used in a yet narrower sense, +being restricted to engraved stones, like seals and cameos.</p> + +<p>The subject is treated here in two sections: (1) Mineralogy +and general properties; (2) Gems in Art, <i>i.e.</i> engraved gems, such +as seals and cameos. The artificial products which simulate +natural gem-stones in properties and chemical composition are +treated in the separate article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gem, Artificial</a></span>.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">1. Mineralogy and General Properties</p> + +<p>The gem-stones form a small conventional group of minerals, +including principally the diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald and +opal. Other stones of less value—such as topaz, spinel, chrysoberyl, +chrysolite, zircon and tourmaline—are sometimes called +“fancy stones.” Many minerals still less prized, yet often used +as ornamental stones,—like moonstone, rock-crystal and agate,—occasionally +pass under the name of “semi-precious stones,” +but this is rather a vague term and may include the stones of the +preceding group. The classification of gem-stones is, indeed, to +some extent a matter of fashion.</p> + +<p>Descriptions of the several gem-stones will be found under +their respective headings, and the present article gives only a +brief review of the general characters of the group.</p> + +<p>A high degree of hardness is an essential property of a gem-stone, +for however beautiful and brilliant a mineral may be it is +useless to the jeweller if it lack sufficient hardness to +withstand the abrasion to which articles of personal +<span class="sidenote">Hardness.</span> +decoration are necessarily subjected. Even if not definitely +scratched, the polished stone becomes dull by wear. Imitations +in paste may be extremely brilliant, but being comparatively +soft they soon lose lustre when rubbed. In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mineralogy</a></span> +it is explained that the varying degrees of hardness are +registered on a definite scale. The exceptional hardness of the +diamond gives it a supreme position in this scale, and to it the +arbitrary value of 10 has been assigned. The corundum gem-stones +(ruby and sapphire), though greatly inferior in hardness +to the diamond, come next, with the value of 9; and it is notable +that the sapphire is usually rather harder than ruby. Then +follows the topaz, which, with spinel and chrysoberyl, has a +hardness of 8; whilst quartz falls a degree lower. Most gem-stones +are harder than quartz, though precious opal, turquoise, +moonstone and sphene are inferior to it in hardness. Those +stones which are softer than quartz have been called by jewellers +<i>demi-dures</i>. To test the hardness of a cut stone, one of its sharp +edges may be drawn, with firm pressure, across the smooth +surface of a piece of quartz; if it leave a scratch its hardness must +be above 7. The stone is then applied in like manner to a +fragment of topaz, preferably a cleavage-piece, and if it fail to +leave a distinct scratch its hardness is between 7 and 8, whereas +if the topaz be scratched it is above 8. An expert may obtain a +fair idea of hardness by gently passing the stone over a fine +steel file, and observing the feel of the stone and the grating +sound which it emits. If a stone be scratched by a steel knife its +hardness is below 6. The degree of hardness of a precious stone +is soon ascertained by the lapidary when cutting it.</p> + +<p>Gem-stones differ markedly among themselves in density or +specific weight; and although this is a character which does not +directly affect their value for ornamental purposes, it furnishes +by its constancy an important means of distinguishing one stone +<span class="sidenote">Specific gravity.</span> +from another. Moreover, it is a character very easily determined +and can be applied to cut stones without injury. The relative +weightiness of a stone is called its specific gravity, and +is often abbreviated as S.G. The number given in +the description of a mineral as S.G. shows how many +times the stone is heavier than an equal bulk of the standard +with which it is compared, the standard being distilled water at +4° C. If, for example, the S.G. of diamond is said to be 3.5 it +means that a diamond weighs 3½ times as much as a mass of water +of the same bulk. The various methods of determining specific +gravity are described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Density</a></span>. The readiest method of +testing precious stones, especially when cut, is to use dense +liquids. Suppose it be required to determine whether a yellow +stone be true topaz or false topaz (quartz), it is merely necessary +to drop the stone into a liquid made up to the specific gravity of +about 3; and since topaz has S.G. of 3.5 it sinks in this medium, +but as quartz has S.G. of only 2.65 it floats. The densest gem-stone +is zircon, which may have S.G. as high as 4.7, whilst the +lowest is opal with S.G. 2.2. Amber, it is true, is lighter still, +being scarcely denser than water, but this substance can hardly +be called a gem.</p> + +<p>Although the great majority of precious stones occur crystallized, +the characteristic form is destroyed in cutting. The +crystal-forms of the several stones are noticed under +their respective headings, and the subject is discussed +<span class="sidenote">Crystalline form and cleavage.</span> +fully under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crystallography</a></span>. A few substances +used as ornamental stones—like opal, turquoise, +obsidian and amber—are amorphous or without crystalline +form; whilst others, like the various stones of the chalcedony-group, +display no obvious crystal-characters, but are seen under +the microscope to possess a crystalline structure. Gem-stones +are frequently found in gravels or other detrital deposits, where +they occur as rolled crystals or fragments of crystals, and in +many cases have been reduced to the form of pebbles. By the +disintegration of the rock which formed the original matrix, its +constituent minerals were set free, and whilst many of them +were worn away by long-continued attrition, the gem-stones +survived by virtue of their superior hardness.</p> + +<p>Many crystallized gem-stones exhibit cleavage, or a tendency +to split in definite directions. The lapidary recognizes a “grain” +in the stone. When the cleavage is perfect, as in topaz, it may +render the working of the stone difficult, and produce incipient +cracks in the cut gem. Flaws due to the cleavage planes are +called “feathers.” The octahedral cleavage of the diamond is +taken advantage of in dressing the stone before cutting it. The +cutting of gem-stones is explained under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lapidary</a></span>.</p> + +<p>The beauty and consequent value of gems depend mainly +on their colour. Some stones, it is true, are valued for entire +absence of colour, as diamonds of pure “water.” +Certain kinds of sapphire and topaz, too, are “water +<span class="sidenote">Colour.</span> +clear,” as also is pure rock-crystal; but in most stones colour is a +prime element of attraction. The colour, however, is not generally +an essential property of the mineral, but is due to the presence of +foreign pigmentary matter, often in very small proportion and in +some cases eluding determination. Thus, corundum when pure +is colourless, but the presence of traces of certain mineral substances +imparts to it not only the red of ruby and the blue of +sapphire, but almost every other colour. The tinctorial matter +may be distributed either uniformly throughout the stone or in +regular zones, or in quite irregular patches. A tourmaline, for +instance, may be red at one end of a prismatic crystal and green +at the other extremity, or the colour may be so disposed that in +transverse section the centre will be red and the outer zone +green. A beryl may be yellow and green in the same crystal. +Sapphire, again, is often parti-coloured, one portion of the stone +being blue and other portions white or yellow; and the skilful +lapidary, in cutting the stone, will take advantage of the blue +portion. The character of the pigment is in many cases not +definitely known. It by no means follows that the material +capable of imparting a certain tint to glass is identical with that +which naturally colours a stone of the same tint; thus a glass of +sapphire-blue may be obtained by the use of cobalt, yet cobalt +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page561" id="page561"></a>561</span> +has not been detected in the sapphire. Probably the most common +mineral pigments are compounds of iron, manganese, copper and +chromium. If the colour of the stone be discharged by heat, an +organic pigment is presumably present. Some ornamental stones +change their colour, or even lose it, on exposure to sunlight and +air: such is the case with rose-quartz, chrysoprase and certain +kinds of topaz and turquoise. Exposure to heat alters the colour +of some stones so readily that the change is taken advantage +of commercially; thus, sherry-yellow topaz may be rendered +pink, smoky and amethystine quartz may become yellow, and +coloured zircons may be decolorized, so as to resemble diamonds.</p> + +<p>The colours of some gem-stones are greatly affected by radioactivity, +and Prof. F. Bordas has found this to be particularly +the case with sapphire. From his experiments he believes that +yellow corundum, or oriental topaz, may have been formed from +blue corundum under the influence of radioactive substances +present in the soil in which the sapphire was embedded. Different +shades of colour may be presented by different stones of the same +species; and it was formerly the custom of lapidaries to regard +the darker stones as masculine and the paler as feminine, a full +blue sapphire, for instance, being called a “male sapphire” +and a delicate blue stone a “female sapphire.” It is notable +that some stones appear to change colour by candle-light and +by most other artificial means of illumination; some amethysts +thus become inky, and certain sapphires acquire a murky tint, +whilst others become amethystine. For an example of a remarkable +change of this character, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexandrite</a></span>.</p> + +<p>As the optical properties of minerals are fully explained under +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crystallography</a></span>, little need be said here on this subject. +The brilliancy of a cut stone depends on the amount +of light reflected from its faces; and in the form +<span class="sidenote">Refraction.</span> +known as the “brilliant” the gem is so cut that much +of the incident light, after entering the stone and suffering +refraction, is totally reflected from the facets at the back. The +amount of light which is thus returned to the eye of the observer +will be greater as the angle of total reflection, or critical angle, is +smaller, but this angle will be small if the refractive power of the +stone is great, so that the brilliancy directly depends on the refractivity. +The diamond has the highest refractive index of any +gem-stone (2.42). Jargoon, or zircon, has also a high index +(mean 1.95), and sphene, which is occasionally cut as a gem, is +likewise very notable in this respect. The index of refraction +generally bears a relation to the specific gravity of the stone, +the heaviest gems having the highest indices, though a few +minerals offer exceptions. The refractive index, which is thus +a very important character in the scientific discrimination of +gem-stones, may be conveniently determined, within certain +limits, by means of the refractometer devised by Dr G.F. +Herbert Smith. This instrument is an improved form of the +total reflectometer, in which the refractive power of a given +substance is determined by the method of total reflection. It +may be used for indices ranging from 1.300 to 1.775, and may +be applied to faceted stones without removal from their settings.</p> + +<p>The play of prismatic colours exhibited by a cut stone, often +known as its “fire,” is due to the decomposition of the white +light which enters the stone, and is returned, by internal +reflection, after resolution in to its coloured components. +<span class="sidenote">Dispersion.</span> +This decomposition depends on the dispersive power +of the substance. The exceptional beauty of the fiery flashes +in the diamond is due to its high dispersion, in other words, to +the difference between the refractive indices for the red rays and +the violet rays at the extremities of the spectrum. The peculiar +lustre exhibited by the diamond is called adamantine, and is +shared to some extent by certain other stones which have a +high refractive index and high dispersion, such as zircon.</p> + +<p>The use of the spectroscope may be valuable in discriminating +between certain precious stones. It was shown by Sir A.H. +Church that almandine garnet and zircon when simply +<span class="sidenote">Spectroscopic characters.</span> +viewed through this instrument give, under proper +conditions, characteristic absorption spectra, due to +the light reflected from the stone having penetrated +to some extent into the substance of the mineral and suffered +absorption. It is sometimes useful to examine the behaviour +of a stone under the action of the Röntgen rays.</p> + +<p>A very useful means of discriminating between certain stones +is found in their dichroism, or, to use a more general term, +pleochroism. Neither amorphous minerals, like opal, +nor minerals crystallizing in the cubic system, like +<span class="sidenote">Dichroism.</span> +spinel and garnet, possess this property; but coloured +minerals which are doubly refracting may show different colours, +when properly examined, in different directions. Occasionally +this is so marked as to be detected by the naked eye, as in iolite +or dichroite, but usually the stone needs to be examined with such +an instrument as Haidinger’s dichroscope (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crystallography</a></span>). +It must be remembered that in the direction of an +optic axis the two images will be of the same colour in all positions +of the instrument, and it is therefore necessary before reaching +a definite conclusion to turn the stone about and examine +it in various directions. The use of the dichroscope is so +simple that it can be applied by any one to the examination +of a cut stone, but there are other means of determining the nature +of a stone by its optical properties available to the mineralogist +and more suitably discussed under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crystallography</a></span>.</p> + +<p>In chemical composition the gem-stones present great variety. +Diamond is composed of only a single element; ruby, sapphire +and the quartz-group are oxides; spinel and chrysoberyl +may be regarded as aluminates; turquoise and +<span class="sidenote">Chemical composition.</span> +beryllonite are phosphates; and a great number of +ornamental stones are silicates of greater or less +complexity, such as emerald, topaz, chrysolite, garnet, zircon, +tourmaline, kunzite, sphene and benitoite. In the examination +of a cut stone chemical tests are not available, since they usually +involve the partial destruction of the mineral. The artificial +production of certain gems by chemical processes which yield +products identical in composition and physical properties with +the natural stones, is described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#ar106">Gem, Artificial</a></span>.</p> + +<p>Doublets and triplets are composite stone, sometimes prepared +for fraudulent purposes. In a doublet a slab of real gem-stone +covers the face of a paste, whilst in a triplet the paste is both +faced and backed by a slice of genuine stone. By the action of +a suitable solvent, such as chloroform or in some cases even hot +water, the cement uniting the pieces gives way and the compound +character of the structure is detected.</p> + +<p>Before the chemical composition of gem-stones was understood, +their classification remained vague and unscientific. As the +ancients depended almost entirely on the eye, the colour of the +stone naturally became the chief factor in classification. A +variety of stones agreeing roughly in colour would be grouped +together under a common name, widely as they might differ in +other respects. Thus the emerald, the peridot, green fluorspar, +malachite, and certain kinds of quartz and jade seem to have been +united under the general name of <span class="grk" title="smaragdos">σμάραγδος</span> whilst the ruby, +red spinel and garnet were probably grouped together as <i>carbunculus</i>. +In this way minerals radically different were associated +on the ground of what is generally a superficial and accidental +character, and rarely of any classificatory value. On the other +hand, a grouping based only on colour led to several names being +in some cases applied to the same mineral species. Thus the +ruby and sapphire are essentially identical in chemical composition +and in all physical characters, save colour.</p> + +<p>Descriptions of precious stones by ancient writers generally are +too vague for exact diagnosis. The principal classical authorities +are Theophrastus and the elder Pliny. Stones were +formerly held in esteem not only for their beauty and +<span class="sidenote">Superstitions.</span> +rarity but for the medicinal and magical powers with +which they were reputed to be endowed. Up to comparatively +recent years the toadstone, for example, was worn not for beauty +but for sake of occult virtue; and even at the present day +certain stones, like jade, are valued for a similar reason. Prof. +W. Ridgeway has suggested that jewelry took its origin not, as +often supposed, in an innate love of personal decoration, but +rather in the belief that the objects used possessed magical virtue. +Small stones peculiar in colour or shape, especially those with +natural perforations, are usually valued by uncivilized peoples +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page562" id="page562"></a>562</span> +as amulets. The Orphic poem <span class="grk" title="Lithika">Λιθικά</span>, reputed to be of very early +though unknown date, is rich in allusions to the virtues of many +of the gem-stones. Many of the medical and other virtues of +precious stones were evidently attributed to them on the well-known +doctrine of signatures. Thus, the blood-red colour of a +fine jasper suggested that the stone would be useful in haemorrhage; +a green jasper would bring fertility to the soil; and the +purple wine-colour of amethyst pointed to its value as a preventive +of intoxication. Many of the superstitions came down +to modern times, and even at the present day the belief in “lucky +stones” is by no means extinct.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The most comprehensive work on gem-stones is +Professor Max Bauer’s <i>Edelsteinkunde</i> (1896), translated, with +additions, by L.J. Spencer under the title <i>Precious Stones</i> (1904). +Less detailed are Professor P. Groth’s <i>Grundriss der Edelsteinkunde</i> +(1887) and Professor C. Doelter’s <i>Edelsteinkunde</i> (1893). Sir A. +H. Church’s <i>Precious Stones</i> (1905), intended as a guide to the +collections in the Victoria and Albert Museum, is a convenient +introduction: and Professor H.A. Miers’s Cantor Lectures at the +Society of Arts on <i>Precious Stones</i> (1896) may be studied with +advantage. For American stones, the valuable work of Dr G.F. +Kunz, <i>The Gems and Precious Stones of N. America</i>, is a standard +authority; and the Annual Reports of this writer and others, +published by the Geological Survey of the United States in the +<i>Mineral Resources</i>, form a repertory of valuable information on +precious stones in general. The articles in <i>The Mineral Industry</i> +(founded by R.P. Rothwell) should also be consulted. See likewise +O.C. Farrington, <i>Gems and Gem Minerals</i> (Chicago, 1903). For +optical characters reference should be made to G.F.H. Smith, <i>The +Herbert Smith Refractometer</i> (London, 1907); L. Claremont, <i>The Gem-Cutter’s +Craft</i> (London, 1906); W. Goodchild, <i>Precious Stones</i> +(London, 1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">2. Gems in Art</p> + +<p>In art, the word Gem is the general term for precious stones +when engraved with designs, whether adapted for sealing (<span class="grk" title="sphragis">σφραγίς</span>, +<i>sigillum</i>, <i>intaglio</i>), or mainly for artistic effect (<i>imagines ectypae</i>, +<i>cameo</i>). They exist in a very large number of undoubtedly +genuine old examples, extending from the mists of Babylonian +antiquity to the decline of Roman civilization, and again starting +with a new, but less original impulse on the revival of art. Apart +from workmanship they possess the charms of colour deep, rich, +and varied, of material unequalled for its endurance, and of +scarcity, which in many instances has been enhanced by the +remoteness of the lands whence they came or the fortuity of their +occurrence. These qualities united within the small compass of +a gem were precisely such as were required in a seal as a thing +of constant use, so inalienable in its possession as to become +naturally a personal ornament and an attractive medium of +artistic skill, no less than the centre of traditions or of religious +and legendary associations. As regards the nations of classical +antiquity, all seals are classed as gems, though in many cases the +material is not such as would strictly come under that heading, +and precious stones in the modern sense are hardly known to +occur. On the other hand it must not be supposed that gems +engraved in intaglio were necessarily employed as seals. At all +periods many intaglios are found which could not have been so +employed without great difficulty. In Greece and Rome, within +historic times, gems were worn engraved with designs to show +that the bearer was an adherent of a particular worship, the +follower of a certain philosopher, or the attached subject of an +emperor. However, speaking generally, the intaglio engraving is +a means to an end, namely, a seal-impression, while an engraving +in relief is complete in itself.</p> + +<p><i>Methods of Engraving</i> (see also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lapidary</a></span>).—In gem-engraving +the principal modern implement is a wheel or minute +copper disk, driven in the manner of a lathe, and moistened with +olive oil mixed with emery or diamond dust. There is no clear +proof of the use among the ancients of a wheel mounted lathewise, +but we have abundant indications of drilling with a revolving +tool, which might be either a tubular drill making a ring-like +depression, a pointed tool making a cup-like sinking, or a small +wheel with a cutting edge, making a boat-shaped depression.</p> + +<p>We have one sepulchral monument from Philadelphia showing +the tool of an intaglio engraver (<span class="grk" title="daktylokoilogyphos">δακτυλοκοιλογύφος</span>; see +<i>Athenische Mitteilungen des Arch. Inst.</i> xv. p. 333). Unfortunately +the relief is incomplete, and the published illustration +inadequate. It would seem, however, that a revolving tool +was supported by a kind of mandrel, and actuated in primitive +fashion by a bow. An alternative plan of working was to use a +splinter of diamond set in a handle and applied like a graver. +Both systems are clearly indicated by Pliny, who in one passage +(<i>H.N.</i> xxxvii. 60) states that diamond splinters are sought out by +gem engravers and set in iron, and so easily hollow out stones of +any degree of hardness; while elsewhere (<i>H.N.</i> xxxvii. 200) he +speaks of the special efficacy of the <i>fervor terebrarum</i>, the vehement +action of drills. A third method is also indicated by Pliny (<i>ibid.</i>) +when he speaks of the use of a blunted tool, which must have been +moistened and supplied with emery of Naxos.</p> + +<p>A four-sided pendant of the Hellenistic period published by +Furtwängler (<i>Antike Gemmen, Gesch.</i> p. 400) shows clearly the +successive stages of the operation. On side <i>a</i> the subject is +slightly sketched in with the diamond point. On side <i>b</i> the +deepest parts of the figure have also been roughly scooped out +with the wheel. On sides <i>c</i> and <i>d</i> the wheel work is fairly complete, +but the finer internal work has not been begun.</p> + +<p>After the design had been completed the stone must have +received a final polish on its surface, to obliterate any erroneous +strokes of the first sketch; but this process was not carried as far +as in modern work. It is a popular error to suppose that a high +degree of internal polish is a proof of antiquity. If the interior of +the design has a high degree of polish it may be either ancient or +modern, or it may be an ancient stone repolished in modern times. +If it has a matt surface uniformly produced by intention, it is +probably modern. If the design is slightly dimmed and worn or +scratched the stone may be antique, but is not necessarily so, +since modern engravers have observed this peculiarity, and have +imitated it with a success which, were there no other grounds of +suspicion, might escape detection.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—It has been a subject of controversy whether the +first infancy of the art was passed in Egypt or in Babylonia, but +it seems highly probable that it was developed in Babylonia, +whence at any rate the oldest examples of engraved gems at +present known are obtained. It does not necessarily follow, +however, that Egypt was therefore a pupil. It may well be that +the art was developed independently in the two countries, although +certain points of possible contact in respect of the forms employed +will be described below in the section dealing with primitive +Egypt.</p> + +<p><i>Babylonia.</i>—At a very remote period the cylindrical form of +stone was introduced and became the approved shape, while the +technical skill of the artist was still slight, and the traces of the +tools employed (drill and pencil point) were still unconcealed.</p> + +<p>The cylinder was suspended by a string and used as a seal. +Impressions of cylinders are frequent on contract tablets. If one +of the parties cannot use a seal he makes a nail-mark in lieu +thereof, as is recorded in the document.</p> + +<p>But from a time that was still comparatively early the engravers +could work with considerable skill in the hard stone. In +particular a cylinder may be quoted in the de Clercq Collection +bearing the name of Sargon I. of Agade, who is placed about +3500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The cylinder is engraved with the king’s name and +titles and two symmetrically disposed renderings of Izdubar, with +a vase of flowing water giving drink to a bull. The whole is +treated in a conventionalized style that indicates long traditions. +An important early cylinder in the British Museum is inscribed +with the name of a viceroy of Ur-Gur, king of Ur (about 2500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). +The engraving shows Ur-Gur being led into the presence of Sin, +the moon-god.</p> + +<p>The cylinder seal was adopted by the Assyrians, and so was +carried on continuously till the time of the Persian conquest of +Babylon (538 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Meanwhile, as an alternative form the +conoidal seal, rounded at the top and having a flat base for the +intaglio, came into use beside the cylinder.</p> + +<p>In style the Assyrians carried on the Babylonian tradition, but +with no freedom of design. Subjects and treatment became +rigidly conventional.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind sc">Plate I.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:798px; height:893px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img562a.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1-5.—ORIENTAL.</p> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>1. Babylonian (late Sumerian) Cylinder of a Viceroy of Ur-Gur (or Ur-Engur), 2500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> +<p>2. Assyrian Cylinder. Woman adoring Goddess.</p> +<p>3. Assyrian Cylinder. Assur worshipped by two Assyrian kings, and divine Attendants.</p> +<p>4. Persian Seal of Darius (500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Lion Hunt.</p> +<p>5. Graeco-Persian Scarabaeoid. Boar Hunt.</p> +</div> + +<p>6-15.—CRETAN AND MYCENAEAN INTAGLIOS.</p> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>6. Cretan Symbols.</p> +<p>7. Man and Bull. Crete.</p> +<p>8. Lions and Column. Ialysus.</p> +<p>9. Daemon. Crete.</p> +<p>10. Lioness and Deer.</p> +<p>11-13. Three-sided Stone. Peloponnesus.</p> +<p>14. Man and Bull. Crete.</p> +<p>15. Bull and Palm. Ialysus.</p> +</div> + +<p>16-18.—GEMS OF THE ISLANDS.</p> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>16. Goddess on Waves. Birds.</p> +<p>17. Lion and Goat.</p> +<p>18. Heracles and Nereus.</p> +</div> + +<p>19.—PHOENICIAN SEAL, inscribed.</p> + +<p>20-26.—GRAECO-PHOENICIAN SCARABS FROM THARROS.</p> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>20. King, enthroned.</p> +<p>21. Bes with Antelope and Hound.</p> +<p>22. Bes with Lions.</p> +<p>23. Warrior.</p> +<p>24. Egyptian Device.</p> +<p>25. Bes and Goats.</p> +<p>26. Hawk of Horus.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center">All the above are in the British Museum.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind sc">Plate II.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:837px; height:841px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img562b.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"><tr><td class="tcl"> +<p><br />27-34.—EARLY GREEK SCARABS AND SCARABAEOIDS.</p> + +<div class="list1"> + <p>27. Pluto and Persephone. (New York.)</p> + <p>28. Boreas and Oreithyia. (New York.)</p> + <p>29. Youth and Dog.</p> + <p>30. Archer feeling Arrow Tip. (Lord Southesk.)</p> + <p>31. Satyr and Wine Cup.</p> + <p>32. Archer and Dog.</p> + <p>33. Satyr with Wineskin.</p> + <p>34. Athena with Gorgon Spoils.</p> +</div> + +<p><br />35-44.—FINEST GREEK SCARABS AND SCARABAEOIDS.</p> + +<div class="list1"> + <p>35. Head of Young Warrior.</p> + <p>36. Lyre Player. (Cockerell Coll.)</p> + <p>37. Crane, with Deer’s Antler.</p> + <p>38. Head of Eos.</p> + <p>39. Lyre Player. (Woodhouse Coll. and B.M.)</p> + <p>40. Lyre Player, signed by Syries.</p> + <p>41. Stork and Grasshopper, signed by Dexamenos. (St. Petersburg.)</p> + <p>42. Flying Crane, signed by Dexamenos. (St. Petersburg.)</p> + <p>43. Flying Goose.</p> + <p>44. Lion and Stag.</p> +</div> + +<p><br />45-54.—ETRUSCAN SCARABS.</p> + +<div class="list1"> + <p>45. Achilles in Retirement.</p> + <p>46. Victory.</p> + <p>47. Capaneus struck by the Bolt.</p> + <p>48. Heracles.</p> + <p>49. Capaneus struck by the Bolt.</p> + <p>50. Achilles.</p> + <p>51. Heracles and Cycnus.</p> + <p>52. Heracles.</p> + <p>53. Heracles and the Lion.</p> + <p>54. Machaon bandaging Philoctetes.</p> +</div></td><td class="tcl"> + +<p><br />55-57—GREEK GEMS.</p> + +<div class="list1"> + <p>55. Girl with Scroll and Lyre.</p> + <p>56. Girl with Water-Jar.</p> + <p>57. Head of Aristippus—Deities.</p> +</div> + +<p><br />58-61.—SIGNED GEMS.</p> + +<div class="list1"> + <p>58. Asclepius of Aulos.</p> + <p>59. Citharist of Allion.</p> + <p>60. Medusa of Solon.</p> + <p>61. Heracles of Gnaios.</p> +</div> + +<p><br />62-70.—ROMAN GEMS.</p> + +<div class="list1"> + <p>62. Portrait.</p> + <p>63. Head of Trajan Decius.</p> + <p>64. Ares and Aphrodite.</p> + <p>65. Jupiter of Heliopolis.</p> + <p>66. Artemis of Ephesus.</p> + <p>67. So-called Psyche.</p> + <p>68. So-called Psyche.</p> + <p>69. Minerva with Mask, Stamp for the Eye Balsam of Herophilus.</p> + <p>70. Helios.</p> +</div> + +<p><br />71-72.—CHRISTIAN GEMS.</p> + +<div class="list1"> + <p>71. Crucifixion.</p> + <p>72. Good Shepherd. Jonah.</p> +</div> + +<p><br />73-76.—EIGHTEENTH CENTURY GEMS.</p> + +<div class="list1"> + <p>73. Achilles of Pamphilus, copied from the antique.</p> + <p>74. Eros and Psyche, by Pichler.</p> + <p>75. Head of Athena.</p> + <p>76. Athena, from Townley Bust by Marchant.</p> +</div></td></tr></table> +</div> + +<p>After the Persian conquest the victors adopted the cylinder +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page563" id="page563"></a>563</span> +form of the conquered, and continued to use it. A Persian +cylinder seal of Darius (probably about 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) in the British +Museum shows the king in his chariot, transfixing a lion with his +arrows, in a palm wood. Above is the winged emblem of the +Persian deity Ahuramazda. The inscription gives the name and +titles of Darius in the Persian, Scythic and Babylonian languages. +The style is accurate and minute. The idea of the lion hunt is +borrowed from the Assyrian monuments, but the engraver has +been careful to make the necessary changes of costume and +treatment. The cylinder was, as might be anticipated, imitated +to a certain extent by peoples of the Eastern world in touch with +Babylonia. It occurs in Armenia, Media and Elam. It has been +found in Crete (<i>British School Annual</i>, viii. p. 77) and is frequent +in the early Cypriote deposits. In some instances it has been +found unfinished and therefore must be supposed to be of local +manufacture. Sometimes a direct imitation of cuneiform +characters occurs on the Cypriote cylinders. The same form was +also employed by the Phoenicians (about the 8th century-7th +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). By the Greeks and Etruscans it was used, +but only rarely, and by way of exception.</p> + +<p><i>Egypt.</i>—We must go back to the remotest periods for the +origin of intaglio engraving in Egypt. Recent discoveries of +tombs of the earliest dynasties at Abydos and Nagada have +thrown much light on the early stages of Egyptian art, and have +revealed the remarkable fact that in Egypt (as in Babylonia) the +cylinder was the earliest form used for the purpose of a seal. +The cylinders that have been found are comparatively few in +number; but a large number of jar-stoppings of clay are preserved +on which cylinder designs have been rolled off while the +clay was still soft. Such early incised cylinders as are extant are +made either of hard wood or (as in an instance in the British +Museum) of stone. The identity of form has been thought to +indicate a connexion with Babylonia, but none can be traced in +the designs of the respective cylinders.</p> + +<p>The Egyptians of the earliest dynasties had an admirable +command of hard stones, as shown by their beads and stone +vases, but with the exception of the cylinders quoted they are +not known to have applied their skill to the production of +intaglios. At this early period the scarab (or beetle) was still +unknown as a gem-form. It was only about the time of the +4th dynasty that the scarab (<i>q.v.</i>) was first introduced, and +gradually took the place of the cylinder as the prevailing shape.</p> + +<p>The <i>Scarabaeus sacer</i> (Egyptian, <i>Kheperer</i>), rolling its eggs in +a ball of mud, became the accepted emblem of the sun-god, and +so the form had an amuletic value. Scarabs of obsidian and +crystal date back to the 4th dynasty. Others, coarse and +uninscribed, belong to the beginning of the first Theban empire. +After the 18th dynasty they are counted by thousands. While +the beetle form was naturalistically treated, the flat surface +underneath was well adapted to receive a hieroglyphic sign. +The scarabs, however, are by no means the only product of the +art. We have also figures of all kinds in the round and in +intaglio—statuettes, figures of animals and of deities, and sacred +emblems such as the ankh (or <i>crux ansata</i>) and the eye. Among +interesting variations from the scarab form is the oblong intaglio +of green jasper in the Louvre (<i>Gazette arch.</i>, 1878, p. 41) with a +design on both sides. It represents on the obverse Tethmosis +(Thothmes) II. (1800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) slaying a lion, and identified by his +cartouche. On the reverse we have the same king drawing his +bow against his enemies from a war chariot. The scarabs of +Egypt though uninteresting in themselves, considered as examples +of engraving, have this accidental importance in the history of +art, that they furnished the Phoenicians with a model which +they were able to improve as regards the intaglio by a more +free spirit of design, gathered partly from Egypt and partly +from Assyria. The scarab thus improved exercised a lasting +influence on the later history, since, as will be seen below, it was +adopted and modified both by Greeks and Etruscans.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:468px; height:464px" src="images/img563.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Jewish High Priest’s Breastplate.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Engraved Gems in the Bible.</i>—While the Phoenicians have left +actual specimens to show with what skill they could adopt the +systems of gem-engraving prevailing at their time in Egypt and +Assyria, the Israelites, on the other hand, have left records to +prove, if not their skill, at least the estimation in which they held +engraved gems. “The sin of Judah is written with a pen of +iron and with the point of a diamond” (Jerem. xvii. 1). To +pledge his word Judah gave Tamar his signet, with its cord for +suspension, and staff (Gen. xxxviii. 18); whence if this passage +be compared with the frequent use of “seal” in a metaphorical +sense in the Bible, and with the usage of the Babylonians of +carrying a seal with an emblem engraved on it recorded by +Herodotus, it may be concluded that among the Israelites also +every man of mark at least wore a signet. Their acquaintance +with the use of seals in Egypt and Assyria is seen in the statement +that Pharaoh gave Joseph his signet ring as a badge of investiture +(Gen. xli. 42), and that the stone which closed the den of lions +was sealed by Darius with his own signet and with the signet of +his lords (Daniel vi. 17). Then as to the stones which were most +prized, Ezekiel (xxviii. 13), speaking of the prince of Tyre, +mentions “the sardius, the topaz and the diamond, the beryl, +the onyx, and the jasper, the sapphire, the emerald and the +carbuncle,” stones which again occur in that most memorable +of records, the description of the breastplate of the high priest +(Exodus xxviii. 16-21, and xxxix. 8-14). Twelve stones +grouped in four rows, each with three specimens, may be +arranged on a square, so as to have the rows placed either vertically +or horizontally. If they are to cover the whole square, then, +unless the gold mounts supplied the necessary compensation, +they must be cut in an oblong form, and if the names engraved +on them are to run lengthwise, as is the manner of Assyrian +cylinders, then the stones, to be legible, must be grouped in four +horizontal rows of three each. There is in fact no reason to +suppose that the gems of the breastplate were in any other form +than that of cylinders such as abounded to the knowledge of +the Israelites, with this possibility, however, that they may +have been cut lengthways into half-cylinders like a fragmentary +one of sard in the British Museum, which has been mounted in +bronze, and, as a remarkable exception, has been set with three +small precious stones now missing. It could not have been a +seal, because of this setting, and because the inscription is not +reversed. The names of the twelve tribes, not their standards, +as has been thought, may have been engraved in this fashion, +just as on the two onyx stones in the preceding verses (Exodus +xxviii. 9-11), where there can be no question but that actual +names were incised. On these two stones the order of the names +was according to primogeniture, and this, it is likely, would +apply to the breastplate also. The accompanying diagram will +show how the stones, supposing them to have been cylinders or +half-cylinders, may have been arranged consistently with the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page564" id="page564"></a>564</span> +descriptions of the Septuagint. In the arrangement of Josephus +(iii. 7. 5) the jasper is made to change places with the sapphire, +the amethyst with the agate, and the onyx with the beryl, while +our version differs partly in the order and partly in the names +of the stones; but probably in all these accounts the names had +in some cases other meanings than those which they now carry. +It must be remembered that we have two series of equivalents, +namely, the Hebrew compared with the Septuagint, and the +Greek words of the Septuagint compared with the modern +names, which in many cases, though derived from the Greek, +have changed their applications. From the fact that to each +tribe was assigned a stone of different colour, it may be taken +that in each case the colour was one which belonged prescriptively +to the tribe and was symbolic, as in Assyria, where the seven +planets appropriated each a special colour [see Brandis in +<i>Hermes</i>, 1867, p. 259 seq., and de Saulcy, <i>Revue archéologique</i>, +1869, ii. p. 91; and compare Revelation xxi. 12, 13, where the +twelve gates, which have the names of the twelve tribes written +upon them, are grouped in four threes, and 19, 20, where the +twelve precious stones of the walls are given]. The precious +stones which occur among the cylinders of the British Museum +are sard, emerald, lapis lazuli (sapphire of the ancients), agate, +onyx, jasper and rock crystal.</p> + +<p><i>Gem-Engraving in Greek Lands.</i>—We must now turn to the history +of gem-engraving in Greek lands. The excavations in Crete in +the first years of the 20th century revealed a previously unknown +culture, which lasted on the lowest computation for more than +two thousand years, and was only interrupted by the national +upheavals which preceded the opening of Greek history proper. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>; <i>Archaeology</i>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean Civilization</a></span>.) Throughout +the whole period the products of the gem-engraver occupy +an important place among the surviving remains. It must suffice, +however, in this place to indicate the chief groups of stones.</p> + +<p>The earliest engraved stones of Minoan Crete are three-sided +prism seals, made of a soft steatite, native in S.E. Crete (<i>Journ. +of Hellenic Studies</i>, xvii. p. 328). These are incised with pictorial +signs evidently belonging to a rudimentary hieroglyphic system, +and are dated before 3000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> At a period placed by A.J. +Evans between 2800 and 2200 the method was fully systematized +and employed on the signets, as well as on tablets and other +materials. This development of the hieroglyphic system was +accompanied by an increasing power of working in hard material, +and cornelian and chalcedony superseded soft steatite (<i>Journ. +of Hell. Studies</i>, xvii. p. 334).</p> + +<p>Towards 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a highly developed linear form began to +supersede the pictorial signs. It is abundant on the tablets, +but the gems thus inscribed are comparatively rare. The linear +form in turn died out some six hundred years later.</p> + +<p>The signs of the pictorial script incised on the gems are representations +of objects, expressed with precision, but giving +little scope for the higher side of the gem-engraver’s art. +Simultaneously, however, with the use of the script, a high +degree of skill was acquired by the engravers in rendering animal +and human forms. Scenes occur of ritual observance, hunting, +animal life, and strange compounded forms of demons. The +excavations did not yield a large number of original gems of this +class, but a great number of clay sealings from such signets were +discovered. That they were synchronous with the use of the +forms of script described above is proved by the fact that in the +palace at Cnossus deposits were found, both in the linear and +the hieroglyphic script, sealed with these signets, the seal +impressions being again endorsed in the script (<i>Brit. School +Annual</i>, xi. pp. 56, 62). For a remarkable group of sealings +found at Zakro see <i>Journ. of Hell. Studies</i>, xxii. pll. 6-10. The +finest naturalistic engravings are placed towards the close of the +“Mid-Minoan” and beginning of the “Late-Minoan” periods +(about 2200-1800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). During the progress of the “Late-Minoan” +period the subjects tended to assume a more formal +and heraldic character. The forms of stones in favour were the +disk convex on each side (lenticular or lentoid stones), and during +the “Mid-Minoan” period, elaborate signets in the form of +modern fob-seals. Apart from the use of intaglios for sealing, +the excavations have shown that the Cretan lapidaries were +largely employed in the working of gems for purposes of decoration. +Fragments of lapis lazuli and crystal for inlaying (the +crystals having coloured designs on their lower surfaces) were +found in the throne room at Cnossus; the royal gaming-board, +also from the palace at Cnossus, had inlaid crystal disks and +plaques. The workshop of a lapidary, with unfinished works in +marble, steatite, jasper and beryl, was also found within the +precincts of the palace (<i>Brit. School Annual</i>, vii. pp. 20, 77). +Examples were also found of work in relief, substantially anticipating +the art of cameo-cutting.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:202px; height:203px" src="images/img564a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> <span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Lenticular Rock-Crystal +from Ialysus. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:125px; height:130px" src="images/img564b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Lenticular +Sard from Ialysus. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The area over which the Cretan influence extended was wide. +Its manifestations in Greek lands proper, first revealed by +Schliemann’s excavation of the royal tombs of Mycenae, ran +parallel with and outlasted the later +periods of the Cretan culture to which +it stood in close relation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean +Civilization</a></span>). Its gems and intaglio +works in gold are known to us from the +finds at Mycenae, and at analogous +sites, such as Menidi, Vaphio and +Ialysus. They have much in common +with the finer class of Cretan +stones already described. The engraved +gems fall principally into +two groups in respect of form, +namely, the lenticular (or lentoid) +stones already mentioned, and (more +rarely) glandular stones, so called from their resemblance to a +<i>glans</i> or sling bolt. A Cretan fresco shows a figure wearing an +agate lenticular stone suspended from the left wrist. The finer +specimens of the Aegean gems are engraved with the wheel and +the point in hard stones, such as chalcedony, amethyst, sard, +rock-crystal and haematite. A lapidary’s workshop similar +to that at Cnossus has been found at Mycenae, with a store of +unused gems, and an unfinished lenticular stone (<i>Ephemeris +Archaiologikè</i>, 1897, p. 121). The characteristic of the Aegean +engraver is the free expression of living forms. His subjects are +figures of animals, men and demons in combat, and heraldic +compositions recalling the Gate of Lions at Mycenae. It was +almost inevitable that the scarab should be found in the Cretan +and Aegean deposits, but in such cases we have the Egyptian +scarab directly imported, and not, as at a later period, non-Egyptian +adaptations of the form. The +cylinder also (except in Cyprus, the borderland +between east and west) only occurs as +an importation, and not as a currently +manufactured shape.</p> + +<p><i>The “Island Gems.”</i>—The Aegean culture +was swept away probably by that dimly +seen upheaval which separated Mycenaean +from historical Greece, and which is commonly +known as the Dorian invasion. One +of the few facts which indicate a certain +continuity of tradition in later Greece is this, that we again find +the same characteristic forms, the glandular and lenticular +stones, in the cemeteries, of Melos and elsewhere. It is only +recently that archaeologists have learnt to distinguish between +the later lenticular and glandular stones “of the Greek Islands,” +as they are commonly called, and those of the Aegean age. +Engravings of the later class are worked in soft materials only, +such as steatite. They have not the power of expressing action +peculiar to the Aegean artist. In general, the continuity of +tradition between the gems of the Mycenaean and the historical +periods is in respect of shape rather than of art. The subjects are +for the most part decorative forms (the Gryphon, the winged +Sphinx, the winged horse, &c.) in course of development into +characters of Greek myth.</p> + +<p><i>The Phoenicians and the Greeks.</i>—About the end of the 8th +and beginning of the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Phoenicians began to +exercise a powerful influence as intermediaries between Egypt +and Assyria and the Mediterranean. Porcelain and other +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page565" id="page565"></a>565</span> +imitations of Egyptian ornaments, and especially of Egyptian +scarabs, are found in great numbers on such sites as Amathus in +Cyprus, Camirus in Rhodes, in Etruria, and at Tharros in Sardinia. +The Egyptian hieroglyphics are imitated with mistakes, the +figures introduced are stiff and formal, the animals as a rule +heraldic. The scarab form, which in Egypt had had its sacred +significance, was now become nothing more than a convenient +shape for an object of jewelry or for the reverse side of a stone. +It was adopted from the Phoenicians both by Greeks and +Etruscans. By the Greeks, with whom we are at present concerned, +its use was occasional, and about 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it was superseded +by the scarabaeoid. Under this name two forms, somewhat +similar but independent in origin, are usually grouped +without sufficient discrimination. The scarabaeoid proper is a +simplification of the scarab, effected by the omission of all details +of the beetle. But many of the stones known as scarabaeoids, +with a flat and oval base and a convex back, are in respect of +their form probably of North Syrian origin (so Furtwängler). +The earliest examples of archaic Greek gem-engraving (other +than the later “Island gems” already described) are works of +Ionian art. They show a desire, only limited by imperfect +power of expression, to represent the human figure, though the +particular theme may be a god or other mythical personages. +By the beginning of the 5th century the engravers had reached the +point of full development, and the scarabaeoids of the time +embody its results. As an example of fine scarabaeoids the +Woodhouse intaglio of a seated citharist (fig. 5; <i>Cat. of Gems in +Brit. Mus.</i> No. 555) may be quoted as perhaps the very finest +example of Greek gem-engraving that has come down to us. It +would stand early in the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, a date which would +also suit the head of Eos from Ithome in Messenia (fig. 6). The +number, however, of fine scarabaeoids known to us has been +considerably increased in recent years. They are marked by a +broad and simple treatment, which attains a large effect without +excessive minuteness or laboured detail. In these respects the +style has something in common with the reliefs of the 5th century.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:463px; height:203px" src="images/img565a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Victory.<br />Early Greek Scarab.<br />(Brit. Mus.)</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Citharist.<br />Early Greek Scarabaeoid.<br />(Brit. Mus.)</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Head<br />of Eos. (Brit.<br />Mus.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Literary History.</i>—The literary references to the early gem-engravers +are no longer of the same importance as before in view +of the fuller knowledge we possess as to the quality of early gem-engraving, +but it is necessary that they should be taken into +account.</p> + +<p>The records of gem-engravers in Greece begin in the island of +Samos, where Mnesarchus, the father of the philosopher Pythagoras, +earned by his art more of praise than of wealth. “Not to +carry the image of a god on your seal,” was a saying of Pythagoras; +and, whatever his reason for it may have been, it is +interesting to observe him founding a maxim on his father’s +profession of gem-engraving (Diogenes Laërt. viii. 1, 17). From +Samos also came Theodorus, who made for Polycrates the seal of +emerald (Herodotus iii. 41), which, according to the curious +story, was cast in vain into the deep sea on purpose to be lost. +That the design on it was a lyre, as is stated in one authority, is +unlikely, at least if we accept Benndorf’s ingenious interpretation +of Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxxiv. 83). He has suggested that the +portrait statue of Theodorus made by himself was in all probability +a figure holding in one hand a graving tool, and in the other, +not, as previously supposed, a quadriga so diminutive that a +fly could cover it with its wings, but a scarab with the engraving +of a quadriga on its face (<i>Zeitschrift für die österreich. Gymnasien</i>, +1873, pp. 401-411), whence it is not unreasonable to conclude +that this scarab in fact represented the famous seal of Polycrates. +Shortly after 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> there was a law of Solon’s forbidding engravers +to retain impressions of the seals they made, and this date +would fall in roundly with that of Theodorus and Mnesarchus, +as if there had in fact been at that time a special activity and +unusual skill. That the use of seals had been general long before, +in Cretan and Mycenaean times, we have seen above, and it is +singular to find, as Pliny points out (xxxiii. 4), no direct mention +of seals in Homer, not even in the passage (<i>Iliad</i>, vi. 168) where +Bellerophon himself carries the tablets on which were written the +orders against his life. From the time of Theodorus to that of +Pyrgoteles in the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> is a long blank as to names, but +not altogether as to gems, the production of which may be +judged to have been carried on assiduously from the constant +necessity of seals for every variety of purpose. The references to +them in Aristophanes, for example, and the lists of them in the +ancient inventories of treasures in the Parthenon and the +Asclepieion at Athens confirm this frequent usage during the +period in question. The mention of a public seal for authenticating +state documents also becomes frequent in the inscriptions. +In the reign of Alexander the Great we meet the name of Pyrgoteles, +of whom Pliny records that he was no doubt the most +famous engraver of his time, and that Alexander decreed that +Pyrgoteles alone should engrave his portrait. Nothing else is +known of Pyrgoteles. A portrait of Alexander in the British +Museum (No. 2307), purporting to be signed by him, is palpably +modern.</p> + +<p>From literary sources we also learn the names of the engravers +Apollonides, Chronius and Dioscorides, but the date of the last-mentioned +only is certain. He is said to have made an excellent +portrait of Augustus, which was used as a seal by that emperor +in the latter part of his reign and also by his successors. Inscriptions +on extant gems make it probable that Dioscorides was +a native of Aegeae in Cilicia, and that three sons, Hyllos, Herophilus +and Eutyches, followed their father’s occupation. We +have also a few scattered notices of amateurs and collectors of +gems, but it will be seen that for the whole period of classical +antiquity the literary notices give little aid, and we must return +to the gems.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:137px; height:219px" src="images/img565b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 7</span>—Scarabaeioid +by Syries. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Early Inscribed Gems.</i>—Various early gems are inscribed with +proper names, which may be supposed to indicate either the +artist or the owner of the gem. In some cases there is no +ambiguity, <i>e.g.</i> on a scarab is inscribed, “I am the seal of Thersis. +Do not open me”; and a scarabaeoid (fig. 7) is inscribed, “Syries +made me.” But when we have the name alone, the general +principle on which we must distinguish between +owner and artist is that the name of +the owner is naturally meant to be conspicuous +(as in a gem in the British Museum +inscribed in large letters with the name of +Isagor[as]), while the name of an artist is +naturally inconspicuous and subordinate to +the design.</p> + +<p>The early engravers known to us by their +signatures are: Syries, who was author of +the modified scarab in the British Museum, +mentioned above, with a satyr’s head in place +of the beetle, and a citharist on the base—a +work of the middle of the 6th century; Semon, +who engraved a black jasper scarab now at +Berlin, with a nude woman kneeling at a fountain filling her +pitcher, of the close of the 6th century; Epimenes, who was the +author of an admirable chalcedony scarabaeoid of a nude youth +restraining a spirited horse—formerly in the Tyszkiewicz +Collection, and of about the beginning of the 5th century. But +better known to us than any of these artists is the 5th-century +engraver, Dexamenus of Chios, of whose work four examples<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +survive, viz.:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page566" id="page566"></a>566</span></p> + +<p>1. A chalcedony scarabaeoid from Greece, in the Fitzwilliam +Museum at Cambridge, with a lady at her toilet, attended by +her maid. Inscribed <span class="grk" title="DEXAMENOS">ΔΕΞΑΜΕΝΟΣ</span>, and with the name of the +lady, <span class="grk" title="MIKÊS">ΜΙΚΗΣ</span>.</p> + +<p>2. An agate with a stork standing on one leg, inscribed +<span class="grk" title="DEXAMENOS">ΔΕΞΑΜΕΝΟΣ</span> simply.</p> + +<p>3. A chalcedony with the figure of a stork flying, and inscribed +in two lines, the letters carefully disposed above each other, +<span class="grk" title="DEXAMENOS EPOIE CHIOS">ΔΕΞΑΜΕΝΟΣ ΕΠΟΙΕ ΧΙΟΣ</span>.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:130px; height:239px" src="images/img566a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Greek +Sard. 5th Cent. <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>4. A gem, apparently by the same Dexamenus, is a cornelian +formerly belonging to Admiral Soteriades in Athens, and subsequently +in the collection of Dr Arthur Evans. +It has a portrait head, bearded and inscribed +<span class="grk" title="DEXAMENOS EPOIE">ΔΕΞΑΜΕΝΟΣ ΕΠΟΙΕ</span>.</p> + +<p>The design of a stork flying occurs on an +agate scarab in the British Museum, from the +old Cracherode Collection, and therefore beyond +all suspicion of having been copied from the +more recently discovered Kertch gem.</p> + +<p>For the period immediately following that +early prime to which the gems above described +belong, our materials are less copious. +Some of the finest examples are derived from +the Greek tombs in the Crimea and South +Russia. Reckoned among the best of the +Crimean gems, and that is equivalent to saying +among the best of all gems, are the following: +(1) a burnt scarabaeoid with an eagle carrying off a +hare; (2) a gem with scarab border and the figure of a +youth seated playing on the trigonon, very much resembling +the Woodhouse intaglio (both engraved, <i>Compte rendu</i>, 1871, +pl. vi. figs. 16, 17). In these, and in almost all Greek +gems belonging to this period of excellence, the material +is of indifferent quality, consisting of agate, chalcedony or cornelian, +just as in the older specimens. Brilliant colour and +translucency are as yet not a necessary element, and accordingly +the design is worked out solely with a view to its own artistic +merit. The scarab tends to die out. The scarabaeoid in its +turn is abandoned for the simple ring stone. The subjects +chosen take by degrees a different character. Aphrodite (nude), +Eros, children and women tend to replace the older and severer +themes. The motives of 4th-century sculpture appear by degrees +on the gems.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:415px; height:191px" src="images/img566b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—Amethyst Pendant. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Etruscan Gems.</i>—At this point it is convenient to discuss the +gem-engraving of the Etruscans, which came into being towards +the close of the archaic period of Greek art. In the early Etruscan +deposits, such as that of the Polledrara tomb in the British Museum +(towards 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), we find nothing except Phoenician imports of +porcelain or stone scarabs, both strongly Egyptian in character. +During the 6th century a few of the semi-Egyptian stones of +Sardinia make their appearance. But in the latter part of the +century these oriental products tend to die out, and we have in +their place the native works of Etruscan artists. These engravings +stand in the closest relation to Greek works of the close of +the 6th century and many imported Greek scarabs also occur.</p> + +<p>The Etruscan scarab has its beetle form more minutely +engraved than that of the Greeks. It is further distinguished +in the better examples, alike from the Greek and the Egyptian +form, by a small border of a sort of petal ornament round the +lower edge of the beetle. Like the earlier Greek scarabs it has +the cable border round the design, but the border continued in +use in Etruria when it had been abandoned in Greece. The +scarabaeoid form does not occur in Etruscan deposits. Etruscan +engraving begins when Greek art was approaching maturity, +with studies, sometimes stiff and cramped, of the heroic nude +form. Some of the Greek deities such as Athena and Hermes +occur, together with the winged personages of Greek mythology. +To the heroic types the names of Greek legend are attached, with +modifications of form, such as <span class="grk" title="TYTE">ΤΥΤΕ</span> for Tydeus, and <span class="grk" title="KAPNE">ΚΑΠΝΕ</span> +for Capaneus. Sometimes the names are appropriate and sometimes +they are assigned at random. The subjects include certain +favourite incidents in the Trojan and Theban cycles (<i>e.g.</i> the +death of Capaneus); myths of Heracles; athletes, horsemen, a +few scenes of daily life. Certain schemes of composition are +frequent. In particular, a figure too large for the field, standing +and bending over, is made to serve for many types. The engraving +of the finer Etruscan gems is minute and precise, marked with +elegance and command of the material. Its fault is its want of +original inspiration. Special mention must be made of a very +numerous group of cornelian scarabs, roughly engraved for the +most part with cup-shaped sinkings (whence they are known as +gems <i>a globolo tondo</i>) roughly joined together by furrows. Notwithstanding +their apparent rudeness, these gems are shown, +by the conditions in which they are found, to be comparatively +late works of the 4th century. Furtwängler ingeniously suggests +that the rough execution was intended to emphasize the shining +surfaces of the cup-sinkings, rather than to produce any particular +intaglio subject. (For an elaborate classification of the Etruscan +scarabs see Furtwängler, <i>Geschichte</i>, p. 170.)</p> + +<p><i>The Cameos.</i>—After the beginning of the regal period, in the +4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the introduction of more splendid materials +from the East was turned to good account by the development +of the cameo, <i>i.e.</i> of gem-carving in relief (for the origin of the +word see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cameo</a></span>). But in its simpler forms the principle of the +cameo necessarily dates from the beginning of the art. Thus a +lion in rock-crystal was found in the very early royal tomb of +Nagada (de Morgan, <i>Recherches, Tombeau de Negadah</i>, p. 193). +The Egyptian scarab, on its rounded side, had been naturalistically +carved in relief in beetle form. Steatite engravings in +relief (notably the harvest festival vase from Hagia Triada) +were found in the Cretan deposits. Subjects are found carved in +the round in hard stone in Mycenaean graves. When we come +to historical Greece and to Etruria the cameo of later times is +anticipated by various attempts to modify the traditional form +of the scarab. An example in cornelian was found at Orvieto in +1874 in a tomb along with vases dating from the beginning of +the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and it will be seen from the engraving of +this gem (<i>Arch. Zeit.</i>, 1877, pl. xi. fig. 3) that, while the design +on the face is in intaglio, the half-length figure of a Gorgon on +the back is engraved in relief. Compare a cornelian fragment, +apparently cut from the back of a scarabaeoid, now in the British +Museum. As further examples of the same rare form of cameo, +the following gems in the British Museum may be mentioned:—(1) +a cornelian cut from back of a scarabaeoid, with head of +Gorgon surrounded by wings; (2) cornelian scarabaeoid: +Gorgon running to left; on face of the gem an intaglio of Thetis +giving armour to Achilles; (3) steatite scarabaeoid, already +mentioned, signed by Syries, head of a satyr, full face, with +intaglio of citharist. There is, however, no evidence at present +available to show that the cameo proper had been introduced +in Greece before the time of Alexander. The earliest examples +found in known conditions are derived from Crimean tombs of +the middle of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>Among the most splendid of ancient cameos are those at St +Petersburg and Vienna, each representing a monarch of the +Diadochi and his consort (Furtwängler, pl. 53). There is much +controversy as to the persons represented, but the cameos are +probably works of the 3rd century.</p> + +<p>The materials which ancient artists used for cutting into +cameos were chiefly those siliceous minerals which, under a +variety of names, present various strata or bands of two or more +distinct colours. The minerals, under different names, are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567"></a>567</span> +essentially the chalcedonic variety of quartz, and the differences +of colour they present are due to the presence of variable proportions +of iron and other foreign ingredients. These banded +stones, when cut parallel to the layers of different colours, and +when only two coloured bands—white and black, or sometimes +white and black and brown—are present, are known as onyxes; +but when they have with the onyx bands layers of cornelian or +sard, they are termed sardonyxes. The sardonyx, which was the +favourite stone of ancient cameo-engravers, and the material in +which their masterpieces were cut, was procured from India, and +the increased intercourse with the East after the death of +Alexander the Great had a marked influence on the development +of the art.</p> + +<p>Akin in their nature to the great regal cameos, which from the +nature of the case are cut on a nearly plane surface, are the cups +and vases cut out of a homogeneous stone and therefore capable of +being worked in the round. A few examples of such works survive. +The most famous are the Farnese Tazza and the cup of the +Ptolemies. The Tazza, which is now in the National Museum at +Naples, was bought by Lorenzo de’ Medici from Pope Paul II. in +1471. It is a large shallow bowl of sardonyx, 8 in. in diameter. +On its exterior surface is a Gorgoneion upon an aegis; in the +interior is an allegorical design, relating to the Nile flood. The +cup of the Ptolemies, formerly known as the cup of St Denis, is +preserved in the Cabinet des Médailles of the French Bibliothèque +Nationale. It is a cup 4¾ in. high and 5<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. in diameter, carved +out of oriental sardonyx, and richly decorated with Dionysiac +emblems and attributes in relief.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:199px; height:177px" src="images/img567.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—Actaeon. Fragment of Sardonyx Cameo. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>The Cameo in the Roman Empire.</i>—During the 1st century of +the empire the engraver’s art alike in cameo and in intaglio was +at a high degree of excellence. The artist in cameo took full +advantage of his rich opportunities in the way of sumptuous +materials, and of the requirements of an imperial court. The two +most famous examples of this art which have come down to the +present day are the Great Agate of the Sainte Chapelle in the +Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, and the Augustus Cameo in the +Vienna Collection. The former was pledged among other valuables +in 1244 by Baldwin II. of Constantinople to Saint Louis. It is +mentioned in 1344 as “Le Camahieu,” +having been sent in that year to Rome +for the inspection of Pope Clement VI. +It is a sardonyx of five layers of irregular +shape, like all classical gems, +measuring 12 in. by 10½ in. It represents +on its upper part the deified +members of the Julian house. The +centre is occupied with the reception +of Germanicus on his return from his +great German campaign by the emperor +Tiberius and his mother Livia. +The lower division is filled with a +group of captives in attitudes expressive of woe and deep +dejection. The Vienna gem (<i>Gemma augustea</i>), an onyx of +two layers measuring 8<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. by 7½, is a work of still greater +artistic interest. The upper portion is occupied with an +allegorical representation of the coronation of Augustus, the +emperor being represented as Jupiter with Livia as the goddess +Roma at his side. In the composition deities of Earth +and Sea, and several members of the family of Augustus, are +introduced; on the exergue or lower portion are Roman soldiers +preparing a trophy, barbarian captives and female figures. +This gem was in the 15th century at the abbey of St Sernin at +Toulouse. According to tradition it had been placed there by +Charlemagne. It came into the possession of the emperor +Rudolph II. in the 16th century for the enormous sum of 12,000 +gold ducats. The principal cameo in the collection of the British +Museum was acquired at the final dispersion of the Marlborough +Collection in 1899. It is a sardonyx measuring 8¾ in. by 6 in., +and appears to represent a Roman emperor and empress in the +forms of Serapis and Isis. Here also, in imperial times as in the +Hellenistic period, side by side with the great cameos, we meet +with works carved out in the round. Noted examples of such +work are the Brunswick vase (at Brunswick), with the subject +of Triptolemus; the Berlin vase with the lustration of a new-born +imperial prince; and the Waddesdon vase in the British Museum, +with a vine in relief set in a rich enamelled Renaissance mount. +Hardly less precious than the cameos in sardonyx were the +imitations carved out of coloured glass. The material was not +costly, but its extreme fragility made the work of extreme +difficulty. Examples of such work are the Barberini or Portland +vase, deposited in the British Museum, with scenes supposed to be +connected with the story of Peleus and Thetis; and the “vase of +blue glass” from Pompeii, in the museum at Naples (see Mau and +Kelsey, p. 408). The world’s great cameos, which are hardly +more than a dozen in number, have not been found by excavation. +They remained as precious objects in imperial and ecclesiastical +treasuries and passed thence to the royal and national collections +of modern Europe.</p> + +<p><i>The Intaglio in the Roman Empire.</i>—The art of engraving in +intaglio was also at a high level of excellence in the beginning of +the Roman empire. This is to be inferred alike from the admirable +portraits of the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, and from the number of +signed gems bearing Roman artists’ names, such as Aulus, +Gnaius and the like, which could hardly belong to any other +period. It is impossible, however, to found any argument upon +the artists’ signatures without taking into account the intricate +questions of authenticity which are discussed in the following +section.</p> + +<p><i>Signed Gems.</i>—The number of gems which have, or purport to +have, the name of the artist inscribed upon them is very large. +A great many of the supposed signatures are modern forgeries, +dating from the period between 1724 (when the book of Stosch, +<i>Gemmae antiquae caelatae, scalptorum nominibus insignitae</i>, +first drew general attention to the subject) and 1833, when the +multitude of forged signatures (about 1800 in number) in the collection +of Prince Poniatowski made the whole pursuit ridiculous. +It is known, however, that forged signatures were current before +1724 (see Stosch, p. xxi.), and in the period immediately following +they were very numerous. Thus Laurence Natter (<i>Méthode de +graver en pierres fines</i> (1754), p. xxx.) confesses that, whenever +desired, he made copies. For example, he copied a Venus (Brit. +Mus. No. 2296), converting the figure into a Danaë and affixing +the name of Aulos which he found on the Venus. Cf. Mariette, +<i>Traité</i> (1750), i. p. 101.</p> + +<p>The question which of the multitude of supposed signatures +can be accepted as genuine has been a subject of prolonged and +intricate controversy. In the period immediately following the +Poniatowski forgeries the extreme height of scepticism is represented +by Koehler, who only acknowledged five gems (Koehler, +iii. p. 206) as having genuine signatures. In recent years the +subject has been principally dealt with by Furtwängler, whose +conclusion is to admit a considerable number of gems rejected +by his predecessors.</p> + +<p>It must suffice here to point out a few general principles. +In the first place a certain number of gems recently discovered +have inscriptions which are undoubtedly genuine and which +record the names of the engravers. The form of the signature +may be a nominative with a verb, a nominative without a verb +or a genitive. The artists in this class are Syries, Dexamenus, +Epimenes and Semon, mentioned above, and a few others. +Another group of gems which must be accepted consists of stones +whose known history goes back to a period at which a forged +inscription was impossible. Thus a bust of Athena in the Berlin +Collection, signed by Eutyches, was seen by Cyriac of Ancona in +1445. A glass cameo signed by Herophilus, son of Dioscorides, +now at Vienna, was, in the 17th century, in the monastery of +Echternach, where it had probably been from old times. The +portrait of Julia, daughter of Titus, by Euodos (now in the Bibliothèque +Nationale) was formerly a part of a reliquary presented to +the abbey of St Denis by Charles the Bold. Another group of +undoubtedly genuine signatures occurs on cameos (in stone and +paste) which have the inscriptions in relief, and therefore as part +of the original design. Such are the works of Athenion, and of +Quintus, son of Alexas.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page568" id="page568"></a>568</span></p> + +<p>For the great majority of signed gems which do not fall into +these categories the reader must refer to the discussions of +Furtwängler and others (see <i>Bibliography</i> below). It must +suffice to say that Furtwängler arrives at the result that we have +in all genuine signatures of at least fifty ancient gem-engravers.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:488px; height:209px" src="images/img568a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.—Christian<br /> +Gem. The Good<br /> +Shepherd. (Brit. Mus.)</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—Gnostic<br /> +Gem. (Brit. Mus.)</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—Sassanian<br /> +Gem. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Gem-Engraving in the Later Empire.</i>—In the following centuries +the art of intaglio engraving, which was still at a high degree of +perfection in the first century of the Roman empire, became +more mechanical. The designs have a very characteristic appearance, +due to the method of production with rough and hasty +strokes of the wheel only. A collection of gems found in England, +such as that in the possession of the corporation of Bath, shows +the feeble character in particular of the gems current in the +provinces. Except in portraiture, and in grylli or conceits, in +which various things are combined into one, often with much +skill, the subjects were as a rule only variations or adaptations +of old types handed down from the Greeks. When new and +distinctly Roman subjects occur, such as the finding of the head +on the Capitol, or Faustulus, or the she-wolf with the twins, +both the stones and the workmanship are poor. In such cases, +where the design stirs a genuine national interest, it may happen +that very little of artistic rendering will be acceptable rather than +otherwise, and much more is this true when the design is a symbol +of some article of faith, as in the early Christian gems. There +both the art and the material are at what may be called the lowest +level. The usual subjects on the early Christian gems are the +fish, anchor, ship, dove, the good shepherd, and, according to +Clemens, the lyre. Under the Gnostics, however, with whom +there was more of speculation than of faith, symbolism was +developed to an extent which no art could realize without the +aid of writing. A gem was to them a talisman more or less +elaborate with long, but for the most part quite unintelligible, +engraved formulae. The difficulty is to make out how the stones +were carried; many specimens exist, but none show signs of +mounting. The materials are usually haematite or jasper. As +regards the designs, it is clear that Egyptian sources have been +most drawn upon. But the symbolism is also largely associated +with Mithraic worship. The name Abraxas, or more correctly +Abrasax, which, from its frequency on these gems, has led to +their being called also “Abraxas gems,” is, when the Greek +letters of which it is composed are treated as Greek numerals, +equal to 365, the number of days in a year, and the same is the +case with <span class="grk" title="MEITHRAS">ΜΕΙΘΡΑΣ</span>.</p> + +<p>More interesting, from the occasionally forcible portraiture +and the splendour of some of the jacinths employed, are the +Sassanian gems, which as a class may be said to represent the +last stage of true gem-engraving in ancient times.</p> + +<p>The art of cameo-engraving, which, as we have seen, attained +its greatest splendour at the beginning of the empire, followed on +the whole a similar course. It waned in the early part of the +3rd century after the death of the emperor Severus, but under +the first Christian emperor Constantine it enjoyed a brief period +of revival. Fine cameo portraits of Constantine are extant; +and it was during or shortly after his reign that Christian +Scripture subjects began to appear on cameos. That class of +subjects constituted the staple of such work—generally rude +and artistically debased—as continued to be cultivated under the +Byzantine empire down to nearly the epoch of the Renaissance. +From the Byzantine period downward one <span class="correction" title="amended from peculiarty">peculiarity</span> of gem-engraving +becomes noticeable. Cameo-work as compared with +intaglios in classical times was rare and infrequent, but now and +onwards the opposite is the case, intaglio-sinking having almost +died out, and cameos being chiefly produced. Commercial +intercourse with the East still secured for the engravers a supply +of magnificent sardonyxes, although blood-stone and other +non-banded stones were very commonly used for works in relief. +Cameos during the long dark ages were used chiefly for the decoration +of reliquaries and other altar furniture, and as such their +designs were purely ecclesiastical or scriptural. To this period +also belongs the class of complimentary or motto cameos, which, +containing only inscriptions and an ornamental border, executed +in nicolo stones, were used as personal gifts and adornments.</p> + +<p>In medieval times antique cameos were held in peculiar veneration +on account of the belief, then universal, in their potency +as medicinal charms. This power was supposed to be derived +from their origin, of which two theories, equally satisfactory, +were current. By the one they were held to be the work of the +children of Israel during their sojourn in the wilderness (hence +the name <i>Pierres d’Israël</i>), while the other theory held them to +be direct products of nature, the engraved figures pointing to +the peculiar virtue lodged in them. Interpreters less mystically +inclined found Biblical interpretations for the subjects. Thus +the cameo of the Sainte Chapelle was supposed to represent the +triumph of Joseph in Egypt. A cameo with Poseidon, Athena +and her serpent was Adam and Eve.</p> + +<p>The revival of the glyptic arts in western Europe dates from +the pontificate of the Venetian Paul II. (1464-1471), himself +an ardent lover and collector of gems, to which passion, indeed, +it is gravely affirmed he was a martyr, having died of a cold +caught by the multiplicity of gems exposed on his fingers. The +cameos of the early part of the 16th century rival in beauty of +execution the finest classical works, and, indeed, many of them +pass in the cabinets of collectors for genuine antiques, which +they closely imitated. The Oriental sardonyx was not available +for the purposes of the Renaissance artists, who were consequently +obliged to content themselves with the colder German +agate onyx. The scarcity of worthy materials led them to use +the backs of ancient cameos, or to improve on classical works of +inferior value executed on good material, and probably to this +cause must also be assigned the development of shell cameos, +which are rarely found, of an older period.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:184px; height:260px" src="images/img568b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14—Muse, by Pichler. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Among the means of distinguishing antique cameos from +cinquecento work, the kind of stone is one of the best tests, the +classical artists having used only rich and warm-tinted Oriental +stones, which further are frequently drilled through their diameter +with a minute hole, from having been used by their original +Oriental possessors in the form of beads. The cinquecento artists +also, as a rule, worked their subjects in high relief, and resorted +to undercutting, no case of which is found in the flat low work +of classical times. The projecting portions of antique work +exhibit a dull chalky appearance, which, +however, fabricators learned to imitate +in various ways, one of which was by +cramming the gizzards of turkey fowls +with the gems. Another index of antiquity +is found in the different methods +of working adopted in classical and +Renaissance times. The tools employed +by the Renaissance engraver were the +drill and the wheel, while the ancient +artist also employed the diamond point.</p> + +<p>The gem-engraver’s art again during +the 18th century revived under an even +greater amount of encouragement from +men of wealth and rank. In this last +period the names of engravers who +succeeded best in imitating classical designs were Natter, +Pichler (fig. 14), and the Englishmen Marchant (fig. 15) and +Burch. Compared with Greek gems, it will be seen that what +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page569" id="page569"></a>569</span> +at first sight is attractive as refined and delicate is after all an +exaggerated minuteness of execution, entirely devoid of the +ancient spirit. The success with which modern engravers imposed +on collectors is recorded in many instances, of which one may be +taken as an instructive +type. In the Bibliothèque +Nationale is a +gem (Chabouillet’s catalogue, +No. 2337), familiarly +known as the +signet of Michelangelo, +the subject being a +Bacchanalian scene. So +much did he admire it, +the story says, that he +copied from it one of the groups in his paintings in the Sistine +chapel. The gem, however, is evidently in this part of it a mere +copy from Michelangelo’s group, and therefore a subsequent +production, probably by da Pescia.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:315px; height:157px" src="images/img569.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.—Nereid and Sea-bull by Marchant. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>In our own day the engraving of cameos has practically ceased +to be pursued as an art. Roman manufacturers cut stones in +large quantities to be used as shirt-studs and for setting in finger-rings; +and in Rome and Paris an extensive trade is carried on in +the cutting of shell cameos, which are largely imported into +England and mounted as brooches by Birmingham jewelry +manufacturers. The principal shell used is the large bull’s-mouth +shell (<i>Cassis rufa</i>), found in East Indian seas, which has +a sard-like underlayer. The black helmet (<i>Cassis tuberosa</i>) of +the West Indian seas, the horned helmet (<i>C. cornuta</i>) of Madagascar, +and the pinky queen’s conch (<i>Strombus gigas</i>) of the +West Indies are also employed. The famous potter Josiah +Wedgwood introduced a method of making imitations of cameos +in pottery by producing white figures on a coloured ground, +this constituting the peculiarity of what is now known as +Wedgwood ware.</p> + +<p><i>Gem Collectors.</i>—The habit of gem-collecting is recorded first +in the instance of Ismenias, a musician of Cyprus, who appears +to have lived in the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> But though individual +collectors are not again mentioned till the time of Mithradates, +whose cabinet was carried off to Rome by Pompey, still it is to +be inferred that they existed, if not pretty generally, yet in such +places as Cyrene, where the passion for gems was so great that +the thriftiest person owned one worth 10 minas, and where, +according to Aelian (<i>Var. hist.</i> xii. 30), the skill in engraving +was astonishing. The first cabinet (<i>dactyliotheca</i>) in Rome was +that of Scaurus, a stepson of Sulla. Caesar is said to have formed +six cabinets for public exhibition, and from the time of Augustus +all men of refinement were supposed to be judges both of the art +and of the quality of the stones.</p> + +<p>In the middle ages the chief collections were incorporated in +works of art in the church treasuries. The first collector of +modern times was, as already mentioned, Pope Paul II., who was +followed by a long succession of princely and noble collectors such +as Lorenzo de’ Medici and the great earl of Arundel. The collection +of the latter passed into the hands of the dukes of Marlborough +and thence into the possession of Mr David Bromilow. +The collection was finally dispersed by auction in June 1899.</p> + +<p>In modern times the principal collections are contained in state +museums. The cabinets of Vienna and of the Bibliothèque +Nationale are incomparably rich in the historic cameos. Those +of the British Museum and of Berlin are the strongest in their +range over the whole field of the gem-engraver’s art.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—For the fullest general account of the subject +(with especial attention to the gems of classical antiquity) see A. +Furtwängler, <i>Die antiken Gemmen, Geschichte der Steinschneiderkunst +im klassischen Altertum</i>, in 3 vols (1900). See also E. Babelon, <i>La +Gravure en pierres fines, camées et intailles</i> (1894); A.H. Smith, +“Gemma” and “Sculptura,” in the 3rd edition of Smith’s <i>Dict. of +Antiquities</i>; J.H. Middleton, <i>The Engraved Gems of Classical Times</i> +(1891). Much curious information is in the works of C.W. King: +<i>Handbook of Engraved Gems</i> (1866); <i>Antique Gems</i> (1866); <i>The +Natural History, Ancient and Modern, of Precious Stones and Gems, +and of the Precious Metals</i> (1865); <i>Antique Gems and Rings</i> (2 vols., +1872).</p> + +<p>Special Periods:—<i>Babylonia, &c.</i>—Menant, “Les Pierres gravées +de la haute Asie,” <i>Recherches sur la glyptique orientale</i> (1883-1886).</p> + +<p><i>Egypt.</i>—For the early cylinder sealings, &c. see Petrie, “Royal +Tombs of the First Dynasty” (<i>Egypt Explor. Fund, XVIIIth +Memoir</i>), p. 24; pls. 12, figs. 3 to 7, and pls. 18-29; Amélineau, +“Nouvelles Fouilles d’Abydos, 1897-1898,” <i>Compte rendu</i>, pp. 78, +423; pl. 25, figs. 1-3.</p> + +<p><i>The Bible.</i>—Petrie, “Stones (Precious),” in Hastings’ <i>Dict. of the +Bible</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Phoenician.</i>—See M.A. Levy, <i>Siegel und Gemmen</i>, with three +plates of gems having Phoenician, Aramaic, old Hebrew and other +inscriptions (Breslau, 1869); and, on the same subject, De Voguë, +in the <i>Revue archéologique</i>, 2nd series (1868), xvii. p. 432, pls. +14-16.</p> + +<p><i>Crete.</i>—Articles by A.J. Evans in <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, xiv., +xvii., xxi., and in <i>Annual of British School at Athens</i>, vi. and onwards.</p> + +<p><i>Classical Gems.</i>—See Furtwängler, op. cit.</p> + +<p><i>Gnostic Gems.</i>—Cabrol, <i>Dict. d’archéologie chrétienne</i>, s.v. +“Abrasax.”</p> + +<p>For the controversy as to gems with artists’ signatures, see +Koehler, <i>Abhandlung über die geschnittenen Steine, mit den Namen +der Künstler</i>; Koehler’s collected works, ed. Stephani, vol. iii. +(1851); Stephani, Notes to Koehler as above; also <i>Über einige +angebliche Steinschneider des Alterthums</i> (St Petersburg, 1851); +Brunn, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Künstler</i>, ii. (1859), pp. 442-637; +Furtwängler, <i>Jahrbuch d. k. deutsch. arch. Inst.</i> iii. (1888), pp. 105, +193, 297; iv. (1889), p. 46, and <i>Geschichte</i>, passim.</p> + +<p>For the history of the Poniatowski gems, see Reinach, <i>Pierres +gravées</i>, p. 151.</p> + +<p><i>Catalogues.</i>—The chief catalogues dealing with modern public +collections are: Berlin, A. Furtwängler, <i>Beschreibung der geschnittenen +Steine im Antiquarium</i> (1896); British Museum, A.H. +Smith, <i>A Catalogue of Engraved Gems in the British Museum</i> (<i>Dept. +of Greek and Roman Antiquities</i>) (1888); Paris, Bibliothèque +Nationale, Chabouillet, <i>Catalogue ... des camées et pierres gravées +de la Bibliothèque Impériale</i> (1858); E. Babelon, <i>Catalogue des +camées ... de la Bibliothèque Nationale</i> (1897).</p> + +<p><i>Modern Engraving.</i>—Vasari vii. p. 113 (ed. Siena, 1792); continued +by Mariette, <i>Traité des pierres gravées</i> (1750), i. p. 105. The +older books on gems are very numerous, but those of present-day +importance are not many. Faber, <i>Illustrium imagines ... apud +Fulvium Ursinum</i> (Antwerp, 1606); Stosch, <i>Gemmae antiquae +caelatae, scalptorum nominibus insignitae</i> (Amsterdam, 1724); +Winckelmann, <i>Description des pierres gravées du feu Baron de Stosch</i> +(1760); Krause, <i>Pyrgoteles, oder die edlen Steine der Alten</i> (1856); +a convenient reissue of Stosch, and seven others of the older works, +by S. Reinach, <i>Pierres gravées, &c. ... réunies et rééditées, avec +un texte nouveau</i> (1895).</p> + +<p><i>Pastes.</i>—The principal collection of glass and sulphur pastes from +gems was that issued by James Tassie of Glasgow, with <i>A Descriptive +Catalogue of a General Collection of ... Engraved Gems ... arranged +and described by R.E. Raspe</i> (the author of <i>Baron Munchausen</i>) +(1791).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. S. M.; A. H. Sm.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For Nos. 1-4 see Furtwängler, pl. 14; for Nos. 2-4 see Evans, +<i>Rev. archéologique</i>, xxxii. (1898) pl. 8.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEM, ARTIFICIAL.<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> The term “Artificial Gems” does not +mean <i>imitations</i> of real gems, but the actual formation by artificial +means of the real precious stone, so that the product is +identical, chemically, physically and optically, with the one +found in nature. For instance, in chemical composition the +lustrous diamond is nothing but crystallized carbon. Could we +take black amorphous carbon in the form of charcoal or lampblack +and dissolve it in a liquid, and by the slow evaporation of +that liquid allow the dissolved carbon to separate out, it would +probably crystallize in the transparent form of diamond. This +would be a true synthesis of diamond, and the product would be +just as much entitled to the name as the choicest products of +Kimberley or Golconda. But this is a very different thing from +the imitation diamond so common in shop windows. Here the +chemist has only succeeded in making a paste or glass having +limpidity and a somewhat high refractivity, but wanting the +hardness and “fire” of the real stone.</p> + +<p><i>The Diamond.</i>—Within recent years chemists have actually +succeeded in making the real diamond by artificial means, and +although the largest yet made is not more than one-fiftieth of +an inch across, the process itself and the train of reasoning leading +up to such an achievement are sufficiently interesting to warrant +a somewhat full description. Attempts to make diamonds +artificially have been numerous, but, with the sole exception of +those of Henri Moissan, all have resulted in failure. The nearest +approach to success was attained by J.B. Hannay in 1880 and +R.S. Marsden in 1881; but their results have not been verified +by others who have tried to repeat them, and the probability +is that what was then thought to be diamond was in reality +carborundum or carbide of silicon.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page570" id="page570"></a>570</span></p> + +<p>Attempts have been made by two methods to make carbon +crystallize in the transparent form. One is to crystallize it slowly +from a solution in which it has been dissolved. The difficulty is +to find a solvent. Many organic and some inorganic bodies hold +carbon so loosely combined that it can be separated out under the +influence of chemical action, heat or electricity, but invariably +the carbon assumes the black amorphous form. The other +method is to try to fuse the carbon by fierce heat, when from +analogy it is argued that on cooling it will solidify to a clear limpid +crystal. The progress of science in other directions has now +made it pretty certain that the true mode of making diamond +artificially is by a combination of these two methods. Until +recently it was assumed that carbon was non-volatile at any +attainable temperature, but it is now known that at a temperature +of about 3600° C. it volatilizes readily, passing without +liquefying directly from the solid to the gaseous state. Very few +bodies act in this manner, the great majority when heated at +atmospheric pressure to a sufficient temperature passing through +the intermediate condition of liquidity. Some few, however, +which when heated at atmospheric pressure do not liquefy, when +heated at higher pressures in closed vessels obey the common rule +and first become liquid and then volatilize. Sir James Dewar +found the critical pressure of carbon to be about 15 tons on the +sq. in.; that is to say, if heated to its critical temperature (3600° +C.), and at the same time subjected to a pressure of 15 tons to +the sq. in., it will assume the liquid form. Enormous as such +pressures and temperatures may appear to be, they have been +exceeded in some of Sir Andrew Noble’s and Sir F. Abel’s researches; +in their investigations on the gases from gunpowder +and cordite fired in closed steel chambers, these chemists obtained +pressures as great as 95 tons to the sq. in., and temperatures +as high as 4000° C. Here then, if the observations are correct, +we have sufficient temperature and enough pressure to liquefy +carbon; and, were there only sufficient time for these to act on +the carbon, there is little doubt that the artificial formation of +diamonds would soon pass from the microscopic stage to a scale +more likely to satisfy the requirements of science, if not those +of personal adornment.</p> + +<p>It has long been known that the metal iron in a molten state +dissolves carbon and deposits it on cooling as black opaque +graphite. Moissan carried out a laborious and systematic series +of experiments on the solubility of carbon in iron and other +metals, and came to the conclusion that whereas at ordinary +pressures the carbon separates from the solidifying iron in the +form of graphite, if the pressure be greatly increased the carbon +on separation will form liquid drops, which on solidifying will +assume the crystalline shape and become true diamond. Many +other metals dissolve carbon, but molten iron has been found to +be the best solvent. The quantity entering into solution increases +with the temperature of the metal. But temperature alone is not +enough; pressure must be superadded. Here Moissan ingeniously +made use of a property which molten iron possesses in common +with some few other liquids—water, for instance—of increasing +in volume in the act of passing from the liquid to the solid state. +Pure iron is mixed with carbon obtained from the calcination of +sugar, and the whole is rapidly heated in a carbon crucible in an +electric furnace, using a current of 700 amperes and 40 volts. The +iron melts like wax and saturates itself with carbon. After a few +minutes’ heating to a temperature above 4000° C.—a temperature +at which the lime furnace begins to melt and the iron +volatilizes in clouds—the dazzling, fiery crucible is lifted out and +plunged beneath the surface of cold water, where it is held till it +sinks below a red heat. The sudden cooling solidifies the outer +skin of molten metal and holds the inner liquid mass in an iron +grip. The expansion of the inner liquid on solidifying produces +enormous pressure, and under this stress the dissolved carbon +separates out in a hard, transparent, dense form—in fact, as +diamond. The succeeding operations are long and tedious. +The metallic ingot is attacked with hot <i>aqua regia</i> till no iron is +left undissolved. The bulky residue consists chiefly of graphite, +together with translucent flakes of chestnut-coloured carbon, +hard black opaque carbon of a density of from 3.0 to 3.5, black +diamonds—carbonado, in fact—and a small quantity of transparent +colourless diamonds showing crystalline structure. +Besides these there may be corundum and carbide of silicon, +arising from impurities in the materials employed. Heating +with strong sulphuric acid, with hydrofluoric acid, with nitric +acid and potassium chlorate, and fusing with potassium fluoride—operations +repeated over and over again—at last eliminate the +graphite and impurities and leave the true diamond untouched. +The precious residue on microscopic examination shows many +pieces of black diamond, and other colourless transparent pieces, +some amorphous, others crystalline. Although many fragments +of crystals are seen, the writer has scarcely ever met with a +complete crystal. All appear broken up, as if, on being liberated +from the intense pressure under which they were formed, they +burst asunder. Direct evidence of this phenomenon has been +seen. A very fine piece of diamond, prepared in the way just +described and carefully mounted on a microscopic slide, exploded +during the night and covered the slide with fragments. This +bursting paroxysm is not unknown at the Kimberley mines.</p> + +<p>Sir William Crookes in 1906 communicated to the Royal +Society a paper on a new formation of diamond. Sir Andrew +Noble has shown that in the explosion of cordite in closed steel +cylinders pressures of over 50 tons to the sq. in. and a temperature +probably reaching 5400° were obtained. Here then we have +conditions favourable for the liquefaction of carbon, and if the +time of explosion were sufficient to allow the reactions to take +place we should expect to get liquid carbon solidified in the +crystalline state. Experiment proved the truth of these anticipations. +Working with specially prepared explosive containing a +little excess of carbon Sir Andrew Noble collected the residue +left in the steel cylinder. This residue was submitted by Sir +William Crookes to the lengthy operations already described +in the account of H. Moissan’s fused iron experiment. Finally, +minute crystals were obtained which showed octahedral planes +with dark boundaries due to high refracting index. The position +and angles of their faces, and cleavages, the absence of bi-refringence, +and their high refractive index all showed that the +crystals were true diamond.</p> + +<p>The artificial diamonds, so far, have not been larger than +microscopic specimens, and none has measured more than about +half a millimetre across. That, however, is quite enough to show +the correctness of the train of reasoning leading up to the achievement, +and there is no reason to doubt that, working on a larger +scale, larger diamonds will result. Diamonds so made burn in +the air when heated to a high temperature, with formation of +carbonic acid; and in lustre, crystalline form, optical properties, +density and hardness, they are identical with the natural stone.</p> + +<p>It having been shown that diamond is formed by the separation +of carbon from molten iron under pressure, it became of interest +to see if in some large metallurgical operations similar conditions +might not prevail. A special form of steel is made at some +large establishments by cooling the molten metal under intense +hydraulic pressure. In some samples of the steel so made +Professor Rosel, of the university of Bern, has found microscopic +diamonds. The higher the temperature at which the steel has +been melted the more diamonds it contains, and it has even been +suggested that the hardness of steel in some measure may be +due to the carbon distributed throughout its mass being in this +adamantine form. The largest artificial diamond yet formed +was found in a block of steel and slag from a furnace in Luxembourg; +it is clear and crystalline, and measures about one-fiftieth +of an inch across.</p> + +<p>A striking confirmation of the theory that natural diamonds +have been produced from their solution in masses of molten +iron, the metal from which has gradually oxidized and been +washed away under cycles of atmospheric influences, is afforded +by the occurrence of diamonds in a meteorite. On a broad open +plain in Arizona, over an area of about 5 m. in diameter, lie +scattered thousands of masses of metallic iron, the fragments +varying in weight from half a ton to a fraction of an ounce. There +is little doubt that these fragments formed part of a meteoric +shower, although no record exists as to when the fall took place. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page571" id="page571"></a>571</span> +Near the centre, where most of the fragments have been found, +is a crater with raised edges, three-quarters of a mile in diameter +and 600 ft. deep, bearing just the appearance which would be +produced had a mighty mass of iron—a falling star—struck the +ground, scattered it in all directions, and buried itself deeply +under the surface, fragments eroded from the surface forming +the pieces now met with. Altogether ten tons of this iron have +been collected, and specimens of the Canyon Diablo meteorite +are in most collectors’ cabinets. Dr A.E. Foote, a mineralogist, +when cutting a section of this meteorite, found the tools injured +by something vastly harder than metallic iron, and an emery +wheel used for grinding it was ruined. He attacked the specimen +chemically, and soon afterwards announced to the scientific +world that the Canyon Diablo meteorite contained diamonds, +both black and transparent. This startling discovery was +subsequently verified by Professors C. Friedel and H. Moissan, +and also by Sir W. Crookes.</p> + +<p><i>The Ruby.</i>—It is evident that of the other precious stones only +the most prized are worth producing artificially. Apart from +their inferior hardness and colour, the demand for what are +known as “semi-precious stones” would not pay for the +necessarily great expenses of the factory. Moreover, were it to +be known that they were being produced artificially the demand—never +very great—would almost cease. The only other gems, +therefore, which need be mentioned in connexion with their +artificial formation are those of the corundum or sapphire class, +which include all the most highly prized gems, rivalling, and +sometimes exceeding, the diamond in value. Here a remarkable +and little-known fact deserves notice. Excepting the diamond +and sapphire, each of the precious stones—the emerald, the +topaz and amethyst—possesses a more noble, a harder, and +more highly-prized counterpart of itself, alike in colour, but +superior in brilliancy and hardness; still more strange, the +precious stone to which its special name is usually attached +is the variety the least prized. The ruby itself might almost +be included in the same category. The true ruby consists of +the earth alumina, in a clear, crystalline form, having a minute +quantity of the element chromium as the colouring matter. It +is often called the “Oriental Ruby,” or red sapphire, and when +of a paler colour, the “Pink Sapphire.” But the ruby as met +with in jewellers’ shops of inferior standing is usually no true +ruby, but a “spinel ruby” or “balas ruby,” sometimes very +beautiful in colour, but softer than the Oriental ruby, and +different in chemical composition, consisting essentially of alumina +and magnesia and a little silica, with the colouring matter +chromium. The colourless basis of the true Oriental precious +stones being taken as crystallized alumina or white sapphire, +when the colouring matter is red the stone is called ruby, when +blue sapphire, when green Oriental emerald, when orange-yellow +Oriental topaz, and when violet Oriental amethyst. Clear, +colourless crystals are known as white sapphire, and are very +valuable. It is evident, therefore, that whosoever succeeds in +making artificially clear crystals of white sapphire has the +power, by introducing appropriate colouring matter, to make +the Oriental ruby, sapphire, emerald, topaz and amethyst. All +of these stones, even when of small size, are costly and readily +saleable, while when they are of fine quality and large size they +are highly prized, a ruby of fine colour, and free from flaws, a +few carats in weight, being of more value than a diamond of +the same weight.</p> + +<p>This being the case, it is not surprising that repeated attempts +have been made to effect the crystallization of alumina. This +is not a matter of difficulty, but unfortunately the crystals +generally form thin plates, of good colour, but too thin to be +useful as gems. In 1837 M.A.A. Gaudin made true rubies, of +microscopic size, by fusing alum in a carbon crucible at a very +high temperature, and adding a little chromium as colouring +matter. In 1847 J.J. Ebelmen produced the white sapphire +and rose-coloured spinel by fusing the constituents at a high +temperature in boracic acid. Shortly afterwards he produced +the ruby by employing borax as the solvent. The boracic acid +was found to be too volatile to allow the alumina to crystallize, +but the use of borax made the necessary difference. But it was +not till about the year 1877 that E. Frémy and C. Feil first +published a method whereby it was possible to produce a crystallized +alumina from which small stones could be cut. They +first formed lead aluminate by the fusion together of lead oxide +and alumina. This was kept in a state of fusion in a fireclay +crucible (in the composition of which silica enters largely). +Under the influence of the high temperature the silica of the +crucible gradually decomposes the lead aluminate, forming lead +silicate, which remains in the liquid state, and alumina, which +crystallizes as white sapphire. By the admixture of 2 or 3% +of a chromium compound with original materials the resulting +white sapphire became ruby. More recently Edmond Frémy +and A. Verneuil obtained artificial rubies by reacting at a red +heat with barium fluoride on amorphous alumina containing +a small quantity of chromium. The rubies obtained in this +manner are thus described by Frémy and Verneuil: “Their +crystalline form is regular; their lustre is adamantine; they +present the beautiful colour of the ruby; they are perfectly +transparent, have the hardness of the ruby, and easily scratch +topaz. They resemble the natural ruby in becoming dark when +heated, resuming their rose-colour on cooling.” Des Cloizeaux +says of them that “under the microscope some of the crystals +show bubbles. In converging polarized light the coloured rings +and the negative black cross are of a remarkable regularity.”</p> + +<p>Other experimentalists have attacked the problem in other +directions. Besides those already mentioned, L. Eisner, H.H. De +Senarmont, Sainte-Claire Deville, and H. Caron and H. Debray +have succeeded with more or less success in producing rubies. +The general plan adopted has been to form a mixture of salts +fusible at a red heat, forming a liquid in which alumina will +dissolve. Alumina is now added till the fused mass will take up +no more, and the crucible is left in the furnace for a long time, +sometimes extending over weeks. The solvent slowly volatilizes, +and the alumina is deposited in crystals, coloured by whatever +colouring oxide has been added.</p> + +<p>Mention has been made above of a stone frequently substituted +for the true ruby, called the “spinel” or “balas” ruby. The +spinel and ruby occur together in nature, stones from Burma +being as often spinel as true Oriental ruby. In the artificial +production of the ruby it sometimes happens that spinel crystallizes +out when true Oriental ruby is expected. The fusion bath +is so arranged that only red-coloured alumina shall crystallize out, +but it is difficult to have all the materials of such purity as to +ensure the complete absence of silica and magnesia. In this +case, when these impurities have accumulated to a certain point +they unite with the alumina, and spinel then separates, as it +crystallizes more easily than ruby. When all the magnesia and +silica have been eliminated in this way the bath resumes its +deposition of crystalline ruby. Rubies of fine colour and of +considerable size have been shown in London, made on the +Continent by a secret process. The writer has seen several cut +stones so made weighing over a carat each, the uncut crystals +measuring half an inch along a crystal edge, and weighing over +70 grains, and a clear plate of ruby cut from a single crystal +weighing over 10 grains. Ruby has been made by Sir W. +Roberts-Austen as a by-product in the production of metallic +chromium. Oxide of chromium and aluminium powder are +intimately mixed together in a refractory crucible, and the +mixture is ignited at the upper part. The aluminium and +chromium oxide react with evolution of so much heat that the +reduced chromium is melted. Such is the intensity of the reaction +that the resulting alumina is also completely fused, floating as a +liquid on the molten chromium. Sometimes the alumina takes +tip the right amount of chromium to enable it to assume the ruby +colour. On cooling the melted alumina crystallizes in large +flakes, which on examination by transmitted light are seen to be +true ruby. The development of the red colour is said by C. +Greville-Williams only to take place at a white heat. It is not due +to the presence of chromic acid, but to a reaction between alumina +and chromic oxide, which requires an elevated temperature.</p> + +<p>Artificially made but real rubies have been put on the market, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page572" id="page572"></a>572</span> +prepared by a process of fusion by A. Verneuil. He finds that +certain conditions have to be fulfilled in order to get the alumina in +a transparent form. The temperature must not be higher than is +absolutely necessary for fusion. The melted product must always +be in the same part of the oxyhydrogen flame, and the point of +contact between the melted product and the support should be +reduced to as small an area as possible. M. Verneuil uses a +vertical blowpipe flame directed on a support capable of movement +up and down by means of a screw, so that the fused product +may be removed from the zone of fusion as it gets higher by +addition of fresh material. The material employed is either +composed of small, valueless rubies, or alumina coloured with the +right amount of chromium. It is very finely powdered and fed in +through the blowpipe orifice, whence it is blown in a highly +heated condition into the zone of fusion. The support is a small +cylinder of alumina placed in the axis of the blowpipe. As the +operation proceeds the fine grains of powder driven on to the +support in the zone of fusion form a cone which gradually rises +and broadens out until it becomes of sufficient size to be used for +cutting. Rubies prepared in this way have the same specific +gravity and hardness as the natural ruby, and they are also +dichroic, and in the vacuum tube under the influence of the +cathode stream they phosphoresce with a discontinuous spectrum +showing the strong alumina line in the red. When properly cut +and mounted it is almost impossible to distinguish them from +natural stones.</p> + +<p><i>The Sapphire.</i>—Auguste Daubrée has shown that when a full +quantity of chromium is added to the bath from which white +sapphire crystallizes the colour is that of ruby, but when much +less chromium is added the colour is blue, forming the true +Oriental sapphire. The real colouring matter of the Oriental +sapphire is not definitely known, some chemists considering it to +be chromium and others cobalt. Artificial sapphires have been +made of a fair size and perfectly transparent by the addition +of cobalt to the igneous bath of alumina, but the writer does +not consider them equal in colour to true Oriental sapphire.</p> + +<p><i>The Oriental Emerald.</i>—The stone known as emerald consists +chemically of silica, alumina and glucina. Like the ruby, it owes +its colour to chromium, but in a different state of oxidation. As +already mentioned, there is another stone which consists of +crystallized alumina coloured with chromium, but holding the +chromium in a different state of oxidation. This is called the +Oriental emerald, and, owing to its beauty of colour, its hardness +and rarity, it is more highly prized than the emerald itself and +commands higher prices. The Oriental emerald has been +produced artificially in the same way as the ruby, by adding a +larger amount of chromium to the alumina bath and regulating +the temperature.</p> + +<p><i>The Oriental Amethyst.</i>—The amethyst is rock crystal (quartz) +of a bluish-violet colour. It is one of the least valuable of the +precious stones. The sapphire, however, is found occasionally of +a beautiful violet colour; it is then called the Oriental amethyst, +and, on account of its beauty and rarity, is of great value. It is +evident that if to the igneous bath of alumina some colouring +matter, such as manganese, is added capable of communicating +a violet colour to the crystals of alumina, the Oriental amethyst +will be the result. Oriental amethyst has been so formed artificially, +but the stone being known only as a curiosity to mineralogists +and experts in precious stones, and the public not being able to +discriminate between the violet sapphire and amethystine quartz, +there is no demand for the artificial stone.</p> + +<p><i>The Oriental Topaz.</i>—The topaz is what is called a semi-precious +stone. It occurs of many colours, from clear white to +pink, orange, yellow and pale green. The usual colour is from +straw-yellow to sherry colour. The exact composition of the +colouring matter is not known; it is not entirely of mineral +origin, as it changes colour and sometimes fades altogether on +exposure to light. Chemically the topaz consists of alumina, +silica and fluorine. It is not so hard as the sapphire. There is +also a yellow variety of quartz, which is sometimes called “false +topaz.” The Oriental topaz, on the other hand, is a precious +stone of great value. It consists of clear crystalline sapphire +coloured with a small quantity of ferric oxide. It has been +produced artificially by adding iron instead of chromium to the +matrix from which the white sapphire crystallizes.</p> + +<p><i>The Zircon.</i>—The zircon is a very beautiful stone, varying in +colour, like the topaz, from red and yellow to green and blue. +It is sometimes met with colourless, and such are its refractive +powers and brilliancy that it has been mistaken for diamond. +It is a compound of silica and zirconia. H. Sainte-Claire Deville +formed the zircon artificially by passing silicon fluoride at a red +heat over the oxide zirconia in a porcelain tube. Octahedral +crystals of zircon are then produced, which have the same +crystalline form, appearance and optical qualities as the natural +zircon.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Sir William Crookes, “A New Formation of +Diamond,” <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> vol. lxxvi. p. 458; “Diamonds,” a +lecture delivered before the British Association at Kimberley, +South Africa, 5th September, 1905, <i>Chemical News</i>, vol. xcii. pp. +135, 147, 159; J.J. Ebelmen, “Sur la production artificielle des +pierres dures,” <i>Comptes rendus</i>, vol. xxv. p. 279; “Sur une nouvelle +méthode pour obtenir, par la voie sèche, des combinations crystallisées, +et sur ses applications à la réproduction de plusieurs espèces +minérales,” <i>Comptes rendus</i>, vol. xxv. p. 661; Edmond Frémy and +C. Feil, “Sur la production artificielle du corindon, du rubis, et de +différents silicates crystallisées,” <i>Comptes rendus</i>, vol. lxxxv. p. +1029; C. Friedel, “Sur l’existence du diamant dans le fer météorique +de Cañon Diablo,” <i>Comptes rendus</i>, vol. cxv. p. 1037, vol. cxvi. +p. 290; H. Moissan, “Étude de la météorite de Cañon Diablo,” +<i>Comptes rendus</i>, vol. cxvi. p. 288; “Expériences sur la réproduction +du diamant,” <i>Comptes rendus</i>, vol. cxviii. p. 320; “Sur quelques +expériences relatives à la préparation du diamant,” <i>Comptes rendus</i>, +vol. cxxiii. p. 206; <i>Le Four électrique</i> (Paris, 1897); H. Sainte-Claire +Deville and H. Caron, “Sur un nouveau mode de production à +l’état cristallisé d’un certain nombre d’espèces chimiques et minéralogiques,” +<i>Comptes rendus</i>, vol. xlvi. p. 764; A. Verneuil, “Production +artificielle des rubis par fusion,” ibid. vol. cxxxv. p. 791; +J. Boyer, <i>La Synthèse des pierres précieuses</i> (Paris, 1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEMBLOUX,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> a town in the province of Namur and on the +borders of Brabant, Belgium, 25 m. S.E. of Brussels on the main +line to Namur and Luxemburg. Pop. (1904) 4643. It is a busy +place with large railway and engine works, and the junction for +several branch lines. On the 31st of January 1578 Don John +of Austria gained here a signal victory over the army of the +provinces led by Antony de Goignies.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEMINI<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (“The Twins,” <i>i.e.</i> Castor and Pollux), in astronomy, +the third sign in the zodiac, denoted by the symbol II. It is +also a constellation, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +and Aratus (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and catalogued by Ptolemy, 25 +stars, Tycho Brahe 25, and Hevelius 38. By the Egyptians this +constellation was symbolized as a couple of young kids; the +Greeks altered this symbol to two children, variously said to be +Castor and Pollux, Hercules and Apollo, or Triptolemus and +Iasion; the Arabians used the symbol of a pair of peacocks. +Interesting objects in this constellation are: α Geminorum or +Castor, a very fine double star of magnitudes 2.0 and 2.8, the +fainter component is a spectroscopic binary; η Geminorum, a +long period (231 days) variable, the extreme range in magnitude +being 3.2 to 4; ζ Geminorum, a short period variable, 10.15 days, +the extreme range in magnitude being 3.7 to 4.5; <i>Nova</i> +Geminorum, a “new” star discovered in 1903 by H.H. Turner +of Oxford; and the star cluster M.35 Geminorum, a fine and +bright, but loose, cluster, with very little central condensation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEMINIANI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1680-1762), Italian violinist, +was born at Lucca about 1680. He received lessons in music +from Alessandro Scarlatti, and studied the violin under Lunati +(Gobbo) and afterwards under Corelli. In 1714 he arrived in +London, where he was taken under the special protection of the +earl of Essex, and made a living by teaching and writing music. +In 1715 he played his violin concertos with Handel at the English +court. After visiting Paris and residing there for some time, +he returned to England in 1755. In 1761 he went to Dublin, +where a servant robbed him of a musical manuscript on which +he had bestowed much time and labour. His vexation at this +loss is said to have hastened his death on the 17th of September +1762. He appears to have been a first-rate violinist, but most +of his compositions are dry and deficient in melody. His <i>Art +of Playing the Violin</i> is a good work of its kind, but his <i>Guida</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page573" id="page573"></a>573</span> +<i>armonica</i> is an inferior production. He published a number of +solos for the violin, three sets of violin concertos, twelve violin +trios, <i>The Art of Accompaniment on the Harpsichord, Organ</i>, &c., +<i>Lessons for the Harpsichord</i> and some other works.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEMISTUS PLETHO<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> [or <span class="sc">Plethon</span>], <b>GEORGIUS</b> (<i>c.</i> 1355-1450), +Greek Platonic philosopher and scholar, one of the chief +pioneers of the revival of learning in Western Europe, was +a Byzantine by birth who settled at Mistra in the Peloponnese, +the site of ancient Sparta. He changed his name from +Gemistus to the equivalent Pletho (“the full”), perhaps +owing to the similarity of sound between that name and +that of his master Plato. He invented a religious system +founded on the speculative mysticism of the Neoplatonists, and +founded a sect, the members of which believed that the new +creed would supersede all existing forms of belief. But he is +chiefly memorable for having introduced Plato to the Western +world. This took place upon his visit to Florence in 1439, as +one of the deputies from Constantinople on occasion of the general +council. Cardinal Bessarion became his disciple; he produced +a great impression upon Cosimo de’ Medici; and though not +himself making any very important contribution to the study +of Plato, he effectually shook the exclusive domination which +Aristotle had exercised over European thought for eight centuries. +He promoted the union of the Greek and Latin Churches as far +as possible, but his efforts in this direction bore no permanent +fruit. He probably died before the capture of Constantinople. +The most important of his published works are treatises on the +distinction between Plato and Aristotle as philosophers (published +at Venice in 1540); on the religion of Zoroaster (Paris, 1538); +on the condition of the Peloponnese (ed. A. Ellissen in <i>Analekten +der mittel- und neugriechischen Literatur</i>, iv.); and the <span class="grk" title="Nomoi">Νόμοι</span> (ed. +C. Alexandre, Paris, 1858). In addition to these he compiled +several volumes of excerpts from ancient authors, and wrote a +number of works on geography, music and other subjects, many +of which still exist in MS. in various European libraries.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See especially F. Schultze, <i>Geschichte der Philosophie der Renaissance</i>, +i. (1874); also J.A. Symonds, <i>The Renaissance in Italy</i> +(1877), ii. p. 198; H.F. Tozer, “A Byzantine Reformer,” in <i>Journal +of Hellenic Studies</i>, vii. (1886), chiefly on Pletho’s scheme of political +and social reform for the Peloponnese, as set forth in the pamphlets +addressed to Manuel II. Palaeologus and his son Theodore, despot +of the Morea; W. Gass, <i>Gennadius und Pletho</i> (1844). Most of +Pletho’s works will be found in J.P. Migne, <i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, clx.; +for a complete list see Fabricius, <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i> (ed. Harles), xii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEMMI PASS<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span>, a pass (7641 ft.) leading from Frutigen in the +Swiss canton of Bern to Leukerbad in the Swiss canton of the +Valais. It is much frequented by travellers in summer. From +Kandersteg (7½ m. by road above Frutigen, which is 12 m. by +rail from Spiez on the Berne-Interlaken line) a mule path leads +to the summit of the pass, passing over the Spitalmatte plain, +where in 1782 and again in 1895 a great avalanche fell from the +Altels (11,930 ft.) to the S.E., causing on both occasions great +loss of life and property. The mule path descends on the south +side of the pass by an extraordinary series of zigzags, made +accessible for mules (though no rider is now allowed to descend +on mule-back) by a band of Tirolese workmen in 1740-1741. +They are cut in a very steep wall of rock, about 1800 ft. in height, +and lead down to the village of Leukerbad, which is 9½ m. by +carriage road past Leuk above the Susten station in the Rhône +valley and on the Simplon line.</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENDARMERIE,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> originally a body of troops in France +composed of <i>gendarmes</i> or men-at-arms. In the days of chivalry +they were mounted and armed cap-à-pie, exactly as were the +lords and knights, with whom they constituted the most important +part of an army. They were attended each by five soldiers of +inferior rank and more lightly armed. In the later middle ages +the men-at-arms were furnished by owners of fiefs. But after +the Hundred Years’ War this feudal gendarmerie was replaced +by the <i>compagnies d’ordonnance</i> which Charles VII. formed when +the English were driven out of France, and which were distributed +throughout the whole extent of the kingdom for preserving order +and maintaining the king’s authority. These companies, fifteen +in number, were composed of 100 lances or gendarmes fully +equipped, each of whom was attended by at least three archers, +one <i>coutillier</i> (soldier armed with a cutlass) and one <i>varlet</i> (soldier’s +servant). The states-general of Orleans (1439) had voted a +yearly subsidy of 1,200,000 livres in perpetuity to keep up this +national soldiery, which replaced, and in fact was recruited +chiefly amongst, the bands of mercenaries who for about a +century had made France their prey. The number and composition +of the <i>compagnies d’ordonnance</i> were changed more than +once before the reign of Louis XIV. This sovereign on his +accession to the throne found only eight companies of gendarmes +surviving out of an original total of more than one hundred, but +after the victory of Fleurus (1690), which had been decided by +their courage, he increased their number to sixteen. The four +first companies (which were practically guard troops) were +designated by the names of <i>Gendarmes écossais</i>, <i>Gendarmes +anglais</i>, <i>Gendarmes bourguignons</i> and <i>Gendarmes flamands</i>, from +the nationality of the soldiers who had originally composed them; +but at that time they consisted entirely of French soldiers and +officers. These four companies had a captain-general, who was +the king. The fifth company was that of the queen; and the +others bore the name of the princes who respectively commanded +them. This organization was dissolved in 1788. The Revolution +swept away all these institutions of the monarchy, and, with +the exception of a short revival of the <i>Gendarmes de la garde</i> at +the Restoration, henceforward the word “gendarmerie” +possesses an altogether different significance—viz. military +police.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENEALOGY<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="genos">γένος</span>, family, and <span class="grk" title="logos">λόγος</span>, +theory), a pedigree or list of ancestors, or the study of family +history.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Biblical Genealogies.</i>—The aims and methods of ancient +genealogists require to be carefully considered before the value +of the numerous ancestral lists in the Bible can be properly +estimated. Many of the old “genealogies,” like those of Greece, +have arisen from the desire to explain the origin of the various +groups which they include. Information relating to the subdivision +of tribes, their relation to each other, the intermingling +of populations and the like are thus frequently represented in +the form of genealogies. The “sons” of a “father” often stand +merely for the branches of a family as they existed at some one +period, and since in course of time tribal relations would vary, +lists which have originated at different periods will present +discrepancies. It is obvious that many of the Biblical names are +nothing more than personifications of nations, tribes, towns, +&c., which are grouped together to convey some idea of the bond +by which they were believed to be connected.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the personification of a people or tribe, cp. Gen. xxxiv. 30 +(“Jacob said ... I am a few men”), Josh. xvii. 14 (“the children +of Joseph said ... I am a numerous people”), Ex. xiv. 25 (“Egypt +said, let me flee”), Jos. ix. 7, 1 Sam. v. 10, &c.; see G.B. Gray on +Numbers, xx. 14 (<i>Internat. Crit. Comm.</i>). Thus we find among the +“sons” of Japhet: (the nations) Gomer, Javan, Tubal; Canaan +“begat” Sidon and Heth; the “sons” of Ishmael include the +well-known tribes Kedar and Jetur; Jacob, or the synonym Israel, +personifies the “children of Israel” (cf. use of “I,” “thou” of the +Israelites in Deut., and in poetical passages). The recognition of +this characteristic usage often furnishes an ethnological interpretation +to those genealogical stories which obviously do not relate +to persons, but to tribes or peoples personified. The Edomites and +Israelites are regarded as “brothers” (cf. Num. xx. 14, Deut. ii. 4, +Am. i. 11), and since Esau (Edom) was born before Jacob (Israel) +it would appear that the Edomites were held to be the older nation. +The union of two clans is expressed as a marriage, or the wife is the +territory which is dominated by the husband (tribe); see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caleb</a></span>. +If the woman is not of noble blood, but is a handmaiden or concubine, +her children are naturally not upon the same footing as those of the +wife; consequently the descendants of Ishmael, the son of Hagar +(Sarah’s maid), are inferior to Isaac and his descendants, whilst the +children of Keturah (“incense”), Abraham’s concubine, are still +lower—from the Israelite point of view. This application of the +terms of relationship is characteristic of the Semites. The “father” +of the Rechabites is their head or founder (cf. 1 Sam. x. 12: “who +is their father?”), and a common bond, which is not necessarily +physical, unites all “sons,” whether they are “sons of the prophets” +(members of prophetic guilds) or “sons of Belial” (worthless men).</p> +</div> + +<p>The interpretation of ethnological or statistical genealogies +may easily be pushed too far. Every case has to be judged upon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page574" id="page574"></a>574</span> +its own merits, and due allowance must be made both for the +ambition of the weaker to claim or to strengthen an alliance with +the stronger, and for the not unnatural desire of clans or individuals +to magnify the greatness of their ancestry. The first +step must always be the careful comparison of related lists in +order to test the consistency of the tradition. Next, these must +be critically studied in the light of all available historical material, +though indeed such evidence is not necessarily conclusive. +Finally, (<i>a</i>) literary criticism must be employed to determine if +possible the dates of such lists, since obviously a contemporary +register is more trustworthy than one which is centuries later; (<i>b</i>) +a critical estimate of the character of the names and of their use +in various periods of Old Testament history is of importance in +estimating the antiquity of the list<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a>—for example, many of the +names in Chronicles attributed to the time of David are indubitably +exilic or post-exilic; and (<i>c</i>) principles of ordinary historical +probability are as necessary here as in dealing with the genealogies +of other ancient peoples, and attention must be paid to such +features as fluctuation in the number of links, representation of +theories inconsistent with the growth of national life, schemes of +relationship not in accordance with sociological conditions, &c.</p> + +<p>The Biblical genealogies commence with “the generations of +the heaven and earth,” and by a process of elimination pass from +Adam and Eve by successive steps to Jacob and to his sons +(the tribes), and finally to the subdivisions of each tribe (cp. +1 Chron. i.-ix. 1). According to this theory every Israelite could +trace back his descent to Jacob, the common father of the whole +nation (Josh. vii. 17 seq., 1 Sam. x. 21). Such a scheme, however, +is full of manifest improbabilities. It demands that every tribe +and every clan should have been a homogeneous group which had +preserved its unity from the earliest times, that family records +extending back for several centuries were in existence, and that +such a tribe as Simeon was able to maintain its independence in +spite of the tradition that it lost its autonomy in very early +times (Gen. xlix. 7). The whole conception of the unity of +the tribes cannot be referred to a date previous to the time +of David, and in the older writings a David or a Jeroboam +was sufficiently described as the son of Jesse or of Nebat. The +genealogical zeal as represented in the Old Testament is chiefly of +later growth, and the exceptions are due to interpolation (Josh. +vii. 1 18, contrast v. 24), or to the desire to modify or qualify an +older notice. This, in the case of Saul (1 Sam. ix. 1), has led to +textual corruption; a list of such a length as his should have +reached back to one of the “sons” of Benjamin (cf. <i>e.g.</i> Gen. +xlvi. 21), else it were purposeless. The genealogies, too, are often +inconsistent amongst themselves and in contradiction to their +object. They show, for example, that the population of southern +Judah, so far from being “Israelite” was half-Edomite (see +Judah), and several of the clans in this district bear names +which indicate their original affinity with Midian or Edom. +Moreover, there was a free intermixture of races, and many cities +had a Canaanite (<i>i.e.</i> pre-Israelite) population which must have +been gradually absorbed by the Israelites (cf. Judg. 1.). That +spirit of religious exclusiveness which marked later Judaism did +not become prominent before the Deuteronomic reformation (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deuteronomy</a></span>), and it is under its influence that the writings +begin to emphasize the importance of maintaining the purity of +Israelite blood, although by this time the fusion was complete +(see Judg. iii. 6) and for practical purposes a distinction between +Canaanites and Israelites within the borders of Palestine could +scarcely be discerned.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Many of the genealogical data are intricate. Thus, the interpretation +of Gen. xxxiv. is particularly obscure (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span> <i>ad fin.</i>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Simeon</a></span>). As regards the sons of Jacob, it is difficult to explain +their division among the four wives of Jacob; viz. (<i>a</i>) the sons of +Leah are Reuben, Simeon, Levi and Judah (S. Palestine), Issachar +and Zebulun (in the north), and Dinah (associated with Shechem); +(<i>b</i>) of Leah’s maid Zilpah, Gad and Asher (E. and N. Palestine); +(<i>c</i>) of Rachel, Joseph (Manasseh and Ephraim, <i>i.e.</i> central Palestine) +and Benjamin; (<i>d</i>) of Rachel’s maid Bilhah, Dan and Naphtali +(N. Palestine). It has been urged that (<i>b</i>) and (<i>d</i>) stood upon a lower +footing than the rest, or were of later origin; or that <span class="correction" title="amended from Bilhah">Bilhan</span> points +to an old clan associated with Reuben (Gen. xxxv. 22) or Edom +(Bilhan, Gen. xxxvi. 27), whilst Zilpah represents an Aramaean +strain. Tradition may have combined distinct schemes, and the +belief that the wives were Aramaean at least coincides with the +circumstance that Aramaean elements predominated in certain of +the twelve tribes. The number “twelve” is artificial and can be +obtained only by counting Manasseh and Ephraim as one or by +omitting Levi, and a careful study of Old Testament history makes it +extremely difficult to recover the tribes as historical units. See, on +these points, the articles on the several tribes, B. Luther, <i>Zeit. d. +alttest. Wissens</i>. (1901), pp. 1 sqq.; G.B. Gray, <i>Expositor</i> (March +1902), pp. 225-240, and in <i>Ency. Bib.</i>, art. “Tribes”; and H.W. +Hogg’s thorough treatment of the tribes in the last-mentioned work.</p> +</div> + +<p>The ideal of purity of descent shows itself conspicuously in +portions of Deuteronomic law (Deut. vii. 1-3, xxiii. 2-8), and in the +reforms of Nehemiah and Ezra (Ezr. ix. 1-4, 11 sqq.; Neh. xiii. +1-3). The desire to prove the continuity of the race, enforced +by the experience of the exile, gave the impetus to genealogical +zeal, and many of the extant lists proceed from this age when the +true historical succession of names was a memory of the past. +This applies with special force to the lists in Chronicles which +present finished schemes of the Levitical divisions by the side of +earlier attempts, with consequent confusion and contradiction. +Thus the immediate ancestors of Ethan appear in the time of +Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix. 12), but he with Asaiah and Heman are +contemporaries of David, and their genealogies from Levi downwards +contain a very unequal number of links (1 Chron. vi.). +By another application of genealogical method the account of the +institution of priests and Levites by David (1 Chron. xxiv.) +presents many names which belong solely to post-exilic days, thus +suggesting that the scribes desired to show that the honourable +families of their time were not unknown centuries previously. +Everywhere we find the results of much skill and labour, often in +accordance with definite theories, but a thorough investigation +reveals their weakness and often quite incidentally furnishes +valuable evidence of another nature.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The intricate Levitical genealogies betray the result of successive +genealogists who sought to give effect to the development of the +hierarchal system (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span>). The climax is reached when all +Levites are traced back to Gershon, Kehath and Merari, to which +are ascribed respectively Asaph, Heman and Ethan (or Jeduthun). +The last two were not originally Levites in the later accepted sense +of the term (see 1 Kings iv. 31). To Kehath is reckoned an important +subdivision descended from Korah, but in 2 Chron. xx. 19 the two +are distinct groups, and Korah’s name is that of an Edomite clan +(Gen. xxxvi. 5, 14, 18) related to Caleb, and thus included among the +descendants of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 43). Cases of adjustment, redistribution +and “Levitizing” of individuals are frequent. There +are traces of varying divisions both of the singers (Neh. xi. 17) and of +the Levites (Num. xxvi. 58; Ezr. ii. 40, iii. 9; 1 Chron. xv. 5-10, +xxiii.), and it is noteworthy that in the case of the latter we have +mention of such families as Hebroni (Hebronite), Libni (from Libnah)—ethnics +of South Judaean towns. In fact, a significant number of +Levitical names find their analogy in the lists of names belonging to +Judah, Simeon and even Edom, or are closely connected with the +family of Moses; <i>e.g.</i> Mushi (<i>i.e.</i> Mosaïte), Gershon and Eleazar (cp. +Gershom and Eliezer, sons of Moses). The Levites bear a class-name, +and the genealogies show that many of them were connected +with the minor clans and families of South Palestine which included +among them Moses and his kin. Hence, it is not unnatural that +Obed-edom, for example, obviously a southerner, should have been +reckoned later as a Levite, and the work ascribed by the chronicler’s +history to the closing years of David’s life may be influenced by +the tradition that it was through him these mixed populations first +attained importance. See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">David</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<p>In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able +to prove his descent, and perhaps from the time of Ezra downwards +lists were carefully kept. But when Anna is called an +Asherite (Luke ii. 36), or Paul a Benjamite (Rom. xi. 1), family +tradition was probably the sole support to the claim, although the +tribal feeling had not become entirely extinct. The genealogies of +Jesus prefixed to two of the gospels are intended to prove that He +was a son of David. But not that alone, for in Matt. i. he is +traced back to Abraham the father of the Jews, whilst in Luke iii. +He, as the second Adam, is traced back to the first man. The +two lists are hopelessly inconsistent; not because one of them +follows the line of Mary, but because they represent independent +attempts. That in Matthew is characteristically arranged in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page575" id="page575"></a>575</span> +three series of fourteen generations each through the kings of +Judah, whilst Luke’s passes through an almost unknown son of +David; in spite of this, however, both converge in the person of +Zerubbabel.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See further, A.C. Hervey, <i>Genealogies of Our Lord</i>; H. von Soden, +<i>Ency. Bib.</i> ii. col. 1666 sqq.; B.W. Bacon, Hastings’ <i>Dict. Bib.</i> ii. +pp. 138 seq. On the subject generally see J.F. M‘Lennan’s <i>Studies</i> +(2nd ser., ch. ix., “fabricated genealogies”); S.A. Cook, <i>Ency. +Bib.</i> ii. col. 1657 sqq. (with references); W.R. Smith, <i>Kinship and +Marriage</i> (2nd ed., especially ch. i.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div> + +<p>2. <i>Greek and Roman Genealogies.</i>—A passing reference only is +needed to the intricate genealogies of gods and sons of gods +which form so conspicuous a feature in classical literature.<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> In +every one of the numerous states into which ancient Greece was +divided there were aristocratic families, whose genealogies as a +rule went back to prehistoric times, their first ancestor being +some hero of divine descent, from whom, or from some distinguished +younger ancestor, they derived their names. Many of +these families were, as families, undoubtedly of great antiquity +even at the beginning of the historical period; and in several +instances they continued to maintain a conspicuous and separate +existence for centuries. The element of family pride is prominent +in the poetry of the Megarian Theognis; and in an inscription +belonging to the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the recipient of certain honours +from the community of Gythium is represented as the thirty-ninth +in direct descent from the Dioscuri and the forty-first from +Heracles. Even in Athens, long after the constitution had +become thoroughly democratic, some of the clans continued to be +known as Eupatridae (of noble family); and Alcibiades, for +example, as a member of the phratria of the Eurysacidae, traced +his origin through many generations to Eurysaces, who was +represented as having been the first of the Aeacidae to settle in +Attica. The Corinthian Bacchiadae traced their descent back to +Heracles, but took their name from Bacchis, a younger ancestor. +It is very doubtful, however, whether such pedigrees as this were +very seriously put forward by those who claimed them; and it is +certain that, almost along the whole line, they were unsupported +by evidence.<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> We have the authority of Pollux (viii. 111) for +stating that the Athenian <span class="grk" title="genê">γένη</span>, of which there were thirty in each +<span class="grk" title="phratria">φρατρία</span>, were organized without any exclusive regard being +had to blood-relationship; they were constantly receiving +accessions from without; and the public written registers of +births, adoptions and the like do not appear to have been preserved +with such care as would have made it possible to verify a +pedigree for any considerable portion even of the strictly historical +period.<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>The great antiquity of the early Roman (patrician) <i>gentes</i>, who +universally traced themselves back to illustrious ancestors, is +indisputable; and the rigid exclusiveness with which each preserved +its <i>hereditates gentiliciae</i> or <i>sacra gentilicia</i> is sufficiently +illustrated by the fact that towards the close of the republic +there were not more than fifty patrician families (Dion. Halic. i. +85). Yet even in these it is obvious that, owing to the frequency +of resort to the well-recognized practice of adoption, while there +was every guarantee for the historical identity of the family, +there was none (documents apart) for the personal genealogy of +the individual. There is no evidence that sufficient records of +pedigree were kept during the earlier centuries of the Roman +commonwealth, although the leading houses drew up genealogical +tables, and their family pedigree was painted on the walls of the +entrance hall. In later times, it is true, even plebeian families +began to establish a prescriptive right (known as the <i>jus imaginum</i>) +to preserve in small wooden shrines in their halls the busts (or +rather, wax portrait masks fastened on to busts) of those of their +members who had attained to curule office, and to exhibit these +in public on appropriate occasions. Under these <i>imagines +majorum</i><a name="fa5k" id="fa5k" href="#ft5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a> it became usual to inscribe on the wall their respective +<i>tituli</i>, the relationship of each to each being indicated by means of +connecting lines; and thus arose the <i>stemmata gentilicia</i>, which +at a later time began to be copied into family records. In the +case of plebeian families (whose stemmata in no case went +farther back than 366 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) these written genealogies were +probably trustworthy enough; but in the case of patricians who +went back to Aeneas,<a name="fa6k" id="fa6k" href="#ft6k"><span class="sp">6</span></a> so much cannot, it is obvious, be said; +and from a comparatively early period it was clearly recognized +that such records lent themselves too readily to the devices of the +falsifier and the forger to deserve confidence or reverence (Pliny, +<i>H.N.</i> xxxv. 2; Juv. viii. 1).</p> + +<p>Thus, parvenus were known to place the busts of fictitious +ancestors in the shrines and to engage needy literary men to trace +back their descent even to Aeneas himself.</p> + +<p>The many and great social changes which marked the closing +centuries of the Western empire almost invariably militated +with great strength against the maintenance of an aristocracy +of birth; and from the time of Constantine the dignity of patrician +ceased to be hereditary.<a name="fa7k" id="fa7k" href="#ft7k"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p> + +<p>3. <i>Modern.</i>—Two forces have combined to give genealogy +its importance during the period of modern history: the laws +of inheritance, particularly those which govern the descent of +real estate, and the desire to assert the privileges of a hereditary +aristocracy. But it is long before genealogies are found in the +possession of private families. The succession of kings and princes +are in the chronicle book; the line of the founders and patrons +of abbeys are recorded by the monks with curious embellishment +of legend. But the famous suit of Scrope against Grosvenor +will illustrate the late appearance of private genealogies in +England. In 1385 Sir Richard Scrope, lord of Bolton, displaying +his banner in the host that invaded Scotland, found that his +arms of a golden bend in a blue field were borne by a knight of +the Chester palatinate, one Sir Robert Grosvenor. He carried +the dispute to a court of chivalry, whose decision in his favour +was confirmed on appeal to the king. Grosvenor asserted that +he derived his right from an ancestor, Sir Gilbert Grosvenor, +who had come over with the Conqueror, while an intervening +claimant, a Cornish squire named Thomas Carminowe, boasted +that his own ancestors had borne the like arms since the days of +King Arthur’s Round Table. It is remarkable that in support of +the false statements made by the claimants no written genealogy +is produced. The evidence of tombs and monuments and the +reports of ancient men are advanced, but no pedigree is exhibited +in a case which hangs upon genealogy. It is possible that the art +of pedigree-making had its first impulse in England from the +many genealogies constructed to make men familiar with the +claims of Edward III. to the crown of France, a second crop of +such royal pedigrees being raised in later generations during +the contests of York and Lancaster. But it is not until after +the close of the middle ages that genealogies multiply in men’s +houses and are collected into volumes. The medieval baron, +knight or squire, although proud of the nobility of his race, +was content to let it rest upon legend handed down the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page576" id="page576"></a>576</span> +generations. The exact line of his descent was sought only when +it was demanded for a plea in the king’s courts to support his +title to his lands.</p> + +<p>From the first the work of the genealogist in England had that +taint of inaccuracy tempered with forgery from which it has +not yet been cleansed. The medieval kings, like the Welsh +gentry of later ages, traced their lines to the household of Eden +garden, while lesser men, even as early as the 14th century, +eagerly asserted their descent from a companion of the Conqueror. +Yet beside these false imaginations we find the law courts, +whose business was often a clash of pedigrees, dealing with +genealogies centuries long which, constructed as it would seem +from worthy evidences, will often bear the test of modern +criticism.</p> + +<p>Genealogies in great plenty are found in manuscripts and +printed volumes from the 16th century onward. Remarkable +among these are the descents recorded in the Visitation Books +of the heralds, who, armed with commissions from the crown, +the first of which was issued in 20 Hen. VIII., perambulated +the English counties, viewing arms and registering pedigrees. +The notes in their register books range from the simple registration +of a man’s name and arms to entries of pedigrees many +generations long. To the heralds these visitations were rare +opportunities of obtaining fees from the visited, and the value +of the pedigrees registered is notably unequal. Although it +has always been the boast of the College of Arms that Visitation +records may be produced as evidence in the law courts, few of +these officially recorded genealogies are wholly trustworthy. +Many of the officers of arms who recorded them were, even by +the testimony of their comrades, of indifferent character, and +even when the visiting herald was an honourable man and an +industrious he had little time to spare for the investigation of +any single genealogy. Deeds and evidences in private hands +may have been hastily examined in some instances—indeed, a +herald’s summons invites their production—and monuments +were often viewed in the churches, but for the most part men’s +memories and the hearsay of the country-side made the backbone +of the pedigree. The further the pedigree is carried beyond the +memory of living men the less trustworthy does it become. The +principal visitations took place in the reigns of Elizabeth, James +I. and Charles II. No commission has been issued since the +accession of William and Mary, but from that time onwards +large numbers of genealogies have been recorded in the registers +of the College of Arms, the modern ones being compiled with a +care which contrasts remarkably with the unsupported statements +of the Tudor heralds.</p> + +<p>Outside the doors of the College of Arms genealogy has now +been for some centuries a favourite study of antiquaries, whose +researches have been of the utmost value to the historian, the +topographer and the biographer. County histories, following +the example of Dugdale’s Warwickshire folios, have given much +space to the elucidation of genealogies and to the amassing of +material from which they may be constructed. Dugdale’s +great work on the English baronage heads another host of works +occupied with the genealogy of English noble families, and the +second edition of “G.E.C.’s” <i>Complete Peerage</i> shows the mighty +advance of the modern critical spirit. Nevertheless, the 20th +century has not yet seen the abandoning of all the genealogical +fables nourished by the Elizabethan pedigree-mongers, and the +ancestry of many noble houses as recorded in popular works of +reference is still derived from mythical forefathers. Thus the +dukes of Norfolk, who, by their office of earl marshal are patrons +of the heralds, are provided with a 10th-century Hereward for an +ancestor; the dukes of Bedford, descendants of a 15th-century +burgess of Weymouth, are traced to the knightly house of +Russell of Kingston Russell, and the dukes of Westminster to +the mythical Gilbert le Grosvenor who “came over in the +train of the Conqueror.”</p> + +<p>Genealogical research has, however, made great advance +during the last generation. The critical spirit shown in such +works as Round’s <i>Studies in Peerage and Family History</i> (1901) has +assailed with effective ridicule the methods of dishonest pedigree-makers. +Much raw material of genealogy has been made +available for all by the publication of parish registers, marriage-licence +allegations, monumental inscriptions and the like, and +above all by the mass of evidences contained in the volumes +issued by the Public Record Office.</p> + +<p>Within a small space it is impossible to set forth in detail the +methods by which an English genealogy may be traced. But +those who are setting out upon the task may be warned at the +outset to avoid guesswork based upon the possession of a surname +which may be shared by a dozen families between whom is no +tie of kinship. A man whose family name is Howard may be +presumed to descend from an ancestor for whom Howard was +a personal name: it may not be presumed that this ancestor +was he in whom the dukes of Norfolk have their origin. A +genealogy should not be allowed to stray from facts which can +be supported by evidence. A man may know that his grandfather +was John Stiles who died in 1850 at the age of fifty-five. +It does not follow that this John is identical with the John Stiles +who is found as baptized in 1795 at Blackacre, the son of William +Stiles. But if John the grandfather names in his letters a sister +named Isabel Nokes, while the will of William Stiles gives legacies +to his son and daughter John Stiles and Isabel Nokes, we may +agree that reasonable proof has been given of the added generation. +A new pedigree should begin with the carefully tested +statements of living members of a family. The next step should +be to collate such family records as bible entries, letters and +diaries, and inscriptions on mourning rings, with monumental +inscriptions of acknowledged members of the family. From +such beginnings the genealogist will continue his search through +the registers of parishes with which the family has been connected; +wills and administrations registered in the various probate courts +form, with parish registers, the backbone of most middle-class +family histories. Court rolls of manors in which members of the +family were tenants give, when existing and accessible, proofs +which may carry back a line, however obscure, through many +descents. When these have been exhausted the records of legal +proceedings, and notably those of the court of chancery, may be +searched. Few English households have been able in the past +to avoid an appeal to the chancery court, and the bill and answer +of a chancery plaintiff and defendant will often tell the story of a +family quarrel in which a score of kinsfolk are involved, and the +pleadings may contain the material for a family tree of many +branching generations. Coram Rege and De Banco rolls may +even, in the course of a dispute over a knight’s fee or a manor +carry a pedigree to the Conquest of England, although such good +fortune can hardly be expected by the searcher out of an undistinguished +line. In proving a genealogy it must be remembered +that in the descent of an estate in land must be sought the best +evidence for a pedigree.</p> + +<p>At the present time the study of genealogy grows rapidly in +English estimation. It is no less popular in America, where +societies and private persons have of late years published a vast +number of genealogies, many of which combine the results of +laborious research in American records with extravagant and +unfounded claims concerning the European origin of the families +dealt with. A family with the surname of Cuthbert has been +known to hail St Cuthbert of Lindisfarne as its progenitor, and +one surnamed Eberhardt has incorporated in its pedigree such +German princes of old times as were found to have Eberhardt +for a Christian name.</p> + +<p>Genealogy in modern France has, with a few honourable +exceptions, fallen into the hands of the popular pedigree-makers, +whose concern is to gratify the vanity of their employers. Italy +likewise has not yet shaken off the influence of those venal +genealogists who, three hundred years ago, sold pedigrees cheaply +to all comers. But much laborious genealogical inquiry had +been made in Germany since the days of Hübner, and even in +Russia there has been some attempt to apply modern standards +of criticism to the chronicles of the swarming descendants of the +blood of Rurik.</p> + +<p>In no way is the gap made by the Dark Ages between ancient +and modern history more marked than by the fact that no +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page577" id="page577"></a>577</span> +European family makes a serious claim to bridge it with its +genealogy. The unsupported claim of the Roman house of +Massimo to a descent from Fabius Maximus is respectable beside +such legends as that which made Lévis-Mirepoix head of the +priestly tribe of Levi, but even the boast of such remote ancestry +has now become rare. The ancient sovereign houses of Europe +are, for the most part, content to attach themselves to some +ancestor who, when the mist that followed the fall of the Western +empire begins to lift, is seen rallying with his sword some group +of spearmen.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Genealogical works have been published in such +abundance that the bibliographies of the subject are already substantial +volumes. Amongst the earlier books from the press may be +noted Benvenuto de San Georgio’s <i>Montisferrati marchionum +et principum regiae propagium successionumque series</i> (1515); +Pingonius’s <i>Arbor gentilitiae Sabaudiae Saxoniaeque domus</i> (1521); +Gebweiler’s <i>Epitome regii ac vetustissimi ortus Caroli V. et Ferdinandi +I., omniumque archiducum Austriae et comitum Habsburgiensium</i> +(1527): Meyer’s work on the counts of Flanders (1531), and Du +Boulay’s genealogies of the dukes of Lorraine (1547). Later in the +same century Reineck of Helmstadt put forth many works having +a wider genealogical scope, and we may cite Henninges’s <i>Genealogiae +Saxonicae</i> (1587) and <i>Theatrum genealogicum</i> (1598), and Reusner’s +<i>Opus genealogicum catholicum</i> (1589-1592). For the politically inconvenient +falseness of François de Rosières’ <i>Stemmata Lotharingiae +ac Barri ducum</i> (1580), wherein the dukes of Lorraine were deduced +from the line of Charlemagne, the author was sent to the Bastille by +the parlement of Paris and his book suppressed.</p> + +<p>The 17th century saw the production in England of Dugdale’s +great <i>Baronage</i> (1675-1676), a work which still holds a respectable +place by reason of its citation of authorities, and of Sandford’s +history of the royal house. In the same century André Duchesne, +the historian of the Montmorencys, Pierre d’Hozier, the chronicler +of the house of La Rochefoucauld, Rittershusius, Imhoff, Spener, +Lohmeier and many others contribute to the body of continental +genealogies. Pierre de Guibours, known as Père Anselme de Ste +Marie, published in 1674 the first edition of his magnificent <i>Histoire +généalogique de la maison royale de France, des pairs, grands +officiers de la couronne et de la maison du roy et des anciens barons +du royaume</i>. Of this encyclopaedic work a third and complete +edition appeared in 1726-1733. A modern edition under the editorship +of M. Potier de Courcy began to be issued in 1873, but remains +incomplete. Among 18th-century work Johann Hübner’s <i>Bibliotheca +genealogica</i> (1729) and <i>Genealogische Tabellen</i> (1725-1733), +with Lenzen’s commentary on the latter work (<i>c.</i> 1756), may be +signalized, with Gatterer’s <i>Handbuch der Genealogie</i> (1761) and his +Abriss der Genealogie (1788), the latter an early manual on the +science of genealogy. Hergott’s <i>Genealogia diplomatica augustae +gentis Habsburgicae</i> (1737) is the imperial genealogy compiled by +the emperor’s own historiographer.</p> + +<p>Modern peerages in England may be said to date from that of +Arthur Collins, whose one-volume first edition was published in +1709. The fifth edition appeared in 1778, in eight volumes, to be +republished in 1812 by Sir Egerton Brydges, the “Baptist Hatton” +of Disraeli’s novel, who corrected many legendary pedigrees, besides +inserting his own forged descent from a common ancestor with the +dukes of Chandos. From this work and from the Irish peerage of +Lodge (as re-edited by Archdall) most of the later peerages have +quarried their material. With these may be named the baronetages +of Wotton and Betham. Of modern popular peerages and baronetages +that of Burke has been published since 1822 in many editions +and now appears yearly. Most important for the historian are the +<i>Complete Peerage</i> of G.E. C[ockayne] (2nd ed., 1910), and the +<i>Complete Baronetage</i> of the same author. The <i>Peerage of Scotland</i> +(1769) of Sir Robert Douglas of Glenbervie came to a second edition +in 1813, edited by J.P. Wood, and the whole work has been revised +and re-edited by Sir James Balfour Paul (1904, &c.). Of the popular +manuals of English untitled families, Burke’s <i>Genealogical and +Heraldic Dictionary of the Commoners</i> (1833-1838) is now brought +up to date from time to time and reissued as the <i>Landed Gentry</i>.</p> + +<p>Lists of pedigrees in English printed works are supplied by Marshall’s +<i>Genealogist’s Guide</i> (1903), while pedigrees in the manuscript +collections of the British Museum are indexed in the list of R. Sims +(1849). Valuable genealogical material will be found in such +periodicals as the <i>Genealogist</i>, the <i>Herald and Genealogist</i>, the <i>Topographer +and Genealogist</i>, <i>Collectanea topographica et genealogica</i>, +<i>Miscellanea genealogica et heraldica</i> and the <i>Ancestor</i>. In Germany +the <i>Deutscher Herold</i> is the organ of the Berlin Heraldic and Genealogical +Society. The <i>Nederlandsche Leeuw</i> is a similar publication +in the Low Countries.</p> + +<p>Modern criticism of the older genealogical methods will be found +in J.H. Round’s <i>Peerage and Pedigree</i>, 2 vols. (London, 1910), +and in other volumes by the same author. The Harleian Society +has published many volumes of the Herald’s Visitations; and the +British Record Society’s publications, supplying a key to a vast +mass of wills, Chancery suits and marriage licences, are of still +greater importance. The <i>Victoria History of the Counties of England</i> +includes genealogies of the ancient English county families still +among the land-owning classes. English pedigrees of the age before +the Conquest are collected in W.G. Searle’s <i>Anglo-Saxon Bishops, +Kings and Nobles</i> (1899).</p> + +<p>Genealogical dictionaries of noble French families include Victor +de Saint Allais’s <i>Nobiliaire universel</i> (21 vols., 1872-1877) and Aubert +de la Chenaye-Desbois’ <i>Dictionnaire de la noblesse</i> (15 vols., 1863-1876). +A sumptuous work on the genealogy and heraldry of the +ancient duchy of Savoy by Count Amédée de Foras began to appear +in 1863. Spain has Lopez de Haro’s <i>Nobiliario genealogico de los +reyes y títulos de España</i>. Italy has the <i>Teatro araldico</i> of Tettoni +and Saladini (1841-1848), Litti’s <i>Famiglie celebri</i> and an <i>Annuario +della nobilità</i>. Such annuals are now published more or less intermittently +in many European countries. Finland has a <i>Ridderscap +och Adels Kalender</i>, Belgium the <i>Annuaire de la noblesse</i>, the Dutch +Netherlands an <i>Adelsboek</i>, Denmark the <i>Adels-Garbog</i> and Russia +the <i>Annuaire</i> of Ermerin. But chief of all such publications is the +ancient <i>Almanach de Gotha</i>, containing the modern kinship of royal +and princely houses, and now accompanied by volumes dealing with +the houses of German and Austrian counts and barons, and with +houses ennobled in modern times by patent. A useful modern +reference book for students of history is Stokvis’s <i>Manuel d’histoire +et de généalogie de tous les états du globe</i> (1888-1893). The best +manual for the English genealogist is Walter Rye’s <i>Records and +Record Searching</i> (1897), while an ill-arranged but valuable bibliography +of English and foreign works on the subject is that of George +Gatfield (1892).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(O. Ba.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> G.B. Gray’s <i>Hebrew Proper Names</i> (1896), with his article in +the <i>Expositor</i> (Sept. 1897), pp. 173-190, should be consulted for the +application and range of Hebrew names in O. T. genealogies and +lists.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> On the subject generally see articles “Genos” and “Gens,” +by A.H. Greenidge, in Smith’s <i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman +Antiquities</i> (3rd ed., 1890), where the chief authorities are given.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The fondness of Euripides for genealogies is ridiculed by Aristophanes +(<i>Acharnians</i>, 47).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> All the earlier Greek historians appear to have constructed their +narratives on assumed genealogical bases. The four books of +Hecataeus of Miletus dealt respectively with the traditions about +Deucalion, about Heracles and the Heraclidae, about the early +settlements in Peloponnesus, and about those in Asia Minor; he +further made a pedigree for himself, in which his sixteenth ancestor +was a god. The works of Hellanicus of Lesbos bore titles +(<span class="grk" title="Deukaliôneia">Δευκαλιώνεια</span> and the like) which sufficiently explain their nature; +his disciple, Damastes of Sigeum, was the author of genealogical +histories of Trojan heroes; Apollodorus of Athens made use of three +books of <span class="grk" title="Genealogika">Γενεαλογικά</span> by Acusilaus of Argos; Pherecydes of Leros +also wrote <span class="grk" title="genealogiai">γενεαλογίαι</span>. See J.A.F. Töpffer, <i>Attische Genealogie</i> +(1889); also J.H. Schubart, <i>Quaestt. geneal. historicae</i> (1832); +G. Marckscheffel, <i>De genealogica Graecorum poësi</i> (1840).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5k" id="ft5k" href="#fa5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The chief authority on this subject is Polybius (vi. 53); see also +T. Mommsen, <i>Römisches Staatsrecht</i>, i. (1887), p. 442.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6k" id="ft6k" href="#fa6k"><span class="fn">6</span></a> At the funeral of Drusus the images of Aeneas, of the Alban +kings, of Romulus, of the Sabine nobles, of Attus Clausus, and of +“the rest of the Claudians” were exhibited (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> iv. 9).</p> + +<p><a name="ft7k" id="ft7k" href="#fa7k"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The Roman stemmata had, as will be seen afterwards, great +interest for the older modern genealogists. Reference may be made +to J. Glandorp’s <i>Descriptio gentis Antoniae</i> (1557); to the <i>Descriptio +gentis Juliae</i> (1576) of the same author; and to J. Hübner’s <i>Genealogische +Tabellen</i>. See also G.A. Ruperti’s <i>Tabulae genealogicae +sive stemmata nobiliss</i>. gent. Rom. (1794).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(X.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENELLI, GIOVANNI BUONAVENTURA<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1798-1868), +German painter, was born at Berlin on the 28th of September +1798. He was the son of Janus Genelli, a painter whose landscapes +are still preserved in the Schloss at Berlin, and grandson +to Joseph Genelli, a Roman embroiderer employed to found a +school of gobelins by Frederick the Great. Buonaventura +Genelli first took lessons from his father and then became a +student of the Berlin academy. After serving his time in the +guards he went with a stipend to Rome, where he lived ten years, +a friend and assistant to Koch the landscape painter, a colleague +of the sculptor Ernst Hähnel (1811-1891), Reinhart, Overbeck +and Führich, all of whom made a name in art. In 1830 he was +commissioned by Dr Härtel to adorn a villa at Leipzig with +frescoes, but quarrelling with this patron he withdrew to Munich, +where he earned a scanty livelihood at first, though he succeeded +at last in acquiring repute as an illustrative and figure draughtsman. +In 1859 he was appointed a professor at Weimar, where +he died on the 13th of November 1868. Genelli painted few +pictures, and it is very rare to find his canvases in public +galleries, but there are six of his compositions in oil in the Schack +collection at Munich. These and numerous water-colours, as +well as designs for engravings and lithographs, reveal an artist +of considerable power whose ideal was the antique, but who +was also fascinated by the works of Michelangelo. Though a +German by birth, his spirit was unlike that of Overbeck or +Führich, whose art was reminiscent of the old masters of their +own country. He seemed to hark back to the land of his fathers +and endeavour to revive the traditions of the Italian Renaissance. +Subtle in thought and powerfully conceived, his compositions +are usually mythological, but full of matter, energetic and fiery +in execution, and marked almost invariably by daring effects of +foreshortening. Impeded by straitened means, the artist seems +frequently to have drawn from imagination rather than from +life, and much of his anatomy of muscle is in consequence +conventional and false. But none the less Genelli merits his +reputation as a bold and imaginative artist, and his name +deserves to be remembered beyond the narrow limits of the +early schools of Munich and Weimar.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENERAL<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (Lat. <i>generalis</i>, of or relating to a <i>genus</i>, kind or +class), a term which, from its pointing to all or most of the +members of a class, the whole of an area, &c. as opposed to “particular” +or to “local,” is hence used in various shades of meaning, +for that which is prevalent, usual, widespread or miscellaneous, +indefinite, vague. It has been added to the titles of various +officials, military officers and others; thus the head of a religious +order is the “superior-general,” more usually the “general,” +and we find the same combination in such offices as that of +“accountant-general,” “postmaster-general,” “attorney-” or +“solicitor-general,” and many others, the additional word implying +that the official in question is of superior rank, as having a wider +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page578" id="page578"></a>578</span> +authority or sphere of activity. This is the use that accounts +for the application of the term, as a substantive, to a military +officer of superior rank, a “general officer,” or “general,” who +commands or administers bodies of troops larger than a regiment, +or consisting of more than one arm of the service (see also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Officers</a></span>). It was towards the end of the 16th century that the +word began to be used in its present sense as a noun, and in the +armies of the time the “general” was commander-in-chief, +the “lieutenant-general” commander of the horse and second +in command of the army, and the “major-general” (strictly +“sergeant-major-general”) commander of the foot and chief +of the staff. Field marshals, who have now the highest rank, +were formerly subordinate to the general officers. These titles—general, +lieutenant-general and major-general—are still applied +in most armies to the first, second and third grades of general +officer, and in the French service until 1870 the chief of the staff +of the army bore the title of major-general. In the German +and Russian services the three grades are qualified by the addition +of the words “of cavalry,” “of infantry” and “of artillery.” +The French service possesses only two grades, “general of +brigade” and “general of division.” The Austrian service has +two ranks of general officers peculiar to itself, “lieutenant +field marshal,” equivalent to lieutenant-general, and <i>Feldzeugmeister</i> +(master of the ordnance), equivalent to the German +general of infantry or artillery. There is also the rank of +“general of cavalry.” The Spanish army still retains the old +term “captain-general.” In the German service <i>General +Oberst</i> (colonel-general) and <i>General Feldzeugmeister</i> (master-general +of ordnance) are ranks intermediate between that of +full general and that of general field marshal. It may be noted +that during the 17th century “general” was not confined to a +commanding officer of an army, and was also equivalent to +“admiral”; thus when under the Protectorate the office of +lord high admiral was put into commission, the three first commissioners, +Blake, Edward Popham and Richard Deane, were +styled “generals at sea.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENERATION<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>generare</i>, to beget, procreate; <i>genus</i>, +stock, race), the act of procreation or begetting, hence any one of +the various methods by which plants, animals or substances are +produced. As applied to the result of procreation, “generation” +is used of the offspring of the same parents, taken as one degree +in descent from a common ancestor, or, widely, of the body +of living persons born at or near the same time; thus the word is +also used of the age or period of a generation, usually taken as +about thirty years, or three generations to a century. As a term +in biology or physiology, generation is synonymous with the +Gr. <span class="grk" title="biogenesis">βιογένεσις</span> and the Ger. <i>Zeugung</i>, and may comprehend the +whole history of the first origin and continued reproduction of +living bodies, whether plants or animals; but it is frequently +restricted to the sexual reproduction of animals. The subject +may be divided into the following branches, viz.: (1) the first +origin of life and living beings, (2) non-sexual or agamic reproduction, +and (3) gamic or sexual reproduction. For the first two +of these topics see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abiogenesis</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Biogenesis</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Biology</a></span>; for +the third and more extensive division, including (1) the formation +and fecundation of the ovum, and (2) the development of the embryo +in different animals, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reproduction</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Embryology</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENESIS<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="genesis">γένεσις</span>, becoming; the term being used in +English as a synonym for origin or process of coming into being), +the name of the first book in the Bible, which derives its title +from the Septuagint rendering of ch. ii. 4. It is the first of the +five books (the Pentateuch), or, with the inclusion of Joshua, of +the six (the Hexateuch), which cover the history of the Hebrews +to their occupation of Canaan. The “genesis” of Hebrew +history begins with records of antediluvian times: the creation of +the world, of the first pair of human beings, and the origin of sin +(i.-iii.), the civilization and moral degeneration of mankind, the +history of man to the time of Noah (iv.-vi. 8), the flood (vi. +9-ix.), the confusion of languages and the divisions of the human +race (x.-xi.). Turning next to the descendants of Shem, the book +deals with Abraham (xii.-xxv. 18), Isaac and Jacob (xxv. 19-xxxv.), +the “fathers” of the tribes of Israel, and concludes with +the personal history of Joseph, and the descent of his father +Jacob (or Israel) and his brethren into the land of Egypt +(xxxvii.-l.). The book of Genesis, as a whole, is closely connected +with the subsequent oppression of the sons of Israel, the revelation +of Yahweh the God of their fathers (Ex. iii. 6, 15 seq., vi. 2-8), +the “exodus” of the Israelites to the land promised to their +fathers (Ex. xiii. 5, Deut. i. 8, xxvi. 3 sqq., xxxiv. 4) and its conquest +(Josh. i. 6, xxiv.); cf. also the summaries Neh. ix. 7 sqq., +Ps. cv. 6 sqq.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The words, “these are the generations of the heavens and of the +earth when they were created” (ii. 4), introduce an account of the +creation of the world, which, however, is preceded by a +relatively later and less primitive record (i. 1-ii. 3). The +<span class="sidenote">Analysis.</span> +differences between the two accounts lie partly in the style and +partly in the form and contents of the narratives. i. 1-ii. 3 is marked +by stereotyped formulae (“and God [<i>Elōhīm</i>] said ... and it +was so ... and God saw that it was good, and there was evening +and there was morning,” &c.); it is precise and detailed, whereas +ii. 4b-iii. is less systematic, fresher and more anthropomorphic. +The former is cosmic, the latter is local. It is the latter which +mentions the mysterious garden and the wonderful trees which +Yahweh planted, and depicts Yahweh conversing with man and +walking in the garden in the cool of the evening. The former, on +the other hand, has an enlightened conception of <i>Elōhīm</i>; the +Deity, though grand, is a lifeless figure; several antique ideas +are nevertheless preserved. The account of the creation, too, is +different; for example, in chap. i. man and woman are created +together, whereas in ii. man is at first alone. The naiveness of the +story of the creation of woman is in line with the interest which +this more popular source takes in the origin or existence of phenomena, +customs and contemporary beliefs (the garden, the naming +of animals, &c.). The primitive record is continued in the story +of Cain and Abel (iv.), where the old-time problem of Cain’s wife +and the reference to other human beings (iv. 14 seq.) gave rise in pre-critical +days to the theory of pre-Adamites, as though Adam and Eve +were not the only inhabitants of the earth. But all the indications +go to show that there were at least two distinct popular narratives, +one of which ignores the flood. Cain the murderer, doomed to be a +wanderer, now becomes the builder of a city, and his descendants +introduce various arts (iv. 16<i>b</i>-24).<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (See the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abel</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adam</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cain</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cosmogeny</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Enoch</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eve</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lamech</a></span>.) From the “generations” +of the heavens and the earth (which one would have expected +at the head of ch. i.) we pass to the “generations of Adam” (v. 1). +The list of the “Sethites,” with its characteristically stereotyped +framework, has an older parallel in iv. 25 seq. (with the origin of the +worship of Yahweh contrast Ex. vi. 2. seq.), and a fragment from the +same source is found in v. 29.</p> + +<p>After the birth of Noah the son of Lamech (v. 29, contrast iv. +19 sqq.) comes the brief story of the demigods (vi. 1-4). It is no +part of the account of the fall or of the flood (note verse 4 and Num. +xiii. 33), least of all does it furnish grounds for the old view of the +division of the human race into evil Cainites and God-fearing Sethites. +The excerpt with its description of the fall of the angels is used to +form a prelude to the wickedness of man and the avenging flood +(vi. 5). Noah, the father of Ham, Shem and Japheth, appears as +the hero in the Hebrew version of the flood (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deluge</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Noah</a></span>). +Duplicates (vi. 5-8, 9-13) and discrepancies (vi. 19 sq. contrasted +with vii. 2; or vii. 11, viii. 14 contrasted with viii. 8, 10, 12) point +to the use of two sources (harmonizing passages in vii. 3, 7-9). The +later narrative, which begins with “the generations” of Noah +(vi. 9-22; vii. 6, 11, 13-17<i>a</i>, 18-21, 24; viii. 1-2<i>a</i>, 3<i>b</i>-5, 13<i>a</i>, 14-19; +ix. 1-17), is almost complete; note the superscription and the +length of the flood (365 days; according to other notices the flood +apparently lasted only 61 or 68 days). In the earlier source Noah +collects seven pairs of clean animals, one of each kind; he sacrifices +after leaving the ark, and Yahweh promises not to curse the ground +or to smite living things again. But in the later, he takes only one +pair, and subsequently Elōhīm blesses Noah and makes a covenant +never again to destroy all flesh by a flood.<a name="fa2l" id="fa2l" href="#ft2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The covenant (characteristic +of the latest narratives in Genesis) also prohibits the shedding +of blood (cf. the story of Cain and Abel in the earlier source). Mankind +is now made to descend from the three sons of Noah. The +older story, however, continues with another step in the history of +civilization, and to Noah is ascribed the cult of the vine, the abuse +of which leads to the utterance of a curse upon Canaan and a blessing +upon Shem and Japheth (ix. 20-27). The table of nations in x. +(“the generations of the sons of Noah”) preserves several signs of +composite origin (contrast <i>e.g.</i> x. 7 with <i>vv</i>. 28 sq., Ludim <i>v</i>. 13 with +<i>v.</i> 22, and the Canaanite families v. 16 with the dispersion “afterwards,” +<i>v.</i> 18, &c.); see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canaan</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Genealogy</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nimrod</a></span>. The +history of the primitive age concludes with the story of the tower +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page579" id="page579"></a>579</span> +of Babel (xi. 1-9), which, starting from a popular etymology of Babel +(“gate of God”), as though from Balbel (“confusion”), tells how +Yahweh feared lest mankind should become too powerful (cf. iii. 22-24), +and seeks to explain the origin of the numerous languages in use. +It is independent of x., which already assumes a confusion of tongues +(<i>vv.</i> 5, 20, 31), the existence of Babel (<i>v.</i> 10), and gives a different +account of the rise of the various races. This incident in the journey +eastwards (xi. 2) is equally independent of the story of the Deluge +and of Noah’s family (see Wellhausen, <i>Prolegomena</i>, p. 316). The +continuation of the chapter, “the generations of Shem” (xi. 10-27, +see the Shemite genealogy in x. 21 sqq., and contrast the ages with +vi. 3), is in the same stereotyped style as ch. v., and prepares the +way for the history of the patriarchs.</p> + +<p>The “generations of Terah” (xi. 27) lead to the introduction of +the first great patriarch Abraham (<i>q.v.</i>).<a name="fa3l" id="fa3l" href="#ft3l"><span class="sp">3</span></a> There is a twofold account +of his migration to Bethel with his nephew Lot; the more statistical +form in xi. 31 sq., xii. 4<i>b</i>, 5 belongs to the latest source. The statement +that the Canaanite was then in the land (xii. 6, cf. xiii. 7) points +to a time long after the Israelite conquest, when readers needed +such a reminder (so Hobbes in his <i>Leviathan</i>, 1651). A famine forces +him to descend into Egypt, where a story of Sarai (here at least 65 +years of age; see xii. 4, xvii. 17) is one of three variants of a similar +peculiar incident (cf. xx. 1-17, xxvi. 6-14). The passage is an insertion +(xii. 10-xiii. 2; xii. 9, xiii. 3 seq. being harmonistic). The +thread is resumed in the account of the separation of the patriarch +and his nephew Lot, who divide the land between them. Abraham +occupies Canaan, but moves south to Hebron, which, according to +Josh. xiv. 15, was formerly known as Kirjath-Arba. Lot dwells in +the basin of the Jordan, and his history is continued in the story +of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (xviii.-xix.; Hos. xi. 8, +Deut. xxix. 23 speak of Admah and Zeboim). Lot is saved and +becomes the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites, who are +thus closely related to the descendants of Abraham (note xix. 37, +“unto this day”). The great war with Amraphel and Chedorlaomer—the +defeat of a world-conquering army by 318 men—with the +episode of Melchizedek, noteworthy for the reference to Jerusalem +(xiv. 18, cf. Ps. lxxvi. 2), has nothing in common with the context +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abraham</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Melchizedek</a></span>). It treats as individuals the place-names +Mamre and Eshcol (xiv. 13, cf. Num. xiii. 23 seq.), and by +mentioning Dan (<i>v.</i> 14) anticipates the events in Josh. xix. 47, Judg. +xviii. 29.<a name="fa4l" id="fa4l" href="#ft4l"><span class="sp">4</span></a> A cycle of narratives deals with the promise that the +barren Sarai (Sarah) should bear a child whose descendants would +inhabit the land of Canaan. The importance of the tradition for the +history of Israel explains both the prominence given to it (cf. already +xii. 7, xiii. 14-17) and their present complicated character (due to +repeated revision). The older narratives comprise (<i>a</i>) the promise +that Abraham shall have a son of his own flesh (xv.)—the account +is composite;<a name="fa5l" id="fa5l" href="#ft5l"><span class="sp">5</span></a> (<i>b</i>) the birth of Ishmael, Abraham’s son by Hagar, +their exile, and Yahweh’s promise (xvi., with a separate framework +in <i>vv.</i> 1<i>a.</i> 3, 15 seq.)—before the birth of Isaac; and (<i>c</i>) the promise +of a son to Sarai (xviii. 1-15), now combined with the story of Lot +and the overthrow of Sodom. The latest source (xvii.) is marked +by the solemn covenant between Yahweh and Abraham, the revelation +of God Almighty (El-Shaddai, cf. Ex. vi. 3), and the institution +of circumcision (otherwise treated in Ex. iv. 26, Josh. v. 2 seq.). +The more elevated character of this source as contrasted with xv. +and xviii. is as striking as the difference of religious tone in the two +accounts of the creation (above). Abraham now travels thence +(xx. 1, Hebron, see xviii. 1), and his adventure in the land of Abimelech, +king of Gerar (xx.), is a duplicate of xii. (above). It is continued +in xxi. 22-34, which has a close parallel in the life of Isaac +(xxvi., below). Isaac is born in accordance with the divine promise +(xviii. 10 at Hebron); the scene is the south of Palestine. The +story of the dismissal of Hagar and Ishmael, and the revelation +(xxi. 8-21) cannot be separated from xvi. 4-14, where <i>vv.</i> 9 seq. are +intended to harmonize the passages. Although about sixteen years +intervene (see xvi. 16; xxi. 5, 8), Ishmael is a young child who has +to be carried (xxi. 15), but the Hebrew text of xxi. 14 (not, however, +the Septuagint) endeavours to remove the discrepancy.<a name="fa6l" id="fa6l" href="#ft6l"><span class="sp">6</span></a> “After +these things” comes the offering of Isaac which implicitly annuls +the sacrifice of the first-born, a not unfamiliar rite in Palestine as +the denunciations prove (cf. Ezek. xvi. 20 seq., xx. 26; Mic. vi. 7; +Is. lvii. 5), and thus marks an advance, <i>e.g.</i> upon the story of +Jephthah’s daughter (Judg. xi.). The story may be contrasted with +the Phoenician account of the sacrifice by Cronos (to be identified +with El) of his only son, which practically justified the horrid custom. +The detailed account of the purchase of the cave of Machpelah +(contrast the brevity of xxxiii. 19) is of great importance for the +traditions of the patriarchs, and, like the references to the death of +Sarah and Abraham, belongs to the latest source (xxiii., xxv. 7-11<i>a</i>).<a name="fa7l" id="fa7l" href="#ft7l"><span class="sp">7</span></a> +The idyllic picture of life in xxiv. presupposes that Isaac is sole heir +(<i>v.</i> 36); since this is first stated in xxv. 5, it is probable that xxv. 5, +11b (and perhaps <i>vv.</i> 6, 18) are out of place. It is noteworthy that +the district is Abraham’s native place (xxiv. 4, 7, 10; contrast the +Babylonian home specified in xi. 28, 31; xv. 7). In xxv. 1 sqq. +Abraham takes as wife (but <i>concubine</i>, 1 Chron. i. 32 seq.) Keturah +(“incense”) and becomes the father of various Arab tribes, <i>e.g.</i> +Sheba and Dedan (grandsons of Cush in x. 7).</p> + +<p>After “the generations of Ishmael” (xxv. 12 sqq.) the narrative +turns to “the generations of Isaac” (xxv. 19 sqq.). The story of +the events at the court of Abimelech (xxvi.) finds a parallel in the +now disjointed xx., xxi. 22-34; note the new explanation of Beersheba, +the reference in xxvi. 1 to the parallel story in xii., the absence +of allusion to xx., and the apparent editorial references to xxi. in +<i>vv.</i> 15, 18. On the whole, the story of Isaac’s wife at Gerar is briefer +and not so elevated as that of Sarah, but the parallel to xxi. 22-34 +is more detailed. The birth of Esau and Jacob (xxv. 21-34) introduces +the story of Jacob’s craft when Isaac is on the point of death +(xxvii.). Jacob flees to Laban at Haran to escape Esau’s hatred +(xxvii. 41-45); but, according to the latest source (P), he is charged +by Isaac to go to Paddan-Aram, and take a wife there, and his father +transfers to him the blessing of Abraham (xxvii. 46-xxviii. 9). On +his way to Haran he stops at Bethel (formerly Luz, according to +Judg. i. 22-26), where a vision prompts him to accept the God of the +place should he return in peace to his father’s home (xxviii. 10-22). +He passes to the land of “the children of the east” (xxix. 1), and +the scenes which follow are scarcely situated at Haran, the famous +and ancient seat of the worship of the moon-god, but in the desert. +Here he resides fifteen years or more, and by the daughters of Laban +and their handmaidens becomes the “father” of the tribes of Israel. +There are numerous traces of composition from different sources, +but a satisfactory analysis is impossible.<a name="fa8l" id="fa8l" href="#ft8l"><span class="sp">8</span></a> The flight of Jacob and +his household (from Paddan-Aram, xxxi. 18 P) leads over “the +River” (<i>v.</i> 21, <i>i.e.</i> the Euphrates); though the seven days’ journey +of this concourse of men and cattle suggests that he came to Gilead, +not from Haran (300 m. distant), but from some nearer locality. +This is to be taken with the evidence against Haran already noticed, +with the use of the term “children of the east” (xxix. 1; cf. Jer. +xlix. 28; Ezek. xxv. 4, 10), and with the details of Laban’s kindred +(xxii. 20-24).<a name="fa9l" id="fa9l" href="#ft9l"><span class="sp">9</span></a> The arrival at Mahanaim (“[two?] camps”) gives +rise to specific allusions to the meaning of the name (xxxii. 1 seq., +7-12, 13-21); cf. also the plays upon Jabbok, Israel and Peniel in +xxxii. 22-32. He meets Esau (xxxii. 3-21, xxxiii. 1-16, another +reference to Peniel, “face of God,” in <i>v.</i> 10), but they part. Jacob +now comes to Shechem “in peace” (cf. the phrase in xxviii. 21), +where he buys land and erects an altar (xxxiii. 18-20, cf. Abraham +in xii. 6 seq.). There is a remarkable story of the violation of his +daughter Dinah by Shechem, the son of Hamor the Hivite (xxxiv.). +It has been heavily revised; note the alternating prominence of +Hamor and Shechem, the condemnation of Simeon and Levi for their +vengeance (cf. the curse in xlix. 5-7), the destruction of the city +Shechem by all the sons of Jacob, and the survival of the Hamorites +as a family centuries later (xxxiii. 19, Judg. ix. 28). The narrative +continues with Jacob’s journey to Bethel, the death of Deborah +(who accompanied Rebekah to Palestine 140 years previously, see +xxiv. 59, and the latest source in xxv. 20, xxxv. 28), the death of +Rachel (xxxv. 16-20, contrast xxxvii. 10), and ceases abruptly in the +middle of a sentence (xxxv. 22, but see xlix. 3-4). The latest source +(xxxv. 9-13, 15, 22<i>b</i>-29) gives another account of the origin of the +names Israel (cf. xxxii. 28) and Bethel (cf. xxviii. 19), and the +genealogy wrongly includes Benjamin among the sons born outside +Palestine (<i>vv.</i> 24-26). In narrating Jacob’s leisurely return to Isaac +at Hebron, the writers quite ignore the many years which have +elapsed since he left his father at the point of death in Beersheba +(xxvii. 1, 2, 7, 10, 41).</p> + +<p>“The generations of Esau, the same is Edom,” provide much +valuable material for the study of Israel’s rival (xxxvi.). The +chapter gives yet another account of the separation of Jacob and +Esau (with <i>vv.</i> 6-8, cf. Abraham and Lot, xiii. 5 seq.), and describes +the latter’s withdrawal to Seir (cf. already xxxii. 3; xxxiii. 14, 16). +It includes lists of diverse origin (<i>e.g.</i> <i>vv.</i> 2-5, contrast xxvi. 34, +xxviii. 9); various “dukes” (R.V. marg. “chiefs”), or rather +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page580" id="page580"></a>580</span> +“thousands” or “clans”; and also the “sons” of Seir the Horite, +<i>i.e.</i> Horite clans (<i>vv.</i> 20 seq. and <i>vv.</i> 29 seq.). A summary of Edomite +kings is ascribed to the period before the Israelite monarchy (<i>vv.</i> +31-39), and the record concludes with the “dukes” of Esau, the +father of the Edomites (<i>vv.</i> 40-43, cf. names in <i>vv.</i> 10-14, 15-19).<a name="fa10l" id="fa10l" href="#ft10l"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p> + +<p>Finally, Genesis turns from the patriarchs to the “generations of +Jacob” (xxxvii. 2), and we have stories of the “sons,” the ancestors +of the tribes. (In xxxiv. the incidents which primarily concerned +Simeon and Levi alone have, however, been adjusted to the general +history of Jacob and his family.) The first place is given to Joseph +(xxxvii.), although xxxviii. crowds the early history of the family +of Judah into the twenty-two years between xxxvii. 2 and Jacob’s +descent into Egypt (see xli. 46, 47; xlv. 6).<a name="fa11l" id="fa11l" href="#ft11l"><span class="sp">11</span></a> In xxxvii., xxxix. sqq. +we have an admirable specimen of writing quite distinct in stamp +from the patriarchal stories. The romance which has here been +utilized shows an acquaintance with Egypt; the narratives are +discursive, not laconic, everything is more detailed, and more under +the influence of literary art. The Reuben and Simeon which appear +in it are not the characters which we meet in xxxiv., xxxv. 22, or in +the poem xlix. 3-7; and the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh do +not scruple to claim ancestry from Joseph and the daughter of an +Egyptian priest at the seat of the worship of the sun-god (xli. 45). +The narratives are composite. Joseph incurs the ill-will of his +brethren because of Israel’s partiality or because of his significant +dreams. He is at Shechem or at Dothan; and when the brothers +seek to slay him, Judah proposes that he should be sold to Ishmaelites, +or Reuben suggests that he should be cast into a pit, where Midianites +find and kidnap him (xxxvii., cf. xl. 15). The latter sell him to the +eunuch Potiphar, but he appears in the service of a married householder +(xxxix., the second clause of v. 1 harmonizes). Among other +signs of dual origin are the alternation of “Jacob” and “Israel,” +and the prominence of Judah (xliii. 3, 8; xliv. 14, 18) or of Reuben +(xlii. 22, 37). The money is found in a “bag” as the brothers +encamp (xlii. 27, 28<i>a</i>; xliii.), or in a “sack” when they reach home +(xlii. 8-26, 29-35, 28<i>b</i>, 36 sq.). When Israel and his family descend +into Egypt, the latest source gives a detailed list which agrees in +the main with the Israelite subdivisions (xlvi. 6-27, cf. Num. xxvi. +and 1 Chron. ii.-viii.). The families dwell in the land of Goshen, +east of the Delta, “for every shepherd is an abomination unto the +Egyptians” (xlv. 10; xlvi. 28-34; xlvii. 1-6); or they are in +the “land of Rameses” (xlvii. 11, and Septuagint in xlvi. 28);<a name="fa12l" id="fa12l" href="#ft12l"><span class="sp">12</span></a> +Joseph’s policy during the famine is next described (xlvii. 13-26), +although it would have been more in place after xli. (see <i>ib.</i> 34). +There are several difficulties in Jacob’s blessing of the sons of Joseph +(xlviii.).<a name="fa13l" id="fa13l" href="#ft13l"><span class="sp">13</span></a> The blessing in xlix. is a collection of poetical passages +praising or blaming the various tribes, and must certainly +date after the Israelite settlement in Palestine; see further the +articles on the tribes. Jacob’s dying instructions to Joseph (xlvii. +29-31) are continued in l. 1 sqq., his charge to his sons (xlix. 28 +sqq., P) in l. 12 seq. It is significant that Jacob’s body is taken to +Palestine, but the brethren return to Egypt; in spite of a possible +allusion to the famine in <i>v.</i> 21, the late chronological scheme would +imply that it had long ceased (see xlv. 6, xlvii. 28). The book closes +with the death of Joseph about fifty years later, after the birth of +the children of Machir, who himself was a contemporary of Moses +forty years after the Exodus (Num. xxxii. 39-41). Joseph’s body +is embalmed, but it is not until the concluding chapter of the book +of Joshua (xxiv. 32) that his bones find their last resting-place.</p> +</div> + +<p>Only on the assumption that the book of Genesis is a composite +work is it possible to explain the duplication of events, the varying +use of the divine names <i>Yahweh</i> and <i>Elōhīm</i>, the +linguistic and stylistic differences, the internal intricacies +<span class="sidenote">A composite work.</span> +of the subject matter, and the differing standpoints +as regards tradition, chronology, morals and +religion.<a name="fa14l" id="fa14l" href="#ft14l"><span class="sp">14</span></a> The cumulative effect of the whole evidence is too +strong to be withstood, and already in the 17th century it was +recognized that the book was of composite origin. Immense +labour has been spent in the critical analysis of the contents, but +it is only since the work of Graf (1866) and Wellhausen (1878) that +a satisfactory literary hypothesis has been found which explained +the most obvious intricacies. The Graf-Wellhausen literary +theory has gained the assent of almost all trained and unbiased +biblical scholars, it has not been shaken by the more recent light +from external evidence, and no alternative theory has as yet been +produced. The internal features of Genesis demand some formulated +theory, more precise than the indefinite concessions of +the 17th century, beyond which the opponents of modern literary +criticism scarcely advance, and the Graf-Wellhausen theory, in +spite of the numerous difficulties which it leaves untouched, is +the only adequate starting-point for the study of the book. +According to this, Genesis is a post-exilic work composed of a +post-exilic priestly source (P) and non-priestly earlier sources +which differ markedly from P in language, style and religious +standpoint, but much less markedly from one and another.<a name="fa15l" id="fa15l" href="#ft15l"><span class="sp">15</span></a> +These sources can be traced elsewhere in the Pentateuch and +Joshua, and P itself is related to the post-exilic works Chronicles, +Ezra and Nehemiah. In its <i>present</i> form Genesis is an indispensable +portion of the biblical history, and consequently its +literary growth cannot be viewed apart from that of the +books which follow. On internal grounds it appears that the +Pentateuch and Joshua, as they now read, virtually come in +between an older history by “Deuteronomic” compilers (easily +recognizable in Judges and Kings), and the later treatment of the +monarchy in Chronicles, where the influence of the circle which +produced P and the present Mosaic legislation is quite discernible. +There have been stages where earlier extant sources have been +cut down, adjusted or revised by compilers who have incorporated +fresh material, and it is the later compilers of Genesis who have +made the book a fairly knit whole. The technical investigation +of the <i>literary</i> problems (especially the extent of the earlier +sources) is a work of great complexity, and, for ordinary purposes, +it is more important to obtain a preliminary appreciation of the +general features of the contents of Genesis.</p> + +<p>That the records of the pre-historic ages in Gen. i.-xi. are at +complete variance with modern science and archaeological +research is unquestionable.<a name="fa16l" id="fa16l" href="#ft16l"><span class="sp">16</span></a> But although it is impossible +to regard them any longer either as genuine +<span class="sidenote">Value of traditions.</span> +history or as subjects for an allegorical interpretation +(which would prove the accuracy of <i>any</i> record) they are of +distinct value as human documents. They reflect the ideas +and thoughts of the Hebrews, they illustrate their conceptions of +God and the universe, and they furnish material for a comparison +of the moral development of the Hebrews with that of other +early races. Some of the traditions are closely akin to those +current in ancient Babylonia, but a careful and impartial comparison +at once illustrates in a striking manner the relative +moral and spiritual superiority of our writers. On these subjects +see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cosmogony</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deluge</a></span>.<a name="fa17l" id="fa17l" href="#ft17l"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p> + +<p>The records of the patriarchal age, xii.-l. are very variously +estimated, although the great majority of scholars agree that +they are not contemporary and that they cannot be used, as they +stand, for pre-Mosaic times. Apart from the ordinary arguments +of historical criticism, it is to be noticed that external evidence +does not support the assumption that the records preserve +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page581" id="page581"></a>581</span> +genuine pre-Mosaic history. There are no grounds for any +arbitrary distinction between the “pre-historic” pre-Abrahamic +age and the later age. External evidence, which recognizes no +universal deluge and no dispersal of mankind in the third millennium +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, throws its own light upon the opening centuries of +the second. It has revealed conditions which are not reflected +in Genesis, and important facts upon which the book is silent—unless, +indeed, there is a passing allusion to the great Babylonian +monarch Khammurabi in the Amraphel of Gen. xiv. Any careful +perusal of modern attempts to recover historical facts or an +historical outline from the book will show how very inadequate +the material proves to be, and the reconstructions will be found to +depend upon an interpretation of the narratives which is often +liberal and not rarely precarious, and to imply such reshaping and +rewriting of the presumed facts that the cautious reader can place +little reliance on them. Whatever future research may bring, it +cannot remove the <i>internal</i> peculiarities which combine to show +that Genesis preserves, not literal history, but popular traditions +of the past. External evidence has proved the antiquity of +various elements, but not that of the form or context in which +they now appear; and the difference is an important one. We +have now a background upon which to view the book, and, on the +one hand, it has become obvious that the records preserve—as is +only to be expected—Oriental customs, beliefs and modes of +thought. But it has not been demonstrated that these are +exclusively pre-Mosaic. On the other hand, a better acquaintance +with the ancient political, sociological and religious conditions +has made it increasingly difficult to interpret the records +as a whole literally, or even to find a place in pre-Mosaic Palestine +for the lives of the patriarchs as they are depicted.<a name="fa18l" id="fa18l" href="#ft18l"><span class="sp">18</span></a> Nevertheless, +though one cannot look to Genesis for the history of the early part +of the second millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the study of what was thought of +the past, proves in this, as in many other cases, to be more +instructive than the facts of the past, and it is distinctly more +important for the biblical student and the theologian to understand +the thought of the ages immediately preceding the foundation +of Judaism in the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> than the actual history of +many centuries earlier.</p> + +<p>A noteworthy feature is the frequent <i>personification</i> of peoples, +tribes or clans (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Genealogy</a></span>: <i>Biblical</i>). Midian (<i>i.e.</i> the +Midianites) is a son of Abraham; Canaan is a son of +Ham (ix. 22), and Cush the son of Ham is the father +<span class="sidenote">Fusion of diverse features.</span> +of Ramah and grandfather of the famous S. Arabian +state Sheba and the traders of Dedan (x. 6 sq., cf. +Ezek. xxvii. 20-22). Bethuel the father of Rebekah is the brother +of the tribal names Uz and Buz (xxii. 21 sqq., cf. Jer. xxv. 20, 23). +Jacob is otherwise known as Israel and becomes the father of +the tribes of Israel; Joseph is the father of Ephraim and +Manasseh, and incidents in the life of Judah lead to the birth +of Perez and Zerah, Judaean clans. This personification is +entirely natural to the Oriental, and though “primitive” is not +necessarily an ancient trait.<a name="fa19l" id="fa19l" href="#ft19l"><span class="sp">19</span></a> It gives rise to what may be +termed the “prophetical interpretation of history” (S.R. +Driver, <i>Genesis</i>, p. 111), where the character, fortunes or history +of the apparent individual are practically descriptive of the +people or tribe which, according to tradition, is named after or +descended from him. The utterance of Noah over Canaan, +Shem and Japheth (ix. 25 sqq.), of Isaac over Esau and Jacob +(xxvii.), of Jacob over his sons (xlix.) or grandsons (xlviii.), +would have no meaning to Israelites unless they had some connexion +with and interest for contemporary life and thought. +Herein lies the force of the description of the wild and independent +Ishmael (xvi. 12), the “father” of certain well-known tribes +(xxv. 13-15); or the contrast between the skilful hunter Esau +and the quiet and respectable Jacob (xxv. 27), and between the +tiller Cain who becomes the typical nomad and the pastoral Abel +(iv. 1-15). The interest of the struggles between Jacob and +Esau lay, not in the history of individuals of the distant past, +but in the fact that the names actually represented Israel and +its near rival Edom. These features are in entire accordance +with Oriental usage and give expression to current belief, existing +relationships, or to a poetical foreshadowing of historical vicissitudes. +But in the effort to understand them as they were +originally understood it is very obvious that this method of +interpretation can be pressed too far. It would be precarious +to insist that the entrances into Palestine of Abraham and Jacob +(or Israel) typified two distinct immigrations. The separation +of Abraham from Lot (cf. Lotan, an Edomite name), of Isaac +from Hagar-Ishmael, or of Jacob from Esau-Edom scarcely +points to the relative antiquity of the origin of these non-Israelite +peoples who, to judge from the evidence, were closely +related. Or, if the “sons” of Jacob had Aramaean mothers, +to prove that those which are derived from the wives were upon +a higher level than the “sons” of the concubines is more difficult +than to allow that certain of the tribes must have contained +some element of Aramaean blood (cf. 1 Chron. vii. 14, and see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Asher</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gad</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manasseh</a></span>). Some of the names are clearly +not those of known clans or tribes (<i>e.g.</i> Abraham, Isaac), and +many of the details of the narratives obviously have no natural +ethnological meaning. Stories of heroic ancestors and of tribal +eponyms intermingle; personal, tribal and national traits are +interwoven. The entrance of Jacob or Israel with his sons +suggests that of the children of Israel. The story of Simeon +and Levi at Shechem is clearly not that of two individuals, +sons of the patriarch Israel; in fact the story actually uses the +term “wrought folly in Israel” (cf. Jud. xx. 6, 10), and the +individual Shechem, the son of Hamor, cannot be separated +from the city, the scene of the incidents. Yet Jacob’s life with +Laban has many purely individual traits. And, further, there +intervenes a remarkable passage with an account of his conflict +with the divine being who fears the dawn and is unwilling to +reveal his name. In a few verses the “wrestling” (’<i>-b -ḳ</i>) of +Jacob (<i>yă’ăqōb</i>) is associated with the Jabbok (<i>yabbōq</i>); his +“striving” explains his name Israel; at Peniel he sees “the +face of God,” and when touched on his vulnerable spot—the +hollow of the thigh—he is lamed, hence “the children of Israel +eat not the sinew of the hip which is upon the hollow of the +thigh unto this day” (xxxii. 24-32). Other examples of the fusion +of different features can be readily found. Three divine beings +appear to Abraham at the sacred tree of Hebron, and when the +birth of Isaac (from <i>ṣāḥaq</i>, “laugh”) is foretold, the account of +Sarah’s behaviour is merely a popular and trivial story suggested +by the child’s name (xviii. 12-15; see also xvii. 17, xxi. 6, 9). +An extremely fine passage then describes the patriarch’s intercession +for Sodom and Gomorrah, and the narrative passes on +to the catastrophe which explains the Dead Sea and its desert +region and has parallels elsewhere (<i>e.g.</i> the Greek legend of Zeus +and Hermes in Phrygia). Lot escapes to Zoar, the name gives +rise to the pun on the “little” city (xix. 20), and his wife, on +looking back, becomes one of those pillars of salt which still +invite speculation. Finally the names of his children Moab and +Ammon are explained by an incident when he is a cave-dweller +on a mountain.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>To primitive minds which speculated upon the “why and wherefore” +of what they saw around them, the narratives of Genesis +afforded an answer. They preserve, in fact, some of the popular +philosophy and belief of the Hebrews. They furnish what must +have been a satisfactory origin of the names Edom, Moab and Ammon, +Mahanaim and Succoth, Bethel, Beersheba, &c. They explain why +Shechem, Bethel and Beersheba were ancient sanctuaries (see further +below); why the serpent writhes along the ground (iii. 14); and +why the hip sinew might not be eaten (xxxii. 32). To these and a +hundred other questions the national and tribal stories—of which +no doubt only a few have survived, and of which other forms, earlier +or later, more crude or more refined, were doubtless current—furnish +an evidently adequate answer. Myth and legend, fact and fiction, +the common stock of oral tradition, have been handed down, and +thus constitute one of the most valuable sources for popular Hebrew +thought.</p> + +<p>The book is not to be judged from any one-sided estimate of its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page582" id="page582"></a>582</span> +contents. By the side of much that seems trivial, and even non-moral—for +the patriarchs themselves are not saints—it is noteworthy +how frequently the narratives are didactic. The characteristic +sense of collective responsibility, which appears more incidentally +in xx. 7, is treated with striking intensity in a passage (xviii. 23-33) +which uses the legend of Sodom and Gomorrah as a vehicle for the +statement of a familiar problem (cf. Ezek. xviii., Ps. lxxiii., Job). +It will be observed that interviews with divine beings presented as +little difficulty to the primitive minds of old as to the modern +native; even the idea of intercourse of supernatural beings with +mortals (vi. 1-4) is to-day equally intelligible. The modern untutored +native has a not dissimilar undeveloped and childlike +attitude towards the divine, a naive theology and a simple cultus. +The most circumstantial tales are told of imaginary figures, and +the most incredible details clothe the lives of the historical heroes +of the past. So abundant is the testimony of modern travellers to +the extent to which Eastern custom and thought elucidate the +interpretation of the Bible, that it is very important to notice +those features which illustrate Genesis. “The Oriental,” writes +S.I. Curtiss (<i>Bibl. sacra</i>, Jan. 1901, pp. 103 sqq.), “is least of all a +scientific historian. He is the prince of story-tellers, narratives, +real and imaginative, spring from his lips, which are the truest +portraiture of composite rather than individual Oriental life, though +narrated under forms of individual experience.” There are, therefore, +many preliminary points which combine to show that the +critical student cannot isolate the book from Oriental life and +thought; its uniqueness lies in the manner in which the material +has been shaped and the use to which it has been put.</p> +</div> + +<p>The Book of Jubilees (not earlier than the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +presents the history in another form. It retains some of the +canonical matter, often with considerable reshaping, +omits many details (especially those to which exception +<span class="sidenote">Questions of date.</span> +could be taken), and adds much that is novel. The +chronological system of the latest source in Genesis becomes an +elaborate reckoning of heavenly origin. Written under the +obvious influence of later religious aims, it is especially valuable +because one can readily compare the two methods of presenting +the old traditions.<a name="fa20l" id="fa20l" href="#ft20l"><span class="sp">20</span></a> There is the same kind of personification, +fresh examples of the “prophetical interpretation of history,” +and by the side of the older “primitive” thought are ideas +which can only belong to this later period. In each case we have +merely a selection of current traditional lore. For example, +Gen. vi. 1-4 mentions the marriage of divine beings with the +daughters of men and the birth of Nephīlīm or giants (cf. Num. +xiii. 33). Later allusions to this myth (<i>e.g.</i> Baruch iii. 26-28, +Book of Enoch vi. sqq., 2 Peter ii. 4, &c.) are not based upon this +passage; the fragment itself is all that remains of some more +organic written myth which, as is well-known, has parallels +among other peoples.<a name="fa21l" id="fa21l" href="#ft21l"><span class="sp">21</span></a> Old myths underlie the account of the +creation and the garden of Eden, and traces of other versions +or forms appear elsewhere in the Old Testament. Again, the +Old Testament throws no light upon the redemption of Abraham +(Is. xxix. 22), although the Targums and other sources profess +to be well-informed. The isolated reference to Jacob’s conquest +of Shechem in Gen. xlviii. 22 must have belonged to another +context, and later writings give in a later and thoroughly incredible +form allied traditions. In Hosea xii. 4, Jacob’s wrestling +is mentioned before the scene at Bethel (Gen. xxxii. 24 sqq., +xxviii. 11 sqq.). The overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah is +described in Genesis (xviii. seq.), but Hosea refers only to that +of Admah and Zeboim (xi. 8, cf. Deut. xxix. 23, Gen. x. 19)—different +versions of the great catastrophe were doubtless current. +Consequently investigation must start with the particular +details which happen to be preserved, and these not necessarily +in their original or in their only form. Since the antiquity of +elements of tradition is independent of the shape in which they +appear before us, a careful distinction must be drawn between +those details which do not admit of being dated or located and +those which do. There is evidence for the existence of the +<i>names</i> Abram, Jacob and Joseph previous to 900 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but +this does not prove the antiquity of the present narratives +encircling them. Babylonian tablets of the creation date from +the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but their contents are many centuries +earlier (viz. the age of Khammurabi), whereas the Phoenician +myths of the origin of things are preserved in a late form by the +late writers Damascius and Philo of Byblus. Gen. xiv., which +may preserve some knowledge of the reign of Khammurabi, is +on internal literary grounds of the post-exilic age, and it is at +least a coincidence that the Babylonian texts, often quoted in +support of the genuineness of the narrative, belong to about the +same period and use early Babylonian history for purely didactic +purposes.<a name="fa22l" id="fa22l" href="#ft22l"><span class="sp">22</span></a> In general, just as the Book of Jubilees, while +presenting many elements of old tradition, betrays on decisive +internal grounds an age later than Genesis itself, so, in turn, +there is sufficient conclusive evidence that Genesis in its present +form includes older features, but belongs to the age to which +(on quite independent grounds) the rest of the Pentateuch must +be ascribed.</p> + +<p>Popular tradition often ignores events of historical importance, +or, as repeated experience shows, will represent them in such a +form that the true historical kernel could never have +been recovered without some external clue. The +<span class="sidenote">Historical backgrounds.</span> +absence of definite references to the events of the +Israelite monarchy does not necessarily point to the +priority of the traditions in Genesis or their later date. Nevertheless, +some allusion to national fortunes is reflected in the exaltation +of Jacob (Israel) over Esau (Edom), and in the promise that +the latter should break the yoke from his neck.<a name="fa23l" id="fa23l" href="#ft23l"><span class="sp">23</span></a> Israelite kings +are foreshadowed (xvii. 6, xxxv. 11, P), and Israel’s kingdom has +the ideal limits as ascribed to Solomon (xv. 18, see 1 Kings iv. 21; +but cf. art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solomon</a></span>). Judah is promised a world-wide king +(xlix. 8-10), though elsewhere the supremacy of Joseph rouses the +jealousy of his “brothers” (xxxvii. 8). Different dates and +circles of interest are thus manifest. The cursing and dispersion +of Simeon and Levi (xlix. 5-7) recall the fact that Simeon’s +cities were in the territory of Judah (Josh. xix. 1, 9), and that the +Levitical priests are later scattered and commended to the +benevolence of the Israelites. But the curse obviously represents +an attitude quite opposed to the blessing pronounced upon Levi +by Moses (Deut. xxxiii. 8-11). The Edomite genealogies (xxxvi.) +represent a more extensive people than the references in the +popular stories suggest, and the latter by no means indicate that +Edom had so important a career as we actually gather from a few +allusions to its kings (xxxvi. 31-39).<a name="fa24l" id="fa24l" href="#ft24l"><span class="sp">24</span></a> The references to Philistines +are anachronistic for the pre-Mosaic age, and it is clear that +the tradition of a solemn covenant with a Philistine king and his +general (xxi. 22 seq., xxvi. 26 sqq.) does not belong to the age or +the circle which remembered the grievous oppressions of the +Philistines or felt contempt for these “uncircumcised” enemies +of Israel<a name="fa25l" id="fa25l" href="#ft25l"><span class="sp">25</span></a>. Finally, the thread of the tradition unmistakably +represents a national unity of the twelve sons (tribes) of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page583" id="page583"></a>583</span> +Israel; but this unity was not felt at certain periods of disorganization, +and the idea of including Judah among the sons of +Israel could not have arisen at a time when Israel and Judah +were rival kingdoms.<a name="fa26l" id="fa26l" href="#ft26l"><span class="sp">26</span></a> In so far as the traditions can be read in the +light of biblical history it is evident that they belong to different +ages and represent different national, tribal, or local standpoints.</p> + +<p>Another noteworthy feature is the interest taken in <i>sacred +sites</i>. Certain places are distinguished by theophanies or by the +erection of an altar (<i>lit.</i> place of sacrificial slaughter), +and incidents are narrated with a very intelligible +<span class="sidenote">Interest in holy places.</span> +purpose. <i>Mizpah</i> in Gilead is the scene of a covenant +or treaty between Jacob and his Aramaean relative +commemorated by a pillar (<i>Maṣṣēbah</i>). It was otherwise known +for an annual religious ceremony, the traditional origin of which is +related in the story of Jephthah’s vow and sacrifice (Judg. xi.), +and its priests are denounced by Hosea (v. i). <i>Shechem</i>, the +famous city of the Samaritans (“the foolish nation,” Ecclus. I. +26), where Joseph was buried (Josh. xxiv. 32), had a sanctuary +and a sacred pillar and tree. It was the scene of the coronation +(a religious ceremony) of Abimelech (Judg. ix.), and Rehoboam +(1 Kings xii. 1). The pillar was ascribed to Joshua (Josh. xxiv. +26 seq.), and although Jacob set up at Shechem an “altar,” the +verb suggests that the original object was a pillar (Gen. xxxiii. +20). The first ancestor of Israel, on the other hand, is merely +associated with a theophany at an oracular tree (xii. 6). The Benjamite +<i>Bethel</i> was especially famous in Israelite religious history. +The story tells how Jacob discovered its sanctity,—it was the +gate of heaven,—made a covenant with its God, established the +sacred pillar, and instituted its tithes (xxviii.). The prophetess +Deborah dwelt under a palm-tree near Bethel (Judg. iv. 5), and +her name is also that of the foster-mother of Rebekah who was +buried near Bethel beneath the “oak of weeping” (xxxv. 8). +<i>Bochim</i> (“weeping”) elsewhere receives its name when an +angel appeared to the Israelites (Judg. ii. 1, Septuagint adds +Bethel). To the prophets Hosea and Amos the cultus of Bethel +was superstitious and immoral, even though it was Yahweh +himself who was worshipped there (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bethel</a></span>). South of +Hebron lay <i>Beersheba</i>, an important centre and place of pilgrimage, +with a special numen by whom oaths were taken (Amos +viii. 14, see Sept. and the commentaries). Isaac built its altar, +and Isaac’s God guarded Jacob in his journeying (xxxi. 29, +xlvi. 1). This patriarch and his “brother” Ishmael are closely +associated with the district south of Judah, both are connected +with <i>Beer-lahai-roi</i> (xxiv. 62, Sept. xxv. 11), whose fountain was +the scene of a theophany (xvi.), and their traditions are thus +localized in the district of Kadesh famous in the events of the +Exodus (cf. xvi. 14, xxi. 21, xxv. 18, Ex. xv. 22). (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exodus, +The</a></span>.) Abraham planted a sacred tree at Beersheba and invoked +“the everlasting God” (xxi. 33). But the patriarch is more +closely identified with <i>Hebron</i>, which had a sanctuary (cf. 2 Sam. +xv. 7 seq.), and an altar which he built “unto Yahweh” (xiii. 18). +The sacred oak of Mamre was famous in the time of Josephus +(<i>B. J.</i> iv. 9, 7), it was later a haunt of “angels” (Sozomen), and +Constantine was obliged to put down the heathenish cultus. +The place still has its holy tree. Beneath the oak there appeared +the three divine beings, and in the cave of Machpelah the illustrious +ancestor and his wife were buried. The story of his descent into +Egypt and the plaguing of Pharaoh is a secondary insertion +(xii. 10-xiii. 2), and where the patriarch appears at Beersheba it is +in incidents which tend to connect him with his “son” Isaac. +There is a very distinct tendency to emphasize the importance of +Hebron. Taken from primitive giants by the non-Israelite clan +Caleb (<i>q.v.</i>) it has now become predominant in the patriarchal +traditions. Jacob leaves his dying father at Beersheba (xxviii. +10), but according to the <i>latest</i> source he returns to him at Hebron +(xxxv. 27), and here, north of Beersheba, he continues to live +(xxxvii. 14, xlvi. 1-5). The cave of Machpelah became the grave +of Isaac, Rebekah and Leah (but not Rachel); and though Jacob +appears to be buried beyond the Jordan, it is the latest source +which places his grave at Hebron (1. i-11 and 12 seq.). So in still +later tradition, all the sons of Jacob with the exception of +Joseph find their last resting-place at Hebron, and in Jewish +prayers for the dead it is besought that their souls may be +bound up with those of the patriarchs, or that they may go to the +cave of Machpelah and thence to the Cherubim.<a name="fa27l" id="fa27l" href="#ft27l"><span class="sp">27</span></a> The increasing +prominence of the old Calebite locality is not the least interesting +phase in the comparative study of the patriarchal traditions.</p> + +<p>The association of the ancestors of Israel with certain sites is a +feature which finds analogies even in modern Palestine. There +are old centres of cult which have never lost the veneration of the +people; the shrines are known as the tombs of saints or <i>walis</i> +(patrons) with such orthodox names as St George, Elijah, &c. +Traditions justify the reputation for sanctity, and not only are +similar stories told of distinct figures, but there are varying +traditions of a single figure.<a name="fa28l" id="fa28l" href="#ft28l"><span class="sp">28</span></a> The places have retained their +sacred character despite political and religious vicissitudes; +they are far older than their present names, and such is the conservatism +of the east that it is not surprising when, for example, +a sacred tomb at Gezer stands quite close to the site of an ancient +holy place, about 3000 years old, the existence of which was +first made known in the course of excavation. Genesis preserves +a selection of traditions relating to a few of the old Palestinian +centres of cult. We cannot suppose that these first gained their +sacred character in the pre-Mosaic “patriarchal” age; there is in +any case the obvious difficulty of bridging the gap between the +descent into Egypt and the Exodus, and it is clear that when +the Israelites entered Palestine they came among a people whose +religion, tradition and thought were fully established. It is only +in accordance with analogy if stories were current in Israel of +the institution of the sacred places, and closer study shows that +we do not preserve the original version of these traditions.<a name="fa29l" id="fa29l" href="#ft29l"><span class="sp">29</span></a></p> + +<p>A venerated tree in modern Palestine will owe its sanctity +to some tradition, associating it, it may be, with some +saint; the Israelites in their turn held the belief that the +sacred tree at Hebron was one beneath which their first ancestor +sat when three divine beings revealed themselves to him. +But it is noteworthy that Yahweh alone is now prominent; +the tradition has been revised, apparently in writing, and, later, +the author of Jubilees (xvi.) ignores the triad. At Beer-lahai-roi +an El (“god”) appeared to Hagar, whence the name of her +child Ishmael; but the writer prefers the unambiguous proper +name Yahweh, and, what is more, the divine being is now +Yahweh’s angel—the Almighty’s subordinate (xvi.). The older +traits show themselves partly in the manifestation of various +<i>Els</i>, and partly in the cruder anthropomorphism of the earlier +sources. Later hands have by no means eliminated or modified +them altogether, and in xxxi. 53 one can still perceive that the +present text has endeavoured to obscure the older belief that +the God of Abraham was not the God of his “brother” Nahor +(see the commentaries). The sacred pillar erected by Jacob at +Bethel was solemnly anointed with oil, and it (and not the place) +was regarded as the abode of the Deity (xxviii. 18, 22). This +agrees with all that is known of stone-cults, but it is quite obvious +that this interesting example of popular belief is far below the +religious ideas of the writer of the chapter in its present form.<a name="fa30l" id="fa30l" href="#ft30l"><span class="sp">30</span></a> +There were many places where it could be said that Yahweh +had recorded his name and would bless his worshippers (Ex. +xx. 24). They were abhorrent to the advanced ethical teaching +of prophets and of those imbued with the spirit of Deuteronomy +(cf. 2 Kings xviii. 4 with v. 22), and it is patent from Jeremiah, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page584" id="page584"></a>584</span> +Ezekiel and Is. lvi.-lxvi. that even at a late date opinion varied +as to how Yahweh was to be served.<a name="fa31l" id="fa31l" href="#ft31l"><span class="sp">31</span></a> It is significant, therefore, +that the narratives in Genesis (apart from P) reflect a certain +tolerant attitude; there is much that is contrary to prophetical +thought, but even the latest compilers have not obliterated all +features that, from a strict standpoint, could appear distasteful. +Although the priestly source shows how the lore could be reshaped, +and Jubilees represents later efforts along similar lines, it is +evident that for ordinary readers the patriarchal traditions could +not be presented in an entirely new form, and that to achieve +their aims the writers could not be at direct variance with +current thought.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It will now be understood why several scholars have sought to +recover earlier forms of the traditions, the stages through which the +material has passed, and the place of the earlier forms and stages +in the history and religion of Israel. These labours are indispensable +for scientific biblical study, and are most fruitful when they depend +upon comprehensive methods of research. When, for example, +one observes the usual forms of hero-cult and the tendency to regard +the occupant of the modern sacred shrine as the ancestor of his +clients, deeper significance is attached to the references to the protective +care of Abraham and Israel (Is. lxiii. 16), or to the motherly +sympathy of Rachel (Jer. xxxi. 15). And, again, when one perceives +the tendency to look upon the alleged ancestor or <i>weli</i> as an almost +divine being, there is much to be said for the view that the patriarchal +figures were endowed by popular opinion with divine attributes. +But here the same external evidence warns us that these considerations +throw no light upon the original significance of the patriarchs. +It is impossible to recover the earliest traditions from the present +narratives, and these alone offer sufficiently perplexing problems.<a name="fa32l" id="fa32l" href="#ft32l"><span class="sp">32</span></a></p> +</div> + +<p>From a careful survey of all the accessible material it is beyond +doubt that Genesis preserves only a selection of traditions of +various ages and interests, and often not in their +original form. We have relatively little tradition +<span class="sidenote">Southern interests.</span> +from North Israel; Beersheba, Beer-lahai-roi and +Hebron are more prominent than even Bethel or Shechem, +while there are no stories of Gilgal, Shiloh or Dan. Yet in the +nature of the case, there must have been a great store of local +tradition accessible to some writers and at some periods.<a name="fa33l" id="fa33l" href="#ft33l"><span class="sp">33</span></a> +Interest is taken not in Phoenicia, Damascus or the northern +tribes, but in the east and south, in Gilead, Ammon, Moab and +Ishmael. Particular attention is paid to Edom and Jacob, and +there is good evidence for a close relationship between Edomite +and allied names and those of South Palestine (including Simeon +and Judah). Especially significant, too, is the interest in traditions +which affected the South of Palestine, that district which is +of importance for the history of Israel in the wilderness and of +the Levites.<a name="fa34l" id="fa34l" href="#ft34l"><span class="sp">34</span></a> It is noteworthy, therefore, that while different +peoples had their own theories of their earliest history, the first-born +of the first human pair is Cain, the eponym of the Kenites, +and the ancestor of the beginnings of civilization (iv. 17, 20-22). +This “Kenite” version had its own view of the institution of +the worship of Yahweh (iv. 26); it appears to have ignored +the Deluge, and it implies the existence of a fuller corpus of +written tradition. Elsewhere, in the records of the Exodus, +there are traces of specific traditions associated with Kadesh, +Kenites, Caleb and Jerahmeel, and with a movement into +Judah, all originally independent of their present context. Like +the prominence of the traditions of Hebron and its hero Abraham, +these features cannot be merely casual.<a name="fa35l" id="fa35l" href="#ft35l"><span class="sp">35</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The fact that one is not dealing with literal history complicates +the question of the nomadic or semi-nomadic life of the Israelite +ancestors.<a name="fa36l" id="fa36l" href="#ft36l"><span class="sp">36</span></a> They are tent-dwellers, shepherds, sojourners (xvii. 8, +xxiii. 4, xxviii. 4, xxxvi. 7, xxxvii. 1), and we breathe the air of the +open country. But the impression gained from the narratives is +of course due to the narrators. The movements of the patriarchs +serve mainly to connect them with traditions which were originally +independent. When Abraham separates from Lot he settles in +“the land of Canaan,” while Lot dwells in “the cities of the plain” +(xiii. 12). Isaac at Beersheba enters into an alliance with the +Philistines (xxvi. 12 sqq.), while Jacob seems to settle at Shechem +(xxxiv.), and there or at Dothan, a few miles north, his sons pasture +their father’s flock (xxxvii. 12 sqq.).<a name="fa37l" id="fa37l" href="#ft37l"><span class="sp">37</span></a> Indeed, according to an +isolated fragment Jacob conquered Shechem and gave it to Joseph +(xlviii. 22), and this tradition underlies (and has not given birth to) +the late and fantastic stories of his warfare (Jub. xxxiv. 1-9, +Test. of Judah iii.). Judah, also, is represented as settling among +the Canaanites (xxxviii.), and Simeon marries a Canaanite—according +to late tradition, a woman of Zephath (xlvi. 10; Jub. xxxiv. 20, +xliv. 13; see Judg. i. 17). These representations have been subordinated +to others, in particular to the descent into Egypt of Jacob +(Israel) and his sons, and the Exodus of the Israelites. But the +critical study of these events raises very serious historical problems. +Abraham’s grandson, with his family—a mere handful of people—went +down into Egypt during a famine (cf. Abraham xii. 10, and +Isaac xxvi. 1 seq.); 400 years pass, all memory of which is practically +obliterated, and the Israelite nation composed of similar subdivisions +returns. Although the later genealogies from Jacob to Moses allow +only four generations (cf. Gen. xv. 16), the difficulties are not removed. +Joseph lived to see the children of Machir (l. 23, note Ex. +i. 8), though Machir received Gilead from the hands of Moses (Num. +xxxii. 40); Levi descended with Kehath, who became the grandfather +of Aaron and Moses, while Aaron married a descendant in +the fifth generation from Judah (Ex. vi. 23). On the other hand +the genealogies in 1 Chron. ii. sqq. are independent of the Exodus; +Ephraim’s children raid Gath, his daughter founds certain cities, +and Manasseh has an Aramaean concubine who becomes the mother +of Machir (1 Chron. vii. 14, 20-24).<a name="fa38l" id="fa38l" href="#ft38l"><span class="sp">38</span></a> Moreover the whole course of +the invasion and settlement of Israel (under Joshua) has no real +connexion with pre-Mosaic patriarchal history. If we reinterpret +the history of the <i>family</i> and its descent into Egypt, and belittle +its increase into a <i>nation</i>, and if we figure to ourselves a more gradual +occupation of Palestine, we destroy the entire continuity of history +as it was understood by those who compiled the biblical history, +and we have no evidence for any confident reconstruction. With +such thoroughness have the compilers given effect to their views +that only on closer examination is it found that even at a relatively +late period fundamentally differing traditions still existed, and that +those which belonged to circles which did not recognize the Exodus +have been subordinated and adjusted by writers to whom this was +the profoundest event in their past.<a name="fa39l" id="fa39l" href="#ft39l"><span class="sp">39</span></a></p> +</div> + +<p>That the journey of Jacob-Israel from his Aramaean relatives +into Palestine hints at some pre-Mosaic immigration is possible, +but has not been either proved or disproved. The +details point rather to a reflection of the entrance of +<span class="sidenote">The Southern nucleus.</span> +the children of Israel, elsewhere ascribed to the leadership +of Joshua (<i>q.v.</i>). Though the latter proceeded to +Gilgal, a variant tradition, now almost lost, seems to have recorded +an immediate journey to Shechem (Deut. xxvii. 1-10, +Josh. viii. 30-35) previous to Joshua’s great campaigns (Josh. +x. seq., cf. Jacob’s wars). His religious gathering at Shechem +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page585" id="page585"></a>585</span> +before the dismissal of the tribes finds its parallel in Jacob’s +reforms before leaving for Bethel (xxiv.; cf. v. 26, Gen. xxxv. 4). +Owing, perhaps, to the locale of the writers, we hear relatively +little of the northern tribes. Judah and Simeon are the first +to conquer their lot, and the “house of Joseph” proceeds south +to Bethel, where the story of the “weeping” at Bochim finds a +parallel in the “oak of weeping” (Gen. xxxv. 8). In Gen. +xxxviii. “at that time Judah went down from his brethren”—in +xxxvii. they are at Shechem or Dothan—and settled among +Canaanites, and there is a fragmentary allusion to a similar +alliance of Simeon (xlvi. 10). The trend of the two series of +traditions is too close to be accidental, yet the present sequence +of the narratives in Joshua and Judges associates them with the +Exodus. Further, Jacob’s move to Shechem, Bethel and the +south is parallel to that of Abraham, but his history actually +represents a twofold course. On the one hand, he is the Aramaean +(Deut. xxvi. 5), the favourite son of his Aramaean mother. On +the other, Rebekah is brought to Beer-lahai-roi (xxiv.), Jacob +belongs to the south and he leaves Beersheba for his lengthy +sojourn beyond the Jordan. His separation from Esau, the +revelation at Bethel, and the new name Israel are recorded twice, +and if the entrance into Palestine reflects one ethnological +tradition, the possibility that his departure from Beersheba +reflects another, finds support (<i>a</i>) in the genealogies which +associate the nomad “father” of the southern clans Caleb +and Jerahmeel with Gilead (1 Chron. ii. 21), and (<i>b</i>) in the +hints of an “exodus” from the district of Kadesh northwards.</p> + +<p>The history of an immigration into Palestine from beyond the +Jordan would take various shapes in local tradition. In Genesis +it is preserved from the southern point of view. The northern +standpoint appears when Rachel, mother of Joseph and Benjamin, +is the favoured wife in contrast to the despised Leah, mother of +Judah and Simeon; when Joseph is supreme among his brethren; +and when Judah is included among the “sons” of Israel. It is +possible that the application of the traditional immigration to +the history of the tribes is secondary. This at all events suggests +itself when xxxiv. extends to the history of all the sons, incidents +which originally concerned Simeon and Levi alone, and which +may have represented the Shechemite version of a “Levitical” +tradition (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span>). However this may be, it is necessary +to account for the nomadic colouring of the narratives (cf. +Meyer, pp. 305, 472) and the prominence of southern interests, +and it would be in accordance with biblical evidence elsewhere +if northern tradition had been taken over and adapted to the +standpoint of the southern members of Israel, with the incorporation +of local tradition which could only have originated in the +south.<a name="fa40l" id="fa40l" href="#ft40l"><span class="sp">40</span></a> These and other indications point to a late date in +biblical history. There is a manifest difference between the +religious importance of Shechem in the traditions of Joshua +(xxiv.) and Jacob’s reforms when he leaves behind him the +heathen symbols before journeying to the holy site of Bethel +(Gen. xxxv. 4). There is even some polemic against marriage +with Shechemites (xxxiv.; more emphatic in Jub. xxx.), while +in the story of the Hebronite Abraham, Bethel itself is avoided +and Shechem is of little significance. Again, the present object +of xxxviii. is to trace the origin of certain Judaean subdivisions +after the death of the wicked Er and Onan. It is purely local +and is interested in Shelah, and more especially in Perez and +Zerah, names of families or clans of the post-exilic age.<a name="fa41l" id="fa41l" href="#ft41l"><span class="sp">41</span></a> Elsewhere, +in 1 Chron. ii. and iv., the genealogies represent a Judah +composed of clans from the south (Caleb and Jerahmeel) and +of small families or guilds, Shelah included. It is not the Judah +of the monarchy or of the post-exilic Babylonian-Israelite +community. But the mixed elements were ultimately reckoned +among the descendants of Judah, through Hezron the “father” +of Caleb and Jerahmeel, and just as the southern groups finally +became incorporated in Israel, so it is to be observed that +although Hebron and Abraham have gained the first place in the +patriarchal history, the traditions are no longer specifically +Calebite, but are part of the common Israelite heritage.</p> + +<p>We are taken to a period in biblical history when, though the +historical sources are almost inexplicably scanty, the narratives +of the past were approaching their present shape. Some time +after the fall of Jerusalem (587 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) there was a movement from +the south of Judah northwards to the vicinity of Jerusalem +(Bethlehem, Kirjath-jearim, &c.), where, as can be gathered from +1 Chron. ii., were congregated Kenite and Rechabite communities +and families of scribes. Names related to those of Edomite and +kindred groups are found in the late genealogies of both Judah +and Benjamin, and recur even among families of the time of +Nehemiah.<a name="fa42l" id="fa42l" href="#ft42l"><span class="sp">42</span></a> The same obscure period witnessed the advent of +southern families,<a name="fa43l" id="fa43l" href="#ft43l"><span class="sp">43</span></a> the revival of the Davidic dynasty and its +mysterious disappearance, the outbreak of fierce hatred of Edom, +the return of exiles from Babylonia, the separation of Judah +from Samaria and the rise of bitter anti-Samaritan feeling. It +closes with the reorganization associated with Ezra and Nehemiah +and the compilation of the historical books in practically their +present form. It contains diverse interests and changing standpoints +by which it is possible to explain the presence of purely +southern tradition, the southern treatment of national history, +and the antipathy to northern claims. As has already been +mentioned, the specifically southern writings have everywhere +been modified or adjusted to other standpoints, or have been +almost entirely subordinated, and it is noteworthy, therefore, +that in narratives elsewhere which reflect rivalries and conflicts +among the priestly families, there is sometimes an animus +against those whose names and traditions point to a southern +origin (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Thus the book of Genesis represents the result of efforts to +systematize the earliest history, and to make it a worthy prelude +to the Mosaic legislation which formed the charter of +Judaism as it was established in or about the 5th +<span class="sidenote">Summary.</span> +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It goes back to traditions of the most varied +character, whose tone was originally more in accord with earlier +religion and thought. Though these have been made more +edifying, they have not lost their charm and interest. The latest +source, it is true, is without their freshness and life, but it is a +matter for thankfulness that the simple compilers were conservative, +and have neither presented a work entirely on the lines +of P, nor rewritten their material as was done by the author of +Jubilees and by Josephus. It is obvious that from Jubilees alone +it would have been impossible to conceive the form which the +traditions had taken a few centuries previously—viz. in Genesis. +Also, from P alone it would have been equally impossible to +recover the non-priestly forms. But while there is no immeasurable +gulf between the canonical book of Genesis and Jubilees, the +internal study of the former reveals traces of earlier traditions +most profoundly different as regards thought and contents. It +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page586" id="page586"></a>586</span> +is not otherwise when one looks below the traditional history +elsewhere (<i>e.g.</i> Samuel, Kings). An explanation may be found in +the vicissitudes of the age. The movement from the south, +which seems to account for a considerable cycle of the patriarchal +traditions, belongs to the age after the downfall of the Israelite +and (later) the Judaean monarchies when there were vital political +and social changes. The removal of prominent inhabitants, by +Assyria and later by Babylonia, the introduction of colonists +from distant lands, and the movements of restless tribes around +Palestine were more fatal to the continuity of trustworthy +tradition than to the persistence of popular thought. New +conditions arose as the population was reorganized, a new Israel +claimed to be the heirs of the past (cf. <i>e.g.</i> the Samaritans, Ezr. iv. +2, Joseph. <i>Antiq</i>. ix. 14, 3; xi. 8, 6), and not until after these +vicissitudes did the book of Genesis begin to assume its present +shape.<a name="fa44l" id="fa44l" href="#ft44l"><span class="sp">44</span></a> (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palestine</a></span>: <i>History</i>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The above pages handle only the more important details for the +study of a book which, as regards contents and literary history, +cannot be separated from the series to which it forms the introduction. +As regards the literary-critical problems it is clear that +with the elimination of P we have the sources (minor adjustment +and revision excepted) which were accessible to the last compiler +in the post-exilic age. Most critics have inclined to date these +sources (J and E) as early as possible, whereas the admitted presence +of secondary and of relatively late passages (<i>e.g.</i> xviii. 22 sqq., J; +xxii., E) shows that one must work back from the sources as known +in P’s age, and that one can rely only upon those criteria which +can be approximately dated. It is usual to regard the more primitive +character of J and E as a mark of antiquity; but this ignores the +regular survival of primitive modes of thought and of popular +tradition outside more cultured circles. It is also recognized that +J and E are non-prophetical and non-Deuteronomic, but it has +not been proved that the present J and E are earlier than the prophets +or the Deuteronomic reforms of Josiah (2 Kings xxii. seq.). J and E +are linguistically almost identical (in contrast to P), and differ from +P in features which are often not of chronological but of sociological +significance (<i>e.g.</i> the mentality of the writers). Their language is +without some of the phenomena found in narratives which emanate +from the north (<i>e.g.</i> Judges v., stories of Elijah and Elisha), and +their stylistic variations may be, as Gunkel suggests, the mark of a +district or region; for this district one would look in the neighbourhood +of Jerusalem. The conclusion that P’s narratives and laws in +the Pentateuch are post-exilic was found by biblical scholars to be +a necessary correction to the original hypothesis of Graf (1866) that +P’s <i>narratives</i> were to be retained (with J and E) at an early date. +This view was influenced by the close connexion between the +subject-matter, J, E and P representing the same trend of tradition. +But by still ascribing J and E as written sources to about the 9th +or 8th century (individual opinion varies), many difficulties and +inconsistencies are involved. The present J and E reflect a reshaping +and readjustment of earlier tradition which is found elsewhere, +and the suggestion that they are not far removed from +the age of the priestly writers and redactors does not conflict +with what is known of language, forms of religious thought, +or tendencies of tradition. We reach thus approximately the age +when post-Deuteronomic editors were able to utilize such records +as Judg. i., xvii. sqq., 2 Sam. ix.-xx. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Judges</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samuel, Books +of</a></span>), which are equally valuable as specimens of current thought +and of written tradition. In conclusion, the tendency of criticism +has been to recognize “schools” of J and E extending into the exile, +thus making the three sources J, E and P more nearly contemporaneous. +The most recent conservative authority also inclines +to a similar contemporaneity (“collaboration” or “co-operation”), +but at an impossibly early date (J. Orr, <i>Problem of the O. T</i>., 1905, +pp. 216, 345, 354, 375 seq., 527). By admitting possible revision +in the post-exilic age (pp. 226, 369, 375 seq.), the conservative theory +recalls the old legend that Ezra rewrote the Old Testament (2 Esd. +xiv.) and thus restored the Law which had been lost; a view which, +through the early Christian Fathers, gained currency and has enjoyed +a certain popularity to the present day. But when once +revision or rewriting is conceded, there is absolutely no guarantee +that the present Pentateuch is in any way identical with the five +books which tradition ascribed to Moses (<i>q.v.</i>), and the necessity +for a comprehensive critical investigation of the <i>present</i> contents +makes itself felt.<a name="fa45l" id="fa45l" href="#ft45l"><span class="sp">45</span></a></p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—Only a few of the numerous works can be mentioned. +Of those written from a conservative or traditional standpoint +the most notable are: W.H. Green’s <i>Unity of Genesis</i> (1895); +and J. Orr, <i>Problem of the O. T</i>. (which is nevertheless a great advance +upon earlier non-critical literature). S.R. Driver’s commentary +(<i>Westminster Series</i>) deals thoroughly with all preliminary problems +of criticism, and is the best for the ordinary reader; that of A. +Dillmann (6th ed.; Eng. trans.) is more technical, that of W.H. +Bennett (<i>Century Bible</i>) is more concise and popular. G.J. Spurrell, +Notes on the Text of Genesis, and C.J. Ball (in Haupt’s <i>Sacred Books +of the O. T</i>.) appeal to Hebrew students. W.E. Addis, <i>Documents +of the Hexateuch</i>, Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, <i>The Hexateuch</i>, +and C.F. Kent, <i>Beginnings of Hebrew History</i>, are more important +for the literary analysis. J. Wellhausen’s sketch in his <i>Proleg. to +Hist. of Israel</i> (Eng. trans., pp. 259-342) is admirable, as also is the +general Introduction (trans. by W.H. Carruth, 1907) to H. Gunkel’s +valuable commentary. Of recent works bearing upon the subject-matter +reference may be made to J.P. Peters, <i>Early Hebrew Story</i> +(1904), A.R. Gordon, <i>Early Traditions of Genesis</i> (1907), and +T.K. Cheyne, <i>Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient Israel</i> (1907). Special +mention must be made of Eduard Meyer and B. Luther, to whose +<i>Die Israëliten und ihre Nachbarstämme</i> (1906) the present writer is +indebted for many valuable suggestions and hints. Fuller bibliographical +information will be found in the works already mentioned, +in the articles in the <i>Ency. Bib</i>. (G.F. Moore), and Hastings’s <i>Dict</i>. +(G.A. Smith), and in the volume by J. Skinner in the elaborate and +encyclopaedic <i>International Critical Series</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The abrupt introduction of a small poem (iv. 23 seq.) was long +ago regarded as due to the use of separate sources (so the Calvinist +Isaac de la Peyrère, 1654).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2l" id="ft2l" href="#fa2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The divergences of detail, with corresponding stylistic variations, +were recognized long ago (<i>e.g.</i> by Father Simon in 1682).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3l" id="ft3l" href="#fa3l"><span class="fn">3</span></a> As early as 1685 Jean le Clerc observed that Ur of the Chaldees +(<i>Chasdim</i>) in xi. 28 anticipates <i>Chesed</i> in xxii. 22, and implied some +knowledge of the land of the Chaldaeans (cf. Ezek. i. 3, xi. 24).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4l" id="ft4l" href="#fa4l"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The Catholic priest Andrew du Maes (1570) already pointed to +the names Hebron and Dan as signs of post-Mosaic date.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5l" id="ft5l" href="#fa5l"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Note the repetitions in vv. 2 and 3; Abraham’s faith, vv. 4-6, +and his request, <i>v.</i> 8; contrast the time of day, <i>v.</i> 5 and <i>v.</i> 12, and +the dates, <i>v.</i> 13 and <i>v.</i> 16. In <i>vv.</i> 12-15 there is a reference to the +bondage in Egypt.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6l" id="ft6l" href="#fa6l"><span class="fn">6</span></a> These and other chronological embarrassments, now recognized +as due to the framework of the post-exilic writer (P), have long been +observed—by Spinoza, 1671.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7l" id="ft7l" href="#fa7l"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Points of resemblance in xxiii. with Babylonian usage have +often been exaggerated; comparison “shows noteworthy differences” +(T.G. Pinches, <i>The Old Testament</i>, p. 238); see Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, +<i>Hexateuch</i>, i. 64, Driver, Gen. p. 230, and <i>Addenda</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8l" id="ft8l" href="#fa8l"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Note, <i>e.g.</i>, the sudden introduction of xxix. 15, the curious +position of <i>v.</i> 24 (due to P), the double play upon the names Zebulun +and Joseph, xxx. 20, 23 seq., the internal intricacies in the agreement, +<i>ib.</i> <i>vv.</i> 31-43; the difficulties in the reference to the latter in xxxi. 6 +sqq. (especially v. 10).</p> + +<p><a name="ft9l" id="ft9l" href="#fa9l"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See Ed. Meyer (and B. Luther), <i>Die Israëliten und ihre Nachbarstämme</i> +(1906), pp. 238 sqq.; also the shrewd remarks of C.T. Beke, +<i>Origines biblicae</i> (1834), pp. 123 sqq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10l" id="ft10l" href="#fa10l"><span class="fn">10</span></a> It is interesting to find that the Spanish Rabbi Isaac (of Toledo, +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 982-1057), noticing that the royal list must be later than the +time of Saul (also recognized by Martin Luther and others), proposed +to assign the chapter to the age of Jehoshaphat.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11l" id="ft11l" href="#fa11l"><span class="fn">11</span></a> But the chronology is hopeless, and only ten years are allowed +according to another and later scheme (xxv. 26, xxxv. 28, xlvii. 9).</p> + +<p><a name="ft12l" id="ft12l" href="#fa12l"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Cf. the account of the Israelites in Egypt, where they are in +Goshen, unaffected by the plagues (Ex. viii. 22, ix. 26), or, according +to another view, are living in the midst of the Egyptians (<i>e.g.</i> xii. 23).</p> + +<p><a name="ft13l" id="ft13l" href="#fa13l"><span class="fn">13</span></a> V. 7 breaks the context; there is repetition in <i>vv.</i> 10<i>b</i> and 13b; +interchange of the names Jacob and Israel; <i>v.</i> 12 suggests a blessing +upon Joseph himself; and with <i>vv.</i> 15 seq. (the blessing of the sons, +not of Joseph), contrast vv. 20 sqq. (the singular “in thee,” v. 20).</p> + +<p><a name="ft14l" id="ft14l" href="#fa14l"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Only the more noticeable peculiarities have been mentioned in +the preceding columns.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15l" id="ft15l" href="#fa15l"><span class="fn">15</span></a> On the course of modern criticism and on the various sources: +P, J (Judaean or Yahwist), E (Ephraimite or Elohist), see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span> +(<i>Old Test. Criticism</i>). The passages usually assigned to P in Genesis +are: i. 1-ii. 4<i>a</i>; <i>v.</i> 1-28, 30-32; vi. 9-22; vii. 6 (and parts of 7-9), +11, 13-16<i>a</i>, 18-21, 24; viii. 1-2<i>a</i>, 3<i>b</i>-5, 13<i>a</i>, 14-19; ix. 1-17, 28-29; +x. 1-7, 20, 22-23, 31-32; xi. 10-27, 31-32; xii. 4b-5; xiii. 6, 11<i>b</i>-12<i>a</i>; +xvi. 1<i>a</i>, 3, 15-16; xvii.; xix. 29; xxi. 1<i>b</i>, 2b-5; xxiii.; xxv. 7-11<i>a</i>, +12-17, 19-20, 26<i>b</i>; xxvi. 34-35; xxvii. 46-xxviii. 9; xxix. 24, 28<i>b</i>, +29; xxxi. 18<i>b</i>; xxxiii. 18a; xxxiv. 1-2<i>a</i>, 4, 6, 8-10, 13-18, 20-24, +part of 25, 27-29; xxxv. 9-13, 15, 22b-29; xxxvi. (in the main); +xxxvii. 1-2<i>a</i>; xli. 46; xlvi. 6-27; xlvii. 5-6<i>a</i>, 7-11, 27<i>b</i>-28; xlviii. +3-7; xlix. 1<i>a</i>, 28<i>b</i>-33, l. 12-13.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16l" id="ft16l" href="#fa16l"><span class="fn">16</span></a> See on this, especially, S.R. Driver’s <i>Genesis</i> in the “Westminster +Commentaries” (seventh ed., 1909).</p> + +<p><a name="ft17l" id="ft17l" href="#fa17l"><span class="fn">17</span></a> The above is typical of modern biblical criticism which is +compelled to recognize the human element (and can thus have no +a priori preconceptions in approaching the Old Testament), but at +the same time reveals ever more decisively the presence of purifying +influences, without which the records of Israel would have had no +permanent interest or value. They thus gain a new value which +cannot be impaired when it is realized that their significance is quite +independent of their origins.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18l" id="ft18l" href="#fa18l"><span class="fn">18</span></a> See the remarks of W.R. Smith, <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> (1888), pp. 128 +seq. (from the sociological side), and for general considerations, +A.A. Bevan, <i>Crit. Rev.</i> (1893), pp. 138 sqq.; S.R. Driver, <i>Genesis</i>, +pp. xliii. sqq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft19l" id="ft19l" href="#fa19l"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Cf. Amos i. 11; 1 Chron. ii. iv. (note iv. 10), the Book of Jubilees +(see above), and also Arabian usage (W.R. Smith, <i>Kinship and +Marriage</i>, ch. i.). For modern examples, see E. Littmann, <i>Orient. +Stud. Theodor Nöldeke</i> (ed. Bezold, 1906), pp. 942-958.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20l" id="ft20l" href="#fa20l"><span class="fn">20</span></a> The Book of Jubilees also enables the student to test the arguments +based upon any study restricted to Genesis alone. Thus it +shows that the “primitive” features of Genesis afford a criterion +which is sociological rather than chronological. This is often +ignored. For example, the conveyance of the field of Machpelah +(xxiii.) is conspicuous for the absence of any reference to a written +contract in contrast to the “business” methods in Jer. xxxii. +This does not prove that Gen. xxiii. is early, because writing was +used in Palestine about 1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and, on the other hand, the more +simple forms of agreement are still familiar after the time of Jeremiah +(<i>e.g.</i> Ruth, Proverbs). Similarly, no safe argument can be based +upon the institution of blood-revenge in Gen. iv., when one observes +the undeveloped conditions among the Trachonites of the time of +Herod the Great (Josephus, Ant. xvi. 9, 1), or the varying usages +among modern tribes.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21l" id="ft21l" href="#fa21l"><span class="fn">21</span></a> On the Jewish forms, see R.H. Charles, <i>Book of Jubilees</i> (1902), +pp. 33 seq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft22l" id="ft22l" href="#fa22l"><span class="fn">22</span></a> A.H. Sayce, <i>Proc. of the Soc. of Bibl. Arch.</i> (1907), pp. 13-17.</p> + +<p><a name="ft23l" id="ft23l" href="#fa23l"><span class="fn">23</span></a> xxvii. 27-29, 39 seq. This is significantly altered in the later +writings (Jub. xxvi. 34 and the Targums). It is worth noticing that +in Jub. xxvi. 35 a new turn is given to Gen. xxvii. 41 by changing +Isaac’s approaching death (which raises serious difficulties in the +history of Jacob) into Esau’s wish that it may soon come.</p> + +<p><a name="ft24l" id="ft24l" href="#fa24l"><span class="fn">24</span></a> See E. Meyer (and B. Luther), <i>Die Israëliten und ihre Nachbarstämme</i> +(1906), pp. 386-389, 442-446.</p> + +<p><a name="ft25l" id="ft25l" href="#fa25l"><span class="fn">25</span></a> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Philistines</a></span>. The covenant with Abimelech may be +compared with the friendship between David and Achish (1 Sam. +xxvii.), who is actually called Abimelech in the heading of Ps. xxxiv. +(see 1 Sam. xxi. 10). If this is a mistake (and not a variant tradition) +it is a very remarkable one. The treatment of the covenant +by the author of Jubilees (xxiv. 28 sqq.), on the other hand, is only +intelligible when one recalls the attitude of Judah to the Philistine +cities in the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; see R.H. Charles, ad loc.</p> + +<p><a name="ft26l" id="ft26l" href="#fa26l"><span class="fn">26</span></a> In 2 Sam. xix. 43 (original text) the men of Israel claim to be +the first-born rather than Judah; cf. 1 Chron. v. 1 seq., where the +birthright (after Reuben was degraded) is explicitly conferred upon +Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh).</p> + +<p><a name="ft27l" id="ft27l" href="#fa27l"><span class="fn">27</span></a> Cf. Josephus, <i>Antiq.</i> ii. 8, 2; <i>Test. of xii. Patriarchs</i>; Acts vii. +16 (where Shechem is an error); Oesterley and Box, <i>Religion and +Worship of the Synagogue</i>, pp. 340 seq.; M.G. Dampier, in <i>Church +and Synagogue</i> (1909), p. 78.</p> + +<p><a name="ft28l" id="ft28l" href="#fa28l"><span class="fn">28</span></a> See J.P. Peters, <i>Early Heb. Story</i> (1904), pp. 81 sqq.; S.A. +Cook, <i>Relig. of Anc. Palestine</i> (1908), pp. 19 sqq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft29l" id="ft29l" href="#fa29l"><span class="fn">29</span></a> In like manner the Babylonian story of the flood has been revised +and adapted to the Hebrew Noah (cf. <i>Nippur, ad fin.</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft30l" id="ft30l" href="#fa30l"><span class="fn">30</span></a> The writer in Jub. xxvii. 27 treats the pillar as a “sign.” +Another useful example of revision is to be found in Josh. xxii., +where what was regarded (by a reviser) as an object unworthy of +the religion of Yahweh is now merely commemorative.</p> + +<p><a name="ft31l" id="ft31l" href="#fa31l"><span class="fn">31</span></a> For popular religious thought and practice (often described as +pre-prophetical, though non-prophetical would be a safer term), see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Religion</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft32l" id="ft32l" href="#fa32l"><span class="fn">32</span></a> Among recent efforts to find and explain mythical elements, see +especially Stucken, <i>Astralmythen</i>: H. Winckler, <i>Geschichte Israëls</i>, +vol. ii.; and P. Jensen, <i>Das Gilgamesch-Epos in der Weltlitteratur</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft33l" id="ft33l" href="#fa33l"><span class="fn">33</span></a> Again the analogy of the modern East is instructive. Especially +interesting are the traditions associating the same figure or incident +with widely separated localities.</p> + +<p><a name="ft34l" id="ft34l" href="#fa34l"><span class="fn">34</span></a> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exodus, The</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span>. On this feature see Luther and +Meyer, op. cit. pp. 158 seq., 227 sqq., 259, 279, 305, 386, 443. Their +researches on this subject are indispensable for a critical study of +Genesis.</p> + +<p><a name="ft35l" id="ft35l" href="#fa35l"><span class="fn">35</span></a> The notion of an Eve (<i>hawwah</i>, “serpent”) as the first woman +may be conjecturally associated with (<i>a</i>) the frequent traditions of +the serpent-origin of clans, and (<i>b</i>) with evidence which seems to +connect the Levites and allied families with some kind of serpent-cult +(see Meyer, op. cit. pp. 116, 426 seq., 443, and art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Serpent-worship</a></span>). +The account of mankind as it now reads (ii. seq.) is in +several respects less primitive (contrast vi. 1 seq.), and the present +story of Cain and his murder of Abel really places the former in +an unfavourable light.</p> + +<p><a name="ft36l" id="ft36l" href="#fa36l"><span class="fn">36</span></a> See the discussion between B.D. Eerdmans and G.A. Smith +in the <i>Expositor</i> (Aug.-Oct. 1908), and the former’s <i>Alttest. Studien</i>, +ii. (1908), <i>passim.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft37l" id="ft37l" href="#fa37l"><span class="fn">37</span></a> xxxiv. (note v. 9) indicates a possible alliance with Shechemites, +and xxxv. 4 (taken literally) implies a residence long enough for a +religious reform to be necessary. Yet the present aim of the narratives +is to link together the traditions and emphasize Jacob’s return +from Laban to his dying father (xxviii. 21; xxxi. 3, 13, 18; xxxii. 9; +xxxv. 1, 27).</p> + +<p><a name="ft38l" id="ft38l" href="#fa38l"><span class="fn">38</span></a> Cf. Benjamin’s descendants in 1 Chron. viii. 6 seq. and see on +the naive and primitive character of these traditions, Kittel, comment. +<i>ad loc.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft39l" id="ft39l" href="#fa39l"><span class="fn">39</span></a> That there are traditions in Genesis which do not form the +prelude to Exodus is very generally recognized by those who agree +that the Israelites after entering Palestine took over some of the +indigenous lore (whether from the Canaanites or from a presumed +earlier layer of Israelites). This adoption of native tradition by +new settlers, however, cannot be confined to any single period. +See further, Luther and Meyer, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 108, 110, 156, 227 seq., +254 seq., 414 seq., 433; on traditions related to the descent into +Egypt, <i>ib.</i> 122 sqq., 151 seq., 260; and on the story of Joseph +(ch. xxxv., xxxvii. sqq.), as an independent cycle used to form a +connecting link, Luther, <i>ib.</i> pp. 142-154.</p> + +<p><a name="ft40l" id="ft40l" href="#fa40l"><span class="fn">40</span></a> Cf. the late “Deuteronomic” form of Judges where a hero of +Kenizzite origin (and therefore closely connected with Caleb) stands +at the head of the Israelite “judges”; also, from another aspect, +the specifically Judaean and anti-Israelite treatment of the history +of the monarchy. But in each case the feature belongs to a relatively +late stage in the literary history of the books; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Judges</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samuel, +Books of</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kings</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft41l" id="ft41l" href="#fa41l"><span class="fn">41</span></a> Mahalalel (son of Kenan, another form of Cain, v. 12) is also a +prominent ancestor in Perez (Neh. xi. 4), and Zerah claimed the +renowned sages of Solomon’s day (1 Chron. ii. 6, 1 Kings iv. 31). +The story implies that Perez surpassed his “brother” clan Zerah +(xxxviii. 27-30), and in fact Perez is ultimately reckoned the head +of the Judaean subdivisions (1 Chron. ii. 4 sqq.), and thus is the +reputed ancestor of the Davidic dynasty (Ruth iv. 12, 18 sqq.).</p> + +<p>The sympathies of these traditions are as suggestive as their presence +in the canonical history, which, it must be remembered, ultimately +passed through the hands of Judaean compilers.</p> + +<p><a name="ft42l" id="ft42l" href="#fa42l"><span class="fn">42</span></a> Neh. iii. 9, 14; see Meyer, pp. 300, 430; S.A. Cook, <i>Critical +Notes on O. T. History</i>, p. 58 n. 2. While the evidence points to an +early close relationship among S. Palestinian groups (Edom, Ishmael, +&c.; cf. Meyer, p. 446), there are many allusions to subsequent +treacherous attacks which made Edom execrable. Here again +biblical criticism cannot at present determine precisely when or +precisely why the changed attitude began; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Edom</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, +§§ 20, 22.</p> + +<p><a name="ft43l" id="ft43l" href="#fa43l"><span class="fn">43</span></a> Although the movement reflected in 1 Chron. ii. is scarcely +pre-exilic, yet naturally there had always been a close relation +between Judah and the south, as the Assyrian inscriptions of the +latter part of the 8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> indicate.</p> + +<p><a name="ft44l" id="ft44l" href="#fa44l"><span class="fn">44</span></a> The south of Palestine, if less disturbed by these changes, may +well have had access to older authoritative material.</p> + +<p><a name="ft45l" id="ft45l" href="#fa45l"><span class="fn">45</span></a> For Orr’s other concessions bearing upon Genesis, see <i>op. cit</i>., +pp. 9 seq., 87, 93, and (on J, E, P) 196, 335, 340. These, like the +concessions of other apologetic writers, far outweigh the often +hypercritical, irrelevant, and superficial objections brought against +the literary and historical criticism of Genesis.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENET<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span>, typically a south European carnivorous mammal +referable to the <i>Viverridae</i> or family of civets, but also taken to +include several allied species from Africa. The true genet +(<i>Genetta vulgaris</i> or <i>Genetta genetta</i>) occurs throughout the south +of Europe and in Palestine, as well as North Africa. The fur is of +a dark-grey colour, thickly spotted with black, and having a dark +streak along the back, while the tail, which is nearly as long as the +body, is ringed with black and white. The genet is rare in the +south of France, but commoner in Spain, where it frequents the +banks of streams, and feeds on small mammals and birds. It +differs from the true civets in that the anal pouch is a mere +depression, and contains only a faint trace of the highly characteristic +odour of the former. In south-western Europe and North +Africa it is sought for its soft and beautifully spotted fur. In +some parts of Europe, the genet, which is easily tamed, is kept +like a cat for destroying mice and other vermin.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:449px; height:494px" src="images/img586.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">The Genet (<i>Genetta vulgaris</i>).</td></tr></table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENEVA<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span>, a city of Ontario county, New York, U.S.A., at the +N. end of Seneca Lake, about 52 m. S.E. of Rochester. Pop. +(1890) 7557; (1900) 10,433 (of whom 1916 were foreign-born); +(1910 census) 12,446. It is served by the New York Central +& Hudson River, and the Lehigh Valley railways, and by the +Cayuga & Seneca Canal. It is an attractively built city, and has +good mineral springs. Malt, tinware, flour and grist-mill products, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page587" id="page587"></a>587</span> +boilers, stoves and ranges, optical supplies, wall-paper, cereals, +canned goods, cutlery, tin cans and wagons are manufactured, +and there are also extensive nurseries. The total value of the +factory product in 1905 was $4,951,964, an increase of 82.3% +since 1900. Geneva has a public library, a city hospital and +hygienic institute. It is the seat of the New York State +Agricultural Experiment Station and of Hobart College (non-sectarian), +which was first planned in 1812, was founded in 1822 +(the majority of its incorporators being members of the Protestant +Episcopal church) as successor to Geneva Academy, received a +full charter as Geneva College in 1825, and was renamed +Hobart Free College in 1852 and Hobart College in 1860, in +honour of Bishop John Henry Hobart. The college had in 1908-1909 +107 students, 21 instructors, and a library of 50,000 volumes +and 15,000 pamphlets. A co-ordinate woman’s college, the +William Smith school for women, opened in 1908, was endowed in +1906 by William Smith of Geneva, who at the same time provided +for a Hall of Science and for further instruction in science, +especially in biology and psychology. In 1888 the Smith Observatory +was built at Geneva, being maintained by William Smith, +and placed in charge of Dr William Robert Brooks, professor of +astronomy in Hobart College. The municipality owns its water-supply +system. Geneva was first settled about 1787 almost on +the site of the Indian village of Kanadasega, which was destroyed +in 1779 during Gen. John Sullivan’s expedition against the +Indians in western New York. It was chartered as a city in 1898.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENEVA<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Genève</i>, Ger. <i>Genf</i>, Ital. <i>Ginevra</i>, Late Lat. +<i>Gebenna</i>, though <i>Genava</i> in good Latin), a city and canton of +Switzerland, situated at the extreme south-west corner both of +the country and of the Lake of Geneva or Lake Leman. The +canton is, save Zug, the smallest in the Swiss Confederation, +while the city, long the most populous in the land, is now surpassed +by Zürich and by Basel.</p> + +<p>The canton has an area of 108.9 sq. m., of which 88.5 sq. m. are +classed as “productive” (forests covering 9.9 sq. m. and vineyards +6.8 sq. m., the rest being cultivated land). Of +the “unproductive” 20.3 sq. m., 11½ are accounted for +<span class="sidenote">The canton.</span> +by that portion of the Lake of Geneva which belongs to +the canton. It is entirely surrounded by French territory (the +department of Haute Savoie lying to the south, and that of the +Ain to the west and the north), save for about 3½ m. on the +extreme north, where it borders on the Swiss canton of Vaud. +The Rhone flows through it from east to west, and then along its +south-west edge, the total length of the river in or within the +canton being about 13 m., as it is very sinuous. The turbid Arve is +by far its largest tributary (left), and flows from the snows of the +chain of Mont Blanc, the only other affluent of any size being +the London (right). Market gardens, orchards, and vineyards +occupy a large proportion of the soil (outside the city), the +apparent fertility of which is largely due to the unremitting +industry of the inhabitants. In 1901 there were 6586 cows, +3881 horses, 2468 swine and 2048 bee-hives in the canton. +Besides building materials, such as sandstone, slate, &c., the only +mineral to be found within the canton is bituminous shale, the +products of which can be used for petroleum and asphalt. The +broad-gauge railways in the canton have a length of 18¾ m., and +include bits of the main lines towards Paris and Lausanne (for +Bern or the Simplon), while there are also 72¾ m. of electric +tramways. The canton was admitted into the Swiss Confederation +in 1815 only, and ranks as the junior of the 22 cantons. +In 1815-1816 it was created by adding to the old territory +belonging to the city (just around it, with the outlying districts of +Jussy, Genthod, Satigny and Cartigny) 16 communes (to the south +and east, including Carouge and Chêne) ceded by Savoy, and 6 +communes (to the north, including Versoix), cut off from the +French district of Gex.</p> + +<p>In 1900 there were, not counting the city, 27,813 inhabitants +in the canton, or, including the city, 132,609, the city alone having +thus a population of 104,796. (In the following statistics those +for the city are enclosed within brackets.) In 1900 this population +<span class="sidenote">Statistics of canton and city.</span> +was thus divided in point of religion: Romanists, 67,162 +(49,965), Protestants, 62,400 (52,121), and Jews 1119 (1081). +In point of language 109,741 (84,259) were French-speaking, +13,343 (12,004) German-speaking, and 7345 (6574) Italian-speaking, +while there were also 89 (76) Romonsch-speaking +persons. More remarkable are the results as +to nationality: 43,550 (31,607) were Genevese citizens, +and 36,415 (30,582) Swiss citizens of other cantons. +Of the 52,644 (42,607) foreigners, there were 34,277 (26,018) +French, 10,211 (9126) Italians, 4653 (4283) subjects of the German +empire, 583 (468) British subjects, 832 (777) Russians, and 285 +(251) citizens of the United States of America. In the canton +there were 10,821 (5683) inhabited houses, while the number +of separate households was 35,450 (28,621). Two points as to +these statistics deserve to be noted. The number of foreign +residents is steadily rising, for in 1900 there were only 79,965 +(62,189) Swiss in all as against 52,644 (42,607) foreigners. One +result of this foreign immigration, particularly from France and +Italy, has been the rapid increase of Romanists, who now form +the majority in the canton, while in the city they were still +slightly less numerous than the Protestants in 1900; later +(local) statistics give in the Canton 75,400 Romanists to 64,200 +Protestants, and in the city 52,638 Romanists to 51,221 Protestants. +Geneva has always been a favourite residence of +foreigners, though few can ever have expected to hear that the +“protestant Rome” has now a Romanist majority as regards +its inhabitants. Galiffe (<i>Genève hist. et archéolog</i>.) estimates +the population in 1356 at 5800, and in 1404 at 6490, in both +cases within the fortifications. In 1536 the old city acquired the +outlying districts mentioned above, as well as the suburb of +St Gervais on the right bank of the Rhone, so that in 1545 the +number is given as 12,500, reduced by 1572 to 11,000. After +the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) it rose, by 1698, +to 16,934. Thenceforward the progress was fairly steady: +18,500 (1711); 24,712 (1782); 26,140 (1789). After the creation +of the canton (1815) the numbers were (those for the city are +enclosed within brackets) 48,489 (25,289), the city rising in 1837 +to 33,714, and in 1843 to 36,452. The result of the Federal +censuses (begun in 1850) are as follows: in 1850, 64,146 (42,127); +in 1860, 82,876 (59,826); in 1870, 88,791 (65,606); in 1880, +99,712 (76,197), and in 1888, 105,509 (81,407).</p> + +<p>The canton comprises 3 administrative districts: the 13 +communes on the right bank and the 34 on the left bank each +form one, while the city proper, on both sides of the +river, forms one district and one commune. From +<span class="sidenote">Government.</span> +1815 to 1842 the city and the cantonal government +was the same. But at that date the city obtained its independence, +and is now ruled by a town council of 41 members, +and an executive of 5 members, the election in each case being +made direct by the citizens, and the term of office being 4 years. +The existing cantonal constitution dates, in most of its main +features, from 1847. The legislature or <i>Grand Conseil</i> (now composed +of 100 members) is elected (in the proportion of 1 member +for every 1000 inhabitants or fraction over 500) for 3 years +by a direct popular vote, subject (since 1892) to the principles +of proportional representation, while the executive or <i>conseil</i> +<i>d’état</i> (7 members) is elected (no proportional representation) +by a popular vote for 3 years. By the latest enactments (one +dating from 1905) 2500 citizens can claim a vote (“facultative +referendum”) as to any legislative project, or can exercise the +“right of initiative” as to any such project or as to the revision +of the cantonal constitution. The canton sends 2 members +(elected by a popular vote) to the Federal <i>Ständerath</i>, and 7 to +the Federal <i>Nationalrath</i>.</p> + +<p>The Consistory rules the Established Protestant Church, and +is now composed of 31 members, 25 being laymen and 6 (formerly +15) clerics, while the “venerable company of pastors” +(pastors actually holding cures) has greatly lost its +<span class="sidenote">Religion.</span> +former importance and can now only submit proposals to the +Consistory. The Christian Catholic Church is also “established” +at Geneva (since 1873) and is governed by the <i>conseil supérieur</i>, +composed of 25 lay members and 5 clerics. No other religious +denominations are “established” at Geneva. But the Romanists +(who form 13% of the electors) are steadily growing in numbers +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page588" id="page588"></a>588</span> +and in influence, while the Christian Catholics are losing ground +rapidly, the highest number of votes received by a candidate +for the <i>conseil supérieur</i> having fallen from 2003 in 1874 to 806 +in 1890 and 507 in 1906, while they are abandoning the country +churches (some were lost as early as 1892) which they had taken +from the Romanists in the course of the <i>Kulturkampf</i>.</p> + +<p>The fairs of Geneva (held 4 times a year) are mentioned as +early as 1262, and attained the height of their prosperity about +1450, but declined after Louis XI.’s grants of 1462-1463 +in favour of the fairs of Lyons. Among the +<span class="sidenote">Industry.</span> +chief articles brought to these fairs (which were largely frequented +by Italian, French and Swiss merchants) were cloth, +silk, armour, groceries, wine, timber and salt, this last coming +mainly from Provence. The manufacturers of Geneva formed +in 1487 no fewer than 38 gilds, including tailors, hatters, mercers, +weavers, tanners, saddle-makers, furriers, shoe-makers, painters +on glass, &c. Goldsmiths are mentioned as early as 1290. +Printing was introduced in 1478 by Steinschaber of Schweinfurth, +and flourished much in the 16th century, though the rigorous +supervision exercised by the Consistory greatly hampered the +Estiennes (Stephanus) in their enterprises. Nowadays the best +known industry at Geneva is that of watchmaking, which was +introduced in 1587 by Charles Cusin of Autun, and two years +later regulations as to the trade were issued. In 1685 there were +in Geneva 100 master watchmakers, employing 300 work-people, +who turned out 5000 pieces a year, while in 1760 this trade +employed 4000 work-people. Of recent years its prosperity +has diminished greatly, so that the watchmaking and jewelry +trades in 1902 numbered respectively but 38 and 32 of the 394 +establishments in Geneva which were subject to the factory +laws. Lately, huge establishments have been constructed for +the utilization of the power contained in the Rhone. The local +commerce of Geneva is much aided by the fact that the city is +nearly entirely surrounded by “free zones,” in which no customs +duties are levied, though the districts are politically French: +this privilege was given to Gex in 1814, and to the Savoyard +districts in 1860, when they were also neutralized.</p> + +<p>Considering the small size of Geneva, till recently, it is surprising +how many celebrated persons have been connected with it as +natives or as residents. Here are a few of the principal, +special articles being devoted to many of them in this +<span class="sidenote">Celebrities.</span> +work. In the 16th century, besides Calvin and Bonivard, +we have Isaac Casaubon, the scholar; Robert and Henri Estienne, +the printers, and, from 1572 to 1574, Joseph Scaliger himself, +though but for a short time. J.J. Rousseau is, of course, the +great Genevese of the 18th century. At that period, and in the +19th century, Geneva was a centre of light, especially in the case +of various of the physical sciences. Among the scientific +celebrities were de Saussure, the most many-sided of all; de +Candolle and Boissier, the botanists; Alphonse Favre and +Necker, the geologists; Marignac, the chemist; Deluc, the +physicist, and Plantamour, the astronomer. Charles Bonnet +was both a scientific man and a philosopher, while Amiel belonged +to the latter class only. Pradier and Chaponnière, the sculptors; +Arlaud, Diday and Calame, the artists; Mallet, who revealed +Scandinavia to the literary world; Necker, the minister; +Sismondi, the historian of the Italian republics; General Dufour, +author of the great survey which bears the name of the “Dufour +Map,” have each a niche in the Temple of Fame. Of a less +severe type were Cherbuliez, the novelist; Töpffer, who spread +a taste for pedestrianism among Swiss youth; Duchosal, the +poet; Marc Monnier, the littérateur; not to mention the names +of any persons still living, or of politicians of any date.</p> + +<p>The city of Geneva is situated at the south-western extremity +of the beautiful lake of the same name, whence the “arrowy +Rhone” flows westwards under the seven bridges by +which the two halves of the town communicate with +<span class="sidenote">The city and its buildings.</span> +each other. To the south is the valley of the Arve +(descending from the snows of the Mont Blanc chain), +which unites with that of the Rhone a little below the town; +while behind the Arve the grey and barren rocks of the Petit +Salève rise like a wall, which in turn is overtopped by the distant +and ethereal snows of Mont Blanc. Yet the actual site of the +town is not as picturesque as that of several other spots in +Switzerland. Though the cathedral crowns the hillock round +which clusters the old part of the town, a large portion of the +newer town is built on the alluvial flats on either bank of the +Rhone. Since the demolition of the fortifications in 1849 the +town has extended in every direction, and particularly on the +right bank of the Rhone. It possesses many edifices, public +and private, which are handsome or elegant, but it has almost +nothing to which the memory reverts as a masterpiece of architectural +art. It is possible that this is, in part, due to the artistic +blight of the Calvinism which so long dominated the town. But, +while lacking the medieval appearance of Fribourg or Bern, or +Sion or Coire, the great number of modern fine buildings in +Geneva, hotels, villas, &c., gives it an air of prosperity and +comfort that attracts many visitors, though on others modern +French architecture produces a blinding glare. On the other +hand, there are broad quays along the river, while public gardens +afford grateful shade.</p> + +<p>The cathedral (Protestant) of St Pierre is the finest of the older +buildings in the city, but is a second-rate building, though as +E.A. Freeman remarks, “it is an excellent example of a small +cathedral of its own style and plan, with unusually little later +alteration.” The hillock on which it rises was no doubt the site of +earlier churches, but the present Transitional building dates only +from the 12th and 13th centuries, while its portico was built in the +18th century, after the model of the Pantheon at Rome. It +contains a few sepulchral monuments, removed from the cloisters +(pulled down in 1721), and a fine modern organ, but the historical +old bell <i>La Clémence</i> has been replaced by a newer and larger one +which bears the same name. More interesting than the church +itself is the adjoining chapel of the Maccabees, built in the 15th +century, and recently restored. Near the cathedral are the +arsenal (now housing the historical museum, in which are preserved +many relics of the “Escalade” of 1602, including the +famous ladders), and the maison de ville or town hall. The latter +building is first mentioned in 1448, but most of the present +building dates from far later times, though the quaint paved +spiral pathway (taking the place of a staircase in the interior) was +made in the middle of the 16th century. In the <i>Salle du Conseil +d’État</i> some curious 15th-century frescoes have lately been +discovered, while the old Salle des Festins is now known as the +Salle de l’Alabama, in memory of the arbitration tribunal of 1872. +In the 15th-century Tour Baudet, adjoining the Town Hall, are +preserved the rich archives of the city. Not far away is the +palais de justice, built in 1709 as a hospital, but used as a court +house since 1858. On the Île in the Rhone stands the tower +(built c. 1219) of the old castle belonging to the bishop. Among +the modern buildings we may mention the following: the +University (founded in 1559, but raised to the rank of a University +in 1873 only), the Athénée, the Conservatoire de Musique, the +Victoria Hall (a concert hall, presented in 1904 to the city by +Mr Barton, formerly H.B.M.’s Consul), the theatre, the Salle de la +Réformation (for religious lectures and popular concerts), the +Bâtiment Electoral, the Russian church and the new post office. +At present the museums of various kinds at Geneva are widely +dispersed, but a huge new building in course of construction (1906) +will ultimately house most of them. The Musée Rath contains +pictures and sculptures; the Musée Fol, antiquities of various +dates; the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, <i>inter alia</i>, a fine collection of +prints; the Musée Industriel, industrial objects and models; the +Musée Archéologique, prehistoric and archaeological remains; the +Musée d’Histoire Naturelle, scientific collections; and the Musée +Epigraphique, a considerable number of inscriptions. Some way +out of the town is the Musée Ariana (extensive art collections), +left, with a fine park, in 1890 to the city by a rich citizen, Gustave +Revilliod. The public library is in the university buildings and +contains many valuable MSS. and printed books. Geneva boasts +also of a fine observatory and of a number of technical schools +(watchmaking, chemistry, medicine, commerce, fine arts, &c.), +some of which are really annexes of the university, which in June +1906 was attended by 1158 matriculated students, of whom 903 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page589" id="page589"></a>589</span> +were non-Swiss, the Russians (475 in number) forming the +majority of the foreign students. Geneva is well supplied with +charitable institutions, hospitals, &c. Among other remarkable +sights of the city may be mentioned the great hydraulic establishment +(built 1882-1899) of the <i>Forces Motrices du Rhône</i> (turbines), +the singular monument set up to the memory of the late duke of +Brunswick who left his fortune to the city in 1873, and the Île +Jean-Jacques Rousseau now connected with the Pont des Bergues. +The house occupied by Rousseau is No. 40 in the Grand’ Rue, +while No. 13 in the same street is on the site of Calvin’s house, +though not the actual dwelling inhabited by him.</p> + +<p>The real name of the city is <i>Genava</i>, that being the form under +which it appears in almost all the known documents up to the +7th century, <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, the variation <i>Genua</i> (which has led to +great confusion with Genoa) being also found in the 6th +<span class="sidenote">History.</span> +century. But <i>Geneva</i> and <i>Gebenna</i> are of later date. The first +mention of the city is made by Caesar (<i>Bell. Galli</i>. i. 6-7) who tells +us that it was the last <i>oppidum</i> of the Allobroges, and the nearest +to the territory of the Helvetii, with which it was connected by a +bridge that, for military reasons, he was forced to destroy. +Inscriptions of later date state that it was only a <i>vicus</i> of the +Viennese province, while mentioning the fact that a gild of +boatmen flourished there. But the many Roman remains found +on the original site (in the region of the cathedral) of the city show +that it must have been of some importance, and that it possessed +a considerable commerce. About 400 the <i>Notitia Galliarum</i> calls +it a <i>civitas</i> (so that it then had a municipal administration of its +own), and reckons it as first among those of the Viennese. Probably +this rise in dignity was connected with the establishment of a +bishop’s see there, the first bishop certainly known, Isaac, being +heard of about 400 in a letter addressed by St Eucherius to +Salvius, while, in 450, a letter of St Leo states that the see was +then a suffragan of the archbishopric of Vienne. It is possible +that there may be some ground for the local tradition that +Christianity was introduced into this region by Dionysius and +Paracodus, who successively occupied the see of Vienne, but +another tradition that the first bishop was named St Nazarius +rests on a confusion, as that saint belongs to Genoa and not to +Geneva.</p> + +<p>About the middle of the 5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> it came into the +possession of the Burgundians, who held it as late as 527 (thus +leaving no room for any occupation by the Ostrogoths), and in +534 passed into the hands of the Franks. The Burgundian kings +seem to have made Geneva one of their principal residences, and +the <i>Notitia</i> (above named) tells us that the city was <i>restaurata</i> by +King Gundibald (d. 516) which is generally supposed to mean +that he first surrounded it with a wall, the city then comprising +little more than the hill on which the present cathedral stands. +That building is of course of much later date, but it seems certain +that when (<i>c.</i> 513-516) Sigismund, son of King Gundibald, built +a stone church on the site, it took the place of an earlier wooden +church, constructed on Roman foundations, all three layers +being clearly visible at the present day. We know that St +Avitus, archbishop of Vienne (d. 518), preached a sermon (preserved +to us) at the dedication of a church at Geneva which had +been built on the site of one burnt by the enemy, and the bits of +half-burnt wood found in the second of the two layers mentioned +above, seem to make it probable that the reference is to Sigismund’s +church. But Geneva was in no sense one of the great +cities of the region, though it is mentioned in the <i>Antonine +Itinerary</i> and in the <i>Peutinger Table</i> (both 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), no +doubt owing to its important position on the bank of the Rhone, +which then rose to the foot of the hill on which the original city +stood. This is no doubt the reason why, apart from some passing +allusions (for instance, Charles the Great held a council of war +there in 773, on his first journey to Italy), we hear very little +about it.</p> + +<p>In 1032, with the rest of the kingdom of Burgundy or Arles, it +reverted to the emperor Conrad II., who was crowned king at +Payerne in 1033, and in 1034 was recognized as such at Geneva +by a great assembly of nobles from Germany, Burgundy and +Italy, this rather unwilling surrender signifying the union of +those 3 kingdoms. It is said that Conrad granted the temporal +sovereignty of the city to the bishop, who, in 1162, was raised +to the rank of a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, being elected, +from 1215, by the chapter, but, after 1418, named directly by the +pope himself.</p> + +<p>Like many other prince-bishops, the ruler of Geneva had to +defend his rights: without against powerful neighbours, and +within against the rising power of the citizens. These struggles +constitute the entire political history of Geneva up to about +1535, when a new epoch of unrest opens with the adoption of +Protestantism. The first foe without was the family of the counts +of the Genevois (the region south of the city and in the neighbourhood +of Annecy), who were also “protectors” (<i>advocati</i>) of the +church of Geneva, and are first heard of in the 11th and 12th +centuries. Their influence was probably never stronger than +during the rule as bishop (1118-1119) of Guy, the brother of the +reigning count. But his successor, Humbert de Grammont, +resumed the grants made to the count, and in 1125 by the Accord +of Seyssel, the count fully acknowledged the suzerainty of the +bishop. A fresh struggle under Bishop Ardutius (1135-1185) +ended in the confirmation by Frederick Barbarossa, as emperor, +of the position of the bishop as subject to no one but himself +(1153), this declaration being strengthened by the elevation of the +bishop and his successors to the rank of princes of the empire +(1162).</p> + +<p>In 1250 the counts of Savoy first appear in connexion with +Geneva, being mortgagees of the Genevois family, and, in 1263, +practically their heirs as “protectors” of the city. It was thus +natural that the citizens should invoke the aid of Savoy against +their bishop, Robert of the Genevois (1276-1287). But Count +Amadeus of Savoy not merely seized (1287) the castle built by the +bishops (about 1219) on the Île, but also (1288) the office of +<i>vicedominus</i> [<i>vidomne</i>], the official through whom the bishop +exercised his minor judicial rights. The new bishop, William of +Conflans (1287-1295) could recover neither, and in 1290 had to +formally recognize the position of Savoy (which was thus legalized) +in his own cathedral city. It was during this struggle that about +1287 (these privileges were finally sanctioned by the bishop in +1300) the citizens organized themselves into a commune or +corporation, elected 4 syndics, and showed their independent +position by causing a seal for the city to be prepared. The bishop +was thus threatened on two sides by foes of whom the influence +was rising, and against whom his struggles were of no avail. In +1365 the count obtained from the emperor the office of imperial +vicar over Geneva, but the next bishop William of Marcossay +(1366-1377: he began the construction of a new wall round the +greatly extended city, a process not completed till 1428) secured +the withdrawal of this usurpation (1366-1367), which the count +finally renounced (1371). One of that bishop’s successors, +Adhémar Fabri (1385-1388) codified and confirmed all the +franchises, rights and privileges of the citizens (1387), this grant +being the <i>Magna Carta</i> of the city of Geneva. In 1401 Amadeus +VIII. of Savoy bought the county of the Genevois, as the dynasty +of its rulers had become extinct. Geneva was now surrounded on +all sides by the dominions of the house of Savoy.</p> + +<p>Amadeus did homage, in 1405, to the bishop for those of the +newly acquired lands which he held from the bishop. But, after +his power had been strengthened by his elevation (1417) by the +emperor to the rank of a duke, and by his succession to the +principality of Piedmont (1418, long held by a cadet branch of his +house), Amadeus tried to purchase Geneva from its bishop, John +of Pierre-Scisé or Rochetaillée (1418-1422). This offer was +refused both by the bishop and by the citizens, while in 1420 the +emperor Sigismund declared that he alone was the suzerain of the +city, and forbade any one to attack it or harm it in any fashion. +Oddly enough Amadeus did in the end get hold of the city, for, +having been elected pope under the name of Felix V., he named +himself to the vacant see of Geneva (1444), and kept it, after his +resignation of the Papacy in 1449, till his death in 1451. For the +most part of this period he resided in Geneva. From 1451 to +1522 the see was almost continuously held by a cadet of the house +of Savoy, which thus treated it as a kind of appange.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page590" id="page590"></a>590</span></p> + +<p>Most probably Geneva would soon have become an integral +part of the realms of the house of Savoy had it not been for the +appearance of a new protector on the scene—the Swiss confederation. +In the early 15th century the town of Fribourg made an +alliance with Geneva for commercial purposes (the cloth warehouses +of Fribourg at Geneva being enlarged in 1432 and 1465), +as the cloth manufactured at Fribourg found a market in the +fairs of Geneva (which are mentioned as early as 1262, and were +at the height of their prosperity about 1450). The duke, however, +was no better inclined towards the Swiss than towards Geneva. +He struck a blow at both, when, in 1462-1463, he induced his son-in-law, +Louis XI. of France, to forbid French merchants to attend +the fairs of Geneva, altering also the days of the fairs at Lyons +(established in 1420 and increased in number in 1463) so as to make +them clash with those fixed for the fairs of Geneva. This nearly +ruined Geneva, which, too, in 1477 had to pay a large indemnity +to the Swiss army that, after the defeat of Charles the Bold, +duke of Burgundy, advanced to take vengeance on the dominions +of his ally, Yolande, dowager duchess of Savoy and sister of Louis +XI., as well as on the bishop of Geneva, her brother-in-law. But, +after this payment, the bishop made an alliance with the Swiss. +A prolonged attempt was made (1517-1530) by the reigning duke +of Savoy, Charles III. (1504-1553), to secure Geneva for his +family, at first with the help of his bastard cousin John (1513-1522), +the last of his house to hold the see. In this struggle the +syndic, Philibert Berthelier, succeeded in concluding (1519) an +alliance with Fribourg, which, however, had to be given up +almost immediately. It split the citizens into two parties; the +<i>Eidgenots</i> relying on the Swiss, while the <i>Mamelus</i> (mamelukes) +supported the duke. Berthelier was executed in 1519, and Amé +Lévrier in 1524, but Bezanson Hugues (d. 1532) took their place, +and in 1526 succeeded in renewing the alliance with Fribourg and +adding to it one with Bern. This much enraged the duke, who +took active steps against the citizens, and tried (1527) to carry +off the bishop, Pierre de la Baume (1522-1544), who soon found +it best to make his submission.</p> + +<p>The Genevese, thus abandoned by their natural protector, +looked to the Swiss for help. They sent (October 1530) a considerable +army to save the city. This armed intervention +compelled the duke to sign the treaty of St Julien (19th October) +by which he engaged not to trouble the Genevese any more, +agreeing that if he did so the two towns of Fribourg and Bern +should have the right to occupy his barony of Vaud. The two +towns also, by the decision given as arbitrators at Payerne (30th +December 1530), upheld their alliance with Geneva, condemned +the duke to pay all the expenses of the war, and confirmed the +clause as to their right to occupy Vaud; they also surrounding +the exercise of the powers of <i>vidomne</i> by the duke with so many +restrictions that in 1532 the duke, after much resistance, formally +agreed to recognize the alliance of Geneva with the two towns and +not to annoy the Genevese any more. Thus a legal tie between +Geneva and two of the Swiss cantons was established, while the +duke did not any longer venture to annoy the Genevese, as he clung +to his fine barony of Vaud. In the course of this struggle (and +especially after the last episcopal <i>vidomne</i> had left the town in +1526) the municipal authorities of the city greatly developed, a +<i>grand conseil</i> of 200 members being set up in imitation of those at +Bern and at Fribourg, while within the larger assembly there was +a <i>petit conseil</i> of 60 members for more confidential business. +Thus 1530 marks the date at which Geneva became its own +mistress within, while allied externally with the Swiss confederation. +But hardly had this settlement been reached when a fresh +element of discord threatened to wholly upset matters—the +adoption of Protestant principles by the city. Just before this +event, however, the fortifications were once more (1534) rebuilt +(bits still remain) and extended so as to take in several new +suburbs, including that of St Gervais on the right bank of the +Rhone which, till then, seems to have been unenclosed (1511-1527).</p> + +<p>In 1532 William Farel, a Protestant preacher from Dauphiné, +who had converted Vaud, &c. to the new belief, first came to +Geneva and settled there in 1533. But although Bern supported +the Reform, Fribourg did not, and in 1534 withdrew from its +alliance with Geneva, while directly afterwards the duke of Savoy +made a fresh attempt to seize the city. On the 10th of August +1535 the Protestant faith was formally adopted by Geneva, but +an offer of help from France having been refused, as the city was +unwilling to give up any of its sovereign rights, the duke’s party +continued its intrigues. Finally Bern, fearing that Geneva might +fall to France instead of to itself, sent an army to protect the city +(January 1536), but, not being able to persuade the citizens to +give up their freedom, had to content itself with the conquest of +the barony of Vaud and of the bishopric of Lausanne, thus acquiring +rich territories, while becoming close neighbours of Geneva +(January and March 1536). Meanwhile Farel had been advancing +the cause of religious reform, which was definitively adopted on +the 21st of May 1536. In July 1536 a French refugee, John Calvin +(<i>q.v.</i>), came to Geneva for a night, but was detained by Farel who +found in him a powerful helper. The opposition party of the +<i>Libertins</i> succeeded in getting them both exiled in 1538, but, in +September 1541, Calvin was recalled (Farel spending the rest of +his life at Neuchâtel, where he died 1565) to Geneva. Born in +1509, he was then about 32 years of age. He set up this theocracy +in Geneva, and ruled the reorganized republic with a strong hand +till his death in 1564, when he was succeeded by the milder +Théodore de Beza (1519-1605).</p> + +<p>The great blot on Calvin’s rule was his intolerance of other +thinkers, as exemplified by his burning of Gruet (1547) and of +Servetus (1553). But, on the other hand, he founded (1559) the +Academy, which, originally meant as a seminary for his preachers, +later greatly extended its scope, and in 1873 assumed the rank of +a University. The strict rule of Calvin drove out many old +Genevese families, while he caused to be received as citizens +many French, Italian and English refugees, so that Geneva +became not merely the “Protestant Rome” but also quite a +cosmopolitan little city. The Bernese often interfered with the +internal affairs of Geneva (while Calvin, a Frenchman, naturally +looked towards France), and refused to allow the city to conclude +any alliances save with itself. That alliance was finally renewed +in 1558, while in 1560 the Romanist cantons made one with the +duke of Savoy, a zealous supporter of the old faith. In 1564, +after long negotiations, Bern restored to the duke part of its +conquests of 1536, viz. Gex, the Genevois and the Chablais, +Geneva being thus once more placed amid the dominions of the +duke; though by the same treaty (that of Lausanne, October +1564, Calvin having died the preceding May) the alliance of Bern +with Geneva was maintained. In 1579 Geneva was included in +the alliance concluded by France with Bern and Soleure, while in +1584 Zürich joined Bern in another alliance with Geneva. The +struggle widened as Geneva became a pawn in the great attempt +of the duke of Savoy to bring back his subjects to the old faith, +his efforts being seconded by François de Sales, the “apostle of +the Chablais.” But the king of France, for political reasons, +opposed Savoy, with whom, however, he made peace in 1601. +In December 1602 François de Sales was consecrated bishop of +Geneva (since 1535 the bishops had lived at Annecy), and a few +days later the duke of Savoy made a final attempt to get hold of +the city by a surprise attack in the night of 11-12th December +1602 (Old Style), known in history as the “Escalade,” as ladders +were used to scale the city walls. It was successfully repelled, +over 200 of the foe being slain, while 17 Genevese only perished. +Filled with joy at their rescue from this attack, the citizens +crowded to their cathedral, where Beza (then 83 years of age) +bid them to sing the 124th Psalm which has ever since been sung +on the anniversary of this great delivery. The peace of St Julien +(21st of July 1603) marked the final defeat of the duke of Savoy +in the long struggle waged (since 1290) by his house against the +city of Geneva.</p> + +<p>In the charter of 1387 we hear only of the <i>conseil général</i> +(composed of all male heads of families) which acted as the legislature, +and elected annually the executive of 4 syndics; no +doubt this form of rule existed earlier than 1387. Even before +1387 there was also the <i>petit conseil</i> or <i>conseil ordinaire</i> or <i>conseil +étroit</i>, a body not recognized by the law, though it became very +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page591" id="page591"></a>591</span> +powerful; it was composed of the 4 syndics, with several other +counsellors, and acted originally as the adviser of the syndics +who were legally responsible for the rule of the city. In 1457 +we first hear of the Council of the Fifty (re-established in 1502 +and later known as the Sixty), and in 1526 of the Council of the +Two Hundred (established in imitation of those of Bern and +Fribourg), both being summoned in special cases of urgency. +The members of both were named by the <i>petit conseil</i>, of which, +in turn, the members were confirmed or not by the Two Hundred. +By the Constitution of 1543 the <i>conseil général</i> had only the right +of choosing the 4 syndics out of a list of 8 presented by the +<i>petit conseil</i> and the Two Hundred, which therefore really elected +them, subject to a formal approbation on the part of the larger +body. This system was slightly modified in 1568, the constitution +of that date lasting till 1794. The <i>conseil général</i> fell more and +more into the background, the members of the other councils +gradually obtained the privilege of being irremovable, and the +system of co-optation resulted in the creation of a close monopoly +of political offices in the hands of a few leading families.</p> + +<p>During the 17th and 18th centuries, while the Romanist +majority of the Swiss cantons steadily refused to accept Geneva +as even a subordinate member of the Confederation, the city +itself was distracted on several occasions by attempts of the +citizens, as a whole, to gain some share in the aristocratic government +of the town, though these attempts were only partially +successful. But the last half of the 18th century marks the most +brilliant period in the literary history of Geneva, whether as +regards natives or resident foreigners, while in the succeeding +half century the number of Genevese scientific celebrities is +remarkable. In 1794 the effects of the French Revolution were +shown in the more liberal constitution granted by the city +government. But in 1798 the city was annexed to France and +became the capital of the French department of Léman (to be +carefully distinguished from the Swiss <i>canton</i> of Léman, that is +Vaud, of the Helvetic Republic, also set up in 1798), while in +1802, by the Concordat, the ancient bishopric of Geneva was +suppressed. On the fall of Napoleon (1813) the city recovered +its independence, and finally, in 1815, was received as the junior +member of the Swiss confederation, several bits of French and +Savoyard territory (as pointed out above) being added to the +narrow bounds of the old Genevese Republic in order to give +the town some protection against its non-Swiss neighbours.</p> + +<p>The constitution of 1814 set up a common form of government +for the city and the canton, the city not obtaining its municipal +independence till the constitution of 1842. From 1535 to 1798 +public worship according to the Romanist form had been strictly +forbidden. In 1799 already the first attempts were made to reestablish +it, and in 1803 the church of St Germain was handed +over to the Romanists. The constitution of 1814, looking forward +to the annexation of Romanist districts to the city territory +to form the new canton, guaranteed to that body the freedom +of worship, at any rate in these newly gained districts. In 1819 +the canton (the new portions of which were inhabited mainly +by Romanists) was annexed to the bishopric of Lausanne, the +bishop in 1821 being authorized to add “and of Geneva” to +his episcopal style. After the adventure of the “Escalade” +the fortifications were once more strengthened and extended, +these works being completed about 1726. But, in 1822, some of +the bastions were converted into promenades, while in 1849 the +rest of the fortifications were pulled down so as to allow the city +to expand and gradually assume its present aspect.</p> + +<p>When Geneva recovered its political independence in 1814 a +new constitution was drawn up, but it was very reactionary, +for there is no mention in it of the sovereignty of the people. +It set up a <i>conseil représentatif</i> or legislature of 250 members, +which named the <i>conseil d’état</i> or executive, while it was itself +elected by a limited class, for the electoral qualification was +the annual payment of direct taxes to the amount of 20 Swiss +livres or about 23 shillings. It was not till 1842 that this system, +though much criticized, was modified. In the early part of 1841 +the “Third of March Association” was formed to watch over +the interests of the citizens, and in November of that year the +government was forced by a popular demonstration to summon +an <i>assemblée constituante</i>, which in 1842 elaborated a new constitution +that was accepted by the citizens. Besides bestowing +on the city a government distinct from that of the canton, it +set up for the latter a <i>grand conseil</i> or legislature, and a conseil +<i>d’état</i> or executive of 13 members, both elected for the term of 4 +years. But this constitution did not seem liberal enough to +many citizens, so that in 1846 the government gave way to the +Radicals, led by James Fazy (1794-1878), who drew up a constitution +that was accepted by a popular vote on the 21st of May +1847. It was much more advanced than that of 1842, and in its +main features still prevails. From that date till 1864 the Radicals +ruled the state, their head, Fazy, being an able man, though +extravagant and inclined to absolutism. Under his sway the +town was modernized and developed, but the finances were +badly administered, and Fazy became more and more a radical +dictator. “On voudrait faire de Genève,” sighed the conservative, +de la Rive, “la plus petite des grandes villes, et pour +moi je préfère qu’elle reste la plus grande des petites villes.” In +1861 and in 1864 Fazy failed to secure his re-election to the +<i>conseil d’état</i>, riots followed his defeat, and the Federal troops +were forced to intervene so as to restore order.</p> + +<p>The Democratic party (liberal-conservative) ruled from 1865 +to 1870, and did much to improve the finances of the state. In +1870 the Radicals regained the supremacy under their new +chief, Antoine Carteret (1813-1889) and kept it till 1878. This +was a period of religious strife, due to the irritation caused by +the Vatican council, and the pope’s attempt to revive the bishopric +of Geneva. Gaspard Mermillod (1824-1891) was named in 1864 +<i>curé</i> of Geneva, and made bishop of Hebron <i>in partibus</i>, acting +as the helper of the bishop of Lausanne. Early in 1873 the +pope named him “vicar apostolic of Geneva,” but he was expelled +a few weeks later from Switzerland, not returning till +1883, when he became bishop of Lausanne, being made cardinal +in 1890. The Radical government enacted severe laws as to +the Romanists in Geneva, and gave privileges to the Christian +Catholic Church, which, organized in 1874 in Switzerland, had +absorbed the community founded at Geneva by Père Hyacinthe, +an ex-Carmelite friar. The Romanists therefore were no longer +recognized by the state, and were persecuted in divers ways, +though the tide afterwards turned in their favour. The Democrats +ruled from 1878 to 1880, and introduced the “Referendum” +(1879) into the cantonal constitution, but, their policy of the +separation of church and state having been rejected by the +people at a vote, they gave way to the Radicals. The Radicals +went out in 1889, and the Democrats held the reins of power till +1897, their leader being Gustave Ador. In 1891 they introduced +the “Initiative” into the cantonal constitution, and in 1892 +the principle of proportional representation so far as regards +the <i>grand conseil</i>, while Th. Turrettini did much to increase the +economical prosperity of the city. In 1897 the Radicals came in +again, their leaders being first Georges Favon (1843-1902) till +his death, and then Henri Fazy, a distant relative of James +and an excellent historian. They attempted to rule by aid of +the Socialists, but their power fluctuated as the demands of +the Socialists became greater. On the 30th of June 1907 the +Genevese, by a popular vote, decided on the separation of Church +and State.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—D. Baud-Bovy, <i>Peintres genevois, 1702-1807</i> (2 +vols., Geneva, 1903-1904); J.T. de Belloc, <i>Le Cardinal Mermillod</i> +(Fribourg, 1892): M. Besson, Recherches <i>sur les origines des évêchés +de Genève, Lausanne et Sion</i> (Fribourg, 1906); J.D. Blavignac, +Armorial genevois (Geneva, 1849), and <i>Études sur Genève depuis +l’antiquité jusqu’à nos jours</i> (2 vols., Geneva, 1872-1874); Fr. +Bonivard, <i>Chroniques de Genève</i> (Reprint) (2 vols., Geneva, 1867); +F. Borel, <i>Les Foires de Genève au XV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Geneva, 1892); Ch. +Borgeaud, <i>Histoire de l’université de Genève, 1559-1798</i> (Geneva, +1900); E. Choisy, <i>La Théocratie à Genève au temps de Calvin</i> (Geneva, +1898), and <i>L’État chrétien Calviniste à Genève au temps de Théodore +de Bèze</i> (Geneva, 1902); F. de Crue, <i>La Guerre féodale de Genève +et l’établissement de la Commune, 1205-1320</i> (Geneva, 1907); H. +Denkinger, <i>Histoire populaire du canton de Genève</i> (Geneva, 1905); +E. Doumergue, <i>La Genève Calviniste</i> (containing a minute topographical +description of 16th-century Geneva, and forming vol. iii. +of the author’s <i>Jean Calvin</i>) (Lausanne, 1905); E. Dunant, <i>Les</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page592" id="page592"></a>592</span> +<i>Relations politiques de Genève avec Berne et les Suisses, de 1536 à 1564</i> +(Geneva, 1894); <i>Documents de l’Escalade de Genève</i> (Geneva, 1903); +G. Fatio and F. Boissonnas, <i>La Campagne genevoise d’après nature</i> +(Geneva, 1899), and <i>Genève à travers les siècles</i> (Geneva, 1900); +H. Fazy, <i>Histoire de Genève à l’époque de l’Escalade, 1598-1603</i> +(Geneva, 1902), and <i>Les Constitutions de la République de Genève</i> (to +1847) (Geneva, 1890); J.B.G. Galiffe, <i>Genève historique et archéologique</i> +(2 vols., Geneva, 1869-1872); J.A. Gautier, <i>Histoire de +Genève</i> (to 1691) (6 vols., 1896-1903); F. Gribble and J.H. and +M.H. Lewis, <i>Geneva</i> (London, 1908); J. Jullien, Histoire de Genève +(new ed.; Geneva, 1889); C. Martin, <i>La Maison de Ville de Genève</i> +(Geneva, 1906); <i>Mémoires et documents</i> (publ. by the local Historical +Society since 1821); F. Mugnier, <i>Les Évêques de Genève-Annecy, +1535-1870</i> (Paris, 1888); <i>Pierre de Genève, St</i> (monograph on the +cathedral), 4 parts (Geneva, 1891-1899); A. de Montet, <i>Dictionnaire +biographique des Genevois, &c.</i> (2 vols., Lausanne, 1878); +C.L. Perrin, <i>Les Vieux Quartiers de Genève</i> (Geneva, 1904); A. +Pfleghart, <i>Die schweizerische Uhrenindustrie</i> (Leipzig, 1908); <i>Régeste +genevois avant 1312</i> (Geneva, 1866); <i>Registres du conseil de Genève</i>, +vols. i. and ii., 1409-1477 (Geneva, 1900-1906); A. Roget, <i>Histoire +du peuple de Genève depuis la Réforme jusqu’à l’Escalade</i> (7 vols., +from 1536-1568; Geneva, 1870-1883); A. Rilliet, <i>Le Rétablissement +du Catholicisme à Genève il y a deux siècles</i> (Geneva, 1880); P. +Vaucher, <i>Luttes de Genève contre la Savoie</i>, 1517-1530 (Geneva, +1889); <i>Recueil généalogique suisse</i> (<i>Genève</i>) (2 vols., Geneva, 1902-1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENEVA CONVENTION<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span>, an international agreement for the +purpose of improving the condition of wounded soldiers of armies +in the field, originally adopted at an international conference +held at Geneva, Switzerland, in 1864, and afterwards replaced by +the convention of July 6, 1906, also adopted at Geneva. This +later agreement is the one now known as the Geneva Convention. +The conference of 1864 was the result of a movement +which sprang from the publication in 1862 of a book entitled +<i>Un Souvenir de Solférino</i> by Henri Dunant, a Genevese philanthropist, +in which he described the sufferings of the wounded +at the battle of Solférino with such vivid effect that the subject +became forthwith one of public interest. It was energetically +taken up by M. Gustave Moynier, whose agitation led to an +unofficial congress being held at Geneva in October 1863. This +was followed by an official one at Geneva, called by the Swiss +government in 1864. The convention which was there signed +(22nd August 1864) on behalf of the states represented, afterwards +received the adherence of every civilized power.</p> + +<p>At a second conference on the same subject, held at Geneva in +1868, a supplementary convention was drawn up, consisting of +fourteen additional articles, five of which related to war on land +and nine to naval warfare. The additional articles were not, +however, ratified by the chief states, and never became operative. +The Brussels International Conference (1874) for the codification +of the law and customs of war occupied itself with the Geneva +Convention and again drew up a number of articles which were +submitted to the interested governments. But, as in the case of +the additional articles of 1868, no effect was ever given to them.</p> + +<p>At the Peace Conference of 1899 Great Britain withdrew her +objections to the application of the convention to maritime +warfare, and agreed to the adoption of a special convention +“adapting to Maritime warfare the principles of the Geneva +Convention.” A <i>voeu</i> was also adopted by the conference expressing +the wish that a special conference should be held as soon as +possible for the purpose of revising the convention of 1864.</p> + +<p>In deference to the above <i>voeu</i> the Swiss government in 1901 +sounded the other parties to the convention of 1864 as to whether +the time had not come to call the proposed special conference, but +the replies received did not give much encouragement and the +matter was dropped for the time being. By a circular note of the +17th of February 1903, the Swiss government invited all the states +which had signed or adhered to the Geneva Convention to send +representatives to a conference to be held at Geneva in the +following September. Some governments did not accept the +invitation in time and the conference had to be postponed. At the +beginning of 1904, there being no apparent obstacle, the Swiss +government again invited the powers to send delegates to a +conference in the following May. Meanwhile war broke out +between Russia and Japan and there was again an adjournment. +At length in March 1906 an invitation was accepted +by thirty-five states, only Turkey, Salvador, Bolivia, Venezuela, +Nicaragua and Colombia abstaining and the conference was held +at Geneva in July 1906, when a full revised convention was +adopted, which now takes the place of that of 1864.<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The +adoption of the new Geneva Convention entailed a revision of +the above-mentioned Hague Convention and a new edition of the +latter is one of the documents adopted at the Peace Conference +of 1907.</p> + +<p>The new Geneva Convention consists of thirty-three articles +divided into the following chapters, (i.) the wounded and sick; +(ii.) medical units and establishments; (iii.) personnel; (iv.) +material; (v.) convoys of evacuation; (vi.) the distinctive +emblem; (vii.) application and carrying out of the Convention; +(viii.) prevention of abuses and infractions; (ix.) general provisions.</p> + +<p>The essential parts of the new Hague Convention of 1907 +(18th of October) adapting the above conventions to maritime +warfare as follows: (N.B. The alterations are in italics. The +parts of the older convention of 1899 which have been suppressed +are in brackets).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>i. Military hospital-ships, that is to say, ships constructed or +assigned by states specially and solely for the purpose of assisting +the wounded, sick or shipwrecked, and the names of which shall +have been communicated to the belligerent powers at the commencement +or during the course of hostilities, and in any case before they +are employed, shall be respected and cannot be captured while +hostilities last.</p> + +<p>These ships, moreover, are not on the same footing as men-of-war +as regards their stay in a neutral port.</p> + +<p>ii. Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of private +individuals or officially-recognized Relief Societies, shall likewise +be respected and exempt from capture, provided the belligerent +power to whom they belong has given them an official commission +and has notified their names to the hostile power at the commencement +of or during hostilities, and in any case before they are employed.</p> + +<p>These ships should be furnished with a certificate from the competent +authorities, declaring that they had been under their control +while fitting out and on final departure.</p> + +<p>iii. Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of +private individuals or officially-recognized Societies of neutral +countries shall be respected and exempt from capture [if the neutral +power to whom they belong has given them an official commission +and notified their names to the belligerent powers at the commencement +of or during hostilities, and in any case before they are employed] +<i>on condition that they are placed under the orders of one of +the belligerents, with the previous consent of their own Government and +with the authorization of the belligerent, and on condition that the latter +shall have notified their names to the enemy at the commencement or +during the course of hostilities, in any event, before they are employed.</i></p> + +<p>iv. The ships mentioned in Articles i., ii. and iii. shall afford relief +and assistance to the wounded, sick and shipwrecked of the belligerents +independently of their nationality.</p> + +<p>The governments engage not to use these ships for any military +purpose.</p> + +<p>These ships must not in any way hamper the movements of the +combatants.</p> + +<p>During and after an engagement they will act at their own risk +and peril.</p> + +<p>The belligerents will have the right to control and visit them; +they can refuse to help them, order them off, make them take a +certain course, and put a commissioner on board; they can even +detain them, if important circumstances require it.</p> + +<p>As far as possible the belligerents shall inscribe in the sailing +papers of the hospital-ships the orders they give them.</p> + +<p>v. The military hospital-ships shall be distinguished by being +painted white outside with a horizontal band of green about a metre +and a half in breadth.</p> + +<p>The ships mentioned in Articles ii. and iii. shall be distinguished +by being painted white outside with a horizontal band of red about +a metre and a half in breadth.</p> + +<p>The boats of the ships above mentioned, as also small craft which +may be used for hospital work, shall be distinguished by similar +painting.</p> + +<p>All hospital-ships shall make themselves known by hoisting, +together with their national flag, the white flag with a red cross +provided by the Geneva Convention, <i>and, in addition, if they belong +to a neutral State, by hoisting on the mainmast the national flag of the +belligerent under whose direction they are placed.</i></p> + +<p><i>Hospital-ships which, under the terms of Article iv., are detained by</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page593" id="page593"></a>593</span> +<i>the enemy, must lower the national flag of the belligerent under whom +they were acting.</i></p> + +<p><i>The above-mentioned vessels and boats, desiring at night-time to +ensure the respect due to them, shall, with the consent of the belligerent +whom they are accompanying, take the necessary steps that the special +painting denoting them shall be sufficiently conspicuous.</i></p> + +<p>vi. [Neutral merchantmen, yachts or vessels, having, or taking on +board, sick, wounded or shipwrecked of the belligerents, cannot be +captured for so doing, but they are liable to capture for any violation +of neutrality they may have committed.]</p> + +<p><i>The distinctive signs provided by Article v. can only be used, whether +in time of peace or in time of war, to protect ships therein mentioned.</i></p> + +<p>vii. <i>In the case of a fight on board a war-ship, the hospitals shall be +respected and shall receive as much consideration as possible.</i></p> + +<p><i>These hospitals and their belongings are subject to the laws of war, +but shall not be employed for any other purpose so long as they shall be +necessary for the sick and wounded.</i></p> + +<p><i>Nevertheless, the commander who has them under his orders, may +make use of them in case of important military necessity, but he shall +first ensure the safety of the sick and wounded on board.</i></p> + +<p>viii. <i>The protection due to hospital-ships and to hospitals on board +war-ships shall cease if they are used against the enemy.</i></p> + +<p><i>The fact that the crew of hospital-ships, and attached to hospitals on +war-ships, are armed for the maintenance of order and for the defence +of the sick or wounded, and the existence of a radio-telegraphic installation +on board, is not considered as a justification for withdrawing the +above-mentioned protection.</i></p> + +<p>ix. <i>Belligerents may appeal to the charitable zeal of commanders of +neutral merchant vessels, yachts or other craft, to take on board and look +after the sick and wounded.</i></p> + +<p><i>Ships having responded to this appeal, as well as those who have +spontaneously taken on board sick, wounded or shipwrecked men, shall +have the advantage of a special protection and of certain immunities. +In no case shall they be liable to capture on account of such transport; +but subject to any promise made to them they are liable to capture for +any violation of neutrality they may have committed.</i></p> + +<p>[vii.] x. The religious, medical or hospital staff of any captured +ship is inviolable, and its members cannot be made prisoners of war. +On leaving the ship they take with them the objects and surgical +instruments which are their own private property.</p> + +<p>This staff shall continue to discharge its duties while necessary, +and can afterwards leave when the commander-in-chief considers it +possible.</p> + +<p>The belligerents must guarantee to the staff that has fallen into +their hands [the enjoyment of their salaries intact] <i>the same allowances +and pay as those of persons of the same rank in their own navy</i>.</p> + +<p>[viii.] xi. Sailors and soldiers, <i>and other persons officially attached +to navies or armies</i>, who are taken on board when sick or wounded, +to whatever nation they belong, shall be [protected] respected and +looked after by the captors.</p> + +<p>xii. <i>Every vessel of war of a belligerent party may claim the return +of the wounded, sick or shipwrecked who are on board military hospital-ships, +hospital-ships of aid societies or of private individuals, merchant +ships, yachts or other craft, whatever be the nationality of these vessels.</i></p> + +<p>xiii. <i>If the wounded, sick or shipwrecked are received on board a +neutral ship of war, it shall be provided, as far as possible, that they +may take no further part in war operations.</i></p> + +<p>xiv. The shipwrecked, wounded or sick of one of the belligerents +who fall into the hands of the other, are prisoners of war. The +captor must decide, according to circumstances, if it is best to keep +them or send them to a port of his own country, to a neutral port, +or even to a hostile port. In the last case, prisoners thus repatriated +cannot serve as long as the war lasts.</p> + +<p>xv. The shipwrecked, wounded or sick who are landed at a neutral +port with the consent of the local authorities, must, failing a contrary +arrangement between the neutral State and the belligerents, be +guarded by the neutral State, so that they may not be again able to +take part in the military operations.</p> + +<p><i>The expenses of hospital treatment and internment shall be borne by +the State to which the shipwrecked, wounded or sick belong.</i></p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. Ba.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Another International Conference held in December 1904 at the +Hague dealt with the status of hospital-ships in time of war. Great +Britain did not take part in this Conference. Her abstention, +however, was not owing to any objection of principle, but purely +to considerations of domestic legislation.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENEVA, LAKE OF,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> the largest lake of which any portion +belongs to Switzerland, and indeed in central Europe. It is +called <i>Lacus Lemannus</i> by the old Latin and Greek writers, in +4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> <i>Lacus Lausonius</i> or <i>Losanetes</i>, in the middle ages +generally <i>Lac de Lausanne</i>, but from the 16th century onwards +<i>Lac de Genève</i>, though from the end of the 18th century the name +<i>Lac Léman</i> was revived—according to Prof. Forel <i>Le Léman</i> is the +proper form. Its area is estimated at 223 sq. m. (Swiss Topographical +Bureau) or 225½ sq. m. (Forel), of which about 140 sq. +m. (134½ sq. m. Forel) are politically Swiss (123½ sq. m. belonging +to the canton of Vaud, 11½ sq. m. to that of Geneva, and 5 sq. m. +to that of the Valais), the remainder (83 sq. m.) being French since +the annexation of Savoy in 1860—the entire lake is included in +the territory (Swiss or Savoyard) neutralized by the congress of +Vienna in 1815. The French part takes in nearly the whole of +the south shore, save its western and eastern extremities, which +belong respectively to Geneva and to the Valais.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The lake is formed by the Rhone, which enters it at its east end, +between Villeneuve (E.) and St Gingolph (W.), and quits it at its +west end, flowing through the city of Geneva. The only important +tributaries are the Drance (S.), the Venoge (N.) and the Veveyse +(N.). The form of the lake is that of a crescent, of which the east +end is broad and rounded, while the west end tapers towards the +city of Geneva. The bird’s eye length of the whole lake, from +Chillon to Geneva, is 39½ m., but along its axis 45 m. The coast-line +of the north shore is 59 m. in length and that of the south shore +44¾ m. The maximum depth is 1015½ ft., but the mean depth +only 500 ft. The surface is 1231¼ ft. (Swiss Topog. Bureau) or +1220 ft. (Forel) above sea-level. The greatest width (between +Morges and Amphion) is 8½ m., but the normal width is 5 m. The +lake forms two well-marked divisions, separated by the strait of +Promenthoux, which is 216½ ft. in depth, as a bar divides the Grand +Lac from the Petit Lac. The <i>Grand Lac</i> includes the greater portion +of the lake, the <i>Petit Lac</i> (to the west of the strait or bar) being the +special Genevese portion of the lake, and having an area of but +30½ sq. m. The unusual blueness of the waters has long been +remarked, and the transparency increases the farther we get from +the point where the Rhone enters it, the deposits which the river +brings down from the Alps gradually sinking to the bottom of the +lake. At Geneva we recall Byron’s phrase, “the blue rushing of the +arrowy Rhone” (<i>Childe Harold</i>, canto iii. stanza 71). The limit of +visibility of a white disk is 33 ft. in winter (in February 1891 Prof. +Forel observed an extreme of 70½ ft.) and 21¼ ft. in summer. Apart +from the seasonal changes in the level of the lake (which is highest +in summer, no doubt because of the melting of the Alpine snows +that feed the Rhone), there are also the remarkable temporary +disturbances of level known as the <i>seiches</i>, in which the whole mass +of water in the lake rhythmically swings from shore to shore. +According to Prof. Forel there are both longitudinal and transverse +<i>seiches</i>. The effect of the longitudinal <i>seiches</i> at Geneva is +four times as great as at Chillon, at the other end of the lake, while +the extreme duration of this phenomenon is 73 minutes for the +uninodal longitudinal <i>seiches</i> (35½ minutes for the binodal) and 10 +minutes for the transverse <i>seiches</i> (5 minutes for the binodal). +The maximum height of a recorded <i>seiche</i> at Geneva is rather over +6 ft. (October 1841). The currents in the water itself are irregular. +The principal winds that blow over the lake are the <i>bise</i> (from the +N.E.), the <i>vaudaire</i> or <i>Föhn</i> (from the S.E.), the <i>sudois</i> or <i>vent de +pluie</i> (from the S.W.) and the <i>joran</i> (from the N.W.). The storm +winds are the <i>molan</i> (from the Arve valley towards Geneva) and the +<i>bornan</i> (from the Drance valley towards the central portion of the +lake). The lake is not as rich in fish as the other Swiss lakes, one +reason being the obstacle opposed by the Perte du Rhône to fish +seeking to ascend that river. Prof. Forel knows of but twenty +indigenous species (of which the <i>Féra</i>, or <i>Coregonus fera</i>, is the +principal) and six that have been introduced by man in the 19th +century. A number of lake dwellings, of varying dates, have been +found on the shores of the lake. The first steamer placed on the +lake was the “Guillaume Tell,” built in 1823 at Geneva by an +Englishman named Church, while in 1873 the present Compagnie +générale de navigation sur le lac Léman was formed, and in 1875 +constructed the first saloon steamer, the “Mont Blanc.” But +despite this service and the railways along each shore, the red lateen +sails of minor craft still brighten the landscape. The railway along +the northern shore runs from Geneva past Nyon, Rolle, Morges, +Ouchy (the port of Lausanne), Vevey and Montreux to Villeneuve +(56½ m.). That on the south shore gains the edge of the lake at +Thonon only (22¼ m. from Geneva), and then runs past Evian and +St Gingolph to Le Bouveret (20 m. from Thonon). In the harbour +of Geneva two erratic boulders of granite project above the surface +of the water, and are named <i>Pierres du Niton</i> (supposed to be altars +to Neptune). The lower of the two, which is also the farthest from +the shore, has been taken as the basis of the triangulation of Switzerland: +the official height is 376.86 mètres, which in 1891 was reduced +to 373.54 mètres, though 376.6 mètres is now said to be the real +figure. Of course the heights given on the Swiss Government map +vary with these different estimates of the point taken as basis.</p> + +<p>For all matters relating to the lake, see Prof. F.A. Forel’s +monumental work, <i>Le Léman</i> (3 vols. Lausanne, 1892-1904); also +(with fine illustrations) G. Fatio and F. Boissonnas, <i>Autour du lac +Léman</i> (Geneva, 1902).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENEVIÈVE<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Genovefa</span>, <b>ST</b> (<i>c</i>. 422-512), patroness of +Paris, lived during the latter half of the 5th century. According +to tradition, she was born about 422 at Nanterre near Paris; +her parents were called Severus and Gerontia, but accounts +differ widely as to their social position. According to the legend, +she was only in her seventh year when she was induced by St +Germain, bishop of Auxerre, to dedicate herself to the religious +life. On the death of her parents she removed to Paris, where she +distinguished herself by her benevolence, as well as by her austere +life. She is said to have predicted the invasion of the Huns; and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page594" id="page594"></a>594</span> +when Attila with his army was threatening the city, she persuaded +the inhabitants to remain on the island and encouraged them by +an assurance, justified by subsequent events, that the attack +would come to nothing (451). She is also said to have had +great influence over Childeric, father of Clovis, and in 460 to have +caused a church to be built over the tomb of St Denis. Her +death occurred about 512 and she was buried in the church of the +Holy Apostles, popularly known as the church of St Geneviève. +In 1793 the body was taken from the new church, built in her +honour by Louis XV., when it became the Panthéon, and burnt +on the Place de Grève; but the relics were enshrined in a chapel +of the neighbouring church of St Étienne du Mont, where they +still attract pilgrims; her festival is celebrated with great pomp +on the 3rd of January. The frescoes of the Panthéon by Puvis de +Chavannes are based upon the legend of the saint.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The main source is the anonymous <i>Vita s. +Genovefae virginis Parisiorum</i>, published in 1687 by D.P. Charpentier. +The genuineness of this life was attacked by B. Krusch +(<i>Neues Archiv</i>, 1893 and 1894) and defended by L. Duchesne, +<i>Bibliothèque de l’École des Chartes</i> (1893), <i>Bulletin critique</i> (1897), +p. 473. Krusch continued to hold that the life was an 8th-century +forgery (<i>Scriptores rer. Merov</i>. iii. 204-238). See A. Potthast, +<i>Bibliotheca medii aevi</i> (1331, 1332), and G. Kurth, <i>Clovis</i>, ii. 249-254. +The legends and miracles are given in the Bollandists’ <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>, +January 1st; there is a short sketch by Henri Lesetre, <i>Ste Geneviève</i>, +in “Les Saints” series (Paris, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENEVIÈVE<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Genoveva</span> or <span class="sc">Genovefa</span>, <b>OF BRABANT</b>, +heroine of medieval legend. Her story is a typical example of the +widespread tale of the chaste wife falsely accused and repudiated, +generally on the word of a rejected suitor. Genovefa of Brabant +was said to be the wife of the palatine Siegfried of Treves, and was +falsely accused by the majordomo Golo. Sentenced to death she +was spared by the executioner, and lived for six years with her +son in a cave in the Ardennes nourished by a roe. Siegfried, who +had meanwhile found out Golo’s treachery, was chasing the roe +when he discovered her hiding-place, and reinstated her in her +former honour. Her story is said to rest on the history of Marie +of Brabant, wife of Louis II., duke of Bavaria, and count-palatine +of the Rhine, who was tried by her husband and beheaded on the +18th of January 1256, for supposed infidelity, a crime for which +Louis afterwards had to do penance. The change in name may +have been due to the cult of St Geneviève, patroness of Paris. +The tale first obtained wide popularity in <i>L’Innocence reconnue, ou +vie de Sainte Geneviève de Brabant</i> (pr. 1638) by the Jesuit René de +Cérisier (1603-1662), and was a frequent subject for dramatic +representation in Germany. With Genovefa’s history may be +compared the Scandinavian ballads of <i>Ravengaard og Memering</i>, +which exist in many recensions. These deal with the history of +Gunild, who married Henry, duke of Brunswick and Schleswig. +When Duke Henry went to the wars he left his wife in charge of +Ravengaard, who accused her of infidelity. Gunild is cleared +by the victory of her champion Memering, the “smallest of +Christian men.” The Scottish ballad of Sir Aldingar is a version +of the same story. The heroine Gunhilda is said to have been the +daughter of Canute the Great and Emma. She married in 1036 +King Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry III., and there was +nothing in her domestic history to warrant the legend, which is +given as authentic history by William of Malmesbury (<i>De gestis +regum Anglorum</i>, lib. ii. § 188). She was called Cunigund after her +marriage, and perhaps was confused with St Cunigund, the wife +of the emperor Henry II. In the <i>Karlamagnus-saga</i> the innocent +wife is Oliva, sister of Charlemagne and wife of King Hugo, and in +the French Carolingian cycle the emperor’s wife Sibille (<i>La Reine +Sibille</i>) or Blanchefleur (<i>Macaire</i>). Other forms of the legend are +to be found in the story of Doolin’s mother in <i>Doon de Mayence</i>, +the English romance of <i>Sir Triamour</i>, in the story of the mother of +Octavian in <i>Octavian the Emperor</i>, in the German folk book +<i>Historie von der geduldigen Königin Crescentia</i>, based on a 12th-century +poem to be found in the <i>Kaiserchronik</i>; and the English +<i>Erl of Toulouse</i> (<i>c.</i> 1400). In the last-named romance it has been +suggested that the story gives the relations between Bernard I. +count of Toulouse, son of the Guillaume d’Orange of the Carolingian +romances, and the empress Judith, second wife of Louis +the Pious.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F.J. Child, <i>English and Scottish Popular Ballads</i>, vol. ii. +(1886), art. “Sir Aldingar”; S. Grundtvig, <i>Danske Kaempeviser</i> +(Copenhagen, 1867); “Sir Triamore,” in <i>Bishop Percy’s Folio MS.</i>, +ed. Hales and Furnivall, vol. ii. (London, 1868); <i>The Romance of +Octavian</i>, ed. E.M. Goldsmid (Aungervyle Soc., Edinburgh, 1882); +<i>The Erl of Toulous and the Emperes of Almayn</i>, ed. G. Lüdtke (Berlin, +1881); B. Seuffert, <i>Die Legende von der Pfalzgräfin Genovefa</i> (Würzburg, +1877); B. Golz, <i>Pfalzgräfin Genovefa in der deutschen Dichtung</i> +(Leipzig, 1897); R. Köhler, “Die deutschen Volksbücher von der +Pfalzgräfin Genovefa,” in <i>Zeitschr. für deutsche Philologie</i> (1874).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENGA, GIROLAMO<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1476-1551), Italian painter and +architect, was born in Urbino about 1476. At the age of ten +he was apprenticed to the woollen trade, but showed so much +inclination for drawing that he was sent to study under an +obscure painter, and at thirteen under Luca Signorelli, with +whom he remained a considerable while, frequently painting +the accessories of his pictures. He was afterwards for three +years with Pietro Perugino, in company with Raphael. He +next worked in Florence and Siena, along with Timoteo della +Vite; and in the latter city he painted various compositions +for Pandolfo Petrucci, the leading local statesman. Returning +to Urbino, he was employed by Duke Guidobaldo in the decorations +of his palace, and showed extraordinary aptitude for +theatrical adornments. Thence he went to Rome; and in the +church of S. Caterina da Siena, in that capital, is one of his most +distinguished works, “The Resurrection,” remarkable both for +design and for colouring. He studied the Roman antiquities +with zeal, and measured a number of edifices; this practice, +combining with his previous mastery of perspective, qualified +him to shine as an architect. Francesco Maria della Rovere, +the reigning duke of Urbino, recalled Genga, and commissioned +him to execute works in connexion with his marriage-festivities. +This prince being soon afterwards expelled by Pope Leo X., +Genga followed him to Mantua, whence he went for a time to +Pesaro. The duke of Urbino was eventually restored to his +dominions; he took Genga with him, and appointed him the +ducal architect. As he neared the close of his career, Genga +retired to a house in the vicinity of Urbino, continuing still to +produce designs in pencil; one, of the “Conversion of St Paul,” +was particularly admired. Here he died on the 11th of July +1551. Genga was a sculptor and musician as well as painter and +architect. He was jovial, an excellent talker, and kindly to his +friends. His principal pupil was Francesco Menzocchi. His +own son Bartolommeo (1518-1558) became an architect of +celebrity. In Genga’s paintings there is a great deal of freedom, +and a certain peculiarity of character consonant with his versatile, +lively and social temperament. One of his leading works is +in the church of S. Agostino in Cesena—a triptych in oil-colours, +representing the “Annunciation,” “God the Father in Glory,” +and the “Madonna and Child.” Among his architectural +labours are the church of San Giovanni Battista in Pesaro; +the bishop’s palace at Sinigaglia; the façade of the cathedral +of Mantua, ranking high among the productions of the 16th +century; and a new palace for the duke of Urbino, built on the +Monte Imperiale. He was also concerned in the fortifications +of Pesaro.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENISTA<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span>, in botany, a genus of about eighty species of shrubs +belonging to the natural order Leguminosae, and natives of +Europe, western Asia and North Africa. Three are native in +Britain. <i>G. anglica</i> is the needle-furze or petty whin, found +on heaths and moist moors, a spinous plant with slender +spreading branches 1 to 2 ft. long, very small leaves and short +racemes of small yellow papilionaceous flowers. The pollen is +emitted in a shower when an insect alights on it. <i>G. tinctoria</i>, +dyer’s green-weed, the flowers of which yield a yellow dye, has +no spines. Other species are grown on rock-work or as greenhouse +plants.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENIUS<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>genere</i>, <i>gignere</i>), a term which originally +meant, in Roman mythology, a generative and protecting spirit, +who has no exact parallel in Greek religion, and at least in his +earlier aspect is of purely Italian origin as one of the deities of +family or household. Every man has his genius, who is not his +creator, but only comes into being with him and is allotted to +him at his birth. As a creative principle the genius is restricted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page595" id="page595"></a>595</span> +to man, his place being taken by a Juno (cp. Juno Lucina, +the goddess of childbirth) in the case of women. The male and +female spirit may thus be distinguished respectively as the +protector of generation and of parturition (<i>tutela generandi, +pariendi</i>), although the female appears less prominent. It is +the genius of the <i>paterfamilias</i> that keeps the marriage bed, +named after him <i>lectus genialis</i> and dedicated to him, under his +special protection. The genius of a man, as his higher intellectual +self, accompanies him from the cradle to the grave. In many +ways he exercises a decisive influence on the man’s character +and mode of life (Horace, <i>Epistles</i>, ii. 2. 187). The responsibility +for happiness or unhappiness, good or bad fortune, lay +with the genius; but this does not suppose the existence of two +genii for man, the one good and the other bad (<span class="grk" title="agathodaimôn">ἀγαθοδαίμων</span>, +<span class="grk" title="kakodaimôn">κακοδαίμων</span>), an idea borrowed from the Greek philosophers. The +Roman genius, representing man’s natural optimism, always +endeavoured to guide him to happiness; that man was intended +to enjoy life is shown by the fact that the Roman spoke of indulging +or cheating his genius of his due according as he enjoyed +himself or failed to do so, when he had the opportunity. A man’s +birthday was naturally a suitable occasion for honouring his +genius, and on that occasion offerings of incense, wine, garlands, +and cakes were made (Tibullus ii. 2; Ovid, <i>Tristia</i>, iii. 13. 18). +As the representative of a man’s higher self and participating +in a divine nature, the genius could be sworn by, and a person +could take an oath by his own or some one else’s genius. When +under Greek influence the Roman idea of the gods became more +and more anthropomorphized, a genius was assigned to them, +not however as a distinct personality. Thus we hear of the genius +of Jupiter (Jovis Genio, <i>C.I.L.</i> i. 603), Mars, Juno, Pluto, +Priapus. In a more extended sense the genius is also the +generator and preserver of human society, as manifested in the +family, corporate unions, the city, and the state generally. Thus, +the genius publicus Populi Romani—probably distinct from the +genius Urbis Romae, to whom an old shield on the Capitol was +dedicated, with an inscription expressing doubt as to the sex +(<i>Genio ... sive mas sive femina</i>)—stood in the forum near +the temple of Concord, in the form of a bearded man, crowned +with a diadem, and carrying a cornu copiae and sceptre. It +frequently appears on the coins of Trajan and Hadrian. Sacrifice, +not confined to bloodless offerings like those of the genius of +the house, was offered to him annually on the 8th of October. +There were genii of cities, colonies, and even of provinces; of +artists, business people and craftsmen; of cooks, gladiators, +standard-bearers, a legion, a century, and of the army generally +(<i>genius sanctus castrorum peregrinorum totiusque exercitus</i>). In +imperial times the genius of Augustus and of the reigning +emperor, as part of the sacra of the imperial family, were publicly +worshipped. It was a common practice (often compulsory) to +swear by the genius of the emperor, and any one who swore +falsely was flogged. Localities also, such as theatres, baths, +stables, streets, and markets, had their own genius. The word +thus gradually lost its original meaning; the nameless local +genii became an expression for the universality of the <i>divinum +numen</i> and were sometimes identified with the higher gods. +The local genius was usually represented by a snake, the symbol +of the fruitfulness of the earth and of perpetual youth. Hence +snakes were usually kept in houses (Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> v. 95; Persius +i. 113), their death in which was considered a bad omen. The +personal genius usually appeared as a handsome youth in a toga, +with head sometimes veiled and sometimes bare, carrying a +drinking cup and cornu copiae, frequently in the position of one +offering sacrifice.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.H. Roscher, <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>, and article by J.A. +Hild in Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>, where +full references to ancient and modern authorities are given; L. +Preller, <i>Römische Mythologie</i>, 3rd ed., by H. Jordan; G. Wissowa, +<i>Religion und Kultur der Römer</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>Apart from the Latin use of the term, the plural “genii” +(with a singular “genie”) is used in English, as equivalent to +the Arabic <i>jinn</i>, for a class of spirits, good or bad, such as are +described, for instance, in <i>The Arabian Nights</i>. But “genius” +itself has become the regular English word for the highest +conceivable form of original ability, something altogether +extraordinary and beyond even supreme educational prowess, +and differing, in kind apparently, from “talent,” which is +usually distinguished as marked intellectual capacity short +only of the inexplicable and unique endowment to which the +term “genius” is confined. The attempt, however, to define +either quality, or to discriminate accurately between them, has +given rise to continual controversy, and there is no agreement +as to the nature of either; and the commonly quoted definitions +of genius—such as Carlyle’s “transcendant capacity of taking +trouble, first of all,”<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in which the last three words are usually +forgotten—are either admittedly incomplete or are of the +nature of epigrams. Nor can it be said that any substantial +light has been thrown on the matter by the modern physiological +school, Lombroso and others, who regard the eccentricity of genius +as its prime factor, and study it as a form of mental derangement. +The error here is partly in ignoring the history of the word, and +partly in misrepresenting the nature of the fact. There are many +cases, no doubt, in which persons really insane, of one type or +another, or with a history of physical degeneration or epilepsy, +have shown remarkable originality, which may be described +as genius, but there are at least just as many in whom no such +physical abnormality can be observed. The word “genius” +itself however has only gradually been used in English to express +the degree of original greatness which is beyond ordinary powers +of explanation, <i>i.e.</i> far beyond the capacity of the normal human +being in creative work; and it is a convenient term (like Nietzsche’s +“superman”) for application to those rare individuals who in +the course of evolution reveal from time to time the heights to +which humanity may develop, in literature, art, science, or +administrative life. The English usage was originally derived, +naturally enough, from the Roman ideas contained in the term +(with the analogy of the Greek <span class="grk" title="daimôn">δαίμων</span>), and in the 16th and +17th centuries we find it equivalent simply to “distinctive +character or spirit,” a meaning still commonly given to the word. +The more modern sense is not even mentioned in Johnson’s <i>Dictionary</i>, +and represents an 18th-century development, primarily +due to the influence of German writers; the meaning of “distinctive +natural capacity or endowment” had gradually been +applied specially to creative minds such as those of poets and +artists, by contrast with those whose mental ability was due to +the results of education and study, and the antithesis has +extended since, through constant discussions over the attempt +to differentiate between the real nature of genius and that of +“talent,” until we now speak of the exceptional person not +merely as having genius but as “a genius.” This phraseology +appears to indicate some reversion to the original Roman usage, +and the identification of the great man with a generative spirit.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Modern theories on the nature of “genius” should be studied +with considerable detachment, but there is much that is interesting +and thought-provoking in such works as J.F. Nisbet’s <i>Insanity of +Genius</i> (1891), Sir Francis Galton’s <i>Hereditary Genius</i> (new ed., +1892), and C. Lombroso’s <i>Man of Genius</i> (Eng. trans., 1891).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Frederick the Great</i>, iv. iii. 1407.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENUS, STÉPHANIE-FÉLICITÉ DU CREST DE SAINT-AUBIN<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span>, +<span class="sc">Comtesse de</span> (1746-1830), French writer and educator, +was born of a noble but impoverished Burgundian family, at +Champcéry, near Autun, on the 25th of January 1746. When six +years of age she was received as a canoness into the noble chapter +of Alix, near Lyons, with the title of Madame la Comtesse de +Lancy, taken from the town of Bourbon-Lancy. Her entire +education, however, was conducted at home. In 1758, in Paris, +her skill as a harpist and her vivacious wit speedily attracted +admiration. In her sixteenth year she was married to Charles +Brûlart de Genlis, a colonel of grenadiers, who afterwards +became marquis de Sillery, but this was not allowed to interfere +with her determination to remedy her incomplete education, and +to satisfy a taste for acquiring and imparting knowledge. Some +years later, through the influence of her aunt, Madame de +Montesson, who had been clandestinely married to the duke of +Orleans, she entered the Palais Royal as lady-in-waiting to the +duchess of Chartres (1770). She acted with great energy and zeal +as governess to the daughters of the family, and was in 1781 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page596" id="page596"></a>596</span> +appointed by the duke of Chartres to the responsible office of +<i>gouverneur</i> of his sons, a bold step which led to the resignation of +all the tutors as well as to much social scandal, though there is no +reason to suppose that the intellectual interests of her pupils +suffered on that account. The better to carry out her ingenious +theories of education, she wrote several works for their use, the +best known of which are the <i>Théâtre d’éducation</i> (4 vols., 1779-1780), +a collection of short comedies for young people, <i>Les +Annales de la vertu</i> (2 vols., 1781) and <i>Adèle et Théodore</i> (3 vols., +1782). Sainte-Beuve tells how she anticipated many modern +methods of teaching. History was taught with the help of magic +lantern slides and her pupils learnt botany from a practical +botanist during their walks. In 1789 Madame de Genlis showed +herself favourable to the Revolution, but the fall of the Girondins +in 1793 compelled her to take refuge in Switzerland along with her +pupil Mademoiselle d’Orléans. In this year her husband, the +marquis de Sillery, from whom she had been separated since 1782, +was guillotined. An “adopted” daughter, Pamela,<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> had been +married to Lord Edward Fitzgerald (<i>q.v.</i>) in the preceding +December.</p> + +<p>In 1794 Madame de Genlis fixed her residence at Berlin, but, +having been expelled by the orders of King Frederick William, +she afterwards settled in Hamburg, where she supported herself +for some years by writing and painting. After the revolution of +18th Brumaire (1799) she was permitted to return to France, +and was received with favour by Napoleon, who gave her apartments +at the arsenal, and afterwards assigned her a pension of +6000 francs. During this period she wrote largely, and produced, +in addition to some historical novels, her best romance, +<i>Mademoiselle de Clermont</i> (1802). Madame de Genlis had lost +her influence over her old pupil Louis Philippe, who visited her +but seldom, although he allowed her a small pension. Her +government pension was discontinued by Louis XVIII., and she +supported herself largely by her pen. Her later years were +occupied largely with literary quarrels, notably with that which +arose out of the publication of the <i>Dîners du Baron d’Holbach</i> +(1822), a volume in which she set forth with a good deal of +sarcastic cleverness the intolerance, the fanaticism, and the +eccentricities of the “philosophes” of the 18th century. She +survived until the 31st of December 1830, and saw her former +pupil, Louis Philippe, seated on the throne of France.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The numerous works of Madame de Genlis (which considerably +exceed eighty), comprising prose and poetical compositions on a +vast variety of subjects and of various degrees of merit, owed much +of their success to adventitious causes which have long ceased to +operate. They are useful, however (especially the voluminous +<i>Mémoires inédits sur le XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, 10 vols., 1825), as furnishing +material for history. Most of her writings were translated into +English almost as soon as they were published. A list of her writings +with useful notes is given by Quérard in <i>La France littéraire</i>. Startling +light was thrown on her relations with the duc de Chartres by +the publication (1904) of her correspondence with him in <i>L’Idylle +d’un “gouverneur”</i> by G. Maugras. See also Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries +du lundi</i>, vol. iii.; H. Austin Dobson, <i>Four Frenchwomen</i> (1890); +L. Chabaud, <i>Les Précurseurs du féminisme</i> (1901); W. de Chabreul, +<i>Gouverneur de princes, 1737-1830</i> (1900); and <i>Lettres inédites à ... +Casimir Baecker, 1802-1830</i> (1902), edited by Henry Lapauze.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Gerald Campbell, <i>Edward and Pamela Fitzgerald</i> (1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENNA<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span>, a word of obscure origin borrowed from the Assamese, +and used technically by anthropologists to describe a class of +social and religious ordinances based on sanctions which derive +their validity from a vague sense of mysterious danger which +results from disobedience to them. These prohibitions—or +system of things forbidden—affect the relations, permanent and +temporary, of individuals (either as members of a tribe, village, +clan or household, or as occupying an official position in the +village or clan) towards other persons or groups of persons and +towards material objects which possess intrinsic sanctity. The +term is extended to the communal rites performed by the village, +clan or household, either as magical ceremonies or as prophylactics +on special occasions when the social, commensal, conjugal +and alimentary relations of the group affected are subjected to +temporary modifications. These practices and beliefs are observed +among the hill tribes of Assam from the Abors and Mishmis on +the north to the Lusheis on the south, all linguistically members +of the Tibeto-Burman group, and among the Khasis, members of +the Mon-Khmer group. Genna and taboo (<i>q.v.</i>) are products of +an identical level of culture and similar psychological processes, +and provide the mechanism of the social and religious systems.</p> + +<p><i>Permanent Gennas.</i>—The only universal <i>genna</i> is that which +forbids the intermarriage of members of the same clan. In some +cases in Manipur animals are <i>genna</i> to the tribe—<i>i.e.</i> they must +not be killed or eaten—but tribal differentiation is, in practice, +based on dialectical distinctions rather than on tribal <i>gennas</i>. +The village as such possesses no permanent <i>gennas</i>, but the clans, +as the units of marriage under the law of exogamy, have distinct +elementary <i>gennas</i>, especially the clan to which the priest-chief +belongs. The most important individual <i>gennas</i> are those which +protect the priest-chief from impurity or contact with “sacred” +substances such as the flesh of animals used in sacrifices. He may +neither eat in a strange house, nor utter words of abuse, nor take +an oath in a dispute, except in his representative capacity on +behalf of his village. The first-fruits are <i>genna</i> to the village +until he eats, thus establishing an opposition between him and his +co-villagers. Married and unmarried women are subject to alimentary +<i>gennas</i>; thus unmarried girls are forbidden the flesh of +any male animal or of any female animal dying gravid.</p> + +<p><i>Ritual Gennas.</i>—Ritual <i>gennas</i> are held annually to foster the +rice crops, all other industries and activities being <i>genna</i> (forbidden) +during the cultivating season, to secure good hunting, to +avert sickness, especially epidemics, to take omens, and to lay +finally to rest the ghosts of all that have died within the year. +The village gates are closed, men and women eat apart, and conjugal +relations are suspended. Special village <i>gennas</i> are held +when rain is needed, when a villager dies in any manner out of the +ordinary, as women in childbirth, when an animal gives birth to +still-born offspring, and when any permanent genna has been +violated. Clan <i>gennas</i> are held for all ordinary cases of death. +Household <i>gennas</i> are held on the occasions of birth (when the +aliment and conduct of the father are specially regulated), +naming, ear-piercing, the first hair-cutting, sickness, and, in certain +areas, tattooing. Individuals are subjected to temporary <i>gennas</i> +as warriors both before and after a head-hunting raid, pregnant +women, married persons at the beginning of their married life, +the wives of the priest-chief, and those who from ambition or +pride of wealth seek to perpetuate their names by erecting a +stone monument, an act which confers the right to wear the +distinctive clothes of the priest-chief which otherwise are <i>genna</i> +to the whole village. Ritual <i>gennas</i> are of varying duration. +Some last for a month while others are complete in two days. As +religious or magical rites, they prevent danger or establish and +restore normal relations with powers which are potentially +harmful or require placation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Official records of the government of India, Nos. +23 (1855), 27 (1859), 68 (1870); Colonel T.H. Lewin, <i>Hill Tracts +of Chittagong; Report on the Census of Assam</i> (1891), vol. i. Report, +note by A.W. Davis, p. 237 seq.; Major P.R.T. Gurdon, <i>The +Khasis</i> (1907); T.C. Hodson, <i>Journal of the Royal Anthropological +Institute</i>, vol. xxxvi. (1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. C. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENNADIUS II.<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> [as layman <span class="sc">Georgios Scholarios</span>] (d. <i>c.</i> +1468), patriarch of Constantinople from 1454 to 1456, philosopher +and theologian, was one of the last representatives of Byzantine +learning. Extremely little is known of his life, but he appears to +have been born at Constantinople about 1400 and to have entered +the service of the emperor John VII. Paleologus as imperial +judge or counsellor. Georgios first appears conspicuously +in history as present at the great council held in 1438 at +Ferrara and Florence with the object of bringing about a union +between the Greek and Latin Churches. At the same council +was present the celebrated Platonist, Gemistus Pletho, the most +powerful opponent of the then dominant Aristotelianism, and +consequently the special object of reprobation to Georgios. +In church matters, as in philosophy, the two were opposed,—Pletho +maintaining strongly the principles of the Greek Church, +and being unwilling to accept union through compromise, +while Georgios, more politic and cautious, pressed the necessity +for union and was instrumental in drawing up a form which from +its vagueness and ambiguity might be accepted by both parties. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page597" id="page597"></a>597</span> +He was at a disadvantage because, being a layman, he could not +directly take part in the discussions of the council. But on his return +to Greece his views changed, and he violently and obstinately +opposed the union he had previously urged. In 1448 he became a +monk at Pantokrator and took the name Gennadius. In 1453, +after the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, Mahommed II., +finding that the patriarchal chair had been vacant for some time, +resolved to elect some one to the office, and the choice fell on +Gennadius. While holding the episcopal office Gennadius drew +up, apparently for the use of Mahommed, a lucid confession or +exposition of the Christian faith, which was translated into Turkish +by Ahmed, judge of Beroea, and first printed by A. Brassicanus +at Vienna in 1530. After a couple of years Gennadius found the +position of patriarch under a Turkish sultan so irksome that he +retired to the monastery of John the Baptist near Serrae in +Macedonia, where he died about 1468. About one hundred of +his alleged writings exist, the majority in manuscript and of +doubtful authenticity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The fullest account of his writings is given in Gass, <i>Gennadius +and Pletho</i> (Berlin, 1844), the second part of which contains Pletho’s +<i>Contra Gennadium</i>. See also F. Schultze, <i>Gesch. der Phil. d. Renaissance</i>, +i. (1874). A list of the known writings of Gennadius is given +in Fabricius, <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i>, ed. Harles, vol. xi., and what has +been printed is to be found in Migne, <i>Patrol. Gr.</i> vol. clx.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENOA<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (anc. <i>Genua</i>, Ital. <i>Genova</i>, Fr. <i>Gênes</i>), the chief port +of Liguria, Italy, and capital of the province of Genoa, 119 m. +N.W. of Leghorn by rail. Pop. (1906) 255,294 (town); 267,248 +(commune). The town is situated on the Gulf of Genoa, and is +the chief port and commercial town of Italy, the seat of an +archbishop and a university, the headquarters of the IV. Italian +army corps, and a strong fortress. The city, as seen from the +sea, is “built nobly,” and deserves the title it has acquired or +assumed of the Superb. Finding only a small space of level +ground along the shore, it has been obliged to climb the lower +hills of the Ligurian Alps, which afford many a coign of vantage +for the effective display of its architectural magnificence. The +original nucleus of the city is that portion which lies to the east +of the port in the neighbourhood of the old pier (Molo Vecchio). +In the 10th century it began to feel a lack of room within the +limits of its fortifications; and accordingly, in the middle of +the 12th century, it was found necessary to extend the line of +circumvallation. Even this second circuit, however, was of +small compass, and it was not till 1320-1330 that a third line +took in the greater part of the modern site of the city proper. +This presented about 3 m. of rampart towards the land side, +and can still be easily traced from point to point through the +city, though large portions, especially towards the east, have +been dismantled. The present line of circumvallation dates +from 1626-1632, the period when the independence of Genoa +was threatened by the dukes of Savoy. From the mouth of +the Bisagno in the east, and from the lighthouse point in the west, +it stretches inland over hill and dale to the great fort of Sperone, +<i>i.e.</i> the Spur, on the summits of Monte Peraldo at a height of +1650 ft.,—the circuit being little less than 12 m., and all the +important points along the line being defended by forts or +batteries.</p> + +<p>A portion of the enclosed area is open country, dotted only here +and there with houses and gardens. There are eight gates, the +more important being Porta Pila and Porta Romana towards the +east, and the Porta Lanterna or Lighthouse Gate to the west. The +main architectural features of Genoa are its medieval churches, +with striped façades of black and white marble, and its magnificent +16th-century palaces. The earlier churches of Genoa show +a mixture of French Romanesque and the Pisan style—they are +mostly basilicas with transepts, and as a rule a small dome; +the pillars are sometimes ancient columns, and sometimes +formed of alternate layers of black and white marble. The +façades are simple, without galleries, having only pilasters +projecting from the wall, and are also alternately black and +white. This style continued in Gothic times also. The oldest +is S. Maria di Castello (11th century), the columns and capitals +of which are almost all antique. S. Cosma, S. Donato (with +remains of the 10th-century building) and others belong to the +12th century, and S. Giovanni di Prè, S. Agostino (with a fine +campanile), S. Stefano, S. Matteo and others to the 13th. The +famous painting of the martyrdom of S. Stephen, by Giulio +Romano, carried off by Napoleon in 1811, was restored to S. +Stefano in 1815. S. Matteo, the church of the D’Oria or Doria +family, was founded in 1126 by Martino Doria. The façade +dates from 1278, and the interior of the edifice dates in the main +from 1543. In the crypt is the tomb of Andrea Doria by +Montorsoli, and above the main altar hangs the dagger presented +to the doge by Pope Paul III. To the left of the church is an +exquisite cloister of 1308 with double columns, in which a number +of inscriptions relating to the Doria family and also the statue +of Andrea Doria by Montorsoli are preserved. The little square +in front of the church is surrounded by Gothic palaces of the Doria +family. Of the churches the principal is the comparatively +small cathedral of S. Lorenzo. Tradition makes its first foundation +contemporary with St Lawrence himself; and a document +of 987 implies that it was even then the metropolitan church. +Reconstructed about the end of the 11th and beginning of the +12th century, it was formally consecrated by Pope Gelasius II. +on the 18th of October 1118; and since then it has undergone +a large number of extensive though partial renovations. The +façade, with its three elaborate doorways, belongs to the 14th +century and is a copy of French models of the 13th. The two +side portals with Romanesque sculptures belong to the 12th-14th +centuries. Some pagan reliefs are built into the tower. +The interior was rebuilt in 1307, the old columns being used. +The belfry, which rises above the right-hand doorway, was erected +about 1520 by the doge, Ottaviano da Campofragoso, and the +cupola was erected after the designs of the architect Galeazzo +Alessi in 1567. The fine Early Renaissance (1448) sculptural +decorations of the chapel of S. John the Baptist were due to +Domenico Gagini of Bissone on the Lake of Lugano, who later +transferred his activities to Naples and Palermo, and other +Lombard masters. An edict of Innocent VIII. forbids women +to enter the chapel except on one day in the year. In the +treasury of the cathedral is a magnificent silver monstrance +dating from 1553, and an octagonal bowl, the Sacro Catino, +brought from Caesarea in 1101, which corresponds to the descriptions +given of the Holy Grail, and was long regarded as an +emerald of matchless value, but was found when broken at Paris, +whither it had been carried by Napoleon I., to be only a remarkable +piece of ancient glass. The choir-stalls are a very fine +work of the 15th century and later, with intarsias. Near the +cathedral is a small 12th-century (?) cloister.</p> + +<p>Of older date than the cathedral is the church of S. Ambrose +and S. Andrew, if its first foundation be correctly assigned to +the Milanese bishop Honoratus of the 6th century; but the +present edifice is due to the Society of Jesus, who obtained +possession of the church in 1587. The interior is richly decorated +and contains the “Circumcision” and “St Ignatius” by Rubens, +and the “Assumption” of Guido Reni. The Annunziata del +Guastato is one of the largest churches in the city, erected in +1587. It is a cruciform structure, with a dome, and the central +nave is supported by fourteen Corinthian columns of white +marble. To the otherwise unfinished brick façade a portal borne +by marble columns was added in 1843. The interior is covered +with gilding and frescoes of the 17th century, and is somewhat +overloaded with rich decoration, while a range of white marble +columns supports the nave. Santa Maria delle Vigne probably +dates from the 9th century, but the present structure was erected +in 1586. The campanile, however, is a remarkable work of the +13th century. Adjoining the church is a ruined cloister of the +11th century. San Siro, originally the “Church of the Apostles” +and the cathedral of Genoa, was rebuilt by the Benedictines in +the 11th century, and restored and enlarged by the Theatines +in 1576, the façade being added in 1830; in this church in 1339 +Simone Boccanera was elected first doge of Genoa. Santa Maria +di Carignano, or more correctly Santa Maria Assunta e SS. +Fabiano e Sebastiano, belongs mainly to the 16th century, and +was designed by Galeazzo Alessi, in imitation of Bramante’s +plan for S. Peter’s at Rome, as it was then being executed by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page598" id="page598"></a>598</span> +Michelangelo. The interior is fine, harmonious and restrained, +painted in white and grey, while the colouring of the exterior +is less pleasing. From the highest gallery of the dome—368 +ft. above the sea-level, and 194 ft. above the ground—a magnificent +view is obtained of the city and the neighbouring coast.</p> + +<p>Buildings of the 15th century do not occupy an important +place in Genoa, but there are some small private houses and +remains of sculptural decoration of the Early Renaissance to be +seen in the older portions of the town. The palaces of the Genoese +patricians, famous for their sumptuous architecture, their general +effectiveness (though the architectural details are often faulty if +closely examined), and their artistic collections, were many of +them built in the latter part of the 16th century by Galeazzo +Alessi, a pupil of Michelangelo, whose style is of an imposing +and uniform character and displays marvellous ingenuity in +using a limited or unfavourable site to the greatest advantage. +Several of the villas in the vicinity of the city are also his work. +The Via Garibaldi is flanked by a succession of magnificent +palaces, chief among which is the Palazzo Rosso, so called from +its red colour. Formerly the palace of the Brignole-Sale family, +it was presented by the duchess of Galliera to the city in 1874, +along with its valuable contents, its library and picture gallery, +which includes fine examples of Van Dyck and Paris Bordone. +The Palazzo Municipale, built by Rocco Lurago at the end of +the 16th century, once the property of the dukes of Turin, has a +beautiful entrance court and a hanging terraced garden fronting +a noble staircase of marble which leads to the spacious council +chamber. In an adjoining room are preserved a bronze tablet +dating from 117 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (see below), two autograph letters of +Columbus, and the violin of Paganini, also a native of Genoa. +Opposite the Palazzo Rosso is the Palazzo Bianco, a palace full +of art treasures bequeathed to the city by the duchess of Galliera +upon her death in 1889, and subsequently converted into a +museum. The Roman antiquities here preserved belong to +other places—Luna, Libarna, &c. The Adorno, Giorgio Doria +(both containing small but choice picture-galleries), Parodi and +Serra and other palaces in this street are worthy of mention. +The Via Balbi again contains a number of palaces. The Durazzo +Pallavicini palace has a noble façade and staircase and a rich +picture-gallery. The street takes its name, however, from the +Palazzo Balbi-Senarega, which has Doric colonnades and a fine +orangery. The Palazzo dell’ Università has an extremely fine +court and staircase of the early 17th century. The Palazzo +Reale is also handsome but somewhat later. The Palazzo +Doria in the Piazza del Principe, presented to Andrea Doria +by the Genoese in 1522, is on the other hand earlier; it was +remodelled in 1529 by Montorsoli and decorated with fine frescoes +by Perino del Vaga. The old palace of the doges, originally +a building of the 13th century, to which the tower alone belongs, +the rest of the building having been remodelled in the 16th +century and modernized after a fire in 1777, stands in the Piazza +Umberto Primo near the cathedral, and now contains the +telegraph and other government offices. Another very fine +building is the Gothic Palazzo di S. Giorgio, near the harbour, +dating from about 1260, occupied from 1408 to 1797 by the +Banca di S. Giorgio, and now converted into a produce exchange. +The Campo Santo or Cimitero di Staglieno, about 1½ m. from +the city on the banks of the Bisagno, is one of the chief features of +Genoa; its situation is of great natural beauty and it is remarkable +for its sepulchral monuments, many of which have been +executed by the foremost sculptors of modern Italy. The +university, founded in 1471, is a flourishing institution with +faculties in law, medicine, natural science, engineering and +philosophy. Attached to it are a library, an observatory, a +botanical garden, and a physical and natural history museum. +Genoa is also well supplied with technical schools and other +institutions for higher education, while ample provision is made +for primary education. The hospitals and the asylum for the +poor are among the finest institutions of their kind in Italy. +Mention must also be made of the Academy of Fine Arts, the +municipal library, the great Teatro Carlo Felice and the Verdi +Institute of Music.</p> + +<p>The irregular relief of its site and its long confinement within +the limits of fortifications, which it had outgrown, have both +contributed to render Genoa a picturesque confusion of narrow +streets, lanes and alleys, varied with stairways climbing the +steeper slopes and bridges spanning the deeper valleys. Large +portions of the town are inaccessible to ordinary carriages, and +many of the important streets have very little room for traffic. +In modern times, however, a number of fine streets and squares +with beautiful gardens have been laid out. The Piazza Ferrari, +a large irregular space, is the chief focus of traffic and the centre +of the Genoese tramway system; it is embellished with a fine +equestrian statue of Garibaldi, unveiled in 1893, which stands +in front of the Teatro Carlo Felice. Leading from this piazza +is the Via Venti Settembre, a broad, handsome street laid out +since 1887, leading south-east to the Ponte Pila, the central +bridge over the Bisagno. The street is itself spanned by an +elegant bridge carrying the Corso Andrea Podesta, a modern +avenue on the heights above. Adjoining the church of the +Madonna della Consolazione is the new market, a building of +no little beauty. The Via Roma, another important centre of +traffic which gives on to the Via Carlo Felice near the Piazza +Ferrari, leads to the Piazza Corvetto, in the centre of which +stands the colossal equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel II. +To the left is the Villetta Dinegro, a beautiful park belonging to +the city, decorated with cascades and a number of statues and +busts of prominent statesmen and citizens. To the right is +another park, the Acquasola, laid out in 1837 on the site of the +old ramparts. In the west of the city, in front of the principal +station, is the Piazza Acquaverde. On the north side, embowered +in palm trees, is a great statue of Columbus, at whose feet kneels +the figure of America. Opposite is the Palazzo Faraggiana, +with scenes from the life of Columbus in relief on its marble +pediment. Among other modern thoroughfares, the Via di +Circonvallazione a Monte, laid out since 1876 on the hills at the +back of the town, leads by many curves from the Piazza Manin +along the hill-tops westward, and finally descends into the Piazza +Acquaverde; its entire length is traversed by an electric tramway, +and it commands magnificent views of the town. A similar +road, the Via di Circonvallazione a Mare, was laid out in 1893-1895 +on the site of the outer ramparts, and skirts the sea-front +from the Piazza Cavour to the mouth of the Bisagno, +thence ascending the right bank to the Ponte Pila. Genoa +is remarkably well served with electric tramways, which are +found in all the wider streets, and run, often through tunnels, +into the suburbs and to the surrounding country on the east as +far as Nervi and to Pegli oh the west. Three funicular railways +from different points of the city give access to the highest parts +of the hills behind the town.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Though its existence as a maritime power was originally due to +its port, it is only since 1870 that Genoa has provided the conveniences +necessary for the modern development of its trade, +the duke of Galliera’s gift of £800,000 to the city in 1875 being +devoted to this purpose. A further enlargement of the harbour was +necessitated upon the opening of the St Gotthard tunnel in 1882, +which extended the commercial range of the port through Switzerland +into Germany. The old harbour is semi-circular in shape, 232 +acres in area, with numerous quays, and protected by moles from +southern and south-westerly winds. An outer harbour, 247 acres +in area, has been constructed in front of this by extending the Molo +Nuovo by the Molo Duca di Galliera, and another basin, the Vittorio +Emanuele III., for coal vessels, with an area of 96 acres, is in course +of construction to the west of this, between it and the lofty lighthouse +which rises on the promontory at the south-west extremity of the +harbour. This basin is to be entered from both the east and the +west, and allows for a future extension in front of San Pier d’Arena +as far as the mouth of the river Polcevera. The port administration +was placed under an autonomous harbour board (<i>consorzio</i>) in 1903. +The largest ships can enter the harbour, which has a minimum depth +of 30 ft.; it has two dry docks, a graving dock and a floating dry +dock. Very large warehouses have been constructed. The exports +are olive oil, hemp, flax, rice, fruit, wine, hats, cheese, steel, velvets, +gloves, flour, paper, soap and marble, while the main imports are +coal, cotton, grain, machinery, &c. Genoa has a large emigrant +traffic with America, and a large general passenger steamer traffic +both for America and for the East.</p> + +<p>The development of industry has kept pace with that of the +harbour. The Ansaldo shipbuilding yards construct armoured +cruisers both for the Italian navy and for foreign governments, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page599" id="page599"></a>599</span> +The Odero yards, for the construction of merchant and passenger +steamers, have been similarly extended, and the Foce yard is also +important. A number of foundries and metallurgical works supply +material for repairs and shipbuilding. The sugar-refining industry +has been introduced by two important companies, and most of the +capital employed in sugar-refining in other parts of Italy has been +subscribed at Genoa, where the administrative offices of the principal +companies and individual refiners are situated. The old industries +of macaroni and cognate products maintain their superiority. +Tanneries and cotton-spinning and weaving mills have considerably +extended throughout the province. Cement works have acquired +an extension previously unknown, more than thirty firms being now +engaged in that branch of industry. The manufactures of crystallized +fruits and of filigree silver-work may also be mentioned. The +trade of the port increased from well under 1,000,000 tons in 1876 +to 6,164,873 metric tons in 1906 (the latter figure, however, includes +home trade in a proportion of about 12%). Of this large total +5,365,544 tons are imports and only 799,319 tons are exports, and, +comparing 1906 with 1905, we have a decrease of 34,355 tons on +the exports, and an increase of 436,123 tons on the imports. The +effect upon the railway problem is of course very great, inasmuch +as, while the supply of trucks required per day in 1906 was from +1000 to 1200, about 80% of these had to be sent down empty to the +harbour. Of the four main lines which centre on Genoa—(1) to +Novi, which is the junction for Alessandria, where lines diverge to +Turin and France via the Mont Cenis, and to Novara and Switzerland +and France via the Simplon, and for Milan; (2) to Acqui and Piedmont; +(3) to Savona, Ventimiglia and the French Riviera, along +the coast; (4) to Spezia and Pisa—the first line has to take no less +than 78% of the traffic. It has indeed two alternative double +lines for the passage over the Apennines, but one of them has a +maximum gradient of 1 : 18 and a tunnel over 2 m. long, and the +other has a maximum gradient of 1 : 62, and a tunnel over 5 m. long. +A marshalling station costing some £800,000, connected directly +with the harbour by tunnels, with 31 m. of rails, capable of taking +2000 trucks, was constructed at Campasso in 1906 north of San Pier +d’Arena (through which till then the traffic of the first three lines, +representing 95% of the total, had to pass). It is computed that +some 40% of the total commerce of Italy passes through Genoa; +it is indeed the most important harbour in the western Mediterranean, +with the exception of Marseilles, with which it carries on a keen +rivalry. Genoa has in the past been somewhat handicapped in +the race by the insufficiency of railway communication, which, +owing to the mountains which encircle it, is difficult to secure, +many tunnels being necessary. The general condition of the Italian +railways has also affected it, and the increased traffic has not always +found the necessary facilities in the way of a proper amount of trucks +to receive the goods discharged, leading to considerable encumbrance +of the port and consequent diversion of a certain amount of trade +elsewhere, and besides this to serious temporary deficiencies in the +coal supply of northern Italy.</p> + +<p>The imports of Genoa are divided into four main classes: about +50% of the total weight is coal, grain about 12%, cotton about +6%, and miscellaneous about 34%. Of the coal imports the great +bulk is from British ports: about half comes from Cardiff and +Barry, one-tenth from other Welsh ports, one-fifth from the Tyne +ports. The amount shows an almost continued increase from +617,798 tons in 1881 to 2,737,919 in 1906. The total of shipping +entered in 1906 was 6586 vessels with a tonnage of 6,867,442, while +that cleared was 6611 vessels with a tonnage of 6,682,104.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Genoa, being a natural harbour of the first rank, +must have been in use as a seaport as early as navigation began +in the Tyrrhenian Sea. We hear nothing from ancient authorities +of its having been visited or occupied by the Greeks, but the +discovery of a Greek cemetery of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span><a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> proves +it. The construction of the Via Venti Settembre gave occasion +for the discovery of a number of tombs, 85 in all, the bulk of +which dated from the end of the 5th and the 4th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +The bodies had in all cases been cremated, and were buried in +small shaft graves, the interment itself being covered by a slab +of limestone. The vases were of the last red figure style, and +were mostly imported from Greece or Magna Graecia, while +the bronze objects came from Etruria, and the brooches (<i>fibulae</i>) +from Gaul. This illustrates the early importance of Genoa as +a trading port, and the penetration of Greek customs, inhumation +being the usual practice of the Ligurians. Genoa is believed to +derive its name from the fact that the shape of this portion of +the coast resembles that of a knee (<i>genu</i>).</p> + +<p>We hear of the Romans touching here in 216 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and of its +destruction by the Carthaginians in 209 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and immediate +restoration by the Romans, who made it and Placentia their +headquarters against the Ligurians. It was reached from Rome +by the Via Aurelia, which ran along the north-west coast, and +its prolongation, which later acquired the name of the Via +Aemilia (Scauri); for the latter was only constructed in 109 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and there must have been a coast-road long before, at least +as early as 148 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when the Via Postumia was built from +Genua through Libarna (mod. Serravalle, where remains of an +amphitheatre and inscriptions have been found), Dertona, Iria, +Placentia, Cremona, and thence eastwards. We also have an +inscription of 117 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (now preserved in the Palazzo Municipale +at Genoa) giving the text of the decision given by the <i>patroni</i>, +Q. and M. Minucius, of Genua, in accordance with a decree of +the Roman senate, in a controversy between the people of Genua +and the Langenses or Langates (also known as the Viturii), the +inhabitants of a neighbouring hill-town, which was included +in the territory of Genua. But none of the other inscriptions +found in Genoa or existing there at the present day, which are +practically all sepulchral, can be demonstrated to have belonged +to the ancient city; it is equally easy to suppose that they were +brought from elsewhere by sea (Mommsen in <i>Corp. Inscr. Lat.</i> +v. p. 884). It is only from inscriptions of other places that we +know that it had municipal rights, and we do not know at what +period it obtained them. Classical authors tell us but little of +it. Strabo (iv. 6. 2, p. 202) states that it exported wood, skins +and honey, and imported olive oil and wine, though Pliny speaks +of the wine of the district as the best of Liguria (<i>H.N.</i> xiv. 67.)</p> + +<p>The history of Genoa during the dark ages, throughout the +Lombard and Carolingian periods, is but the repetition of the +general history of the Italian communes, which succeeded in +snatching from contending princes and barons the first charters +of their freedom. The patriotic spirit and naval prowess of the +Genoese, developed in their defensive wars against the Saracens, +led to the foundation of a popular constitution, and to the rapid +growth of a powerful marine. From the necessity of leaguing +together against the common Saracen foe, Genoa united with +Pisa early in the 11th century in expelling the Moslems from the +island of Sardinia, but the Sardinian territory thus acquired +soon furnished occasions of jealousy to the conquering allies, and +there commenced between the two republics the long naval wars +destined to terminate so fatally for Pisa. With not less adroitness +than Venice, Genoa saw and secured all the advantages of the +great carrying trade which the crusades created between Western +Europe and the East. The seaports wrested at the same period +from the Saracens along the Spanish and Barbary coasts became +important Genoese colonies, whilst in the Levant, on the shores of +the Black Sea, and along the banks of the Euphrates were erected +Genoese fortresses of great strength. No wonder if these conquests +generated in the minds of the Venetians and the Pisans +fresh jealousy against Genoa, and provoked fresh wars; but the +struggle between Genoa and Pisa was brought to a disastrous +conclusion for the latter state by the battle of Meloria in 1284.</p> + +<p>The commercial and naval successes of the Genoese during the +middle ages were the more remarkable because, unlike their +rivals, the Venetians, they were the unceasing prey to intestine +discord—the Genoese commons and nobles fighting against each +other, rival factions amongst the nobles themselves striving to +grasp the supreme power in the state, nobles and commons alike +invoking the arbitration and rule of some foreign captain as the +sole means of obtaining a temporary truce. From these contests +of rival nobles, in which the names of Spinola and Doria stand +forth with greatest prominence, Genoa was soon drawn into the +great vortex of the Guelph and Ghibelline factions; but its recognition +of foreign authority—successively German, Neapolitan and +Milanese—gave way to a state of greater independence in 1339, +when the government assumed a more permanent form with the +appointment of the first doge, an office held at Genoa for life, in +the person of Simone Boccanera. Alternate victories and defeats +of the Venetians and Genoese—the most terrible being the defeat +sustained by the Venetians at Chioggia in 1380—ended by +establishing the great relative inferiority of the Genoese rulers, +who fell under the power now of France, now of the Visconti of +Milan. The Banca di S. Giorgio, with its large possessions, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page600" id="page600"></a>600</span> +mainly in Corsica, formed during this period the most stable +element in the state, until in 1528 the national spirit appeared to +regain its ancient vigour when Andrea Doria succeeded in +throwing off the French domination and restoring the old form of +government. It was at this very period—the close of the 15th and +commencement of the 16th century—that the genius and daring of +a Genoese mariner, Christopher Columbus, gave to Spain that new +world, which might have become the possession of his native +state, had Genoa been able to supply him with the ships and seamen +which he so earnestly entreated her to furnish. The government +as restored by Andrea Doria, with certain modifications +tending to impart to it a more conservative character, remained +unchanged until the outbreak of the French Revolution and the +creation of the Ligurian republic. During this long period of +nearly three centuries, in which the most dramatic incident is the +conspiracy of Fieschi, the Genoese found no small compensation +for their lost traffic in the East in the vast profits which they made +as the bankers of the Spanish crown and outfitters of the Spanish +armies and fleets both in the old world and the new, and Genoa, +more fortunate than many of the other cities of Italy, was +comparatively immune from foreign domination.</p> + +<p>At the end of the 17th century the city was bombarded by the +French, and in 1746, after the defeat of Piacenza, surrendered to +the Austrians, who were, however, soon driven out. A revolt in +Corsica, which began in 1729, was suppressed with the help of the +French, who in 1768 took possession of the island for themselves +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Corsica</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p> + +<p>The short-lived Ligurian republic was soon swallowed up in the +French empire, not, however, until Genoa had been made to +experience, by the terrible privations of the siege when Masséna +held the city against the Austrians (1800), all that was meant by a +participation in the vicissitudes of the French Revolution. In +1814 Genoa rose against the French, on the assurance given by +Lord William Bentinck that the allies would restore to the republic +its independence. It had, however, been determined by a +secret clause of the treaty of Paris that Genoa should be incorporated +with the dominions of the king of Sardinia. The discontent +created at the time by the provision of the treaty of Paris as +confirmed by the congress of Vienna had doubtless no slight share +in keeping alive in Genoa the republican spirit which, through the +influence of a young Genoese citizen, Joseph Mazzini, assumed +forms of permanent menace not only to the Sardinian monarchy +but to all the established governments of the peninsula. Even +the material benefits accruing from the union with Sardinia and +the constitutional liberty accorded to all his subjects by King +Charles Albert were unable to prevent the republican outbreak of +1848, when, after a short and sharp struggle, the city, momentarily +seized by the republican party, was recovered by General Alfonzo +La Marmora.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among the earlier Genoese historians the most important are +Bartolommeo Fazio and Jacopo Bracelli, both of the 15th century, +and Paolo Partenopeo, Jacopo Bonfadio, Oberto Foglietta and +Agostino Giustiniano of the 16th. Paganetti wrote the ecclesiastical +history of the city; and Accinelli and Gaggero collected material +for the ecclesiastical archaeology. The memoirs of local writers and +artists were treated by Soprani and Ratti. Among more general +works are Bréquigny, <i>Histoire des révolutions de Gênes jusqu’en 1748</i>; +Serra, <i>La Storia dell’ antica Liguria e di Genova</i> (Turin, 1834); +Varesi, <i>Storia della repubblica di Genova sino al 1814</i> (Genoa, 1835-1839); +Canale, <i>Storia dei Genovesi</i> (Genoa, 1844-1854), <i>Nuova +istoria della repubblica di Genova</i> (Florence, 1858), and <i>Storia della +rep. di Genova dall’ anno 1528 al 1550</i> (Genoa, 1874); Blumenthal, +<i>Zur Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsgeschichte Genua’s im 12ten Jahrhundert</i> +(Kalbe an der Saale, 1872); Malleson, <i>Studies from Genoese +History</i> (London, 1875). The <i>Liber jurium reipublicae Genuensis</i> +was edited by Ricotti in the 7th, 8th and 9th volumes of the <i>Monumenta +historiae patriae</i> (Turin, 1854-1857). A great variety of +interesting matter will be found in the <i>Atti della Società Ligure di +storia patria</i> (1861 sqq.), and in the <i>Giornale Ligustico di archeologia, +storia, e belle arti</i>. The history of the university has been written +by Lorenzo Isnardi, and continued by Em. Celesia (2 vols., Genoa).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See <i>Notizie degli scavi</i> (1898), 395 (A. d’Andrade), 464 (G. +Ghirardini).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENOVESI, ANTONIO<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1712-1769), Italian writer on philosophy +and political economy, was born at Castiglione, near +Salerno, on the 1st of November 1712. He was educated for the +church, and, after some hesitation, took orders in 1736 at Salerno, +where he was appointed professor of eloquence at the theological +seminary. During this period of his life he began the study of +philosophy, being especially attracted by Locke. Dissatisfied +with ecclesiastical life, Genovesi resigned his post, and qualified +as an advocate at Rome. Finding law as distasteful as theology, +he devoted himself entirely to philosophy, of which he was +appointed extraordinary professor in the university of Naples. +His first works were <i>Elementa Metaphysicae</i> (1743 et seq.) and +<i>Logica</i> (1745). The former is divided into four parts, Ontosophy, +Cosmosophy, Theosophy, Psychosophy, supplemented by a +treatise on ethics and a dissertation on first causes. The <i>Logic</i>, +an eminently practical work, written from the point of view of +Locke, is in five parts, dealing with (1) the nature of the human +mind, its faculties and operations; (2) ideas and their kinds; (3) +the true and the false, and the various degrees of knowledge; (4) +reasoning and argumentation; (5) method and the ordering of +our thoughts. If Genovesi does not take a high rank in philosophy, +he deserves the credit of having introduced the new order +of ideas into Italy, at the same time preserving a just mean +between the two extremes of sensualism and idealism. Although +bitterly opposed by the partisans of scholastic routine, Genovesi +found influential patrons, amongst them Bartolomeo Intieri, a +Florentine, who in 1754 founded the first Italian or European +chair of political economy (commerce and mechanics), on condition +that Genovesi should be the first professor, and that it +should never be held by an ecclesiastic. The fruit of Genovesi’s +professorial labours was the <i>Lezioni di Commercio</i>, the first +complete and systematic work in Italian on economics. On the +whole he belongs to the “Mercantile” school, though he does not +regard money as the only form of wealth. Specially noteworthy +in the <i>Lezioni</i> are the sections on human wants as the foundation +of economical theory, on labour as the source of wealth, on +personal services as economic factors, and on the united working +of the great industrial functions. He advocated freedom of the +corn trade, reduction of the number of religious communities, and +deprecated regulation of the interest on loans. In the spirit of +his age he denounced the relics of medieval institutions, such as +entails and tenures in mortmain. Gioja’s more important treatise +owes much to Genovesi’s lectures. Genovesi died on the 22nd of +September 1769.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Ugoni, <i>Della letteratura italiana nella seconda metà del secolo +XVIII</i> (1820-1822); A. Fabroni, <i>Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium</i> +(1778-1799); R. Bobba, <i>Commemorazione di A. Genovesi</i> +(Benevento, 1867).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENSONNÉ, ARMAND<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1758-1793), French politician, the +son of a military surgeon, was born at Bordeaux on the 10th of +August 1758. He studied law, and at the outbreak of the +Revolution was an advocate of the parlement of Bordeaux. In +1790 he became <i>procureur</i> of the Commune, and in July 1791 was +elected by the newly created department of the Gironde a member +of the court of appeal. In the same year he was elected deputy for +the department to the Legislative Assembly. As reporter of the +diplomatic committee, in which he supported the policy of Brissot, +he proposed two of the most revolutionary measures passed by +the Assembly: the decree of accusation against the king’s brothers +(January 1, 1792), and the declaration of war against the king of +Bohemia and Hungary (April 20, 1792). He was vigorous in his +denunciations of the intrigues of the court and of the “Austrian +committee”; but the violence of the extreme democrats, culminating +in the events of the 10th of August, alarmed him; and +when he was returned to the National Convention, he attacked +the Commune of Paris (October 24 and 25). At the trial of Louis +XVI. he supported an appeal to the people, but voted for the +death sentence. As a member of the Committee of General +Defence, and as president of the Convention (March 7-21, 1793), +he shared in the bitter attacks of the Girondists on the Mountain; +and on the fatal day of the 2nd of June his name was among the +first of those inscribed on the prosecution list. He was tried by +the Revolutionary Tribunal on the 24th of October 1793, condemned +to death and guillotined on the 31st of the month, +displaying on the scaffold a stoic fortitude. Gensonné was +accounted one of the most brilliant of the little band of brilliant +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page601" id="page601"></a>601</span> +orators from the Gironde, though his eloquence was somewhat +cold and he always read his speeches.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENTIAN<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span>, botanically <i>Gentiana</i>, a large genus of herbaceous +plants belonging to the natural order Gentianaceae. The genus +comprises about 300 species,—most of them perennial plants +with tufted growth, growing in hilly or mountainous districts, +chiefly in the northern hemisphere, some of the blue-flowered +species ascending to a height of 16,000 ft. in the Himalaya +Mountains. The leaves are opposite, entire and smooth, and +often strongly ribbed. The flowers have a persistent 4- to 5-lobed +calyx and a 4- to 5-lobed tubular corolla; the stamens +are equal in number to the lobes of the corolla. The ovary is +one-celled, with two stigmas, either separate and rolled back +or contiguous and funnel-shaped. The fruit when ripe separates +into two valves, and contains numerous small seeds. The +majority of the genus are remarkable for the deep or brilliant +blue colour of their blossoms, comparatively few having yellow, +white, or more rarely red flowers; the last are almost exclusively +found in the Andes.</p> + +<p>Only a few species occur in Britain. <i>G. amarella</i> (felwort) +and <i>G. campestris</i> are small annual species growing on chalky +or calcareous hills, and bear in autumn somewhat tubular pale +purple flowers; the latter is most easily distinguished by having +two of the lobes of the calyx larger than the other two, while +the former has the parts of the calyx in fives, and equal in size. +Some intermediate forms between these two species occur, +although rarely, in England; one of these, <i>G. germanica</i>, has +larger flowers of a bluer tint, spreading branches, and a stouter +stem. Some of these forms flower in spring. <i>G. pneumonanthe</i>, +the Calathian violet, is a rather rare perennial species, growing +in moist heathy places from Cumberland to Dorsetshire. Its +average height is from 6 to 9 in. It has linear leaves, and a +bright blue corolla 1½ in. long, marked externally with five +greenish bands, is without hairs in its throat, and is found in +perfection about the end of August. It is the handsomest of +the British species; two varieties of it are known in cultivation, +one with spotted and the other with white flowers. <i>G. verna</i> +and <i>G. nivalis</i> are small species with brilliant blue flowers and +small leaves. The former is a rare and local perennial, occurring, +however, in Teesdale and the county of Clare in Ireland in tolerable +abundance. It has a tufted habit of growth, and each stem +bears only one flower. It is sometimes cultivated as an edging +for flower borders. <i>G. nivalis</i> in Britain occurs only on a few +of the loftiest Scottish mountains. It differs from the last in +being an annual, and having a more isolated habit of growth, and +in the stem bearing several flowers. On the Swiss mountains +these beautiful little plants are very abundant; and the splendid +blue colour of masses of gentian in flower is a sight which, when +once seen, can never be forgotten. For ornamental purposes +several species are cultivated. The great difficulty of growing +them successfully renders them, however, less common than would +otherwise be the case; although very hardy when once established, +they are very impatient of removal, and rarely flower +well until the third year after planting. Of the ornamental +species found in British gardens some of the prettiest are <i>G. +acaulis</i>, <i>G. verna</i>, <i>G. pyrenaica</i>, <i>G. bavarica</i>, <i>G. septemfida</i> and +<i>G. gelida</i>. Perhaps the handsomest and most easily grown is +the first named, often called <i>Gentianella</i>, which produces its +large intensely blue flowers early in the spring.</p> + +<p>All the species of the genus are remarkable for possessing an +intense but pure bitter taste and tonic properties. About forty +species are used in medicine in different parts of the world. The +name of felwort given to <i>G. amarella</i>, but occasionally applied +to the whole genus, is stated by Dr Prior to be given in allusion +to these properties—<i>fel</i> meaning gall, and <i>wort</i> a plant. In the +same way the Chinese call <i>G. asclepiadea</i>, and the Japanese <i>G. +Buergeri</i>, “dragon’s gall plants,” in common with several other +very bitter plants whose roots they use in medicine. <i>G. campestris</i> +is sometimes used in Sweden and other northern countries as a +substitute for hops.</p> + +<p>By far the most important of the species used in medicine is +<i>G. lutea</i>, a large handsome plant 3 or 4 ft. high, growing in open +grassy places on the Alps, Apennines and Pyrenees, as well as +on some of the mountainous ranges of France and Germany, +extending as far east as Bosnia and the Danubian principalities. +It has large oval strongly-ribbed leaves and dense whorls of +conspicuous yellow flowers. Its use in medicine is of very ancient +date. Pliny and Dioscorides mention that the plant was noticed +by Gentius, a king of the Illyrians, living 180-167 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, from +whom the name <i>Gentiana</i> is supposed to be derived. During +the middle ages it was much employed in the cure of disease, +and as an ingredient in counter-poisons. In 1552 Hieronymus +Bock (Tragus) (1498-1554), a German priest, physician and +botanist, mentions the use of the root as a means of dilating +wounds.</p> + +<p>The root, which is the part used in medicine, is tough and +flexible, scarcely branched, and of a brownish colour and spongy +texture. It has a pure bitter taste and faint distinctive odour. +The bitter principle, known as <i>gentianin</i>, is a glucoside, soluble +in water and alcohol. It can be decomposed into glucose and +gentiopicrin by the action of dilute mineral acids. It is not +precipitated by tannin or subacetate of lead. A solution of +caustic potash or soda forms with gentianin a yellow solution, +and the tincture of the root to which either of these alkalis has +been added loses its bitterness in a few days. Gentian root also +contains <i>gentianic acid</i> (C<span class="su">14</span>H<span class="su">10</span>O<span class="su">5</span>), which is inert and tasteless. +It forms pale yellow silky crystals, very slightly soluble in water +or ether, but soluble in hot strong alcohol and in aqueous alkaline +solutions. This substance is also called <i>gentianin</i>, <i>gentisin</i> and +<i>gentisic acid</i>.</p> + +<p>The root also contains 12 to 15% of an uncrystallizable +sugar called gentianose, of which fact advantage has long been +taken in Switzerland and Bavaria for the production of a bitter +cordial spirit called <i>Enzianbranntwein</i>. The use of this spirit, +especially in Switzerland, has sometimes been followed by +poisonous symptoms, which have been doubtfully attributed +to inherent narcotic properties possessed by some species of +gentian, the roots of which may have been indiscriminately +collected with it; but it is quite possible that it may be due to +the contamination of the root with that of <i>Veratrum album</i>, a +poisonous plant growing at the same altitude, and having leaves +extremely similar in appearance and size to those of <i>G. lutea</i>.</p> + +<p>Gentian is one of the most efficient of the class of substances +which act upon the stomach so as to invigorate digestion and +thereby increase the general nutrition, without exerting any +direct influence upon any other portion of the body than the +alimentary canal. Having a pleasant taste and being non-astringent +(owing to the absence of tannic acid), it is the most +widely used of all bitter tonics. The British Pharmacopoeia +contains an aqueous extract (dose, 2-8 grains), a compound +infusion with orange and lemon peel (dose, ½-1 ounce), and a +compound tincture with orange peel and cardamoms (dose ½-1 +drachm). It is used in dyspepsia, chlorosis, anaemia and +various other diseases, in which the tone of the stomach and +alimentary canal is deficient, and is sometimes added to purgative +medicines to increase and improve their action. In veterinary +medicine it is also used as a tonic, and enters into a well-known +compound called <i>diapente</i> as a chief ingredient.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENTIANACEAE<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (the gentian family), in botany, an order of +Dicotyledons belonging to the sub-class Sympetalae or Gamopetalae, +and containing about 750 species in 64 genera. It has +a world-wide distribution, and representatives adapted to very +various conditions, including, for instance, alpine plants, like +the true gentians (<i>Gentiana</i>), meadow plants such as the British +<i>Chlora perfoliata</i> (yellow-wort) or <i>Erythraea Centaurium</i> (centaury), +marsh plants such as <i>Menyanthes trifoliata</i> (bog-bean), floating +water plants such as <i>Limnanthemum</i>, or steppe and sea-coast +plants such as <i>Cicendia</i>. They are annual or perennial herbs, +rarely becoming shrubby, and generally growing erect, with a +characteristic forked manner of branching; the Asiatic genus +<i>Crawfurdia</i> has a climbing stem; they are often low-growing +and caespitose, as in the alpine gentians.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:337px; height:681px" src="images/img602.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">Central figure and figs. 1-4 after Curtis, <i>Flora Londinensis</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><i>Gentiana Amarella.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p>1, A small form, natural size.</p> +<p>2, Calyx and protruding style.</p> +<p>3, Corolla, laid open.</p> +<p>4, Capsule, bursting into two valves, and showing the seeds attached to their margins.</p> +<p>5, Floral diagram.</p></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The leaves are in decussating pairs (that is, each pair is in a +plane at right angles to the previous or succeeding pair), except in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page602" id="page602"></a>602</span> +<i>Menyanthes</i> and a few allied aquatic or marsh genera, where they are +alternate or radical. Several genera, chiefly American, are saprophytes, +forming slender low-growing herbs, containing little or no +chlorophyll and with leaves reduced to scales; such are <i>Voyria</i> +and <i>Leiphaimos</i>, mainly tropical American. The inflorescence is +generally cymose, often dichasial, recalling that of Caryophyllaceae, +the lateral branches often becoming monochasial; it is sometimes +reduced to a few flowers or one only, as in some gentians. The +flowers are hermaphrodite, and regular with parts in 4’s and 5’s, +with reduction to 2 in the pistil; in <i>Chlora</i> there are 6 to 8 members +in each whorl. The calyx generally forms a tube with teeth or +segments which usually overlap in the bud. The corolla shows great +variety in form; thus among the British genera it is rotate in +<i>Chlora</i>, funnel-shaped in <i>Erythraea</i>, and cylindrical, bell-shaped, +funnel-shaped or salver-shaped in <i>Gentiana</i>; the segments are +generally twisted to +the right in the bud; +the throat is often +fimbriate or bears +scales. The stamens, +as many as, and +alternating with, the +corolla-segments, are +inserted at very different +heights on the +corolla-tube; the filaments +are slender, +the anthers are +usually attached dorsally, +are versatile, +and dehisce by two +longitudinal slits; +after escape of the +pollen they sometimes +become spirally +twisted as in +<i>Erythraea</i>. Dimorphic +flowers are +frequent, as in the +bog-bean (<i>Menyanthes</i>). +There is +considerable variation +in the size, shape +and external markings +of the pollen +grains, and a division +of the order +into tribes and subtribes +based primarily +on pollen +characters has been +proposed. The form +of the honey-secreting +developments of +the disk at the base +of the ovary also +shows considerable +variety. The superior +ovary is generally +one-chambered, with +two variously developed +parietal placentas, +which occasionally +meet, forming +two chambers; +the ovules are generally +very numerous +and anatropous or +half-anatropous in +form. The style, +which varies much +in length, is simple, with an undivided or bilobed or bipartite +stigma. The fruit is generally a membranous or leathery capsule, +splitting septicidally into two valves; the seeds are small and +numerous, and contain a small embryo in a copious endosperm.</p> + +<p>The brilliant colour of the flowers, often occurring in large numbers +(as in the alpine gentians), the presence of honey-glands and the +frequency of dimorphy and dichogamy, are adaptations for pollination +by insect visitors. In the true gentians (<i>Gentiana</i>) the flowers +of different species are adapted for widely differing types of insect +visitors. Thus <i>Gentiana lutea</i>, with a rotate yellow corolla and +freely exposed honey, is adapted to short-tongued insect visitors; +<i>G. Pneumonanthe</i>, with a long-tubed, bright blue corolla, is visited +by <span class="correction" title="amended from humble">bumble</span> bees; and <i>G. verna</i>, with a still longer narrower tube, is +visited by Lepidoptera.</p> + +<p><i>Gentiana</i>, the largest genus, contains nearly three hundred species, +distributed over Europe (including arctic), five being British, the +mountains of Asia, south-east Australia and New Zealand, the +whole of North America and along the Andes to Cape Horn; it +does not occur in Africa. Bitter principles are general in the +vegetative parts, especially in the rhizomes and roots, and have +given a medicinal value to many species, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Gentiana lutea</i> and +others.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENTILE<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span>, in the English Bible, the term generally applied +to those who were not of the Jewish race. It is an adaptation +of the Lat. <i>gentilis</i>, of or belonging to the same <i>gens</i>, the clan or +family; as defined in Paulus ex Festo “gentilis dicitur et ex +eodem genere ortus et is qui simili nomine; ut ait Cincius, +gentiles mihi sunt, qui meo nomine appellantur.” In post-Augustan +Latin <i>gentilis</i> became wider in meaning, following the +usage of <i>gens</i>, in the sense of race, nation, and meant “national,” +belonging to the same race. Later still the word came to mean +“foreign,” <i>i.e.</i> other than Roman, and was so used in the Vulgate, +with <i>gentes</i>, to translate the Hebrew <i>goyyim</i>, nations, LXX. <span class="grk" title="ethnê">ἔθνη</span>, +the non-Israelitish peoples (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENTILE DA FABRIANO<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1370-<i>c.</i> 1450), Italian painter, +was born at Fabriano about 1370. He is said to have been a +pupil of Allegretto di Nuzio, and has been supposed to have +received most of his early instruction from Fra Angelico, to +whose manner his bears in some respects a close similarity. +About 1411 he went to Venice, where by order of the doge and +senate he was engaged to adorn the great hall of the ducal +palace with frescoes from the life of Barbarossa. He executed +this work so entirely to the satisfaction of his employers that +they granted him a pension for life, and accorded him the privilege +of wearing the habit of a Venetian noble. About 1422 he went +to Florence, where in 1423 he painted an “Adoration of the Magi” +for the church of Santa Trinita, which is preserved in the Florence +Accademia; this painting is considered his best work now extant. +To the same period belongs a “Madonna and Child,” which is now +in the Berlin Museum. He had by this time attained a wide +reputation, and was engaged to paint pictures for various churches, +more particularly Siena, Perugia, Gubbio and Fabriano. About +1426 he was called to Rome by Martin V. to adorn the church +of St John Lateran with frescoes from the life of John the +Baptist. He also executed a portrait of the pope attended by +ten cardinals, and in the church of St Francesco Romano a +painting of the “Virgin and Child attended by St Benedict and +St Joseph,” which was much esteemed by Michelangelo, but is +no longer in existence. Gentile da Fabriano died about 1450. +Michelangelo said of him that his works resembled his name, +meaning noble or refined. They are full of a quiet and serene +joyousness, and he has a naïve and innocent delight in splendour +and in gold ornaments, with which, however, his pictures are +not overloaded.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENTILESCHI<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span>, <b>ARTEMISIA</b> and <b>ORAZIO DE’</b>, Italian +painters.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Orazio</span> (<i>c.</i> 1565-1646) is generally named Orazio Lomi de’ +Gentileschi; it appears that De’ Gentileschi was his correct +surname, Lomi being the surname which his mother had borne +during her first marriage. He was born at Pisa, and studied under +his half-brother Aurelio Lomi, whom in course of time he surpassed. +He afterwards went to Rome, and was associated with +the landscape-painter Agostino Tasi, executing the figures for the +landscape backgrounds of this artist in the Palazzo Rospigliosi, +and it is said in the great hall of the Quirinal Palace, although by +some authorities the figures in the last-named building are +ascribed to Lanfranco. His best works are “Saints Cecilia and +Valerian,” in the Palazzo Borghese, Rome; “David after the +death of Goliath,” in the Palazzo Doria, Genoa; and some works +in the royal palace, Turin, noticeable for vivid and uncommon +colouring. At an advanced age Gentileschi went to England at +the invitation of Charles I., and he was employed in the palace at +Greenwich. Vandyck included him in his portraits of a hundred +illustrious men. His works generally are strong in shadow and +positive in colour. He died in England in 1646.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Artemisia</span> (1590-1642), Orazio’s daughter, studied first under +Guido, acquired much renown for portrait-painting, and considerably +excelled her father’s fame. She was a beautiful and +elegant woman; her likeness, limned by her own hand, is to be +seen in Hampton Court. Her most celebrated composition is +“Judith and Holofernes,” in the Uffizi Gallery; certainly a work +of singular energy, and giving ample proof of executive faculty, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page603" id="page603"></a>603</span> +but repulsive and unwomanly in its physical horror. She +accompanied her father to England, but did not remain there +long; the best picture which she produced for Charles I. was +“David with the head of Goliath.” Artemisia refused an offer +of marriage from Agostino Tasi, and bestowed her hand on Pier +Antonio Schiattesi, continuing, however, to use her own surname. +She settled in Naples, whither she returned after her +English sojourn; she lived there in no little splendour, and +there she died in 1642. She had a daughter and perhaps other +children.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENTILI, ALBERICO<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1552-1608), Italian jurist, who has great +claims to be considered the founder of the science of international +law, second son of Matteo Gentili, a physician of noble family and +scientific eminence, was born on the 14th of January 1552 at +Sanginesio, a small town of the march of Ancona which looks +down from the slopes of the Apennines upon the distant Adriatic. +After taking the degree of doctor of civil law at the university of +Perugia, and holding a judicial office at Ascoli, he returned to his +native city, and was entrusted with the task of recasting its +statutes, but, sharing the Protestant opinions of his father, +shared also, together with a brother, Scipio, afterwards a famous +professor at Altdorf, his flight to Carniola, where in 1579 Matteo +was appointed physician to the duchy. The Inquisition condemned +the fugitives as contumacious, and they soon received +orders to quit the dominions of Austria.</p> + +<p>Alberico set out for England, travelling by way of Tübingen and +Heidelberg, and everywhere meeting with the reception to which +his already high reputation entitled him. He arrived at Oxford +in the autumn of 1580, with a commendatory letter from the earl +of Leicester, at that time chancellor of the university, and was +shortly afterwards qualified to teach by being admitted to the +same degree which he had taken at Perugia. His lectures on +Roman law soon became famous, and the dialogues, disputations +and commentaries, which he published henceforth in rapid +succession, established his position as an accomplished civilian, +of the older and severer type, and secured his appointment in +1587 to the regius professorship of civil law. It was, however, +rather by an application of the old learning to the new questions +suggested by the modern relations of states that his labours +have produced their most lasting result. In 1584 he was consulted +by government as to the proper course to be pursued with +Mendoza, the Spanish ambassador, who had been detected in +plotting against Elizabeth. He chose the topic to which his +attention had thus been directed as a subject for a disputation +when Leicester and Sir Philip Sidney visited the schools at +Oxford in the same year; and this was six months later expanded +into a book, the <i>De legationibus libri tres</i>. In 1588 Alberico +selected the law of war as the subject of the law disputations at the +annual “Act” which took place in July; and in the autumn +published in London the <i>De Jure Belli commentatio prima</i>. A +second and a third <i>Commentatio</i> followed, and the whole matter, +with large additions and improvements, appeared at Hanau, in +1598, as the <i>De Jure Belli libri tres</i>. It was doubtless in consequence +of the reputation gained by these works that Gentili +became henceforth more and more engaged in forensic practice, +and resided chiefly in London, leaving his Oxford work to be +partly discharged by a deputy. In 1600 he was admitted to be a +member of Gray’s Inn, and in 1605 was appointed standing counsel +to the king of Spain. He died on the 19th of June 1608, and was +buried, by the side of Dr Matteo Gentili, who had followed his son +to England, in the churchyard of St Helen’s, Bishopsgate. By +his wife, Hester de Peigni, he left two sons, Robert and Matthew, +and a daughter, Anna, who married Sir John Colt. His notes of +the cases in which he was engaged for the Spaniards were posthumously +published in 1613 at Hanau, as <i>Hispanicae advocationis +libri duo</i>. This was in accordance with his last wishes; but his +direction that the remainder of his MSS. should be burnt was not +complied with, since fifteen volumes of them found their way, at +the beginning of the 19th century, from Amsterdam to the +Bodleian library.</p> + +<p>The true history of Gentili and of his principal writings has +only been ascertained in recent years, in consequence of a revived +appreciation of the services which he rendered to international +law. The movement to do him honour originated in 1875 in +England, as the result of the inaugural lecture of Prof. T.E. +Holland, and was warmly taken up in Italy. In spreading +through Europe it encountered two curious cross-currents of +opinion,—one the ultra-Catholic, which three centuries before had +ordered his name to be erased from all public documents and +placed his works in the <i>Index</i>; another the narrowly-Dutch, +which is, it seems, needlessly careful of the supremacy of Grotius. +These two currents resulted respectively in a bust of Garcia Moreno +being placed in the Vatican, and in the unveiling in 1886, with +much international oratory, of a fine statue of Grotius at Delft. +The English committee, under the honorary presidency of Prince +Leopold, in 1877 erected a monument to the memory of Gentili in +St Helen’s church, and saw to the publication of a new edition of +the <i>De Jure Belli</i>. The Italian committee, of which Prince (afterwards +King) Humbert was honorary president, was less successful. +It was only in 1908, the tercentenary of the death of Alberico, +that the statue of the great heretic was at length unveiled in his +native city by the minister of public instruction, in the presence +of numerous deputations from Italian cities and universities. +Preceding writers had dealt with various international questions, +but they dealt with them singly, and with a servile submission to +the decisions of the church. It was left to Gentili to grasp as a +whole the relations of states one to another, to distinguish +international questions from questions with which they are +more or less intimately connected, and to attempt their solution +by principles entirely independent of the authority of Rome. +He uses the reasonings of the civil and even the canon law, but +he proclaims as his real guide the <i>Jus Naturae</i>, the highest +common sense of mankind, by which historical precedents are to +be criticized and, if necessary, set aside.</p> + +<p>His faults are not few. His style is prolix, obscure, and to the +modern reader pedantic enough; but a comparison of his +greatest work with what had been written upon the same subject +by, for instance, Belli, or Soto, or even Ayala, will show that he +greatly improved upon his predecessors, not only by the fulness +with which he has worked out points of detail, but also by clearly +separating the law of war from martial law, and by placing the +subject once for all upon a non-theological basis. If, on the other +hand, the same work be compared with the <i>De Jure Belli et Pacis</i> of +Grotius, it is at once evident that the later writer is indebted to +the earlier, not only for a large portion of his illustrative erudition, +but also for all that is commendable in the method and arrangement +of the treatise.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following is probably a complete list of the writings of Gentili, +with the places and dates of their first publication: <i>De juris interpretibus +dialogi sex</i> (London, 1582); <i>Lectionum et epist. quae ad jus civile +pertinent libri tres</i> (London, 1583-1584); <i>De legationibus libri tres</i> +(London, 1585); <i>Legal. comitiorum Oxon. actio</i> (London, 1585-1586); +<i>De divers. temp. appellationibus</i> (Hanau, 1586); <i>De nascendi tempore +disputatio</i> (Witteb., 1586); <i>Disputationum decas prima</i> (London, 1587); +<i>Conditionum liber singularis</i> (London, 1587); <i>De jure belli comm. prima</i> +(London, 1588); <i>secunda, ib.</i> (1588-1589); <i>tertia</i> (1589); +<i>De injustitia bellica Romanorum</i> (Oxon, 1590); <i>Ad tit. de Malef, et Math, +de Prof. et Med.</i> (Hanau, 1593); <i>De jure belli libri tres</i> (Hanau, 1598); +<i>De armis Romanis, &c.</i> (Hanau, 1599); <i>De actoribus et de abusu +mendacii</i> (Hanau, 1599); <i>De ludis scenicis epist. duae</i> (Middleburg, +1600); <i>Ad I. Maccabaeorum et de linguarum mistura disp.</i> (Frankfurt, +1600); <i>Lectiones Virgilianae</i> (Hanau, 1600); <i>De nuptiis libri septem</i> +(1601); <i>In tit. si quis principi, et ad leg. Jul. maiest.</i> (Hanau, 1604); +<i>De latin, vet. Bibl.</i> (Hanau, 1604); <i>De libro Pyano</i> (Oxon, 1604); +<i>Laudes Acad. Perus. et Oxon.</i> (Hanau, 1605); <i>De unione Angliae +et Scotiae</i> (London, 1605); <i>Disputationes tres, de libris jur. can., de +libris jur. civ., de latinitate vet. vers.</i> (Hanau, 1605); <i>Regales disput. +tres, de pot. regis absoluta, de unione regnorum, de vi civium</i> (London, +1605); <i>Hispanicae advocationis libri duo</i> (Hanau, 1613); <i>In tit. +de verb. signif.</i> (Hanau, 1614); <i>De legatis in test.</i> (Amsterdam, +1661). An edition of the <i>Opera omnia</i>, commenced at Naples in +1770, was cut short by the death of the publisher, Gravier, after the +second volume. Of his numerous unpublished writings, Gentili +complained that four volumes were lost “pessimo pontificiorum +facinore,” meaning probably that they were left behind in his flight +to Carniola.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Several tracts by the Abate Benigni in Colucci, +<i>Antichità Picene</i> (1790); a dissertation by W. Reiger annexed to the +<i>Program of the Groningen Gymnasium</i> for 1867; an inaugural +lecture delivered in 1874 by T.E. Holland, translated into Italian, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page604" id="page604"></a>604</span> +with additions by the author, by A. Saffi (1884); the preface to a new +edition of the <i>De jure belli</i> (1877) and <i>Studies in International Law</i> +(1898) (which see, for details as to the family and MSS. of Gentili), +by the same; works by Valdarnini and Foglietti (1875), Speranza +and De Giorgi (1876), Fiorini (a translation of the <i>De jure belli</i>, +with essay, 1877), A. Saffi (1878), L. Marson (1885), M. Thamm +(1896), B. Brugi (1898), T.A. Walker (an analysis of the principal +works of Gentili) in his <i>History of the Law of Nations</i>, vol. i.(1899); +H. Nézarel, in Pillet’s <i>Fondateurs de droit international</i> (1904); +E. Agabiti (1908). See also E. Comba, in the <i>Rivista Christiana</i> +(1876-1877); Sir T. Twiss, in the <i>Law Review</i> (1878); articles in +the <i>Revue de droit international</i> (1875-1878, 1883, 1886, 1908); +O. Scalvanti, in the <i>Annali dell’ Univ. di Perugia</i>, N.S., vol. viii. +(1898).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. E. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENTLE<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (through the Fr. <i>gentil</i>, from Lat. <i>gentilis</i>, belonging +to the same <i>gens</i>, or family), properly an epithet of one born of a +“good family”; the Latin <i>generosus</i>, “well born” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gentleman</a></span>), +contrasted with “noble” on the one side and “simple” on +the other. The word followed the wider application of the word +“gentleman”; implying the manners, character and breeding +proper to one to whom that name could be applied, courteous, +polite; hence, with no reference to its original meaning, free from +violence or roughness, mild, soft, kind or tender. With a +physical meaning of soft to the touch, the word is used substantively +of the maggot of the bluebottle fly, used as a bait by +fishermen. At the end of the 16th century the French <i>gentil</i> was +again adapted into English in the form “gentile,” later changed +to “genteel.” The word was common in the 17th and 18th +centuries as applied to behaviour, manner of living, dress, &c., +suitable or proper to persons living in a position in society +above the ordinary, hence polite, elegant. From the early part +of the 19th century it has also been used in an ironical sense, +and applied chiefly to those who pay an excessive and absurd +importance to the outward marks of respectability as evidence of +being in a higher rank in society than that to which they properly +belong.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENTLEMAN<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>gentilis</i>, “belonging to a race or +<i>gens</i>,” and “man”; Fr. <i>gentilhomme</i>, Span, <i>gentil hombre</i>, Ital. +<i>gentil huomo</i>), in its original and strict signification, a term +denoting a man of good family, the Lat. <i>generosus</i> (its invariable +translation in English-Latin documents). In this sense it is the +equivalent of the Fr. <i>gentilhomme</i>, “nobleman,” which latter +term has in Great Britain been long confined to the peerage (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nobility</a></span>); and the term “gentry” (“gentrice” from O. Fr. +<i>genterise</i> for <i>gentelise</i>) has much of the significance of the Fr. +<i>noblesse</i> or the Ger. <i>Adel</i>. This was what was meant by the rebels +under John Ball in the 14th century when they repeated:</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“When Adam delved and Eve span,</p> +<p class="i05">Who was then the gentleman?”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Selden (<i>Titles of Honor</i>, 1672), discussing the title “gentleman,” +speaks of “our English use of it” as “convertible with <i>nobilis</i>,” +and describes in connexion with it the forms of ennobling in +various European countries. William Harrison, writing a century +earlier, says “gentlemen be those whom their race and blood, or +at the least their virtues, do make noble and known.” But for +the complete gentleman the possession of a coat of arms was in +his time considered necessary; and Harrison gives the following +account of how gentlemen were made in Shakespeare’s day:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“... gentlemen whose ancestors are not known to come in with +William duke of Normandy (for of the Saxon races yet remaining +we now make none accompt, much less of the British issue) do take +their beginning in England after this manner in our times. Who +soever studieth the laws of the realm, who so abideth in the university, +giving his mind to his book, or professeth physic and the +liberal sciences, or beside his service in the room of a captain in the +wars, or good counsel given at home, whereby his commonwealth +is benefited, can live without manual labour, and thereto is able +and will bear the port, charge and countenance of a gentleman, +he shall for money have a coat and arms bestowed upon him by +heralds (who in the charter of the same do of custom pretend antiquity +and service, and many gay things) and thereunto being +made so good cheap be called master, which is the title that men +give to esquires and gentlemen, and reputed for a gentleman ever +after. Which is so much the less to be disallowed of, for that the +prince doth lose nothing by it, the gentleman being so much subject +to taxes and public payments as is the yeoman or husbandman, +which he likewise doth bear the gladlier for the saving of his reputation. +Being called also to the wars (for with the government of +the commonwealth he medleth little) what soever it cost him, he +will both array and arm himself accordingly, and show the more +manly courage, and all the tokens of the person which he representeth. +No man hath hurt by it but himself, who peradventure +will go in wider buskins than his legs will bear, or as our proverb +saith, now and then bear a bigger sail than his boat is able to +sustain.”<a name="fa1q" id="fa1q" href="#ft1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> +</div> + +<p>In this way Shakespeare himself was turned, by the grant of +his coat of arms, from a “vagabond” into a gentleman.</p> + +<p>The fundamental idea of “gentry,” symbolized in this grant +of coat-armour, had come to be that of the essential superiority +of the fighting man; and, as Selden points out (p. 707), the +fiction was usually maintained in the granting of arms “to an +ennobled person though of the long Robe wherein he hath little +use of them as they mean a shield.” At the last the wearing +of a sword on all occasions was the outward and visible sign of a +“gentleman”; and the custom survives in the sword worn with +“court dress.” This idea that a gentleman must have a coat +of arms, and that no one is a “gentleman” without one is, +however, of comparatively late growth, the outcome of the natural +desire of the heralds to magnify their office and collect fees for +registering coats; and the same is true of the conception of +“gentlemen” as a separate class. That a distinct order of +“gentry” existed in England very early has, indeed, been +often assumed, and is supported by weighty authorities. Thus, +the late Professor Freeman (<i>Ency. Brit.</i> xvii. p. 540 b, 9th ed.) +said: “Early in the 11th century the order of ‘gentlemen’ +as a separate class seems to be forming as something new. By +the time of the conquest of England the distinction seems to +have been fully established.” Stubbs (<i>Const. Hist.</i>, ed. 1878, +iii. 544, 548) takes the same view. Sir George Sitwell, however, +has conclusively proved that this opinion is based on a wrong +conception of the conditions of medieval society, and that it is +wholly opposed to the documentary evidence. The fundamental +social cleavage in the middle ages was between the <i>nobiles</i>, <i>i.e.</i> +the tenants in chivalry, whether earls, barons, knights, esquires +or franklins, and the <i>ignobiles</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the villeins, citizens and +burgesses;<a name="fa2q" id="fa2q" href="#ft2q"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and between the most powerful noble and the +humblest franklin there was, until the 15th century, no “separate +class of gentlemen.” Even so late as 1400 the word “gentleman” +still only had the sense of <i>generosus</i>, and could not be used as a +personal description denoting rank or quality, or as the title of +a class. Yet after 1413 we find it increasingly so used; and the +list of landowners in 1431, printed in <i>Feudal Aids</i>, contains, +besides knights, esquires, yeomen and husbandmen (<i>i.e.</i> householders), +a fair number who are classed as “gentilman.”</p> + +<p>Sir George Sitwell gives a lucid explanation of this development, +the incidents of which are instructive and occasionally amusing. +The immediate cause was the statute I Henry V. cap. v. of 1413, +which laid down that in all original writs of action, personal +appeals and indictments, in which process of outlawry lies, the +“estate degree or mystery” of the defendant must be stated, +as well as his present or former domicile. Now the Black Death +(1349) had put the traditional social organization out of gear. +Before that the younger sons of the <i>nobiles</i> had received their +share of the farm stock, bought or hired land, and settled down as +agriculturists in their native villages. Under the new conditions +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page605" id="page605"></a>605</span> +this became increasingly impossible, and they were forced to +seek their fortunes abroad in the French wars, or at home as +hangers-on of the great nobles. These men, under the old system, +had no definite status; but they were <i>generosi</i>, men of birth, +and, being now forced to describe themselves, they disdained +to be classed with franklins (now sinking in the social scale), +still more with yeomen or husbandmen; they chose, therefore, +to be described as “gentlemen.” On the character of these +earliest “gentlemen” the records throw a lurid light. According +to Sir George Sitwell (p. 76), “the premier gentleman of England, +as the matter now stands, is ‘Robert Erdeswyke of Stafford, +gentilman,’” who had served among the men-at-arms of Lord +Talbot at Agincourt (<i>ib.</i> note). He is typical of his class. +“Fortunately—for the gentle reader will no doubt be anxious +to follow in his footsteps—some particulars of his life may be +gleaned from the public records. He was charged at the +Staffordshire Assizes with housebreaking, wounding with +intent to kill, and procuring the murder of one Thomas Page, +who was cut to pieces while on his knees begging for his +life.” If any earlier claimant to the title of “gentleman” +be discovered, Sir George Sitwell predicts that it will be within +the same year (1414) and in connexion with some similar disreputable +proceedings.<a name="fa3q" id="fa3q" href="#ft3q"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>From these unpromising beginnings the separate order of +“gentlemen” was very slowly evolved. The first “gentleman” +commemorated on an existing monument was John Daundelyon +of Margate (d. c. 1445); the first gentleman to enter the House +of Commons, hitherto composed mainly of “valets,” was +“William Weston, gentylman”; but even in the latter half of +the 15th century the order was not clearly established. As to the +connexion of “gentilesse” with the official grant or recognition +of coat-armour, that is a profitable fiction invented and upheld +by the heralds; for coat-armour was but the badge assumed by +gentlemen to distinguish them in battle, and many gentlemen of +long descent never had occasion to assume it, and never did. +This fiction, however, had its effect; and by the 16th century, +as has been already pointed out, the official view had become +clearly established that “gentlemen” constituted a distinct +order, and that the badge of this distinction was the heralds’ +recognition of the right to bear arms. It is unfortunate that this +view, which is quite unhistorical and contradicted by the present +practice of many undoubtedly “gentle” families of long descent, +has of late years been given a wide currency in popular manuals +of heraldry.</p> + +<p>In this narrow sense, however, the word “gentleman” has +long since become obsolete. The idea of “gentry” in the +continental sense of <i>noblesse</i> is extinct in England, and is likely +to remain so, in spite of the efforts of certain enthusiasts to +revive it (see A.C. Fox-Davies, <i>Armorial Families</i>, Edinburgh, +1895). That it once existed has been sufficiently shown; but +the whole spirit and tendency of English constitutional and social +development tended to its early destruction. The comparative +good order of England was not favourable to the continuance +of a class, developed during the foreign and civil wars of the +14th and 15th centuries, for whom fighting was the sole honourable +occupation. The younger sons of noble families became +apprentices in the cities, and there grew up a new aristocracy +of trade. Merchants are still “citizens” to William Harrison; +but he adds “they often change estate with gentlemen, as gentlemen +do with them, by a mutual conversion of the one into the +other.” A frontier line between classes so indefinite could not +be maintained, especially as in England there was never a +“nobiliary prefix” to stamp a person as a gentleman by his +surname, as in France or Germany.<a name="fa4q" id="fa4q" href="#ft4q"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The process was hastened, +moreover, by the corruption of the Heralds’ College and by the +ease with which coats of arms could be assumed without a shadow +of claim; which tended to bring the “science of armory” +into contempt. The word “gentleman” as an index of rank +had already become of doubtful value before the great political +and social changes of the 19th century gave to it a wider and +essentially higher significance. The change is well illustrated +in the definitions given in the successive editions of the <i>Encyclopaedia +Britannica</i>. In the 5th edition (1815) “a gentleman +is one, who without any title, bears a coat of arms, or whose +ancestors have been freemen.” In the 7th edition (1845) it +still implies a definite social status: “All above the rank of +yeomen.” In the 8th edition (1856) this is still its “most extended +sense”; “in a more limited sense” it is defined in the +same words as those quoted above from the 5th edition; but +the writer adds, “By courtesy this title is generally accorded +to all persons above the rank of common tradesmen when their +manners are indicative of a certain amount of refinement and +intelligence.” The Reform Bill of 1832 has done its work; the +“middle classes” have come into their own; and the word +“gentleman” has come in common use to signify not a distinction +of blood, but a distinction of position, education and manners. +The test is no longer good birth, or the right to bear arms, but +the capacity to mingle on equal terms in good society. In its +best use, moreover, “gentleman” involves a certain superior +standard of conduct, due, to quote the 8th edition once more, +to “that self-respect and intellectual refinement which manifest +themselves in unrestrained yet delicate manners.” The word +“gentle,” originally implying a certain social status, had very +early come to be associated with the standard of manners +expected from that status. Thus by a sort of punning process +the “gentleman” becomes a “gentle-man.” Chaucer in the +<i>Meliboeus</i> (<i>c.</i> 1386) says: “Certes he sholde not be called a +gentil man, that ... ne dooth his diligence and bisynesse, to +kepen his good name”; and in the <i>Wife of Bath’s Tale</i>:</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Loke who that is most vertuous alway</p> +<p class="i05">Prive and apert, and most entendeth ay</p> +<p class="i05">To do the gentil dedes that he can</p> +<p class="i05">And take him for the gretest gentilman,”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and In the <i>Romance of the Rose</i> (<i>c.</i> 1400) we find “he is gentil +bycause he doth as longeth to a gentilman.” This use develops +through the centuries, until in 1714 we have Steele, in the +<i>Tatler</i> (No. 207), laying down that “the appellation of Gentleman +is never to be affixed to a man’s circumstances, but to his +Behaviour in them,” a limitation over-narrow even for the present +day. In this connexion, too, may be quoted the old story, told +by some—very improbably—of James II., of the monarch who +replied to a lady petitioning him to make her son a gentleman, “I +could make him a nobleman, but God Almighty could not make +him a gentleman.” Selden, however, in referring to similar +stories “that no Charter can make a Gentleman, which is cited as +out of the mouth of some great Princes that have said it,” adds +that “they without question understood Gentleman for <i>Generosus</i> +in the antient sense, or as if it came from <i>Gentilis</i> in that sense, as +<i>Gentilis</i> denotes one of a noble Family, or indeed for a Gentleman +by birth.” For “no creation could make a man of another +blood than he is.” The word “gentleman,” used in the wide +sense with which birth and circumstances have nothing to do, is +necessarily incapable of strict definition. For “to behave like a +gentleman” may mean little or much, according to the person by +whom the phrase is used; “to spend money like a gentleman” +may even be no great praise; but “to conduct a business like a +gentleman” implies a standard at least as high as that involved +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page606" id="page606"></a>606</span> +in the phrase “noblesse oblige.” In this sense of a person of +culture, character and good manners the word “gentleman” has +supplied a gap in more than one foreign language.</p> + +<p>The evolution of this meaning of “gentleman” reflects very +accurately that of English society; and there are not wanting +signs that the process of evolution, in the one as in the other, is +not complete. The indefinableness of the word mirrors the +indefinite character of “society” in England; and the use by +“the masses” of “gentleman” as a mere synonym for “man” +has spread <i>pari passu</i> with the growth of democracy. It is a +protest against implied inferiority, and is cherished as the +modern French <i>bourgeois</i> cherishes his right of duelling with +swords, under the <i>ancien régime</i> a prerogative of the <i>noblesse</i>. +Nor is there much justification for the denunciation by purists of +the “vulgarization” and “abuse” of the “grand old name of +gentleman.” Its strict meaning has now fallen completely +obsolete. Its current meaning varies with every class of society +that uses it. But it always implies some sort of excellency of +manners or morals. It may by courtesy be over-loosely applied +by one common man to another; but the common man would +understand the reproach conveyed in “You’re no gentleman.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Selden, <i>Titles of Honor</i> (London, 1672); William +Harrison, <i>Description of England</i>, ed. G.F.J. Furnivall for the New +Shakspere Soc. (London, 1877-1878); Sir George Sitwell, “The +English Gentleman,” in the <i>Ancestor</i>, No. 1 (Westminster, April +1902); <i>Peacham’s Compleat Gentleman</i> (1634), with an introduction +by G.S. Gordon (Oxford, 1906); A. Smythe-Palmer, D.D., <i>The +Ideal of a Gentleman, or a Mirror for Gentlefolk: A Portrayal in +Literature from the Earliest Times</i> (London, 1908), a very exhaustive +collection of extracts from authors so wide apart as Ptah-hotep +(3300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and William Watson, arranged under headings: “The +Historical Idea of a Gentleman,” “The Herald’s Gentleman,” “The +Poet’s Gentleman,” &c.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Description of England</i>, bk. ii. ch. v. p. 128. Henry Peacham, +in his <i>Compleat Gentleman</i> (1634), takes this matter more seriously. +“Neither must we honour or esteem,” he writes, “those ennobled, +or made gentle in blood, who by mechanic and base means have +raked up a mass of wealth ... or have purchased an ill coat (of +arms) at a good rate; no more than a player upon the stage, for +wearing a lord’s cast suit: since nobility hangeth not upon the +airy esteem of vulgar opinion, but is indeed of itself essential and +absolute” (Reprint, p. 3). Elsewhere (p. 161) he deplores the abuse +of heraldry, which had even in his day produced “all the world +over such a medley of coats” that, but for the commendable activity +of the earls marshals, he feared that yeomen would soon be “as +rare in <i>England</i> as they are in <i>France</i>.” See also an amusing +instance from the time of Henry VIII., given in “The Gentility of +Richard Barker,” by Oswald Barron, in the <i>Ancestor</i>, vol. ii. (July +1902).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2q" id="ft2q" href="#fa2q"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Even this classification would seem to need modifying. For +certain of the great patrician families of the cities were certainly +<i>nobiles</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3q" id="ft3q" href="#fa3q"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The designation “gentilman” is, indeed, found some two +centuries earlier. In the <i>Inquisitio maneriorum Ecclesiae S. Pauli +Londin.</i> of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1222 (W.A. Hale, <i>Domesday of St Paul’s</i>, Camden +Soc., 1858, p. 80) occurs the entry: <i>Adam gentilmā diḿ acrā, p’ iii. d.</i> +This is probably the earliest record of the “grand old name of +gentleman”; but Adam, who held half an acre at a rent of three +pence—less by half than that held by “Ralph the bondsman” +(Rad’ le bunde) in the same list—was certainly not a “gentleman.” +“Gentilman” here was a nickname, perhaps suggested by Adam’s +name, and thus in some sort anticipating the wit of the famous +couplet repeated by John Ball’s rebels.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4q" id="ft4q" href="#fa4q"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The prefix “de” attached to some English names is in no +sense “nobiliary.” In Latin documents <i>de</i> was the equivalent of the +English “of,” as <i>de la</i> of “at” (so de la Pole for Atte Poole, cf. +such names as Attwood, Attwater). In English this “of” was in +the 15th century dropped; <i>e.g.</i> the grandson of Johannes de Stoke +(John of Stoke) in a 14th-century document becomes John Stoke. +In modern times, under the influence of romanticism, the prefix +“de” has been in some cases “revived” under a misconception, <i>e.g.</i> +“de Trafford,” “de Hoghton.” Very rarely it is correctly retained +as derived from a foreign place-name, <i>e.g.</i> de Grey.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GENTZ, FRIEDRICH VON<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1764-1832), German publicist and +statesman, was born at Breslau on the 2nd of May 1764. His +father was an official, his mother an Ancillon, distantly +related to the Prussian minister of that name. On his father’s +transference to Berlin, as director of the mint, the boy was sent +to the Joachimsthal gymnasium there; his brilliant talents, +however, did not develop until later, when at the university of +Königsberg he fell under the influence of Kant. But though +his intellect was sharpened and his zeal for learning quickened by +the great thinker’s influence, Kant’s “categorical imperative” +did not prevent him from yielding to the taste for wine, women +and high play which pursued him through life. When in 1785 he +returned to Berlin, he received the appointment of secret secretary +to the royal <i>Generaldirectorium</i>, his talents soon gaining him +promotion to the rank of councillor for war (<i>Kriegsrath</i>). During +an illness, which kept him virtuous by confining him to his room, +he studied French and English, gaining a mastery of these +languages which, at that time exceedingly rare, opened up for +him opportunities for a diplomatic career.</p> + +<p>His interest in public affairs was, however, first aroused by the +outbreak of the French Revolution. Like most quick-witted +young men, he greeted this at first with enthusiasm; but its +subsequent developments cooled his ardour and he was converted +to more conservative counsels by Burke’s <i>Essay on the French +Revolution</i>, a translation of which into German (1794) was his first +literary venture. This was followed, next year, by translations +of works on the Revolution by Mallet du Pan and Mounier, and +at this time he also founded and edited a monthly journal, the +<i>Neue deutsche Monatsschrift</i>, in which for five years he wrote, +mainly on historical and political questions, maintaining the +principles of British constitutionalism against those of revolutionary +France. The knowledge he displayed of the principles and +practice of finance was especially remarkable. In 1797, at the +instance of English statesmen, he published a translation of a +history of French finance by François d’Ivernois (1757-1842), an +eminent Genevese exile naturalized and knighted in England, +extracts from which he had previously given in his journal. +His literary output at this time, all inspired by a moderate +Liberalism, was astounding, and included an essay on the results +of the discovery of America, and another, written in French, on +the English financial system (<i>Essai sur l’état de l’administration +des finances de la Grande-Bretagne</i>, London, 1800). Especially +noteworthy, however, was the <i>Denkschrift</i> or <i>Missive</i> addressed +by him to King Frederick William III. on his accession (1797), in +which, <i>inter alia</i>, he urged upon the king the necessity for granting +freedom to the press and to commerce. For a Prussian official +to venture to give uncalled-for advice to his sovereign was a +breach of propriety not calculated to increase his chances of +favour; but it gave Gentz a conspicuous position in the public +eye, which his brilliant talents and literary style enabled him to +maintain. Moreover, he was from the first aware of the probable +developments of the Revolution and of the consequences to Prussia +of the weakness and vacillations of her policy. Opposition to +France was the inspiring principle of the <i>Historisches Journal</i> +founded by him in 1799-1800, which once more held up English +institutions as the model, and became in Germany the mouthpiece +of British policy towards the revolutionary aggressions of +the French republic. In 1801 he ceased the publication of the +<i>Journal</i>, because he disliked the regularity of journalism, and +issued instead, under the title <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte</i>, &c., a +series of essays on contemporary politics. The first of these was +<i>Über den Ursprung und Charakter des Krieges gegen die französische +Revolution</i> (1801), by many regarded as Gentz’s masterpiece; +another important brochure, <i>Von dem politischen Zustande von +Europa vor und nach der Revolution</i>, a criticism of Hauterive’s +<i>De l’état de la France à la fin de l’an VIII</i>, appeared the same +year.</p> + +<p>This activity gained him recognition abroad and gifts of money +from the British and Austrian governments; but it made his +position as an official in Berlin impossible, for the Prussian +government had no mind to abandon its attitude of cautious +neutrality. Private affairs also combined to urge Gentz to leave +the Prussian service; for, mainly through his own fault, a +separation with his wife was arranged. In May 1802, accordingly, +he took leave of his wife and left with his friend Adam Müller for +Vienna. In Berlin he had been intimate with the Austrian +ambassador, Count Stadion, whose good offices procured him an +introduction to the emperor Francis. The immediate result was +the title of imperial councillor, with a yearly salary of 4000 +gulden (December 6th, 1802); but it was not till 1809 that he +was actively employed. Before returning to Berlin to make +arrangements for transferring himself finally to Vienna, Gentz +paid a visit to London, where he made the acquaintance of Pitt +and Granville, who were so impressed with his talents that, in +addition to large money presents, he was guaranteed an annual +pension by the British government in recognition of the value of +the services of his pen against Bonaparte. From this time +forward he was engaged in a ceaseless polemic against every +fresh advance of the Napoleonic power and pretensions; with +matchless sarcasm he lashed “the nerveless policy of the courts, +which suffer indignity with resignation”; he denounced the +recognition of Napoleon’s imperial title, and drew up a manifesto +of Louis XVIII. against it. The formation of the coalition and +the outbreak of war for a while raised his hopes, in spite of his +lively distrust of the competence of Austrian ministers; but the +hopes were speedily dashed by Austerlitz and its results. Gentz +used his enforced leisure to write a brilliant essay on “The +relations between England and Spain before the outbreak of war +between the two powers” (Leipzig, 1806); and shortly afterwards +appeared <i>Fragmente aus der neuesten Geschichte des politischen +Gleichgewichts in Europa</i> (translated <i>s.t. Fragments on +the Balance of Power in Europe</i>, London, 1806). This latter, +the last of Gentz’s works as an independent publicist, was a +masterly exposé of the actual political situation, and at the same +time prophetic in its suggestions as to how this should be retrieved: +“Through Germany Europe has perished, through Germany it +must rise again.” He realized that the dominance of France +could only be broken by the union of Austria and Prussia, acting +in concert with Great Britain. He watched with interest the +Prussian military preparations, and, at the invitation of Count +Haugwitz, he went at the outset of the campaign to the Prussian +headquarters at Erfurt, where he drafted the king’s proclamation +and his letter to Napoleon. The writer was known, and it was in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page607" id="page607"></a>607</span> +this connexion that Napoleon referred to him as “a wretched +scribe named Gentz, one of those men without honour who sell +themselves for money.” In this mission Gentz had no official +mandate from the Austrian government, and whatever hopes he +may have cherished of privately influencing the situation in the +direction of an alliance between the two German powers were +speedily dashed by the campaign of Jena.</p> + +<p>The downfall of Prussia left Austria the sole hope of Germany +and of Europe. Gentz, who from the winter of 1806 onwards +divided his time between Prague and the Bohemian watering-places, +seemed to devote himself wholly to the pleasures of +society, his fascinating personality gaining him a ready reception +in those exalted circles which were to prove of use to him later +on in Vienna. But, though he published nothing, his pen was +not idle, and he was occupied with a series of essays on the +future of Austria and the best means of liberating Germany and +redressing the balance of Europe; though he himself confessed +to his friend Adam Müller (August 4th, 1806) that, in the miserable +circumstances of the time, his essay on “the principles of a +general pacification” must be taken as a “political poem.”</p> + +<p>In 1809, on the outbreak of war between Austria and France, +Gentz was for the first time actively employed by the Austrian +government under Stadion; he drafted the proclamation announcing +the declaration of war (15th of April), and during the +continuance of hostilities his pen was ceaselessly employed. +But the peace of 1810 and the fall of Stadion once more dashed +his hopes, and, disillusioned and “hellishly blasé,” he once more +retired to comparative inactivity at Prague. Of Metternich, +Stadion’s successor, he had at the outset no high opinion, and +it was not till 1812 that there sprang up between the two men +the close relations that were to ripen into life-long friendship. +But when Gentz returned to Vienna as Metternich’s adviser and +henchman, he was no longer the fiery patriot who had sympathized +and corresponded with Stein in the darkest days of German +depression and in fiery periods called upon all Europe to free +itself from foreign rule. Disillusioned and cynical, though +clear-sighted as ever, he was henceforth before all things an +Austrian, more Austrian on occasion even than Metternich; +as, <i>e.g.</i>, when, during the final stages of the campaign of 1814, +he expressed the hope that Metternich would substitute +“Austria” for “Europe” in his diplomacy and—strange advice +from the old hater of Napoleon and of France—secure an Austro-French +alliance by maintaining the husband of Marie Louise +on the throne of France.</p> + +<p>For ten years, from 1812 onward, Gentz was in closest touch +with all the great affairs of European history, the assistant, +confidant, and adviser of Metternich. He accompanied the +chancellor on all his journeys; was present at all the conferences +that preceded and followed the war; no political secrets were +hidden from him; and his hand drafted all important diplomatic +documents. He was secretary to the congress of Vienna (1814-1815) +and to all the congresses and conferences that followed, +up to that of Verona (1822), and in all his vast knowledge of +men and affairs made him a power. He was under no illusion +as to their achievements; his memoir on the work of the congress +of Vienna is at once an incisive piece of criticism and a monument +of his own disillusionment. But the Liberalism of his early +years was gone for ever, and he had become reconciled to +Metternich’s view that, in an age of decay, the sole function of +a statesman was to “prop up mouldering institutions.” It was +the hand of the author of that offensive <i>Missive</i> to Frederick +William III., on the liberty of the press, that drafted the Carlsbad +decrees; it was he who inspired the policy of repressing the +freedom of the universities; and he noted in his diary as “a +day more important than that of Leipzig” the session of the +Vienna conference of 1819, in which it was decided to make the +convocation of representative assemblies in the German states +impossible, by enforcing the letter of Article XIII. of the Act +of Confederation.</p> + +<p>As to Gentz’s private life there is not much to be said. He +remained to the last a man of the world, though tormented +with an exaggerated terror of death. His wife he had never +seen again since their parting at Berlin, and his relations with +other women, mostly of the highest rank, were too numerous +to record. But passion tormented him to the end, and his +infatuation for Fanny Elssler, the celebrated <i>danseuse</i>, forms +the subject of some remarkable letters to his friend Rahel, the +wife of Varnhagen von Ense (1830-1831). He died on the 9th +of June 1832.</p> + +<p>Gentz has been very aptly described as a mercenary of the +pen, and assuredly no other such mercenary has ever carved +out for himself a more remarkable career. To have done so +would have been impossible, in spite of his brilliant gifts, had he +been no more than the “wretched scribe” sneered at by Napoleon. +Though by birth belonging to the middle class in a country of +hide-bound aristocracy, he lived to move on equal terms in the +society of princes and statesmen; which would never have been +the case had he been notoriously “bought and sold.” Yet +that he was in the habit of receiving gifts from all and sundry +who hoped for his backing is beyond dispute. He notes that at +the congress of Vienna he received 22,000 florins through Talleyrand +from Louis XVIII., while Castlereagh gave him £600, +accompanied by <i>les plus folles promesses</i>; and his diary is full +of such entries. Yet he never made any secret of these gifts; +Metternich was aware of them, and he never suspected Gentz +of writing or acting in consequence against his convictions. As +a matter of fact, no man was more free or outspoken in his +criticism of the policy of his employers than this apparently +venal writer. These gifts and pensions were rather in the nature +of subsidies than bribes; they were the recognition by various +powers of the value of an ally whose pen had proved itself so +potent a weapon in their cause.</p> + +<p>It is, indeed, the very impartiality and objectivity of his +attitude that make the writings of Gentz such illuminating +documents for the period of history which they cover. Allowance +must of course be made for his point of view, but less so perhaps +than in the case of any other writer so intimately concerned +with the policies which he criticizes. And, apart from their +value as historical documents, Gentz’s writings are literary +monuments, classical examples of nervous and luminous German +prose, or of French which is a model for diplomatic style.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A selection of Gentz’s works (<i>Ausgewählte Schriften</i>) was published +by Weick in 5 vols. (1836-1838); his lesser works (Mannheim, +1838-1840) in 5 vols. and <i>Mémoires et lettres inédites</i> (Stuttgart, +1841) were edited by G. Schlesier. Subsequently there have appeared +<i>Briefe an Chr. Garve</i> (Breslau, 1857); correspondence (<i>Briefwechsel</i>) +with Adam Müller (Stuttgart, 1857); <i>Briefe an Pilat</i> (2 vols., +Leipzig, 1868); <i>Aus dem Nachlass Friedrichs von Gentz</i> (2 vols.), +edited by Count Anton Prokesch-Osten (Vienna, 1867); <i>Aus der +alten Registratur der Staats-Kanzlei: Briefe politischen Inhalts von +und an Friedrich von Gentz</i>, edited by C. von Klinkowström (Vienna, +1870); <i>Dépêches inédites du chev. de Gentz aux Hospodars de Valachie +1813-1828</i> (a correspondence on current affairs commissioned by +the Austrian government), edited by Count Anton von Prokesch-Osten +the younger (3 vols., Paris, 1876), incomplete, but partly +supplemented in <i><span class="correction" title="amended from Öesterreichs">Österreichs</span> Teilnahme an den Befreiungskriegen</i> +(Vienna, 1887), a collection of documents of the greatest value; +<i>Zur Geschichte der orientalischen Frage: Briefe aus dem Nachlass +Friedrichs von Gentz</i> (Vienna, 1877), edited by Count Prokesch-Osten +the younger. Finally Gentz’s diaries, from 1800 to 1828, +an invaluable mine of authentic material, were edited by Varnhagen +von Ense and published after his death under the title <i>Tagebücher</i>, +&c. (Leipzig, 1861; new ed., 4 vols., <i>ib.</i> 1873). Several lives of +Gentz exist. The latest is by E. Guglia, <i>Friedrich von Gentz</i> (Vienna, +1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEOCENTRIC,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> referred to the centre of the earth (Gr. <span class="grk" title="gê">γῆ</span>) as +an origin; a term designating especially the co-ordinates of a +heavenly body referred to this origin.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 11, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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