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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:07:38 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:07:38 -0700 |
| commit | 331458142ba05f359d4f7019daf8517ba46f0797 (patch) | |
| tree | d3187ae32345e2ca38bbd0635d1d0ddbb6147618 /37281-h | |
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diff --git a/37281-h/37281-h.htm b/37281-h/37281-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f7403c5 --- /dev/null +++ b/37281-h/37281-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3045 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8"/> +<title>How to Write Music, by Clement A. Harris—A Project Gutenberg eBook</title> +<link rel="coverpage" href="images/title-page.jpg"/> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +p +{ + text-align: justify; + text-indent: 1.5em; +} + +p.center, +p.no-indent, +#tnote p, +#tnote-bottom p +{ + text-indent: 0; +} + +h1, +h2 +{ + text-align: center; + clear: both; + font-weight: normal; +} + +h1 +{ + font-size: x-large; + margin: 6em auto 1.5em auto; +} + +h2 +{ + margin: 6em auto 1.5em auto; + line-height: 1.5em; +} + +a:link, +a:visited +{ + text-decoration: none; +} + +ins +{ + text-decoration: none; + border-bottom: 1px dashed #add8e6; +} + +hr +{ + width: 6em; + height: 1px; + color: black; + background-color: black; + border: none; + margin: 2em auto; +} + +hr.thought-break +{ + visibility: hidden; +} + +.center +{ + text-align: center; +} + +.right +{ + text-align: right; +} + +.figcenter +{ + text-align: center; + margin: 2em auto; +} + +.figcenter p.caption +{ + text-align: center; + text-indent: 0; + line-height: 1.5em; + margin-top: 0.25em; +} + +img +{ + vertical-align: middle; +} + +.small-caps +{ + font-variant: small-caps; +} + +.all-upper +{ + text-transform: lowercase; +} + +.italic +{ + font-style: italic; +} + +a[title].pagenum +{ + position: absolute; + right: 3%; +} + +a[title].pagenum:after +{ + content: attr(title); + border: 1px solid silver; + display: inline; + font-size: x-small; + text-align: right; + color: #808080; + background-color: inherit; + font-style: normal; + padding: 1px 4px 1px 4px; + font-variant: normal; + font-weight: normal; + text-decoration: none; + text-indent: 0; + letter-spacing: 0; +} + +p.sidenote +{ + float: right; + text-align: right; + font-weight: bold; + margin: 0; + padding: 0.25em 0 0.25em 0.25em; +} + +#tnote, +#tnote-bottom +{ + max-width: 95%; + border: 1px dashed #808080; + background-color: #fafafa; + text-align: justify; + padding: 0 0.75em; + margin: 6em auto; +} + +#toc, +#index, +#symbols +{ + margin: auto; +} + +#index th +{ + text-align: right; + font-weight: normal; + font-size: smaller; +} + +#toc td +{ + font-variant: small-caps; + vertical-align: top; +} + +#index td +{ + vertical-align: top; + padding-left: 1.5em; + text-indent: -1.5em; +} + +#toc td.right, +#index td.right +{ + padding-left: 3em; + vertical-align: bottom; + text-indent: 0; +} + +#index td.new-letter +{ + padding-top: 1em; +} + +#index td.indent, +#symbols td.gap +{ + padding-left: 3em; +} + +#corrections +{ + list-style-type: none; + margin: 0; + padding: 0; +} + +#corrections li +{ + margin: 0.5em 0.25em; +} + +#corrections .correction +{ + text-decoration: underline; +} + +@page +{ + margin: 0.25em; +} + +@media screen +{ + body + { + width: 80%; + max-width: 42em; + margin: auto; + } + + p + { + margin: 0.75em auto; + } + + #tnote, + #tnote-bottom + { + max-width: 26em; + } + + .page-break + { + margin-top: 8em; + } +} + +@media print, handheld +{ + p + { + margin: 0; + } + + #tnote, + #tnote-bottom + { + background-color: white; + border: none; + width: 100%; + } + + #tnote p, + #tnote-bottom p + { + margin: 0.25em 0; + } + + #tnote .screen, + .pagenum + { + display: none; + } + + ins + { + border: none; + } + + a:link, + a:visited + { + color: black; + } + + #tnote, + #tnote-bottom, + h1, + h2, + .page-break + { + page-break-before: always; + } + + #tnote-bottom + { + page-break-after: always; + } + + .figcenter p.caption + { + page-break-before: avoid; + } + + p.sidenote + { + page-break-after: avoid; + } +} + +@media handheld +{ + body + { + margin: 0; + padding: 0; + width: 95%; + } + + #corrections li + { + margin: 0; + } +} +--> +</style> +<!--[if lt IE 8]> +<style type="text/css"> +a[title].pagenum +{ + position: static; +} +</style> +<![endif]--> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Write Music, by Clement A. Harris + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: How to Write Music + Musical Orthography + +Author: Clement A. Harris + +Editor: Mallinson Randall + +Release Date: August 31, 2011 [EBook #37281] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO WRITE MUSIC *** + + + + +Produced by Jana Srna and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<div id="tnote"> +<p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Notes:</b></p> + +<p>Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully +as possible, including inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation.</p> + +<p>Some corrections of spelling and punctuation have been made. +<span class="screen">They are marked <ins title="transcriber's note">like +this</ins> in the text. The original text appears when hovering the cursor +over the marked text.</span> A <a href="#tn-bottom">list of amendments</a> is +at the end of the text.</p> +</div> + +<h1>How to Write Music<br/> +<small>Musical Orthography</small></h1> + +<p class="center" style="line-height: 1.4em;">By<br/> +Clement A. Harris<br/> +<small>Associate of the Royal College of Organists</small></p> + +<p class="center" style="line-height: 1.4em; margin: 2em auto 4em auto;">Edited by<br/> +Mallinson Randall</p> + +<p class="center" style="line-height: 1.4em;"><span class="small-caps">New York</span><br/> +The H. W. Gray Co.<br/> +<small>Sole Agents for</small> <span class="small-caps">Novello & Co., Ltd.</span></p> + +<p class="center page-break" style="line-height: 1.4em;"><span class="small-caps">Copyright</span>, 1917<br/> +<small>BY</small><br/> +THE H. W. GRAY CO.</p> + +<p class="center" style="font-size: smaller; margin-top: 6em;">Made in the United States of America</p> + +<h2><a class="pagenum" name="Page_iii" title="iii"> </a>CONTENTS</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>The numbers refer to the Paragraph, not the Page.</i></p> + +<table id="toc" summary="Contents"> +<tr> + <td>Introductory</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_1">1</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Choice of Paper</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_2">2</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Scoring</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_3">3</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Barring</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_4">4</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Clefs</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_5">5</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Signatures</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_6">6</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Notation of Rhythm</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_8">8</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Placing of Notes</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_14">14</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Rests</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_15">15</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Dots</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_20">20</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Stems</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_22">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Hooks</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_29">29</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Leger-Lines</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_36">36</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Vocal Music</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_37">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Open Score to Short</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_41">41</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Short Score to Open</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_47">47</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Extracting a Single Part from Score</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_50">50</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Accidentals</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_51">51</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Legibility</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_52">52</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Facility</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_54">54</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Copyright</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_55">55</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Proof Reading</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_56">56</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr style="margin: 1.25em auto; width: 4em;"/> + +<p class="center italic">INDEX, <a href="#Page_53">Page 53</a>.</p> + +<p class="center page-break" style="font-size: x-large;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_1" title="1"> </a>How to Write Music</p> + +<hr/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Introductory. +</p> + +<p><a name="Par_1">1.</a>—It is reasonable to expect that a +musician shall be at least an accurate +and legible writer as well as a reader of the +language of his Art. The immense increase in +the amount of music published, and its cheapness, +seem rather to have increased than decreased +this necessity, for they have vastly +multiplied activity in the Art. If they have not +intensified the necessity for music-writing, they +have increased the number of those by whom +the necessity is felt.</p> + +<p>Intelligent knowledge of Notation is the +more necessary inasmuch as music-writing is in +only a comparatively few cases mere copying. +Even when writing from a copy, some alteration +is frequently necessary, as will be shown +in the following pages, requiring independent +knowledge of the subject on the part of the +copyist. (See <i>e.g.</i>, <a href="#Par_28">par. 28</a>.)</p> + +<p>Yet many musicians, thoroughly competent as +performers, cannot write a measure of music without +bringing a smile to the lips of the initiated.</p> + +<p>Many performers will play or sing a note at +sight without hesitation, which, asked to write, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_2" title="2"> </a> +they will first falter over and then bungle—at +least by writing it at the wrong octave.</p> + +<p>The admirable working of theoretical examination +papers is sometimes in ridiculous contrast +with the puerility of the writing.</p> + +<p>Psychologists would probably say that this +was because conceptual action is a higher +mental function than perceptual: in other +words, that recollection is harder than recognition.</p> + +<p>The remedy is simple. Recognition must be +developed till it becomes recollection: the writing +of music must be taught concurrently with +the reading of it.</p> + +<p>This was once the case: music-writing was a +necessary part of a musician's education. One +may be the more surprised at its falling +into disuse, inasmuch as phonography—in the +musical sense—is a distinctly pleasant occupation. +Without being either drawing or writing, +it partakes of the nature of both.</p> + +<p>But many points in the writing of music +are not now considered to form part of the +Rudiments of Music, and are not included in +primers on the subject.</p> + +<p>Hence the following pages.</p> + +<p>While containing some matter which may +have escaped the attention of more advanced +musicians, they should, in an educational +course, either be used along with a Primer +on the Elements, or immediately follow it.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Choice of +Paper. +</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_3" title="3"> </a><a name="Par_2">2.</a>—The first matter to claim attention +in making a manuscript copy of +music is choice of the right kind of +music-paper. This will primarily be determined +by the number of staves each score requires. +Most paper contains twelve staves to the page. +This is a most convenient number, allowing for +a two-, three-, four-, or six-stave score.</p> + +<p>Song-paper: three-stave score, two staves +being braced for the piano part, with a third for +the voice part. This latter is at a considerable +distance above the other staves, to allow room +for writing in the words.</p> + +<p>Organ-music paper: three-stave score, two +staves braced for manual part, and another +underneath for pedal part.</p> + +<p>Quartet-paper: <ins title="four stave">four-stave</ins> score, no brackets +or clefs.</p> + +<p>Quartet-paper with accompaniment: six-stave +score, two bracketed for piano part.</p> + +<p>Full-score paper: much smaller than short-score +staves. Very useful for other purposes +where a small, narrow stave is required.</p> + +<p>For piano and violin music, paper should be +chosen the staves of which are wide apart, to +allow of the large number of leger lines frequently +required.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Scoring. +</p> + +<p><a name="Par_3">3.</a>—The paper chosen, the first use +of a pen will be in ruling the score-lines. +A “score” technically is as many +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_4" title="4"> </a> +staves as are <em>performed simultaneously</em>: two in +pianoforte music, three in organ music, four in +an unaccompanied quartet, six in four-part +vocal music with piano accompaniment, and +so on. These staves have a line drawn down +their left-hand edge. Hence the name, from +their being <em>scored</em> through.</p> + +<p>Their position always being at the left-hand +edge of the staves, and their length determined by +the number of staves, they may be drawn before +the length of the measures has been arranged.</p> + +<p>Care must be taken when a page is ruled at a +time not to draw the score-line through more than +the necessary number of staves. Except in a full +score there will generally be at least two, and, +of course, very often more, scores to the page.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Barring. +</p> + +<p><a name="Par_4">4.</a>—After the score-lines come the +bar-lines. And with the arranging +of these begins that <em>careful mapping-out</em> of the +whole work, neglect of which will lead to endless +annoyance and dissatisfaction.</p> + +<p>Some music is so uniform that a given space +may be assigned to each measure, and consequently +a uniform number of measures to each +score, provided that there is no change of key +or time. In determining this space allowance +must be made (1) in the first measure of each +movement for the key and time signatures, +which may require a considerable space; (2) +in the first measure of each score for the <em>key</em> +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_5" title="5"> </a> +signature: the time signature is only repeated +at the beginning of each movement or when the +time is changed; (3) regard must be had to +where a turn-over will come, some passages +allowing of this so much more easily than +others; (4) also to the number of measures +in the entire movement, otherwise a new page +may have to be added for only one measure! +(5) in vocal music careful regard must be paid +to the words as well as the notes. A syllable +will often require more space than a note, +consequently in very simple music the words +require more space than the music. In florid +compositions a syllable, on the other hand, is +often sung, not to several notes merely, but +to several measures, and the music requires +much more space than the words. In the former +case the author has found it a good plan to +write the words first, or at least a measure or +two of them, as a guide in estimating their +average length. But, while the words must not +be cramped, they must fall under the notes +to which they are to be sung, and as these notes +must occupy as nearly as possible their proportionate +part of the measure, the skilful +scribe will keep both words and music in mind +simultaneously. Where, however, in vocal or +instrumental music the measures vary greatly, +one having, perhaps, a single whole note and +the next thirty-two thirty-second notes, it is +necessary to plan each score separately, or +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_6" title="6"> </a> +the end may be reached with too much space +for the last measure, but not enough for another +one. Carrying a measure from the end +of one score to the beginning of the next is not +practised now, as it once was.</p> + +<p>Bar-lines are usually drawn through each +stave of vocal music separately, and in instrumental +music through as many staves as +belong to the same instrument or group of +instruments, <i>e.g.</i>, through the two staves of a +piano part, and the four or five belonging to the +“strings” in a full score. These instrumental +staves are also usually connected by a brace +at the left-hand edge of each score thus:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 202px;"> +<a name="Fig_1"><img src="images/fig01.png" width="202" height="118" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 1.</p> +</div> + +<p>Uniform bar-lines may be ruled a page at a +time, if care be taken not to make the line continuous +through more than the required number +of staves. It is a fault which one commits +the moment watchfulness is relaxed, and entails +much scratching out. Where the measures vary +in length the ruling will most readily be done in +light pencil with a T square, and afterwards +inked. A single bar-line out of the perpendicular +will spoil the appearance of a whole page.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Clefs. +</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_7" title="7"> </a><a name="Par_5">5.</a>—The first actual musical characters +to be written are the clefs. +Misconception of the function of these is so +common, not among practical musicians only, +but on the part of elementary theorists, that a +few words of explanation are necessary. The +commonest fallacies are to suppose that if +clefs are the right shape their exact position +on the stave does not matter, and that their +position varies. Both suppositions are, to +quote a delightful Ruskinism, “accurately +false.” A clef identifies and originally was used +with <em>a single line</em>, and identifies others only +by their relationship to this. Hence its precise +shape is of less importance than its being on +the right line. Indeed, the shape of clefs has +varied so much that many able practical musicians +do not know that they were originally +simple letters, the treble clef a small “g,” the +bass clef a small “f.” From this beginning has +been evolved so elaborate a sign, sometimes +not merely covering all the lines of a stave, +but going beyond them, that it is necessary +to explain which line a clef is on. Thus the +“G,” or treble clef, is on that line which its +interior termination is on, and which it curls +round, touching it in all <em>four times</em>. The upper +part of the treble clef is sometimes kept within +the stave, but, as in the present examples, +more often rises above the stave. The point is +merely a matter of taste.</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_8" title="8"> </a>The C clef is on that line which has an oblique +or straight stroke, or pot-hook, above and below.</p> + +<p>The F clef is on that line which its interior +termination is on, and which it curls round +either to the right or the left, and which has a +dot above and below.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 337px;"> +<a name="Fig_2"><img src="images/fig02.png" width="337" height="56" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 2.</p> +</div> + +<p>And this position never varies. Whatever +line the F clef is on is F, however many or few +lines may be above or below it.</p> + +<p>In olden days any clef line might be taken +with any number of lines above and below. For +instance, the F line with two lines below and +two above; or three below and one above. +This is not now done with treble and bass +clefs, which are only used with respectively the +top and bottom five lines of the Great Stave of +eleven lines. Hence care must be taken to +write the treble clef on the <em>second</em>, and the +bass clef on the <em>fourth</em> line of its stave. But it +is still customary to use the C clef, especially +in viola and trombone music, with both two +lines above and two below, making the alto +stave; and three below and one above, making +the tenor stave. These staves are also used in +old vocal music, and familiarity with them is +absolutely necessary in all advanced theoretical +examinations. The C clef, therefore, <em>appears</em> +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_9" title="9"> </a> +to move, being sometimes on the third and +sometimes on the fourth line. Really it is +always on the same line, and it is the <em>selection +of lines</em> which varies. Hence the misdescription +of the treble and bass clefs as “immovable,” +the C clef as “movable.”</p> + +<p>Note that all clefs are on lines; no clef is in a +space. This is because the first attempt to +accurately represent music to the eye was by +means of a single line with a letter at the beginning. +This was what has since become the +fourth line, the clef line, of the bass stave.</p> + +<p>In pianoforte and organ music, high parts +for the left hand, or low ones for the right, +may be written either:</p> + +<p>By means of leger lines (<a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>, <i>a</i>);</p> + +<p>By changing the clef (<i>b</i>); or</p> + +<p>By writing the part in the stave proper to the +other hand (<i>c</i>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 491px;"> +<a name="Fig_3"><img src="images/fig03.png" width="491" height="131" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 3.</p> +</div> + +<p>The example, of course, illustrates a high +part for the left hand.</p> + +<p>The first method is the hardest to write and +read. There is not much to choose between +the second and third. If the third be adopted +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_10" title="10"> </a> +care must be taken not to insert rests in the +vacant stave: their absence shows that the +<em>hand</em> is not resting.</p> + +<p>When a part, in organ or piano music, though +mainly in its proper stave, <em>begins</em> with notes +more easily written in the other, the clef proper +to the part should be inserted, as showing its +general character, and immediately followed +by that in which the notes are most conveniently +written. Thus <a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>, <i>b</i>, if the <em>first</em> measure +of a composition, should have an F clef immediately +preceding the G clef in the left-hand +part.</p> + +<p>A change of clef affecting the <em>first note of +a score</em> should be anticipated in the last +measure of the previous score, and repeated +in the measure affected. This is especially +the case in regard to the first score of a new +page involving a turn-over. In addition to +anticipating the clef, the old plan of inserting +a “direct” is to be recommended. See +<a href="#Fig_4">Fig. 4</a>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 485px;"> +<a name="Fig_4"><img src="images/fig04.png" width="485" height="156" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 4.</p> +</div> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_11" title="11"> </a>The signature should be repeated in the +changed clef. After a change of clef in the +<em>middle</em> of a score this is, of course, not necessary.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Signatures. +</p> + +<p><a name="Par_6">6.</a>—Following the clef comes the key +signature. In printed music this is +repeated at the beginning of every score. As +preventing many mistakes the repetition is +desirable. But in manuscript music it is +very usual to repeat it only at the head of each +page. Common faults are:</p> + +<p>(1) Placing the sharps or flats at the wrong +octave. The first sharp should, in the treble +clef, be on the top line, not in the bottom +space. And the second flat should be in the +top space, not on the bottom line. The customary +way of writing signatures is not, in the +writer's opinion, invariably the best. But +solecisms, though not in themselves inaccurate, +should be avoided as causing unnecessary trouble +and confusion.</p> + +<p>(2) A perhaps commoner fault is in not +allowing sufficient space for the signature, and +therefore cramping it. Each sharp or flat +should be well to the right-hand of the preceding +one, never over or under it.</p> + +<p>(3) Sharps, flats, and naturals, like clefs, +cover much more of the stave than the single +line or space which they govern. Not nearly +enough care is usually exercised to make the +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_12" title="12"> </a> +center of the sharp, or the loop of the flat, +exactly correspond with this, as it should.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_7">7.</a>—The time signature need only be inserted +where there is a change of movement. In +common time there is a choice between the +numeral signature “4/4” and the letter signature +“C.” The latter is the more interesting +historically. Originally it was not a letter at +all; the monks, who originated modern musical +notation, called triple time “perfect” in honor +of the Blessed Trinity, and represented it +with the sign of perfection—a circle: common, +or quadruple time, they called imperfect, and +cut a slice out of the right-hand side of the +circle to represent imperfection. This printers, +not unnaturally, mistook for the initial letter +of “Common Time.” But the numeral signature +is rapidly superseding this, as showing the +exact value of a measure, and being in accordance +with the signatures of all other kinds of +time.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Notation of +Rhythm. +</p> + +<p><a name="Par_8">8.</a>—Following the time-signature +come the notes. The guiding principle +in writing these is that their right +interpretation shall be apparent to the eye. +Two points are of paramount importance. +These are (1) the selection of the right characters +(this of course only affects those who are writing +original compositions or arrangements, not +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_13" title="13"> </a> +mere copists), and (2) the correct placing of +these in the measure. The bare duration of a +note, its merely arithmetical value, can generally +be expressed in more ways than one. But +this is not sufficient. That way must be selected +which represents its <em>rhythm</em>, its correct accentuation, +<em>to the eye</em>. Simple forms of time, as +distinct from Compound, contain but few +pitfalls, and even an inexperienced writer is +not likely to go far wrong.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_9">9.</a>—It may be as well to warn such an one, +however, that it is not nowadays customary +to dot an unaccented note or rest. The dot +in this case would represent the succeeding +accented beat, and not represent it nearly as +significantly as does a tied note or separate +rest; compare <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, <a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 371px;"> +<a name="Fig_5"><img src="images/fig05.png" width="371" height="116" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 5.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_10">10.</a>—Tied notes should not be employed +where a single note would represent the same +sound <em>without misrepresenting the rhythm</em>. +Their chief function is to represent durations +which <em>cannot</em> be represented by a single character, +such as five eighth notes.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_14" title="14"> </a><a name="Par_11">11.</a>—In pianoforte music a note is very +occasionally intended to be reiterated before +the first iteration has ceased to sound. This +is effected by allowing the key to rise sufficiently +to release the hammer, but not sufficiently to +reimpose the damper on the string. The second +sound therefore overtakes the first. (It is +comparatively easy on some pianos and very +hard on others.) As the sound, though periodically +reinforced, is continuous, the composer +indicates his intention by a tie. There is nothing +but one's judgment to distinguish this from +the ordinary kind of tie. The chief indication +is the employment of a tie where a single musical +character would otherwise have been better. +For instance, the following tied sixteenth notes +from the Adagio of Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 106, +could better have been represented by +eighth notes, had it not been for the intention +of overlapping iteration (<a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 341px;"> +<a name="Fig_6"><img src="images/fig06.png" width="341" height="82" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 6.</p> +</div> + +<p>The ties commencing in measure 134 of +Beethoven's well-known Sonata Pastorale were +evidently regarded by Cipriani Potter as of +this order. As having been a personal friend +of Beethoven's he was likely to know. (The +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_15" title="15"> </a> +great composer refers to him in corresponding +with Ries in 1818.) The duration of these +notes <em>could not have been written otherwise</em> than +by means of ties. The above test is therefore +inapplicable; this is evidently why, in the edition +edited by Potter, they are marked with a +tie <em>plus</em> a dot and horizontal stroke (<a href="#Fig_6a">Fig. 6a</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_6a"><img src="images/fig06a.png" width="275" height="69" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 6a.</p> +</div> + +<p>Another indication is the tying of an unaccented +note to an accented one, thus obliterating +the accent if the tie be observed literally +(instances occur in Chopin's Valse, Op. 31, No. 1). +So much critical judgment, however, is +required to distinguish this treatment from that +proper to a tie, that composers would do well to +adopt some such method as Cipriani Potter's +to make their exact meaning clear.</p> + +<p>This interpretation of a tie, according to which +the notes, since they overlap, are <em>just not separated</em>, +must not be confused with the <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">mezzo-staccato</i> +touch, also indicated with a slur, but +having dots also (in the case of a single note +indicated by a stroke with a dot), and which +means that the notes are to be <em>just not joined</em>. +In <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">legato</i>, of course, they should be neither separated +nor overlapping, but exactly contiguous.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_16" title="16"> </a><a name="Par_12">12.</a>—The commonest errors in simple time +are not in regard to notes, but rests. This is +because silence <em>cannot be divided or syncopated</em>, +and therefore that would often be quite right as +a representation of sound which is quite wrong +as a representation of silence. Thus a beat +should not be represented by two rests where one +would do, though it might be by two notes (see +<i>a</i>, <a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>). Nor one rest represent parts of two +beats (see <i>b</i>, <a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>). Nor one rest represent an +unaccented and an accented beat (see <i>c</i>, <a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>). +In triple time it is better to avoid a single rest +representing the latter and greater part of a +measure (see <i>d</i>, <a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>), indeed, it may be said that +half-note rests should not be used in triple time.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 486px;"> +<a name="Fig_7"><img src="images/fig07.png" width="486" height="127" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 7.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_13">13.</a>—But in compound time errors, if not +more numerous in kind, are much more common +anyway in regard to <em>notes</em> as distinct from rests. +A note should never be written which represents +a beat and <em>part</em> of another. The commonest +violation of this principle—and it is very common—is +in writing a dotted half note in six-eight +time; this divides the measure into three +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_17" title="17"> </a> +thirds instead of two halves, by representing +a beat-and-a-third and two thirds of a beat +(see <i>a</i>, <a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>). A beat-and-a-third, if required, +should be represented by a note of the value of +a beat tied to one of the value of a third, never +by a single note equalling both—a half note in +this case (see <i>b</i>, <a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>). A similar principle +applies to rests. A measure's silence should be +represented by rests divisible into beats, not by +rests which fuse a beat and part of the next (see +<i>c</i>, <a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>). Two dotted quarter notes in twelve-sixteen +time are not so bad as a dotted half +note in six-eight time, as they correctly represent +the division of the measure into two halves, +but they misrepresent these halves as consisting +of three sixths of a measure whereas they rhythmically +consist of two quarters (see <i>d</i>, <a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 471px;"> +<a name="Fig_8"><img src="images/fig08.png" width="471" height="274" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 8.</p> +</div> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_18" title="18"> </a>A twelve-sixteen measure of <em>silence</em> is much +easier to write, since it can be done by a single +whole note rest, which is also commonly used +as a measure-rest, irrespective of the value of +the measure. (Hence the German name <i lang="de" xml:lang="de">taktpause</i>.) +The six-eight measure of silence (see +<i>c</i>, <a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>) might also, of course, have been written +in the above way, or by <em>quarter</em>, <em>eighth</em>, <em>quarter</em>, +<em>eighth</em> rests in place of the dotted rests.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Placing of +Notes. +</p> + +<p><a name="Par_14">14.</a>—The characters which will correctly +represent the given rhythm +having been determined, the second +point is the correct placing of them in the measure. +Mentally, at least, the measure should be +divided into as many equal portions as there +are beats in it. One well-known composer, it is +said, <em>rules</em> beat-lines in light pencil, as well as +bar-lines, in his full scores. In very elaborate +music this symmetrical arrangement cannot be +fully carried out; sixty-four sixty-fourth notes +cannot be written in the same space as one whole +note; and a whole note would look lost in the +space required for the sixty-fourth notes. But +simple music can be made quite symmetrical, +and in all music such beat-lines, actual or mental, +are an invaluable check and guide.</p> + +<p>Each note should be placed in the <em>left</em>-hand +end of its space. This is for the simple reason +that music, like words, is read from left to right +and, roughly, space represents duration. Any +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_19" title="19"> </a> +other arrangement is misleading, as may be +seen from old music, in which a note was often +placed in the <em>middle</em> of its space. The following +(<a href="#Fig_9">Fig. 9</a>) is an example from an organ work of +Rinck's (1770–1846).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 186px;"> +<a name="Fig_9"><img src="images/fig09.png" width="186" height="53" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 9.</p> +</div> + +<p>But for the fact that in open score half notes +below the middle line have their stems turned +down, even an expert would not improbably +suppose the time to be four half notes in the bar. +This is not the case, the time is two half notes +and the whole note is to be sounded <em>simultaneously</em> +with the two half notes.</p> + +<p>“Confusion worse confounded,” is, so far as +the eye is concerned, hardly too strong a term +to apply to the results of this illogical method +when applied to polyphonic music. Compare +<i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, <a href="#Fig_10">Fig. 10</a>, in the former of which four +notes intended to be begun simultaneously are +no two of them in line, owing to each being in +the <em>middle</em> of its space!</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 410px;"> +<a name="Fig_10"><img src="images/fig10.png" width="410" height="132" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 10.</p> +</div> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_20" title="20"> </a>This practice was consistently carried out, +even when it involved writing a note on the bar-line! +or a note in one measure and its dot in the +next (see <a href="#Fig_11">Fig. 11</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;"> +<a name="Fig_11"><img src="images/fig11.png" width="380" height="46" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 11.</p> +</div> + +<p>(Pianists will recall a modern instance, so +far as the dot is concerned, in a little exercise +in C major of Czerny's.)</p> + +<p>The practice cannot have been due to the +non-invention of the “tie” or “bind.” For +though the first use of this is difficult to trace, +clear instances, in the form of a bracket, ︷, +occur in Morley's <cite>Practical Music</cite>, published +in 1597.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Rests. +</p> + +<p><a name="Par_15">15.</a>—Rests, especially whole note +rests, when used for a whole measure, +are still very often illogically placed +in the <em>middle</em> of the space they represent. This +has been defended on the ground that they represent +silence or <em>inaction</em>, and that therefore no +error can arise from their appearance being deferred. +But a performer should be conscious of +the action <em>or inaction</em> of every voice or part. +If there be a seeming vacuum or hiatus, how is +he to know whether it is a note or rest which has +been omitted? If he concludes, from the absence +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_21" title="21"> </a> +of any note, that a rest is intended, he can +only <em>guess</em> how long it will prove to be when it +does come. Therefore, in the writer's opinion, +rests should be located on the same principle as +notes. If it be not a profanation to say so, since +the example is from Bach, the rest in <a href="#Fig_12">Fig. 12</a> +would have been better placed at the beginning +of the measure. Let a sheet of paper be held +over the right half of the measure, and though +the player will be able to begin, he will not know +in how many parts the piece is written.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 184px;"> +<a name="Fig_12"><img src="images/fig12.png" width="184" height="107" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 12.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_16">16.</a>—In open score, that is, in writing a single +melody or part on one stave, it is usual to make +whole note rests below the fourth line, and +half note rests above the third. Quarter note +rests should be written exactly in the middle of +the stave. The crook of eighth note rests, and +the upper crook of shorter rests, is generally +placed in the third space, in the absence of any +reason to the contrary. The stems of rests are, +in manuscript music especially, better slanted +somewhat. This helps to distinguish them from +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_22" title="22"> </a> +the stems of notes—in rapidly written manuscript +a not unimportant thing!</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_17">17.</a>—There are two forms of quarter note +rest, the English, which is like the eighth note +rest but turned to the right-hand, and the +German, which is somewhat difficult to describe. +The German is far the better of the two as being +much more distinct from the eighth note rest. +It is, however, harder to write, and of the +slightly varying forms, perhaps the easiest is +that with a crook at each end of a very oblique +stem and which is thus very much like a reversed +letter Z (see the first example in <a href="#Fig_13">Fig. 13</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;"> +<a name="Fig_13"><img src="images/fig13.png" width="318" height="37" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption"><small>Manuscript forms of German quarter note rest.</small><br/> +Fig. 13.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_18">18.</a>—In short score, that is, in writing two or +more parts or voices on one stave, the rests are +placed, not only in the top or bottom space of +the stave as may best indicate to which part +they apply, but above and below it, involving, +in the case of whole note and half note rests, the +use of a leger-line (see <i>b</i>, <a href="#Fig_14">Fig. 14</a>). This is +partly because <em>the stems of all rests are turned +down</em>, and therefore cannot be made, as the +stems of notes can, to indicate the part they +belong to by the direction taken. This, therefore, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_23" title="23"> </a> +has to be shown by their position on, or off, +the stave (see <a href="#Fig_14">Fig. 14</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 373px;"> +<a name="Fig_14"><img src="images/fig14.png" width="373" height="110" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 14.</p> +</div> + +<p>It will be seen that the lower eighth note rest +in the first example belongs to the same part +as the following sixteenth note rest, though by +no means on a line with it.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_19">19.</a>—In modern piano music which is not of a +strictly part-writing character, rests often represent +the absence, not of a part or voice, <em>but of the +hand</em>. If the notes, though representing as +many parts as the piece can be supposed to +possess, are all to be played by one hand, rests +are employed to represent the absence of the +other.</p> + +<p>And in music which <em>is</em> of a part-writing character, +though the parts are <em>incomplete</em>, rests are +often <em>not</em> employed if both hands are engaged +(see <a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>, <i>c</i>, bass clef, supposing it to be of +more than two parts).</p> + +<p>Bach rarely, if ever, employed rests to represent +the hand; with him they always represent +a voice. Thus in a melodic or one-part passage +divided between the hands, each playing alternate +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_24" title="24"> </a> +groups, he used no rests to represent the +absent hand. These, appearing simultaneously +with the notes, would have implied a second +part. With him rests represent a living, though +absent, voice; in modern usage they frequently +represent, not music, but the way of playing it. +See <a href="#Fig_15">Fig. 15</a>, the first half of which is in <em>two</em> parts, +therefore rests represent the thirty-second note +silences; and the second half of which is in <em>one</em> +part, therefore no rests are employed though +only one hand is engaged at a time. It is from +a B flat Prelude in Bach's <cite>Well-tempered +Clavier</cite>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 487px;"> +<a name="Fig_15"><img src="images/fig15.png" width="487" height="275" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 15.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Dots. +</p> + +<p><a name="Par_20">20.</a>—Dots are used in music for +three purposes: (1) as repeat marks, +(2) to indicate semi-staccato, (3) to +prolong a note one half. As repeat marks, they +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_25" title="25"> </a> +may be placed in each of the four spaces of the +stave (which in the writer's opinion is the better +plan, as being less liable to confusion with time-dots), +or in the second and third spaces only, +in accordance with a modern custom. <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">Staccato</i> +dots and <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">staccatissimo</i> dashes, when two parts +are being written on one stave, should be placed +below the note if applying to the lower part, and +above if applying to the higher. In the case of +open score (a single part on one stave), they are +best placed on the side opposite the stem.</p> + +<p>Time-dots, or those which prolong a note one +half, if applied to a note in a space, should be in +the same space as the note; if applied to a note +on a line they should be placed in the space +above, if the next note of the part is higher, and +in the space below if it is lower. The importance +of this usage is often overlooked. If it +cannot be called a rule, it is high time it was +made one! When two parts are written on one +stave, and a note is doubled, having two stems, +one up and the other down, to indicate this, +and in one part it is dotted, and in the other +not, it is impossible, apart from this rule, to +tell which part has the note dotted and which +not (except, of course, from the context, which +may expose any mistake). The following +example from Henry Smart's “Festive March in +D,” for the organ, appears to contain two dotted +half notes. It would probably be so read by +anyone playing the passage at sight. The context +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_26" title="26"> </a> +shows that it is the eighth note not the +half note which is intended to be dotted. All +the dots except that to the last note but one +should have been in the space <em>below</em> the note, +where this is on a line.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 435px;"> +<a name="Fig_16"><img src="images/fig16.png" width="435" height="97" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 16.</p> +</div> + +<p>Logic would suggest that where a doubled, +that is a two-stemmed, note is dotted in both +parts or voices, <em>two</em> dots should follow one above +the other. This would, however, be awkward +when the note was in a space; and also when it +was on a line, if, as in the last group above, <em>both</em> +voices proceeded to a lower note (or both to a +higher). For according to the rule here being +considered, both dots would have to be in the +space below (or above).</p> + +<p>There is another slight inaccuracy in the +above example which will be noticed later on. +Let the tyro try and find it!</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_21">21.</a>—As regards distance from the note they +prolong, time-dots may be written either <em>immediately</em> +after such note, as in <a href="#Fig_16">Fig. 16</a>, or in +the part of the measure with which they synchronize, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_27" title="27"> </a> +as in the following excerpt from Sterndale +Bennett's piano study “The Lake.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 379px;"> +<a name="Fig_17"><img src="images/fig17.png" width="379" height="91" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 17.</p> +</div> + +<p>Elsewhere throughout the same study the +composer has placed dots immediately after the +note they prolong. Here, therefore, he seems +to have anticipated the objection that he was +dotting <em>un</em>-accented notes (see “Notation of +Rhythm,” <a href="#Par_9">Par. 9</a>), and to refute it by showing +that there are in reality two series of accents in +each measure, at cross purposes with each other, +that, indeed, the alto, and tenor measures are an +eighth note behind the treble, though they could +not be written with separate bar-lines. This is +clear when the whole passage is seen. Observe +that the dot to the last note of a measure is +placed at the beginning of the next, to make the +overlapping clear to the eye. (Also that the +dots to the last alto and tenor quarter notes are +placed not in the space next, but in the space +next-but-one higher than the note they prolong.) +Dots are not infrequently placed thus—that +is, in or near the part of the measure with which +they synchronize—apart from any such purpose +as that just explained.</p> + +<p>The dot made its first appearance in music +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_28" title="28"> </a> +about <span class="small-caps all-upper">A.D.</span> 1300. Sometimes it had a tail +(“<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">punctus caudatus</i>”) and looked not unlike an +inverted comma. It did not, however, acquire +its present meaning till about a century later.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Stems. +</p> + +<p><a name="Par_22">22.</a>—There is no rule as to the +length of stems, and they vary greatly. +The stems in a single group of notes are as often +as not of different lengths, according to the +position of the notes and the direction taken by +the hook. A common fault is to make them too +short, especially when the four hooks of a sixty-fourth +note have to be added. This, however, +is generally the result of a badly directed hook +(see <i>a</i>, <a href="#Fig_18">Fig. 18</a>).</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_23">23.</a>—As to the <em>direction</em> they take there is a +definite rule. In open score (when one part +only is being written on a stave), the stems of +notes <em>above</em> the middle line should be turned +<em>down</em>, the stems of those <em>below</em> the middle line +should be turned <em>up</em> (see <i>b</i>, <a href="#Fig_18">Fig. 18</a>). The object +of this is to keep the stems within the stave and +prevent their sprawling above or below. The +ill-equipped writer betrays himself by nothing +more often than by sprawling stems.</p> + +<p>The stems in a group of notes are generally +turned according to the direction of the first +note, or the majority. In a group containing a +wide skip they are often turned individually +according to the rule, involving opposite directions, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_29" title="29"> </a> +the hook being drawn between them (see +<i>c</i>, <a href="#Fig_18">Fig. 18</a>).</p> + +<p>Five exceptions are common: (1) The stem of a +grace note is almost invariably turned upwards, +though according to Dr. Hullah it should be +turned in the direction contrary to that of the +stem of the principal note, for the sake of greater +distinctness (see <i>d</i>, <a href="#Fig_18">Fig. 18</a>). In “copy” for +the printer grace-notes are best written in red +ink. (2) In piano music when a single part, or +row of notes, is to be divided between the hands, +one playing one group and the other the next, +the stems of the right-hand notes are turned up, +and those of the left down (see <a href="#Fig_15">Fig. 15</a>, latter +half of measure). (3) Similarly in some organ +music, especially that printed in Germany, +pedal notes which are to be played by the right +foot have the stems turned up, those by the left, +down. (4) In vocal music, when a subsequent +verse, though having the same notes, requires +different time-values from the first verse, or a +translation requires different time-values from +the original language, the time-values required +by one verse or language have the stems of the +notes turned up, those required by the other +down (see <i>e</i>, <a href="#Fig_18">Fig. 18</a>, from Molique's oratorio +“Abraham”). (5) In music written on two +staves, when the notes of a single group skip +from one stave to the other, the hook is placed +between the staves, and the stems of the notes +on the lower stave are turned up, and of those +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_30" title="30"> </a> +on the upper stave down, irrespective of their +relation to the middle line of the stave (see <i>f</i>, +<a href="#Fig_18">Fig. 18</a>, from the “Moonlight” Sonata).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 488px;"> +<a name="Fig_18"><img src="images/fig18.png" width="488" height="253" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 18.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_24">24.</a>—In short score, that is when two parts +have to be written on one stave, the stems belonging +to the upper part should be turned upwards, +and those to the lower downwards. +Only by this means can the course of the parts +be made clear to the eye. When the parts cross, +the rule must be strictly adhered to: the note +belonging to the upper <em>part</em>, not the <em>upper note</em>, +must have the upward stem. To make quite +clear which note each stem belongs to, it is well +in this case to make the notes a little less close +together than they otherwise would be (see <i>a</i>, +<a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a>, a well-known case from a chant by Sir +John Goss, where the tenor goes below the bass). +Sometimes <em>more</em> than two parts are written on +one stave; in this case the stems of two parts +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_31" title="31"> </a> +must be turned the same way, and considerable +ingenuity is required to make the course of the +parts clear. Usually the middle part varies in +the direction of its stems. Simultaneous notes +are generally written not quite in a line with +each other, to allow of separate stems: the stems +are generally rather short, so as not to run into +each other, and the hooks of simultaneous +eighths and shorter notes do not concur. Two +measures from Bach's piano fugues will illustrate +these points (<i>b</i> and <i>c</i>, <a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 490px;"> +<a name="Fig_19"><img src="images/fig19.png" width="490" height="91" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 19.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_25">25.</a>—The stems of rests are always turned +downwards.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_26">26.</a>—There is also a definite rule as to the <em>side</em> +of a note at which the stem should be placed: +stems turned upwards should be at the right-hand +side of the note-head, those downwards, +at the left. This rule is observed less in the +case of half notes than of shorter notes—for +what reason the writer is unable to say.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_27">27.</a>—At one time whole notes and shorter +notes were not round, but lozenge-shaped, the +longer notes being square, and the stem was then +in the middle, thus <img src="images/square_note.png" width="19" height="27" alt="square note"/>. These gave way to +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_32" title="32"> </a> +round notes about the seventeenth century. +Playford's well-known <cite>Whole Booke of Psalms</cite>, +published about 1675, was probably one of the +earliest books printed wholly with round notes.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_28">28.</a>—It follows from the foregoing rules that +even so apparently simple a task as transcribing +a part—soprano, alto, tenor, or bass—from a +short-score hymn or chant book into a choir +part-book is not mere copying. In the hymn +or chant book the stems of one part are all +turned the same way: in the part-book they +must be turned according to their relation to the +middle line.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Hooks. +</p> + +<p><a name="Par_29">29.</a>—With one exception, hooks +should be made at the <em>right-hand</em> side +of the stem; they are therefore sometimes at the +same side as the note-head, and sometimes not.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_30">30.</a>—The exception is when longer and shorter +notes are combined in the same group. In this +case the hooks not common to the whole group +are invariably turned so as to lie <em>within</em> the +group, and, subject to this, if the group contains +more than one beat, so as to lie <em>within</em> +the beat of which they form part.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 403px;"> +<a name="Fig_20"><img src="images/fig20.png" width="403" height="54" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 20.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_33" title="33"> </a><a name="Par_31">31.</a>—Previous to 1660, each eighth or +shorter note had a separate hook or hooks. +But at the time of the Restoration, John Playford +substituted a connecting horizontal line +for the separate hooks of two or more eighths +belonging to the same division of the measure. +The device was copied by the Dutch, French, +and Germans. The Italians did not adopt it +till later. Thus, Marcello's Psalms, published +in Venice as late as 1724–27, have separate +hooks. (In an edition in the writer's possession, +published in 1757, <em>united</em> hooks are used, but +this is probably rather due to the <em>venue</em> than to +the later date.)</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_32">32.</a>—Hooks in instrumental music must be +united in strict accordance with the laws of +rhythm (see “Notation of Rhythm,” pars. <a href="#Par_8">8</a>–13). +Thus, four eighth notes must not have the same +hook in Compound Time: they must be +grouped as three and one, or one and three, or +two and two, according to the position they +occupy in the beat they belong to. In three-four +time, six eighth notes may have one hook, +but in six-eight time they should preferably +have separate hooks of three eighth notes each. +Broadly speaking, the notes forming a single +beat of the measure should be united in one +hook, but very commonly two beats have one +hook between them, especially in four-four +time.</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_34" title="34"> </a>In the case of sixteenths and shorter notes, +the outermost hook often shows the half-measure, +and the inner hook or hooks the sub-division +into beats (see <a href="#Fig_21">Fig. 21</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 487px;"> +<a name="Fig_21"><img src="images/fig21.png" width="487" height="51" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 21.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_33">33.</a>—So closely should the hooks follow the +rhythm, that where a phrase crosses the measure +beginning at the end of one measure, and ending +at the beginning of the next, the hook +crosses the bar-line too, uniting notes in different +measures (see <i>a</i>, <a href="#Fig_22">Fig. 22</a>). Notes may have the +same hook though separated by a rest (see <i>b</i>, +<a href="#Fig_22">Fig. 22</a>).</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_34">34.</a>—The hook to a group of notes which ascends +or descends may either slant in the direction +taken by the notes, or may be straight (see +<i>c</i>, <a href="#Fig_22">Fig. 22</a>). In the writer's opinion slanted +hooks are preferable as being a better guide to +the eye. In manuscript music, when hooks +have to be drawn within the stave, and not +above or below it, they should invariably be +slanted when this is possible; otherwise they +are very apt to coincide with the stave-lines, +and fail of distinctness. A common fault is in +not making them thick enough. Notes are +sometimes “hooked” in accordance, not with +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_35" title="35"> </a> +the rhythm, but with the hand which is to play +them (see <i>d</i>, <a href="#Fig_22">Fig. 22</a>). This is necessitated by +the usage with regard to stems in such cases +[see “Stems,” <a href="#Par_22">par. 22</a>, exception (2)].</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 489px;"> +<a name="Fig_22"><img src="images/fig22.png" width="489" height="184" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 22.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_35">35.</a>—In vocal music notes should not have +the same hook which are sung to a different +syllable (see “Vocal Music,” <a href="#Par_37">par. 37</a>). Subject +to these exceptions, notes must be grouped +according to their rhythm.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +<ins title="Leger-lines,">Leger-lines.</ins> +</p> + +<p><a name="Par_36">36.</a>—The appeal to the eye (see +“Notation of Rhythm,” <a href="#Par_8">par. 8</a>, and +“Placing of Notes,” <a href="#Par_14">par. 14</a>) must be maintained +as regards the pitch as well as the duration +of notes—their perpendicular as well as +their horizontal position. Consequently leger-lines +must be the same distance from the stave, +and from each other, as the stave-lines are one +from another. Carelessness in this matter is +very common and very confusing. How often +a lower note looks as though above a higher one, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_36" title="36"> </a> +because leger-lines are cramped together in one +case and too wide apart in another (see <a href="#Fig_23">Fig. 23</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 211px;"> +<a name="Fig_23"><img src="images/fig23.png" width="211" height="115" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 23.</p> +</div> + +<p>“Two things which are equal to the same +thing are equal to each other,” as Euclid says: +let leger-lines be equidistant with stave-lines, +and they will be level with each other.</p> + +<p>But accuracy in the number of lines is of +more importance than the appeal to the eye, +and the appeal to the eye must of course not be +made a substitute for it. The context shows the +high note in <a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a> (which is several times +repeated) to have been <em>intended</em> for E, the position +of which, on the paper, it about occupies. +But, being on the first leger-line, it <em>is</em> A, and +would be were it a yard above the stave! (The +example is taken from a <em>printed</em>, not a manuscript +copy! The first two notes are evidently +intended as grace-notes, though the stems are +turned down; the stems in the second half of +the first measure should have been turned up.)</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;"> +<a name="Fig_24"><img src="images/fig24.png" width="323" height="80" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 24.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Vocal Music. +</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_37" title="37"> </a><a name="Par_37">37.</a>—In vocal music the singing of +one syllable to two or more notes is +shown in the case of whole notes, half notes, +and quarters, by a slur (see <a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 492px;"> +<a name="Fig_25"><img src="images/fig25.png" width="492" height="94" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 25.</p> +</div> + +<p>It will be seen from the above that a slur +does not dispense with the necessity for tying +consecutive notes of the same pitch, occurring +in a passage sung to one syllable. For an +apparent exception see a passage from Handel's +“But who may abide”:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 415px;"> +<a name="Fig_26"><img src="images/fig26.png" width="415" height="76" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 26.</p> +</div> + +<p>But here, the repeated note occurring on a +strong accent preceded by a weak one, is evidently +intended <em>not</em> to be tied, but to receive +an emphasis. (Similar exceptions may be +found in “Every Valley.”)</p> + +<p>In modern music, when <em>all the notes of a measure</em> +are to be sung to the <em>same</em> syllable, and there +is <em>no likelihood of confusion</em>, the slur is often +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_38" title="38"> </a> +dispensed with. This is especially the case in +Mendelssohn's music.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 487px;"> +<a name="Fig_27"><img src="images/fig27.png" width="487" height="99" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 27.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_38">38.</a>—Eighths and shorter notes, to which one +syllable is to be sung, should have a united hook, +<em>provided that they belong to the same rhythmic +group</em>; and <em>separate</em> hooks, though belonging to +the same <em>rhythmic</em> group, if sung to separate +syllables:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 338px;"> +<a name="Fig_28"><img src="images/fig28.png" width="338" height="73" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 28.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_39">39.</a>—Many writers place a slur over eighth +notes, as well as quarters and longer notes, when +sung to one syllable. But this is quite unnecessary +with hooked notes unless, as in the preceding +example, a syllable is sung to a whole group +and <em>part</em> of another, or <em>parts</em> of two groups. +Redundancy of slurs—very common in old +music—is confusing rather than helpful.</p> + +<p>Intelligibility depends much upon getting the +syllables exactly under or over the notes to +which they are to be sung.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_39" title="39"> </a><a name="Par_40">40.</a>—Syllables sung to notes extending over +more space than themselves should be followed +by dots if forming a complete word, and by +strokes, or hyphens, if parts of a word. See +preceding examples.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Open Score +to Short +Score. +</p> + +<p><a name="Par_41">41.</a>—In transcribing from open +score to short score, a single sound +sung by two voices simultaneously +beginning <em>and ending</em> at the same time, should, +if a whole note, be represented by two note-heads +linked; if a half note or shorter note, by +having two stems, one up and the other down:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 192px;"> +<a name="Fig_29"><img src="images/fig29.png" width="192" height="56" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 29.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_42">42.</a>—<em>Black</em> notes, though of <em>different</em> lengths, +may have the same note-head if they <em>begin</em> at +the same time, the difference being shown in the +hook or hooks:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 176px;"> +<a name="Fig_30"><img src="images/fig30.png" width="176" height="77" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 30.</p> +</div> + +<p>But a whole note and a half note must have +separate note-heads, since a stem would turn a +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_40" title="40"> </a> +whole note into a half note; and a whole note +or half note and a quarter note must have +separate note-heads, since a note cannot be +white and black at the same time. In this +case <em>the <ins title="notehead">note-head</ins> of shorter duration must be +written first</em>:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 485px;"> +<a name="Fig_31"><img src="images/fig31.png" width="485" height="67" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 31.</p> +</div> + +<p>The rule is sometimes relaxed, and the longer +note written first, when the shorter note is the +first of a group.</p> + +<p>Albeit a half note and an eighth, or other +hooked note, may have the same note-head, +<em>provided this be that of the half note</em>, because the +hook shows that in one part the note is intended +to be read as an eighth note. They cannot +have an eighth note-head because there is nothing +to distinguish the stem of a half note from +that of a quarter:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 233px;"> +<a name="Fig_32"><img src="images/fig32.png" width="233" height="78" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 32.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_43">43.</a>—Notes cannot have the same note-head +which <em>begin</em> at different times, even though they +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_41" title="41"> </a> +<em>end</em> at the same time. This would involve +writing one of them in the wrong part of the +measure (see “Placing of Notes,” <a href="#Par_14">par. 14</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 415px;"> +<a name="Fig_33"><img src="images/fig33.png" width="415" height="88" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 33.</p> +</div> + +<p>Hence, as a dotted quarter is a sixteenth +shorter than two dotted eighths and a sixteenth, +and therefore the final note does not <em>begin</em> at +the same time (though it <em>ends</em> at the same time) +in the treble and alto parts of the last group of +<a href="#Fig_16">Fig. 16</a> (<a href="#Par_35">par. 35</a>), the example is inaccurate. +It should have been written thus:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 148px;"> +<a name="Fig_34"><img src="images/fig34.png" width="148" height="78" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 34.</p> +</div> + +<p class="no-indent">and would be so played were the passage given, +say, to two violins.</p> + +<p>[The tyro must not mistake the above two +final note-heads, the <em>longer</em> of which comes +first, for a breach of the rule exemplified in <a href="#Fig_31">Fig. 31</a> +(<a href="#Par_42">par. 42</a>), and which applies to two notes +which <em>begin</em> at the same time. Here the longer +note begins <em>before</em> the shorter one.]</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_42" title="42"> </a><a name="Par_44">44.</a>—In part-music all the accidentals in an +open score will have to be reproduced in short +score. Each performer is only supposed to +read his own part, and cannot be assumed to +have seen an accidental in another part which, +had it been seen, would have rendered one in his +own unnecessary. Thus the sharps in <a href="#Fig_35">Fig. 35</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 192px;"> +<a name="Fig_35"><img src="images/fig35.png" width="192" height="227" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 35.</p> +</div> + +<p class="no-indent">will remain in a transcription to short score,</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 190px;"> +<a name="Fig_36"><img src="images/fig36.png" width="190" height="125" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 36.</p> +</div> + +<p class="no-indent">if intended for part-singers or players. (A +pianist or organist would not need the second +sharp in each stave, while probably <em>preferring</em> +it as a recognition of the part-writing character +of the music.)</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_43" title="43"> </a><a name="Par_45">45.</a>—In music which is <em>not</em> part-writing, the +transcriber will have to use his discretion as to +the repetition of accidentals which have already +appeared in another “part” in the same measure. +The guiding principle will be to avoid the likelihood +of error on the part of a competent reader.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_46">46.</a>—Care must be taken to turn the stems of +half notes and shorter notes according to the +principles of short score, and not necessarily +as they are in the open score.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Short Score +to Open +Score. +</p> + +<p><a name="Par_47">47.</a>—Co-relatively, in transcribing +from short score to open, it will occasionally +be necessary to put accidentals +in the latter which are not in the former. +The commonest form of this is probably in +extracting a single part, soprano, alto, tenor, +or bass, from an ordinary short score hymn or +chant book, and writing it in a part-book for +the particular voice. Thus, in transcribing the +tenor of the following extract from the hymn-tune +“Heathlands” into a part-book, it would +be necessary to insert a natural before the A.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 288px;"> +<a name="Fig_37"><img src="images/fig37.png" width="288" height="139" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 37.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_44" title="44"> </a><a name="Par_48">48.</a>—Far more often, however, it is necessary +to <em>omit</em> naturals used to contradict an accidental +occurring in a part which is not being copied. +Thus, in the following extract from the tune +“Endless Alleluia,” the natural in both the +tenor and bass would be unnecessary were these +parts written out separately from the other +parts and each other.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 249px;"> +<a name="Fig_38"><img src="images/fig38.png" width="249" height="133" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 38.</p> +</div> + +<p>(The A sharp in the tenor of this extract suggests +C sharp so strongly apart from the rest +of the harmony, that the natural is almost a +necessity even had the previous treble C sharp +not been included. Not being required according +to rule, however, it should be enclosed in +brackets—a not infrequent, and very commendable, +device with careful writers, when an accidental +is desirable but not necessary according +to rule.)</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a name="Par_49">49.</a>—The stems, of course, must be turned up +or down according to their position above or +below the middle line, and not as in the short +score.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Extracting +a Single +Part. +</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_45" title="45"> </a><a name="Par_50">50.</a>—In copying out a single part +from a score, full or short, care must +be taken in abbreviating a number of +measures' rest. The usual way of doing this +is to write the number of measures over a single +measure, thus:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 155px;"> +<a name="Fig_39"><img src="images/fig39.png" width="155" height="54" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 39.</p> +</div> + +<p>But if a pause occurs in any of the other parts +of the score this will not do. The number of +bars before the pause must be counted, and the +pause—or pauses—shown in the abbreviation as +follows, assuming it to occur in the thirteenth bar:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 306px;"> +<a name="Fig_40"><img src="images/fig40.png" width="306" height="54" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 40.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Accidentals. +</p> + +<p><a name="Par_51">51.</a>—The necessity for inserting +accidentals in a part-copy which may +not appear in a short-score, has just been +pointed out. Yet the musical Hercules is beset +with a Charybdis as well as a Scylla. He may +be drawn into the bad and very irritating +modern habit of using accidentals which are not +really called for. Accidentals where unnecessary +are doubtless used with the object of +making assurance doubly sure. They have <em>precisely +the reverse effect</em>, besides being uncomplimentary—to +put it mildly—to the intelligence +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_46" title="46"> </a> +of the performer. Sharps, flats, and naturals +which sometimes are <em>foreign</em> to the signature, +and sometimes <em>duplicate</em> it, cause confusion +where there was previously assurance. Bad +enough at all times, they are, when one is transposing +at sight, exasperating to the last degree.</p> + +<p>An accidental is operative during the bar in +which it occurs, and no further, unless it inflects +the last note of a bar, and the next bar begins +with the same note. It is so usual, however, +to contradict an accidental in the bar <em>next</em> to +that in which it occurs, that this practice may +almost be said to have become a rule, breach of +which might cause uncertainty in all but the +clearest cases. This is no justification for the +absurd practice of some writers, of contradicting +an inflection the next time the same note <em>un</em>-inflected +occurs, <em>however far off this may be</em>!</p> + +<p>As a rule, a natural should only be used where +the sharp or flat to be cancelled would <em>not</em> +have to be repeated were the inflection intended +to continue.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Legibility. +</p> + +<p><a name="Par_52">52.</a>—A common cause of illegibility +in manuscript music is what may be +called a spider-like sameness in the web. Stems +and hooks—indeed sometimes stems and note-heads!—are +much of the same thickness and +blackness. Compare them in printed music, +and it will be seen that a dozen, perhaps a +score, of stems could be spun out of one hook.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_47" title="47"> </a><a name="Par_53">53.</a>—Should it be necessary to erase and rewrite +a note, the blurred effect too often resulting +may be almost entirely avoided by <em>penciling</em> +the correct note before tracing it in ink. This +produces a lead-lined groove and prevents the +ink from running.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Facility. +</p> + +<p><a name="Par_54">54.</a>—Orthography is taught by the +careful making—drawing rather than +writing—of large letters. The formation of a +more rapid and individual hand does not come +till later. So with musical phonography. The +student, at whatever cost of time and patience, +must first acquire <em>accuracy and clearness</em>. Not +till <em>these are gained</em> must he think of rapidity +and ease. Hence the consideration of facility +has been deferred to the last.</p> + +<p>Facility is well worthy of consideration, especially +on the part of those who have much music +to write. A little thought will often show how +a character may be made in one stroke, which +in any other way will take two or more, and +that without any loss of clearness.</p> + +<p>Thus a half note can be made in one stroke +if begun at the point where the ring joins the +stem; that is, at the <em>top</em> of the ring for upward +stems, at the <em>under part</em> for downward stems.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 120px;"> +<a name="Fig_41"><img src="images/fig41.png" width="120" height="51" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 41.</p> +</div> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_48" title="48"> </a>Quarter notes may be made in one stroke if +the head be begun first when the stem is upward, +and the <em>stem</em> first when the stem is downward.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 101px;"> +<a name="Fig_42"><img src="images/fig42.png" width="101" height="46" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 42.</p> +</div> + +<p>If this very simple expedient were more generally +known, the practice of writing downward +as well as upward stems at the right-hand side +of the note-head—never done in printed music—would +not be as common as it is. It should be +added that to make a quarter or half note satisfactorily +in one stroke, a pliable pen, fine, but +spreading under pressure, and rapidly recovering +itself, is necessary, otherwise the head will be +too thin or the stem too thick.</p> + +<p>Eighth notes, especially those with downward +stems, are best made in two strokes. They can, +however, be made in one if begun at the <em>bottom</em>. +That is to say, those with upward stems must +be begun at the head, and those with downward +stems at the hook. This hook must be drawn +thin, if made thick the pen will scratch when +making the stem: if the head be made first the +pen ends at the wrong side for a <em>downward</em> stem.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 113px;"> +<a name="Fig_43"><img src="images/fig43.png" width="113" height="49" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 43.</p> +</div> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_49" title="49"> </a>Each shorter note requires an additional +action.</p> + +<p>The G clef can be made in one stroke if +begun at the innermost part of the curl, or at +the downward extremity. The F clef requires +three strokes, owing to the dots, each of which +takes one to itself.</p> + +<p>The C clef requires four movements, so does +a sharp. A flat may be made in one stroke, +but is very apt to look like a half note. A +natural requires two movements.</p> + +<p>Chords may be expeditiously formed, if with +<em>downward</em> stem, by making the top note, with +stem, first, and then adding the other notes. +Chords with upward stems should be begun at +the bottom.</p> + +<p>(The joinings are purposely left imperfect to +show the method. The numbers show the order +of the four actions for the four notes.)</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 126px;"> +<a name="Fig_44"><img src="images/fig44.png" width="126" height="102" alt=""/></a> +<p class="caption">Fig. 44.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p class="sidenote"> +Copyright. +</p> + +<p><a name="Par_55">55.</a>—A primer on musical orthography +is hardly complete without a +few words on Copyright. As long as +a work is in manuscript and copies are not +offered for sale it enjoys the same protection, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_50" title="50"> </a> +under the common law, as if properly entered +for copyright. It is an infringement of copyright +to copy, reprint, publish, or vend the +whole or any portion of a copyright work for +any purpose whatsoever. It is an infringement +to copy a hymn tune, a portion of an anthem, +orchestral parts, or to transpose a song; such +infringements can be prosecuted and the full +penalty exacted. It can be readily understood +that such copying deprives the composer or +proprietor of his just returns from the sales of +his work. To secure a copyright in the United +States of America it is necessary to print on +each and every copy, Copyright (date) by (name +of proprietor), and to send to the Registrar of +Copyright, Washington, D. C., two complete +copies with a fee of one dollar for registration +and a certificate under seal. The copyright is +secured for twenty-eight years from the date of +first publication with the privilege of a renewal +for twenty-eight years, provided that notice of +renewal is given the copyright office one year +prior to the expiration of the first term. Securing +an international copyright is usually +undertaken by the publisher, as are also such +matters as mechanical rights.</p> + +<hr class="thought-break"/> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_51" title="51"> </a><a name="Par_56">56.</a>—When the finished composition is ready +for publication, a fair copy should be made and +care exercised to see that it is legible and correct +in every particular. A few suggestions as to +proofreading and correcting may prove useful. +There are certain symbols in universal use +which are as follows:</p> + +<table id="symbols" summary="Proof reading symbols"> +<tr> + <td class="center"><img src="images/move-over.png" width="35" height="48" alt=""/></td> + <td>move over</td> + <td class="center gap"><img src="images/close-up.png" width="41" height="38" alt=""/></td> + <td>close up</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="center"><img src="images/take-out.png" width="26" height="34" alt=""/></td> + <td>take out</td> + <td class="center gap"><img src="images/space.png" width="38" height="37" alt=""/></td> + <td>space</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="center"><img src="images/turn-over.png" width="26" height="37" alt=""/></td> + <td>turn over</td> + <td class="center gap"><img src="images/wrong-font.png" width="74" height="45" alt=""/></td> + <td>wrong font</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="center"><img src="images/transpose.png" width="52" height="32" alt=""/></td> + <td>transpose</td> + <td class="center gap"><img src="images/lower-case.png" width="77" height="42" alt=""/></td> + <td>lower case</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>These symbols should be marked on the margin +of the proof (see <a href="#sample_page">sample page</a>), and no other +instructions are necessary. Notes are indicated +by their position on the staff not by their names. +The value of a note is indicated by a fraction. +Slurs are drawn in and indicated by the word +“slur.” Dots are encircled with a line to give +them prominence.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 578px;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_52" title="52"> </a> +<a name="sample_page"><img src="images/sample_page.png" width="578" height="600" alt=""/></a> +</div> + +<h2><a class="pagenum" name="Page_53" title="53"> </a>INDEX</h2> + +<hr/> + +<p class="center">The numbers refer to the <em>Paragraph</em>, not the Page.</p> + +<table id="index" summary="Index"> +<tr> + <th colspan="2">PARAGRAPH</th> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Accidentals</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_44">44</a>–48, <a href="#Par_51">51</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Barring</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_4">4</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Beat-lines</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_14">14</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Bind</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_14">14</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Black-notes</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_42">42</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Change of Key</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_4">4</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Change of Time</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_7">7</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Chords</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_54">54</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Clefs</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_5">5</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Common Faults</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_5">5</a>, <a href="#Par_6">6</a>, <a href="#Par_12">12</a>, <a href="#Par_13">13</a>, <a href="#Par_22">22</a>, <a href="#Par_34">34</a>, <a href="#Par_36">36</a>, <a href="#Par_52">52</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Compound Time</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_13">13</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Copyright</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_55">55</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Crossing Parts</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_24">24</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Direct</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_5">5</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Dots</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_20">20</a>, <a href="#Par_9">9</a>, <a href="#Par_14">14</a>, <a href="#Par_40">40</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Erasures</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_53">53</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Extracting a Single Part</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_50">50</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Facility</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_54">54</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">German Quarter Note Rests</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_17">17</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Grace-notes</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_23">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Groups</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_13">13</a>, <a href="#Par_23">23</a>, <a href="#Par_30">30</a>, <a href="#Par_32">32</a>, <a href="#Par_35">35</a>, <a href="#Par_38">38</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Half Note Head with Eighth Note Hook</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_42">42</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Historical Notes</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_7">7</a>, <a href="#Par_14">14</a>, <a href="#Par_21">21</a>, <a href="#Par_27">27</a>, <a href="#Par_31">31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Hooks</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_29">29</a>, <a href="#Par_42">42</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Introductory</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_1">1</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Key Signature</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_4">4</a>, <a href="#Par_6">6</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Leger-lines</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_36">36</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Legibility</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_52">52</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Mapping-out</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_4">4</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Mercer's Psalter</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_4">4</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Morley's <cite>Practical Music</cite></td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_14">14</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Notation of Rhythm</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_8">8</a>, <a href="#Par_32">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Open Score</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_16">16</a>, <a href="#Par_20">20</a>, <a href="#Par_23">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Open Score to Short Score</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_41">41</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Organ Music</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_23">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Over-lapping Iteration (Piano)</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_11">11</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Paper</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_2">2</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Part Writing</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_19">19</a>, <a href="#Par_44">44</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Pause</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_50">50</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Placing of Notes</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_14">14</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Playford's “Whole Booke of Psalms”</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_27">27</a>, <a href="#Par_31">31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Rests</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_15">15</a>–19, <a href="#Par_12">12</a>, <a href="#Par_50">50</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Rhythm, Notation of</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_8">8</a>, <a href="#Par_32">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Scoring</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_3">3</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Short Score</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_18">18</a>, <a href="#Par_24">24</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Short Score to Open</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_42">42</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Sign of Perfection</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_7">7</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Signatures</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_6">6</a>, <a href="#Par_4">4</a>, <a href="#Par_7">7</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Simple Time</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_12">12</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Slur</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_37">37</a>, <a href="#Par_39">39</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Sonata Pastorale</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_9">9</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a class="pagenum" name="Page_54" title="54"> </a>Stems</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_22">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="indent">Of Rests</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_25">25</a>, <a href="#Par_16">16</a>, <a href="#Par_18">18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Stroke and Dot</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_9">9</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Three Parts on One Stave</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_24">24</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Ties</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_10">10</a>, <a href="#Par_11">11</a>, <a href="#Par_14">14</a>, <a href="#Par_37">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Time Signature</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_7">7</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Turn Over</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_4">4</a>, <a href="#Par_5">5</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Unnecessary Accidentals</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_51">51</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Vocal music</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_37">37</a>, <a href="#Par_23">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="indent">(Exception 4)</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_35">35</a>, <a href="#Par_40">40</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="new-letter">Words (See also “Vocal Music”)</td> + <td class="right"><a href="#Par_4">4</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr/> + +<p>☞ <i>When a higher number precedes a lower in the above index, +it is because it refers to a more important Paragraph.</i></p> + +<div id="tnote-bottom"> +<p class="center"><a name="tn-bottom"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b></a></p> +<p>The following is a list of corrections made to the original. The +first passage is the original passage, the second the corrected one.</p> + +<ul id="corrections"> +<li><a href="#Page_3">Page 3</a>:<br/> +Quartet-paper: <span class="correction">four stave</span> score, no brackets<br/> +Quartet-paper: <span class="correction">four-stave</span> score, no brackets +</li> +<li><a href="#Page_35">Page 35</a>:<br/> +<span class="correction">Leger-lines,</span><br/> +<span class="correction">Leger-lines.</span> +</li> +<li><a href="#Page_40">Page 40</a>:<br/> +case <i>the <span class="correction">notehead</span> of shorter duration must be</i><br/> +case <i>the <span class="correction">note-head</span> of shorter duration must be</i> +</li> +</ul> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Write Music, by Clement A. 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