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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Write Music, by Clement A. Harris
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: How to Write Music
+       Musical Orthography
+
+Author: Clement A. Harris
+
+Editor: Mallinson Randall
+
+Release Date: August 31, 2011 [EBook #37281]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO WRITE MUSIC ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jana Srna and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  [ Transcriber's Notes:
+
+    Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully
+    as possible, including inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation.
+    Some corrections of spelling and punctuation have been made. They
+    are listed at the end of the text.
+
+    Italic text has been marked with _underscores_.
+  ]
+
+
+
+
+  How to Write Music
+
+  Musical Orthography
+
+  By
+  Clement A. Harris
+  Associate of the Royal College of Organists
+
+  Edited by
+  Mallinson Randall
+
+  New York
+  The H. W. Gray Co.
+  Sole Agents for Novello & Co., Ltd.
+
+
+  Copyright, 1917
+  BY
+  THE H. W. GRAY CO.
+
+
+  Made in the United States of America
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+_The numbers refer to the Paragraph, not the Page._
+
+  Introductory                              1
+
+  Choice of Paper                           2
+
+  Scoring                                   3
+
+  Barring                                   4
+
+  Clefs                                     5
+
+  Signatures                                6
+
+  Notation of Rhythm                        8
+
+  Placing of Notes                         14
+
+  Rests                                    15
+
+  Dots                                     20
+
+  Stems                                    22
+
+  Hooks                                    29
+
+  Leger-Lines                              36
+
+  Vocal Music                              37
+
+  Open Score to Short                      41
+
+  Short Score to Open                      47
+
+  Extracting a Single Part from Score      50
+
+  Accidentals                              51
+
+  Legibility                               52
+
+  Facility                                 54
+
+  Copyright                                55
+
+  Proof Reading                            56
+
+  INDEX, Page 53.
+
+
+
+
+How to Write Music
+
+
+Introductory.
+
+1.--It is reasonable to expect that a musician shall be at least an
+accurate and legible writer as well as a reader of the language of his
+Art. The immense increase in the amount of music published, and its
+cheapness, seem rather to have increased than decreased this necessity,
+for they have vastly multiplied activity in the Art. If they have not
+intensified the necessity for music-writing, they have increased the
+number of those by whom the necessity is felt.
+
+Intelligent knowledge of Notation is the more necessary inasmuch as
+music-writing is in only a comparatively few cases mere copying. Even
+when writing from a copy, some alteration is frequently necessary, as
+will be shown in the following pages, requiring independent knowledge of
+the subject on the part of the copyist. (See _e.g._, par. 28.)
+
+Yet many musicians, thoroughly competent as performers, cannot write a
+measure of music without bringing a smile to the lips of the initiated.
+
+Many performers will play or sing a note at sight without hesitation,
+which, asked to write, they will first falter over and then bungle--at
+least by writing it at the wrong octave.
+
+The admirable working of theoretical examination papers is sometimes in
+ridiculous contrast with the puerility of the writing.
+
+Psychologists would probably say that this was because conceptual action
+is a higher mental function than perceptual: in other words, that
+recollection is harder than recognition.
+
+The remedy is simple. Recognition must be developed till it becomes
+recollection: the writing of music must be taught concurrently with the
+reading of it.
+
+This was once the case: music-writing was a necessary part of a
+musician's education. One may be the more surprised at its falling into
+disuse, inasmuch as phonography--in the musical sense--is a distinctly
+pleasant occupation. Without being either drawing or writing, it
+partakes of the nature of both.
+
+But many points in the writing of music are not now considered to form
+part of the Rudiments of Music, and are not included in primers on the
+subject.
+
+Hence the following pages.
+
+While containing some matter which may have escaped the attention of
+more advanced musicians, they should, in an educational course, either
+be used along with a Primer on the Elements, or immediately follow it.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Choice of Paper.
+
+2.--The first matter to claim attention in making a manuscript copy of
+music is choice of the right kind of music-paper. This will primarily be
+determined by the number of staves each score requires. Most paper
+contains twelve staves to the page. This is a most convenient number,
+allowing for a two-, three-, four-, or six-stave score.
+
+Song-paper: three-stave score, two staves being braced for the piano
+part, with a third for the voice part. This latter is at a considerable
+distance above the other staves, to allow room for writing in the words.
+
+Organ-music paper: three-stave score, two staves braced for manual part,
+and another underneath for pedal part.
+
+Quartet-paper: four-stave score, no brackets or clefs.
+
+Quartet-paper with accompaniment: six-stave score, two bracketed for
+piano part.
+
+Full-score paper: much smaller than short-score staves. Very useful for
+other purposes where a small, narrow stave is required.
+
+For piano and violin music, paper should be chosen the staves of which
+are wide apart, to allow of the large number of leger lines frequently
+required.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Scoring.
+
+3.--The paper chosen, the first use of a pen will be in ruling the
+score-lines. A "score" technically is as many staves as are _performed
+simultaneously_: two in pianoforte music, three in organ music, four in
+an unaccompanied quartet, six in four-part vocal music with piano
+accompaniment, and so on. These staves have a line drawn down their
+left-hand edge. Hence the name, from their being _scored_ through.
+
+Their position always being at the left-hand edge of the staves, and
+their length determined by the number of staves, they may be drawn
+before the length of the measures has been arranged.
+
+Care must be taken when a page is ruled at a time not to draw the
+score-line through more than the necessary number of staves. Except in a
+full score there will generally be at least two, and, of course, very
+often more, scores to the page.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Barring.
+
+4.--After the score-lines come the bar-lines. And with the arranging of
+these begins that _careful mapping-out_ of the whole work, neglect of
+which will lead to endless annoyance and dissatisfaction.
+
+Some music is so uniform that a given space may be assigned to each
+measure, and consequently a uniform number of measures to each score,
+provided that there is no change of key or time. In determining this
+space allowance must be made (1) in the first measure of each movement
+for the key and time signatures, which may require a considerable space;
+(2) in the first measure of each score for the _key_ signature: the time
+signature is only repeated at the beginning of each movement or when the
+time is changed; (3) regard must be had to where a turn-over will come,
+some passages allowing of this so much more easily than others; (4) also
+to the number of measures in the entire movement, otherwise a new page
+may have to be added for only one measure! (5) in vocal music careful
+regard must be paid to the words as well as the notes. A syllable will
+often require more space than a note, consequently in very simple music
+the words require more space than the music. In florid compositions a
+syllable, on the other hand, is often sung, not to several notes merely,
+but to several measures, and the music requires much more space than the
+words. In the former case the author has found it a good plan to write
+the words first, or at least a measure or two of them, as a guide in
+estimating their average length. But, while the words must not be
+cramped, they must fall under the notes to which they are to be sung,
+and as these notes must occupy as nearly as possible their proportionate
+part of the measure, the skilful scribe will keep both words and music
+in mind simultaneously. Where, however, in vocal or instrumental music
+the measures vary greatly, one having, perhaps, a single whole note and
+the next thirty-two thirty-second notes, it is necessary to plan each
+score separately, or the end may be reached with too much space for the
+last measure, but not enough for another one. Carrying a measure from
+the end of one score to the beginning of the next is not practised now,
+as it once was.
+
+Bar-lines are usually drawn through each stave of vocal music
+separately, and in instrumental music through as many staves as belong
+to the same instrument or group of instruments, _e.g._, through the two
+staves of a piano part, and the four or five belonging to the "strings"
+in a full score. These instrumental staves are also usually connected by
+a brace at the left-hand edge of each score thus:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+Uniform bar-lines may be ruled a page at a time, if care be taken not to
+make the line continuous through more than the required number of
+staves. It is a fault which one commits the moment watchfulness is
+relaxed, and entails much scratching out. Where the measures vary in
+length the ruling will most readily be done in light pencil with a T
+square, and afterwards inked. A single bar-line out of the perpendicular
+will spoil the appearance of a whole page.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Clefs.
+
+5.--The first actual musical characters to be written are the clefs.
+Misconception of the function of these is so common, not among practical
+musicians only, but on the part of elementary theorists, that a few
+words of explanation are necessary. The commonest fallacies are to
+suppose that if clefs are the right shape their exact position on the
+stave does not matter, and that their position varies. Both suppositions
+are, to quote a delightful Ruskinism, "accurately false." A clef
+identifies and originally was used with _a single line_, and identifies
+others only by their relationship to this. Hence its precise shape is of
+less importance than its being on the right line. Indeed, the shape of
+clefs has varied so much that many able practical musicians do not know
+that they were originally simple letters, the treble clef a small "g,"
+the bass clef a small "f." From this beginning has been evolved so
+elaborate a sign, sometimes not merely covering all the lines of a
+stave, but going beyond them, that it is necessary to explain which line
+a clef is on. Thus the "G," or treble clef, is on that line which its
+interior termination is on, and which it curls round, touching it in all
+_four times_. The upper part of the treble clef is sometimes kept within
+the stave, but, as in the present examples, more often rises above the
+stave. The point is merely a matter of taste.
+
+The C clef is on that line which has an oblique or straight stroke, or
+pot-hook, above and below.
+
+The F clef is on that line which its interior termination is on, and
+which it curls round either to the right or the left, and which has a
+dot above and below.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+And this position never varies. Whatever line the F clef is on is F,
+however many or few lines may be above or below it.
+
+In olden days any clef line might be taken with any number of lines
+above and below. For instance, the F line with two lines below and two
+above; or three below and one above. This is not now done with treble
+and bass clefs, which are only used with respectively the top and bottom
+five lines of the Great Stave of eleven lines. Hence care must be taken
+to write the treble clef on the _second_, and the bass clef on the
+_fourth_ line of its stave. But it is still customary to use the C clef,
+especially in viola and trombone music, with both two lines above and
+two below, making the alto stave; and three below and one above, making
+the tenor stave. These staves are also used in old vocal music, and
+familiarity with them is absolutely necessary in all advanced
+theoretical examinations. The C clef, therefore, _appears_ to move,
+being sometimes on the third and sometimes on the fourth line. Really it
+is always on the same line, and it is the _selection of lines_ which
+varies. Hence the misdescription of the treble and bass clefs as
+"immovable," the C clef as "movable."
+
+Note that all clefs are on lines; no clef is in a space. This is because
+the first attempt to accurately represent music to the eye was by means
+of a single line with a letter at the beginning. This was what has since
+become the fourth line, the clef line, of the bass stave.
+
+In pianoforte and organ music, high parts for the left hand, or low ones
+for the right, may be written either:
+
+By means of leger lines (Fig. 3, a);
+
+By changing the clef (b); or
+
+By writing the part in the stave proper to the other hand (c).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+The example, of course, illustrates a high part for the left hand.
+
+The first method is the hardest to write and read. There is not much to
+choose between the second and third. If the third be adopted care must
+be taken not to insert rests in the vacant stave: their absence shows
+that the _hand_ is not resting.
+
+When a part, in organ or piano music, though mainly in its proper stave,
+_begins_ with notes more easily written in the other, the clef proper to
+the part should be inserted, as showing its general character, and
+immediately followed by that in which the notes are most conveniently
+written. Thus Fig. 3, b, if the _first_ measure of a composition, should
+have an F clef immediately preceding the G clef in the left-hand part.
+
+A change of clef affecting the _first note of a score_ should be
+anticipated in the last measure of the previous score, and repeated in
+the measure affected. This is especially the case in regard to the first
+score of a new page involving a turn-over. In addition to anticipating
+the clef, the old plan of inserting a "direct" is to be recommended. See
+Fig. 4.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+The signature should be repeated in the changed clef. After a change of
+clef in the _middle_ of a score this is, of course, not necessary.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Signatures.
+
+6.--Following the clef comes the key signature. In printed music this is
+repeated at the beginning of every score. As preventing many mistakes
+the repetition is desirable. But in manuscript music it is very usual to
+repeat it only at the head of each page. Common faults are:
+
+(1) Placing the sharps or flats at the wrong octave. The first sharp
+should, in the treble clef, be on the top line, not in the bottom space.
+And the second flat should be in the top space, not on the bottom line.
+The customary way of writing signatures is not, in the writer's opinion,
+invariably the best. But solecisms, though not in themselves inaccurate,
+should be avoided as causing unnecessary trouble and confusion.
+
+(2) A perhaps commoner fault is in not allowing sufficient space for the
+signature, and therefore cramping it. Each sharp or flat should be well
+to the right-hand of the preceding one, never over or under it.
+
+(3) Sharps, flats, and naturals, like clefs, cover much more of the
+stave than the single line or space which they govern. Not nearly enough
+care is usually exercised to make the center of the sharp, or the loop
+of the flat, exactly correspond with this, as it should.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+7.--The time signature need only be inserted where there is a change of
+movement. In common time there is a choice between the numeral signature
+"4/4" and the letter signature "C." The latter is the more interesting
+historically. Originally it was not a letter at all; the monks, who
+originated modern musical notation, called triple time "perfect" in
+honor of the Blessed Trinity, and represented it with the sign of
+perfection--a circle: common, or quadruple time, they called imperfect,
+and cut a slice out of the right-hand side of the circle to represent
+imperfection. This printers, not unnaturally, mistook for the initial
+letter of "Common Time." But the numeral signature is rapidly
+superseding this, as showing the exact value of a measure, and being in
+accordance with the signatures of all other kinds of time.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Notation of Rhythm.
+
+8.--Following the time-signature come the notes. The guiding principle
+in writing these is that their right interpretation shall be apparent to
+the eye. Two points are of paramount importance. These are (1) the
+selection of the right characters (this of course only affects those who
+are writing original compositions or arrangements, not mere copists),
+and (2) the correct placing of these in the measure. The bare duration
+of a note, its merely arithmetical value, can generally be expressed in
+more ways than one. But this is not sufficient. That way must be
+selected which represents its _rhythm_, its correct accentuation, _to
+the eye_. Simple forms of time, as distinct from Compound, contain but
+few pitfalls, and even an inexperienced writer is not likely to go far
+wrong.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+9.--It may be as well to warn such an one, however, that it is not
+nowadays customary to dot an unaccented note or rest. The dot in this
+case would represent the succeeding accented beat, and not represent it
+nearly as significantly as does a tied note or separate rest; compare a
+and b, Fig. 5.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+10.--Tied notes should not be employed where a single note would
+represent the same sound _without misrepresenting the rhythm_. Their
+chief function is to represent durations which _cannot_ be represented
+by a single character, such as five eighth notes.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+11.--In pianoforte music a note is very occasionally intended to be
+reiterated before the first iteration has ceased to sound. This is
+effected by allowing the key to rise sufficiently to release the hammer,
+but not sufficiently to reimpose the damper on the string. The second
+sound therefore overtakes the first. (It is comparatively easy on some
+pianos and very hard on others.) As the sound, though periodically
+reinforced, is continuous, the composer indicates his intention by a
+tie. There is nothing but one's judgment to distinguish this from the
+ordinary kind of tie. The chief indication is the employment of a tie
+where a single musical character would otherwise have been better. For
+instance, the following tied sixteenth notes from the Adagio of
+Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 106, could better have been represented by
+eighth notes, had it not been for the intention of overlapping iteration
+(Fig. 6).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+The ties commencing in measure 134 of Beethoven's well-known Sonata
+Pastorale were evidently regarded by Cipriani Potter as of this order.
+As having been a personal friend of Beethoven's he was likely to know.
+(The great composer refers to him in corresponding with Ries in 1818.)
+The duration of these notes _could not have been written otherwise_ than
+by means of ties. The above test is therefore inapplicable; this is
+evidently why, in the edition edited by Potter, they are marked with a
+tie _plus_ a dot and horizontal stroke (Fig. 6a).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6a.]
+
+Another indication is the tying of an unaccented note to an accented
+one, thus obliterating the accent if the tie be observed literally
+(instances occur in Chopin's Valse, Op. 31, No. 1). So much critical
+judgment, however, is required to distinguish this treatment from that
+proper to a tie, that composers would do well to adopt some such method
+as Cipriani Potter's to make their exact meaning clear.
+
+This interpretation of a tie, according to which the notes, since they
+overlap, are _just not separated_, must not be confused with the
+_mezzo-staccato_ touch, also indicated with a slur, but having dots also
+(in the case of a single note indicated by a stroke with a dot), and
+which means that the notes are to be _just not joined_. In _legato_, of
+course, they should be neither separated nor overlapping, but exactly
+contiguous.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+12.--The commonest errors in simple time are not in regard to notes, but
+rests. This is because silence _cannot be divided or syncopated_, and
+therefore that would often be quite right as a representation of sound
+which is quite wrong as a representation of silence. Thus a beat should
+not be represented by two rests where one would do, though it might be
+by two notes (see a, Fig. 7). Nor one rest represent parts of two beats
+(see b, Fig. 7). Nor one rest represent an unaccented and an accented
+beat (see c, Fig. 7). In triple time it is better to avoid a single rest
+representing the latter and greater part of a measure (see d, Fig. 7),
+indeed, it may be said that half-note rests should not be used in triple
+time.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+13.--But in compound time errors, if not more numerous in kind, are much
+more common anyway in regard to _notes_ as distinct from rests. A note
+should never be written which represents a beat and _part_ of another.
+The commonest violation of this principle--and it is very common--is in
+writing a dotted half note in six-eight time; this divides the measure
+into three thirds instead of two halves, by representing a
+beat-and-a-third and two thirds of a beat (see a, Fig. 8). A
+beat-and-a-third, if required, should be represented by a note of the
+value of a beat tied to one of the value of a third, never by a single
+note equalling both--a half note in this case (see b, Fig. 8). A similar
+principle applies to rests. A measure's silence should be represented by
+rests divisible into beats, not by rests which fuse a beat and part of
+the next (see c, Fig. 8). Two dotted quarter notes in twelve-sixteen
+time are not so bad as a dotted half note in six-eight time, as they
+correctly represent the division of the measure into two halves, but
+they misrepresent these halves as consisting of three sixths of a
+measure whereas they rhythmically consist of two quarters (see d,
+Fig. 8).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+A twelve-sixteen measure of _silence_ is much easier to write, since it
+can be done by a single whole note rest, which is also commonly used as
+a measure-rest, irrespective of the value of the measure. (Hence the
+German name _taktpause_.) The six-eight measure of silence (see c,
+Fig. 8) might also, of course, have been written in the above way, or by
+_quarter_, _eighth_, _quarter_, _eighth_ rests in place of the dotted
+rests.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Placing of Notes.
+
+14.--The characters which will correctly represent the given rhythm
+having been determined, the second point is the correct placing of them
+in the measure. Mentally, at least, the measure should be divided into
+as many equal portions as there are beats in it. One well-known
+composer, it is said, _rules_ beat-lines in light pencil, as well as
+bar-lines, in his full scores. In very elaborate music this symmetrical
+arrangement cannot be fully carried out; sixty-four sixty-fourth notes
+cannot be written in the same space as one whole note; and a whole note
+would look lost in the space required for the sixty-fourth notes. But
+simple music can be made quite symmetrical, and in all music such
+beat-lines, actual or mental, are an invaluable check and guide.
+
+Each note should be placed in the _left_-hand end of its space. This is
+for the simple reason that music, like words, is read from left to right
+and, roughly, space represents duration. Any other arrangement is
+misleading, as may be seen from old music, in which a note was often
+placed in the _middle_ of its space. The following (Fig. 9) is an
+example from an organ work of Rinck's (1770-1846).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.]
+
+But for the fact that in open score half notes below the middle line
+have their stems turned down, even an expert would not improbably
+suppose the time to be four half notes in the bar. This is not the case,
+the time is two half notes and the whole note is to be sounded
+_simultaneously_ with the two half notes.
+
+"Confusion worse confounded," is, so far as the eye is concerned, hardly
+too strong a term to apply to the results of this illogical method when
+applied to polyphonic music. Compare a and b, Fig. 10, in the former of
+which four notes intended to be begun simultaneously are no two of them
+in line, owing to each being in the _middle_ of its space!
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+This practice was consistently carried out, even when it involved
+writing a note on the bar-line! or a note in one measure and its dot in
+the next (see Fig. 11).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+(Pianists will recall a modern instance, so far as the dot is concerned,
+in a little exercise in C major of Czerny's.)
+
+The practice cannot have been due to the non-invention of the "tie" or
+"bind." For though the first use of this is difficult to trace, clear
+instances, in the form of a bracket, ︷, occur in Morley's _Practical
+Music_, published in 1597.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Rests.
+
+15.--Rests, especially whole note rests, when used for a whole measure,
+are still very often illogically placed in the _middle_ of the space
+they represent. This has been defended on the ground that they represent
+silence or _inaction_, and that therefore no error can arise from their
+appearance being deferred. But a performer should be conscious of the
+action _or inaction_ of every voice or part. If there be a seeming
+vacuum or hiatus, how is he to know whether it is a note or rest which
+has been omitted? If he concludes, from the absence of any note, that a
+rest is intended, he can only _guess_ how long it will prove to be when
+it does come. Therefore, in the writer's opinion, rests should be
+located on the same principle as notes. If it be not a profanation to
+say so, since the example is from Bach, the rest in Fig. 12 would have
+been better placed at the beginning of the measure. Let a sheet of paper
+be held over the right half of the measure, and though the player will
+be able to begin, he will not know in how many parts the piece is
+written.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+16.--In open score, that is, in writing a single melody or part on one
+stave, it is usual to make whole note rests below the fourth line, and
+half note rests above the third. Quarter note rests should be written
+exactly in the middle of the stave. The crook of eighth note rests, and
+the upper crook of shorter rests, is generally placed in the third
+space, in the absence of any reason to the contrary. The stems of rests
+are, in manuscript music especially, better slanted somewhat. This helps
+to distinguish them from the stems of notes--in rapidly written
+manuscript a not unimportant thing!
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+17.--There are two forms of quarter note rest, the English, which is
+like the eighth note rest but turned to the right-hand, and the German,
+which is somewhat difficult to describe. The German is far the better of
+the two as being much more distinct from the eighth note rest. It is,
+however, harder to write, and of the slightly varying forms, perhaps the
+easiest is that with a crook at each end of a very oblique stem and
+which is thus very much like a reversed letter Z (see the first example
+in Fig. 13).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. Manuscript forms of German quarter note rest.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+18.--In short score, that is, in writing two or more parts or voices on
+one stave, the rests are placed, not only in the top or bottom space of
+the stave as may best indicate to which part they apply, but above and
+below it, involving, in the case of whole note and half note rests, the
+use of a leger-line (see b, Fig. 14). This is partly because _the stems
+of all rests are turned down_, and therefore cannot be made, as the
+stems of notes can, to indicate the part they belong to by the direction
+taken. This, therefore, has to be shown by their position on, or off,
+the stave (see Fig. 14).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. J. S. Bach.]
+
+It will be seen that the lower eighth note rest in the first example
+belongs to the same part as the following sixteenth note rest, though by
+no means on a line with it.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+19.--In modern piano music which is not of a strictly part-writing
+character, rests often represent the absence, not of a part or voice,
+_but of the hand_. If the notes, though representing as many parts as
+the piece can be supposed to possess, are all to be played by one hand,
+rests are employed to represent the absence of the other.
+
+And in music which _is_ of a part-writing character, though the parts
+are _incomplete_, rests are often _not_ employed if both hands are
+engaged (see Fig. 3, c, bass clef, supposing it to be of more than two
+parts).
+
+Bach rarely, if ever, employed rests to represent the hand; with him
+they always represent a voice. Thus in a melodic or one-part passage
+divided between the hands, each playing alternate groups, he used no
+rests to represent the absent hand. These, appearing simultaneously with
+the notes, would have implied a second part. With him rests represent a
+living, though absent, voice; in modern usage they frequently represent,
+not music, but the way of playing it. See Fig. 15, the first half of
+which is in _two_ parts, therefore rests represent the thirty-second
+note silences; and the second half of which is in _one_ part, therefore
+no rests are employed though only one hand is engaged at a time. It is
+from a B flat Prelude in Bach's _Well-tempered Clavier_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Dots.
+
+20.--Dots are used in music for three purposes: (1) as repeat marks, (2)
+to indicate semi-staccato, (3) to prolong a note one half. As repeat
+marks, they may be placed in each of the four spaces of the stave (which
+in the writer's opinion is the better plan, as being less liable to
+confusion with time-dots), or in the second and third spaces only, in
+accordance with a modern custom. _Staccato_ dots and _staccatissimo_
+dashes, when two parts are being written on one stave, should be placed
+below the note if applying to the lower part, and above if applying to
+the higher. In the case of open score (a single part on one stave), they
+are best placed on the side opposite the stem.
+
+Time-dots, or those which prolong a note one half, if applied to a note
+in a space, should be in the same space as the note; if applied to a
+note on a line they should be placed in the space above, if the next
+note of the part is higher, and in the space below if it is lower. The
+importance of this usage is often overlooked. If it cannot be called a
+rule, it is high time it was made one! When two parts are written on one
+stave, and a note is doubled, having two stems, one up and the other
+down, to indicate this, and in one part it is dotted, and in the other
+not, it is impossible, apart from this rule, to tell which part has the
+note dotted and which not (except, of course, from the context, which
+may expose any mistake). The following example from Henry Smart's
+"Festive March in D," for the organ, appears to contain two dotted half
+notes. It would probably be so read by anyone playing the passage at
+sight. The context shows that it is the eighth note not the half note
+which is intended to be dotted. All the dots except that to the last
+note but one should have been in the space _below_ the note, where this
+is on a line.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+Logic would suggest that where a doubled, that is a two-stemmed, note is
+dotted in both parts or voices, _two_ dots should follow one above the
+other. This would, however, be awkward when the note was in a space; and
+also when it was on a line, if, as in the last group above, _both_
+voices proceeded to a lower note (or both to a higher). For according to
+the rule here being considered, both dots would have to be in the space
+below (or above).
+
+There is another slight inaccuracy in the above example which will be
+noticed later on. Let the tyro try and find it!
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+21.--As regards distance from the note they prolong, time-dots may be
+written either _immediately_ after such note, as in Fig. 16, or in the
+part of the measure with which they synchronize, as in the following
+excerpt from Sterndale Bennett's piano study "The Lake."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.]
+
+Elsewhere throughout the same study the composer has placed dots
+immediately after the note they prolong. Here, therefore, he seems to
+have anticipated the objection that he was dotting _un_-accented notes
+(see "Notation of Rhythm," Par. 9), and to refute it by showing that
+there are in reality two series of accents in each measure, at cross
+purposes with each other, that, indeed, the alto, and tenor measures are
+an eighth note behind the treble, though they could not be written with
+separate bar-lines. This is clear when the whole passage is seen.
+Observe that the dot to the last note of a measure is placed at the
+beginning of the next, to make the overlapping clear to the eye. (Also
+that the dots to the last alto and tenor quarter notes are placed not in
+the space next, but in the space next-but-one higher than the note they
+prolong.) Dots are not infrequently placed thus--that is, in or near the
+part of the measure with which they synchronize--apart from any such
+purpose as that just explained.
+
+The dot made its first appearance in music about A.D. 1300. Sometimes it
+had a tail ("_punctus caudatus_") and looked not unlike an inverted
+comma. It did not, however, acquire its present meaning till about a
+century later.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Stems.
+
+22.--There is no rule as to the length of stems, and they vary greatly.
+The stems in a single group of notes are as often as not of different
+lengths, according to the position of the notes and the direction taken
+by the hook. A common fault is to make them too short, especially when
+the four hooks of a sixty-fourth note have to be added. This, however,
+is generally the result of a badly directed hook (see a, Fig. 18).
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+23.--As to the _direction_ they take there is a definite rule. In open
+score (when one part only is being written on a stave), the stems of
+notes _above_ the middle line should be turned _down_, the stems of
+those _below_ the middle line should be turned _up_ (see b, Fig. 18).
+The object of this is to keep the stems within the stave and prevent
+their sprawling above or below. The ill-equipped writer betrays himself
+by nothing more often than by sprawling stems.
+
+The stems in a group of notes are generally turned according to the
+direction of the first note, or the majority. In a group containing a
+wide skip they are often turned individually according to the rule,
+involving opposite directions, the hook being drawn between them (see c,
+Fig. 18).
+
+Five exceptions are common: (1) The stem of a grace note is almost
+invariably turned upwards, though according to Dr. Hullah it should be
+turned in the direction contrary to that of the stem of the principal
+note, for the sake of greater distinctness (see d, Fig. 18). In "copy"
+for the printer grace-notes are best written in red ink. (2) In piano
+music when a single part, or row of notes, is to be divided between the
+hands, one playing one group and the other the next, the stems of the
+right-hand notes are turned up, and those of the left down (see Fig. 15,
+latter half of measure). (3) Similarly in some organ music, especially
+that printed in Germany, pedal notes which are to be played by the right
+foot have the stems turned up, those by the left, down. (4) In vocal
+music, when a subsequent verse, though having the same notes, requires
+different time-values from the first verse, or a translation requires
+different time-values from the original language, the time-values
+required by one verse or language have the stems of the notes turned up,
+those required by the other down (see e, Fig. 18, from Molique's
+oratorio "Abraham"). (5) In music written on two staves, when the notes
+of a single group skip from one stave to the other, the hook is placed
+between the staves, and the stems of the notes on the lower stave are
+turned up, and of those on the upper stave down, irrespective of their
+relation to the middle line of the stave (see f, Fig. 18, from the
+"Moonlight" Sonata).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+24.--In short score, that is when two parts have to be written on one
+stave, the stems belonging to the upper part should be turned upwards,
+and those to the lower downwards. Only by this means can the course of
+the parts be made clear to the eye. When the parts cross, the rule must
+be strictly adhered to: the note belonging to the upper _part_, not the
+_upper note_, must have the upward stem. To make quite clear which note
+each stem belongs to, it is well in this case to make the notes a little
+less close together than they otherwise would be (see a, Fig. 19, a
+well-known case from a chant by Sir John Goss, where the tenor goes
+below the bass). Sometimes _more_ than two parts are written on one
+stave; in this case the stems of two parts must be turned the same way,
+and considerable ingenuity is required to make the course of the parts
+clear. Usually the middle part varies in the direction of its stems.
+Simultaneous notes are generally written not quite in a line with each
+other, to allow of separate stems: the stems are generally rather short,
+so as not to run into each other, and the hooks of simultaneous eighths
+and shorter notes do not concur. Two measures from Bach's piano fugues
+will illustrate these points (b and c, Fig. 19).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+25.--The stems of rests are always turned downwards.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+26.--There is also a definite rule as to the _side_ of a note at which
+the stem should be placed: stems turned upwards should be at the
+right-hand side of the note-head, those downwards, at the left. This
+rule is observed less in the case of half notes than of shorter
+notes--for what reason the writer is unable to say.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+27.--At one time whole notes and shorter notes were not round, but
+lozenge-shaped, the longer notes being square, and the stem was then in
+the middle, thus [Symbol: square note]. These gave way to round notes
+about the seventeenth century. Playford's well-known _Whole Booke of
+Psalms_, published about 1675, was probably one of the earliest books
+printed wholly with round notes.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+28.--It follows from the foregoing rules that even so apparently simple
+a task as transcribing a part--soprano, alto, tenor, or bass--from a
+short-score hymn or chant book into a choir part-book is not mere
+copying. In the hymn or chant book the stems of one part are all turned
+the same way: in the part-book they must be turned according to their
+relation to the middle line.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Hooks.
+
+29.--With one exception, hooks should be made at the _right-hand_ side
+of the stem; they are therefore sometimes at the same side as the
+note-head, and sometimes not.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+30.--The exception is when longer and shorter notes are combined in the
+same group. In this case the hooks not common to the whole group are
+invariably turned so as to lie _within_ the group, and, subject to this,
+if the group contains more than one beat, so as to lie _within_ the beat
+of which they form part.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+31.--Previous to 1660, each eighth or shorter note had a separate hook
+or hooks. But at the time of the Restoration, John Playford substituted
+a connecting horizontal line for the separate hooks of two or more
+eighths belonging to the same division of the measure. The device was
+copied by the Dutch, French, and Germans. The Italians did not adopt it
+till later. Thus, Marcello's Psalms, published in Venice as late as
+1724-27, have separate hooks. (In an edition in the writer's possession,
+published in 1757, _united_ hooks are used, but this is probably rather
+due to the _venue_ than to the later date.)
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+32.--Hooks in instrumental music must be united in strict accordance
+with the laws of rhythm (see "Notation of Rhythm," pars. 8-13). Thus,
+four eighth notes must not have the same hook in Compound Time: they
+must be grouped as three and one, or one and three, or two and two,
+according to the position they occupy in the beat they belong to. In
+three-four time, six eighth notes may have one hook, but in six-eight
+time they should preferably have separate hooks of three eighth notes
+each. Broadly speaking, the notes forming a single beat of the measure
+should be united in one hook, but very commonly two beats have one hook
+between them, especially in four-four time.
+
+In the case of sixteenths and shorter notes, the outermost hook often
+shows the half-measure, and the inner hook or hooks the sub-division
+into beats (see Fig. 21).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+33.--So closely should the hooks follow the rhythm, that where a phrase
+crosses the measure beginning at the end of one measure, and ending at
+the beginning of the next, the hook crosses the bar-line too, uniting
+notes in different measures (see a, Fig. 22). Notes may have the same
+hook though separated by a rest (see b, Fig. 22).
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+34.--The hook to a group of notes which ascends or descends may either
+slant in the direction taken by the notes, or may be straight (see c,
+Fig. 22). In the writer's opinion slanted hooks are preferable as being
+a better guide to the eye. In manuscript music, when hooks have to be
+drawn within the stave, and not above or below it, they should
+invariably be slanted when this is possible; otherwise they are very apt
+to coincide with the stave-lines, and fail of distinctness. A common
+fault is in not making them thick enough. Notes are sometimes "hooked"
+in accordance, not with the rhythm, but with the hand which is to play
+them (see d, Fig. 22). This is necessitated by the usage with regard to
+stems in such cases [see "Stems," par. 22, exception (2)].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+35.--In vocal music notes should not have the same hook which are sung
+to a different syllable (see "Vocal Music," par. 37). Subject to these
+exceptions, notes must be grouped according to their rhythm.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Leger-lines.
+
+36.--The appeal to the eye (see "Notation of Rhythm," par. 8, and
+"Placing of Notes," par. 14) must be maintained as regards the pitch as
+well as the duration of notes--their perpendicular as well as their
+horizontal position. Consequently leger-lines must be the same distance
+from the stave, and from each other, as the stave-lines are one from
+another. Carelessness in this matter is very common and very confusing.
+How often a lower note looks as though above a higher one, because
+leger-lines are cramped together in one case and too wide apart in
+another (see Fig. 23).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+"Two things which are equal to the same thing are equal to each other,"
+as Euclid says: let leger-lines be equidistant with stave-lines, and
+they will be level with each other.
+
+But accuracy in the number of lines is of more importance than the
+appeal to the eye, and the appeal to the eye must of course not be made
+a substitute for it. The context shows the high note in Fig. 24 (which
+is several times repeated) to have been _intended_ for E, the position
+of which, on the paper, it about occupies. But, being on the first
+leger-line, it _is_ A, and would be were it a yard above the stave! (The
+example is taken from a _printed_, not a manuscript copy! The first two
+notes are evidently intended as grace-notes, though the stems are turned
+down; the stems in the second half of the first measure should have been
+turned up.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Vocal Music.
+
+37.--In vocal music the singing of one syllable to two or more notes is
+shown in the case of whole notes, half notes, and quarters, by a slur
+(see Fig. 25).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. Te Deum. C. V. Stanford.]
+
+It will be seen from the above that a slur does not dispense with the
+necessity for tying consecutive notes of the same pitch, occurring in a
+passage sung to one syllable. For an apparent exception see a passage
+from Handel's "But who may abide":
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+But here, the repeated note occurring on a strong accent preceded by a
+weak one, is evidently intended _not_ to be tied, but to receive an
+emphasis. (Similar exceptions may be found in "Every Valley.")
+
+In modern music, when _all the notes of a measure_ are to be sung to the
+_same_ syllable, and there is _no likelihood of confusion_, the slur is
+often dispensed with. This is especially the case in Mendelssohn's
+music.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27. Mendelssohn's "St. Paul."]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+38.--Eighths and shorter notes, to which one syllable is to be sung,
+should have a united hook, _provided that they belong to the same
+rhythmic group_; and _separate_ hooks, though belonging to the same
+_rhythmic_ group, if sung to separate syllables:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+39.--Many writers place a slur over eighth notes, as well as quarters
+and longer notes, when sung to one syllable. But this is quite
+unnecessary with hooked notes unless, as in the preceding example, a
+syllable is sung to a whole group and _part_ of another, or _parts_ of
+two groups. Redundancy of slurs--very common in old music--is confusing
+rather than helpful.
+
+Intelligibility depends much upon getting the syllables exactly under or
+over the notes to which they are to be sung.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+40.--Syllables sung to notes extending over more space than themselves
+should be followed by dots if forming a complete word, and by strokes,
+or hyphens, if parts of a word. See preceding examples.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Open Score to Short Score.
+
+41.--In transcribing from open score to short score, a single sound sung
+by two voices simultaneously beginning _and ending_ at the same time,
+should, if a whole note, be represented by two note-heads linked; if a
+half note or shorter note, by having two stems, one up and the other
+down:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+42.--_Black_ notes, though of _different_ lengths, may have the same
+note-head if they _begin_ at the same time, the difference being shown
+in the hook or hooks:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.]
+
+But a whole note and a half note must have separate note-heads, since a
+stem would turn a whole note into a half note; and a whole note or half
+note and a quarter note must have separate note-heads, since a note
+cannot be white and black at the same time. In this case _the note-head
+of shorter duration must be written first_:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.]
+
+The rule is sometimes relaxed, and the longer note written first, when
+the shorter note is the first of a group.
+
+Albeit a half note and an eighth, or other hooked note, may have the
+same note-head, _provided this be that of the half note_, because the
+hook shows that in one part the note is intended to be read as an eighth
+note. They cannot have an eighth note-head because there is nothing to
+distinguish the stem of a half note from that of a quarter:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32. S. Heller.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+43.--Notes cannot have the same note-head which _begin_ at different
+times, even though they _end_ at the same time. This would involve
+writing one of them in the wrong part of the measure (see "Placing of
+Notes," par. 14).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.]
+
+Hence, as a dotted quarter is a sixteenth shorter than two dotted
+eighths and a sixteenth, and therefore the final note does not _begin_
+at the same time (though it _ends_ at the same time) in the treble and
+alto parts of the last group of Fig. 16 (par. 35), the example is
+inaccurate. It should have been written thus:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.]
+
+and would be so played were the passage given, say, to two violins.
+
+[The tyro must not mistake the above two final note-heads, the _longer_
+of which comes first, for a breach of the rule exemplified in Fig. 31
+(par. 42), and which applies to two notes which _begin_ at the same
+time. Here the longer note begins _before_ the shorter one.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+44.--In part-music all the accidentals in an open score will have to be
+reproduced in short score. Each performer is only supposed to read his
+own part, and cannot be assumed to have seen an accidental in another
+part which, had it been seen, would have rendered one in his own
+unnecessary. Thus the sharps in Fig. 35
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.]
+
+will remain in a transcription to short score,
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.]
+
+if intended for part-singers or players. (A pianist or organist would
+not need the second sharp in each stave, while probably _preferring_ it
+as a recognition of the part-writing character of the music.)
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+45.--In music which is _not_ part-writing, the transcriber will have to
+use his discretion as to the repetition of accidentals which have
+already appeared in another "part" in the same measure. The guiding
+principle will be to avoid the likelihood of error on the part of a
+competent reader.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+46.--Care must be taken to turn the stems of half notes and shorter
+notes according to the principles of short score, and not necessarily as
+they are in the open score.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Short Score to Open Score.
+
+47.--Co-relatively, in transcribing from short score to open, it will
+occasionally be necessary to put accidentals in the latter which are not
+in the former. The commonest form of this is probably in extracting a
+single part, soprano, alto, tenor, or bass, from an ordinary short score
+hymn or chant book, and writing it in a part-book for the particular
+voice. Thus, in transcribing the tenor of the following extract from the
+hymn-tune "Heathlands" into a part-book, it would be necessary to insert
+a natural before the A.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+48.--Far more often, however, it is necessary to _omit_ naturals used to
+contradict an accidental occurring in a part which is not being copied.
+Thus, in the following extract from the tune "Endless Alleluia," the
+natural in both the tenor and bass would be unnecessary were these parts
+written out separately from the other parts and each other.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
+
+(The A sharp in the tenor of this extract suggests C sharp so strongly
+apart from the rest of the harmony, that the natural is almost a
+necessity even had the previous treble C sharp not been included. Not
+being required according to rule, however, it should be enclosed in
+brackets--a not infrequent, and very commendable, device with careful
+writers, when an accidental is desirable but not necessary according to
+rule.)
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+49.--The stems, of course, must be turned up or down according to their
+position above or below the middle line, and not as in the short score.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Extracting a Single Part.
+
+50.--In copying out a single part from a score, full or short, care must
+be taken in abbreviating a number of measures' rest. The usual way of
+doing this is to write the number of measures over a single measure,
+thus:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
+
+But if a pause occurs in any of the other parts of the score this will
+not do. The number of bars before the pause must be counted, and the
+pause--or pauses--shown in the abbreviation as follows, assuming it to
+occur in the thirteenth bar:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Accidentals.
+
+51.--The necessity for inserting accidentals in a part-copy which may
+not appear in a short-score, has just been pointed out. Yet the musical
+Hercules is beset with a Charybdis as well as a Scylla. He may be drawn
+into the bad and very irritating modern habit of using accidentals which
+are not really called for. Accidentals where unnecessary are doubtless
+used with the object of making assurance doubly sure. They have
+_precisely the reverse effect_, besides being uncomplimentary--to put it
+mildly--to the intelligence of the performer. Sharps, flats, and
+naturals which sometimes are _foreign_ to the signature, and sometimes
+_duplicate_ it, cause confusion where there was previously assurance.
+Bad enough at all times, they are, when one is transposing at sight,
+exasperating to the last degree.
+
+An accidental is operative during the bar in which it occurs, and no
+further, unless it inflects the last note of a bar, and the next bar
+begins with the same note. It is so usual, however, to contradict an
+accidental in the bar _next_ to that in which it occurs, that this
+practice may almost be said to have become a rule, breach of which might
+cause uncertainty in all but the clearest cases. This is no
+justification for the absurd practice of some writers, of contradicting
+an inflection the next time the same note _un_-inflected occurs,
+_however far off this may be_!
+
+As a rule, a natural should only be used where the sharp or flat to be
+cancelled would _not_ have to be repeated were the inflection intended
+to continue.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Legibility.
+
+52.--A common cause of illegibility in manuscript music is what may be
+called a spider-like sameness in the web. Stems and hooks--indeed
+sometimes stems and note-heads!--are much of the same thickness and
+blackness. Compare them in printed music, and it will be seen that a
+dozen, perhaps a score, of stems could be spun out of one hook.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+53.--Should it be necessary to erase and rewrite a note, the blurred
+effect too often resulting may be almost entirely avoided by _penciling_
+the correct note before tracing it in ink. This produces a lead-lined
+groove and prevents the ink from running.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Facility.
+
+54.--Orthography is taught by the careful making--drawing rather than
+writing--of large letters. The formation of a more rapid and individual
+hand does not come till later. So with musical phonography. The student,
+at whatever cost of time and patience, must first acquire _accuracy and
+clearness_. Not till _these are gained_ must he think of rapidity and
+ease. Hence the consideration of facility has been deferred to the last.
+
+Facility is well worthy of consideration, especially on the part of
+those who have much music to write. A little thought will often show how
+a character may be made in one stroke, which in any other way will take
+two or more, and that without any loss of clearness.
+
+Thus a half note can be made in one stroke if begun at the point where
+the ring joins the stem; that is, at the _top_ of the ring for upward
+stems, at the _under part_ for downward stems.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
+
+Quarter notes may be made in one stroke if the head be begun first when
+the stem is upward, and the _stem_ first when the stem is downward.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
+
+If this very simple expedient were more generally known, the practice of
+writing downward as well as upward stems at the right-hand side of the
+note-head--never done in printed music--would not be as common as it is.
+It should be added that to make a quarter or half note satisfactorily in
+one stroke, a pliable pen, fine, but spreading under pressure, and
+rapidly recovering itself, is necessary, otherwise the head will be too
+thin or the stem too thick.
+
+Eighth notes, especially those with downward stems, are best made in two
+strokes. They can, however, be made in one if begun at the _bottom_.
+That is to say, those with upward stems must be begun at the head, and
+those with downward stems at the hook. This hook must be drawn thin, if
+made thick the pen will scratch when making the stem: if the head be
+made first the pen ends at the wrong side for a _downward_ stem.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.]
+
+Each shorter note requires an additional action.
+
+The G clef can be made in one stroke if begun at the innermost part of
+the curl, or at the downward extremity. The F clef requires three
+strokes, owing to the dots, each of which takes one to itself.
+
+The C clef requires four movements, so does a sharp. A flat may be made
+in one stroke, but is very apt to look like a half note. A natural
+requires two movements.
+
+Chords may be expeditiously formed, if with _downward_ stem, by making
+the top note, with stem, first, and then adding the other notes. Chords
+with upward stems should be begun at the bottom.
+
+(The joinings are purposely left imperfect to show the method. The
+numbers show the order of the four actions for the four notes.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Copyright.
+
+55.--A primer on musical orthography is hardly complete without a few
+words on Copyright. As long as a work is in manuscript and copies are
+not offered for sale it enjoys the same protection, under the common
+law, as if properly entered for copyright. It is an infringement of
+copyright to copy, reprint, publish, or vend the whole or any portion of
+a copyright work for any purpose whatsoever. It is an infringement to
+copy a hymn tune, a portion of an anthem, orchestral parts, or to
+transpose a song; such infringements can be prosecuted and the full
+penalty exacted. It can be readily understood that such copying deprives
+the composer or proprietor of his just returns from the sales of his
+work. To secure a copyright in the United States of America it is
+necessary to print on each and every copy, Copyright (date) by (name of
+proprietor), and to send to the Registrar of Copyright, Washington,
+D. C., two complete copies with a fee of one dollar for registration and
+a certificate under seal. The copyright is secured for twenty-eight
+years from the date of first publication with the privilege of a renewal
+for twenty-eight years, provided that notice of renewal is given the
+copyright office one year prior to the expiration of the first term.
+Securing an international copyright is usually undertaken by the
+publisher, as are also such matters as mechanical rights.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+56.--When the finished composition is ready for publication, a fair copy
+should be made and care exercised to see that it is legible and correct
+in every particular. A few suggestions as to proofreading and correcting
+may prove useful. There are certain symbols in universal use which are
+as follows:
+
+[Illustration: move over]
+
+[Illustration: take out]
+
+[Illustration: turn over]
+
+[Illustration: transpose]
+
+[Illustration: close up]
+
+[Illustration: space]
+
+[Illustration: wrong font]
+
+[Illustration: lower case]
+
+These symbols should be marked on the margin of the proof (see sample
+page), and no other instructions are necessary. Notes are indicated by
+their position on the staff not by their names. The value of a note is
+indicated by a fraction. Slurs are drawn in and indicated by the word
+"slur." Dots are encircled with a line to give them prominence.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+The numbers refer to the _Paragraph_, not the Page.
+
+                                        PARAGRAPH
+
+  Accidentals                           44-48, 51
+
+
+  Barring                                       4
+
+  Beat-lines                                   14
+
+  Bind                                         14
+
+  Black-notes                                  42
+
+
+  Change of Key                                 4
+
+  Change of Time                                7
+
+  Chords                                       54
+
+  Clefs                                         5
+
+  Common Faults      5, 6, 12, 13, 22, 34, 36, 52
+
+  Compound Time                                13
+
+  Copyright                                    55
+
+  Crossing Parts                               24
+
+
+  Direct                                        5
+
+  Dots                              20, 9, 14, 40
+
+
+  Erasures                                     53
+
+  Extracting a Single Part                     50
+
+
+  Facility                                     54
+
+
+  German Quarter Note Rests                    17
+
+  Grace-notes                                  23
+
+  Groups                   13, 23, 30, 32, 35, 38
+
+
+  Half Note Head with Eighth Note Hook         42
+
+  Historical Notes              7, 14, 21, 27, 31
+
+  Hooks                                    29, 42
+
+
+  Introductory                                  1
+
+
+  Key Signature                              4, 6
+
+
+  Leger-lines                                  36
+
+  Legibility                                   52
+
+
+  Mapping-out                                   4
+
+  Mercer's Psalter                              4
+
+  Morley's _Practical Music_                   14
+
+
+  Notation of Rhythm                        8, 32
+
+
+  Open Score                           16, 20, 23
+
+  Open Score to Short Score                    41
+
+  Organ Music                                  23
+
+  Over-lapping Iteration (Piano)               11
+
+
+  Paper                                         2
+
+  Part Writing                             19, 44
+
+  Pause                                        50
+
+  Placing of Notes                             14
+
+  Playford's "Whole Booke of Psalms"       27, 31
+
+
+  Rests                             15-19, 12, 50
+
+  Rhythm, Notation of                       8, 32
+
+
+  Scoring                                       3
+
+  Short Score                              18, 24
+
+  Short Score to Open                          42
+
+  Sign of Perfection                            7
+
+  Signatures                              6, 4, 7
+
+  Simple Time                                  12
+
+  Slur                                     37, 39
+
+  Sonata Pastorale                              9
+
+  Stems                                        22
+
+    Of Rests                           25, 16, 18
+
+  Stroke and Dot                                9
+
+
+  Three Parts on One Stave                     24
+
+  Ties                             10, 11, 14, 37
+
+  Time Signature                                7
+
+  Turn Over                                  4, 5
+
+
+  Unnecessary Accidentals                      51
+
+
+  Vocal music                              37, 23
+
+    (Exception 4)                          35, 40
+
+
+  Words (See also "Vocal Music")                4
+
+☞ _When a higher number precedes a lower in the above index, it is
+because it refers to a more important Paragraph._
+
+
+
+
+  [ Transcriber's Note:
+
+    The following is a list of corrections made to the original.
+    The first line is the original line, the second the corrected one.
+
+  Quartet-paper: four stave score, no brackets or clefs.
+  Quartet-paper: four-stave score, no brackets or clefs.
+
+  Leger-lines,
+  Leger-lines.
+
+  cannot be white and black at the same time. In this case _the notehead
+  cannot be white and black at the same time. In this case _the note-head
+
+  ]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Write Music, by Clement A. Harris
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Write Music, by Clement A. Harris
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: How to Write Music
+       Musical Orthography
+
+Author: Clement A. Harris
+
+Editor: Mallinson Randall
+
+Release Date: August 31, 2011 [EBook #37281]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO WRITE MUSIC ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jana Srna and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  [ Transcriber's Notes:
+
+    Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully
+    as possible, including inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation.
+    Some corrections of spelling and punctuation have been made. They
+    are listed at the end of the text.
+
+    Italic text has been marked with _underscores_.
+  ]
+
+
+
+
+  How to Write Music
+
+  Musical Orthography
+
+  By
+  Clement A. Harris
+  Associate of the Royal College of Organists
+
+  Edited by
+  Mallinson Randall
+
+  New York
+  The H. W. Gray Co.
+  Sole Agents for Novello & Co., Ltd.
+
+
+  Copyright, 1917
+  BY
+  THE H. W. GRAY CO.
+
+
+  Made in the United States of America
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+_The numbers refer to the Paragraph, not the Page._
+
+  Introductory                              1
+
+  Choice of Paper                           2
+
+  Scoring                                   3
+
+  Barring                                   4
+
+  Clefs                                     5
+
+  Signatures                                6
+
+  Notation of Rhythm                        8
+
+  Placing of Notes                         14
+
+  Rests                                    15
+
+  Dots                                     20
+
+  Stems                                    22
+
+  Hooks                                    29
+
+  Leger-Lines                              36
+
+  Vocal Music                              37
+
+  Open Score to Short                      41
+
+  Short Score to Open                      47
+
+  Extracting a Single Part from Score      50
+
+  Accidentals                              51
+
+  Legibility                               52
+
+  Facility                                 54
+
+  Copyright                                55
+
+  Proof Reading                            56
+
+  INDEX, Page 53.
+
+
+
+
+How to Write Music
+
+
+Introductory.
+
+1.--It is reasonable to expect that a musician shall be at least an
+accurate and legible writer as well as a reader of the language of his
+Art. The immense increase in the amount of music published, and its
+cheapness, seem rather to have increased than decreased this necessity,
+for they have vastly multiplied activity in the Art. If they have not
+intensified the necessity for music-writing, they have increased the
+number of those by whom the necessity is felt.
+
+Intelligent knowledge of Notation is the more necessary inasmuch as
+music-writing is in only a comparatively few cases mere copying. Even
+when writing from a copy, some alteration is frequently necessary, as
+will be shown in the following pages, requiring independent knowledge of
+the subject on the part of the copyist. (See _e.g._, par. 28.)
+
+Yet many musicians, thoroughly competent as performers, cannot write a
+measure of music without bringing a smile to the lips of the initiated.
+
+Many performers will play or sing a note at sight without hesitation,
+which, asked to write, they will first falter over and then bungle--at
+least by writing it at the wrong octave.
+
+The admirable working of theoretical examination papers is sometimes in
+ridiculous contrast with the puerility of the writing.
+
+Psychologists would probably say that this was because conceptual action
+is a higher mental function than perceptual: in other words, that
+recollection is harder than recognition.
+
+The remedy is simple. Recognition must be developed till it becomes
+recollection: the writing of music must be taught concurrently with the
+reading of it.
+
+This was once the case: music-writing was a necessary part of a
+musician's education. One may be the more surprised at its falling into
+disuse, inasmuch as phonography--in the musical sense--is a distinctly
+pleasant occupation. Without being either drawing or writing, it
+partakes of the nature of both.
+
+But many points in the writing of music are not now considered to form
+part of the Rudiments of Music, and are not included in primers on the
+subject.
+
+Hence the following pages.
+
+While containing some matter which may have escaped the attention of
+more advanced musicians, they should, in an educational course, either
+be used along with a Primer on the Elements, or immediately follow it.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Choice of Paper.
+
+2.--The first matter to claim attention in making a manuscript copy of
+music is choice of the right kind of music-paper. This will primarily be
+determined by the number of staves each score requires. Most paper
+contains twelve staves to the page. This is a most convenient number,
+allowing for a two-, three-, four-, or six-stave score.
+
+Song-paper: three-stave score, two staves being braced for the piano
+part, with a third for the voice part. This latter is at a considerable
+distance above the other staves, to allow room for writing in the words.
+
+Organ-music paper: three-stave score, two staves braced for manual part,
+and another underneath for pedal part.
+
+Quartet-paper: four-stave score, no brackets or clefs.
+
+Quartet-paper with accompaniment: six-stave score, two bracketed for
+piano part.
+
+Full-score paper: much smaller than short-score staves. Very useful for
+other purposes where a small, narrow stave is required.
+
+For piano and violin music, paper should be chosen the staves of which
+are wide apart, to allow of the large number of leger lines frequently
+required.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Scoring.
+
+3.--The paper chosen, the first use of a pen will be in ruling the
+score-lines. A "score" technically is as many staves as are _performed
+simultaneously_: two in pianoforte music, three in organ music, four in
+an unaccompanied quartet, six in four-part vocal music with piano
+accompaniment, and so on. These staves have a line drawn down their
+left-hand edge. Hence the name, from their being _scored_ through.
+
+Their position always being at the left-hand edge of the staves, and
+their length determined by the number of staves, they may be drawn
+before the length of the measures has been arranged.
+
+Care must be taken when a page is ruled at a time not to draw the
+score-line through more than the necessary number of staves. Except in a
+full score there will generally be at least two, and, of course, very
+often more, scores to the page.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Barring.
+
+4.--After the score-lines come the bar-lines. And with the arranging of
+these begins that _careful mapping-out_ of the whole work, neglect of
+which will lead to endless annoyance and dissatisfaction.
+
+Some music is so uniform that a given space may be assigned to each
+measure, and consequently a uniform number of measures to each score,
+provided that there is no change of key or time. In determining this
+space allowance must be made (1) in the first measure of each movement
+for the key and time signatures, which may require a considerable space;
+(2) in the first measure of each score for the _key_ signature: the time
+signature is only repeated at the beginning of each movement or when the
+time is changed; (3) regard must be had to where a turn-over will come,
+some passages allowing of this so much more easily than others; (4) also
+to the number of measures in the entire movement, otherwise a new page
+may have to be added for only one measure! (5) in vocal music careful
+regard must be paid to the words as well as the notes. A syllable will
+often require more space than a note, consequently in very simple music
+the words require more space than the music. In florid compositions a
+syllable, on the other hand, is often sung, not to several notes merely,
+but to several measures, and the music requires much more space than the
+words. In the former case the author has found it a good plan to write
+the words first, or at least a measure or two of them, as a guide in
+estimating their average length. But, while the words must not be
+cramped, they must fall under the notes to which they are to be sung,
+and as these notes must occupy as nearly as possible their proportionate
+part of the measure, the skilful scribe will keep both words and music
+in mind simultaneously. Where, however, in vocal or instrumental music
+the measures vary greatly, one having, perhaps, a single whole note and
+the next thirty-two thirty-second notes, it is necessary to plan each
+score separately, or the end may be reached with too much space for the
+last measure, but not enough for another one. Carrying a measure from
+the end of one score to the beginning of the next is not practised now,
+as it once was.
+
+Bar-lines are usually drawn through each stave of vocal music
+separately, and in instrumental music through as many staves as belong
+to the same instrument or group of instruments, _e.g._, through the two
+staves of a piano part, and the four or five belonging to the "strings"
+in a full score. These instrumental staves are also usually connected by
+a brace at the left-hand edge of each score thus:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+Uniform bar-lines may be ruled a page at a time, if care be taken not to
+make the line continuous through more than the required number of
+staves. It is a fault which one commits the moment watchfulness is
+relaxed, and entails much scratching out. Where the measures vary in
+length the ruling will most readily be done in light pencil with a T
+square, and afterwards inked. A single bar-line out of the perpendicular
+will spoil the appearance of a whole page.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Clefs.
+
+5.--The first actual musical characters to be written are the clefs.
+Misconception of the function of these is so common, not among practical
+musicians only, but on the part of elementary theorists, that a few
+words of explanation are necessary. The commonest fallacies are to
+suppose that if clefs are the right shape their exact position on the
+stave does not matter, and that their position varies. Both suppositions
+are, to quote a delightful Ruskinism, "accurately false." A clef
+identifies and originally was used with _a single line_, and identifies
+others only by their relationship to this. Hence its precise shape is of
+less importance than its being on the right line. Indeed, the shape of
+clefs has varied so much that many able practical musicians do not know
+that they were originally simple letters, the treble clef a small "g,"
+the bass clef a small "f." From this beginning has been evolved so
+elaborate a sign, sometimes not merely covering all the lines of a
+stave, but going beyond them, that it is necessary to explain which line
+a clef is on. Thus the "G," or treble clef, is on that line which its
+interior termination is on, and which it curls round, touching it in all
+_four times_. The upper part of the treble clef is sometimes kept within
+the stave, but, as in the present examples, more often rises above the
+stave. The point is merely a matter of taste.
+
+The C clef is on that line which has an oblique or straight stroke, or
+pot-hook, above and below.
+
+The F clef is on that line which its interior termination is on, and
+which it curls round either to the right or the left, and which has a
+dot above and below.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+And this position never varies. Whatever line the F clef is on is F,
+however many or few lines may be above or below it.
+
+In olden days any clef line might be taken with any number of lines
+above and below. For instance, the F line with two lines below and two
+above; or three below and one above. This is not now done with treble
+and bass clefs, which are only used with respectively the top and bottom
+five lines of the Great Stave of eleven lines. Hence care must be taken
+to write the treble clef on the _second_, and the bass clef on the
+_fourth_ line of its stave. But it is still customary to use the C clef,
+especially in viola and trombone music, with both two lines above and
+two below, making the alto stave; and three below and one above, making
+the tenor stave. These staves are also used in old vocal music, and
+familiarity with them is absolutely necessary in all advanced
+theoretical examinations. The C clef, therefore, _appears_ to move,
+being sometimes on the third and sometimes on the fourth line. Really it
+is always on the same line, and it is the _selection of lines_ which
+varies. Hence the misdescription of the treble and bass clefs as
+"immovable," the C clef as "movable."
+
+Note that all clefs are on lines; no clef is in a space. This is because
+the first attempt to accurately represent music to the eye was by means
+of a single line with a letter at the beginning. This was what has since
+become the fourth line, the clef line, of the bass stave.
+
+In pianoforte and organ music, high parts for the left hand, or low ones
+for the right, may be written either:
+
+By means of leger lines (Fig. 3, a);
+
+By changing the clef (b); or
+
+By writing the part in the stave proper to the other hand (c).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+The example, of course, illustrates a high part for the left hand.
+
+The first method is the hardest to write and read. There is not much to
+choose between the second and third. If the third be adopted care must
+be taken not to insert rests in the vacant stave: their absence shows
+that the _hand_ is not resting.
+
+When a part, in organ or piano music, though mainly in its proper stave,
+_begins_ with notes more easily written in the other, the clef proper to
+the part should be inserted, as showing its general character, and
+immediately followed by that in which the notes are most conveniently
+written. Thus Fig. 3, b, if the _first_ measure of a composition, should
+have an F clef immediately preceding the G clef in the left-hand part.
+
+A change of clef affecting the _first note of a score_ should be
+anticipated in the last measure of the previous score, and repeated in
+the measure affected. This is especially the case in regard to the first
+score of a new page involving a turn-over. In addition to anticipating
+the clef, the old plan of inserting a "direct" is to be recommended. See
+Fig. 4.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+The signature should be repeated in the changed clef. After a change of
+clef in the _middle_ of a score this is, of course, not necessary.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Signatures.
+
+6.--Following the clef comes the key signature. In printed music this is
+repeated at the beginning of every score. As preventing many mistakes
+the repetition is desirable. But in manuscript music it is very usual to
+repeat it only at the head of each page. Common faults are:
+
+(1) Placing the sharps or flats at the wrong octave. The first sharp
+should, in the treble clef, be on the top line, not in the bottom space.
+And the second flat should be in the top space, not on the bottom line.
+The customary way of writing signatures is not, in the writer's opinion,
+invariably the best. But solecisms, though not in themselves inaccurate,
+should be avoided as causing unnecessary trouble and confusion.
+
+(2) A perhaps commoner fault is in not allowing sufficient space for the
+signature, and therefore cramping it. Each sharp or flat should be well
+to the right-hand of the preceding one, never over or under it.
+
+(3) Sharps, flats, and naturals, like clefs, cover much more of the
+stave than the single line or space which they govern. Not nearly enough
+care is usually exercised to make the center of the sharp, or the loop
+of the flat, exactly correspond with this, as it should.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+7.--The time signature need only be inserted where there is a change of
+movement. In common time there is a choice between the numeral signature
+"4/4" and the letter signature "C." The latter is the more interesting
+historically. Originally it was not a letter at all; the monks, who
+originated modern musical notation, called triple time "perfect" in
+honor of the Blessed Trinity, and represented it with the sign of
+perfection--a circle: common, or quadruple time, they called imperfect,
+and cut a slice out of the right-hand side of the circle to represent
+imperfection. This printers, not unnaturally, mistook for the initial
+letter of "Common Time." But the numeral signature is rapidly
+superseding this, as showing the exact value of a measure, and being in
+accordance with the signatures of all other kinds of time.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Notation of Rhythm.
+
+8.--Following the time-signature come the notes. The guiding principle
+in writing these is that their right interpretation shall be apparent to
+the eye. Two points are of paramount importance. These are (1) the
+selection of the right characters (this of course only affects those who
+are writing original compositions or arrangements, not mere copists),
+and (2) the correct placing of these in the measure. The bare duration
+of a note, its merely arithmetical value, can generally be expressed in
+more ways than one. But this is not sufficient. That way must be
+selected which represents its _rhythm_, its correct accentuation, _to
+the eye_. Simple forms of time, as distinct from Compound, contain but
+few pitfalls, and even an inexperienced writer is not likely to go far
+wrong.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+9.--It may be as well to warn such an one, however, that it is not
+nowadays customary to dot an unaccented note or rest. The dot in this
+case would represent the succeeding accented beat, and not represent it
+nearly as significantly as does a tied note or separate rest; compare a
+and b, Fig. 5.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+10.--Tied notes should not be employed where a single note would
+represent the same sound _without misrepresenting the rhythm_. Their
+chief function is to represent durations which _cannot_ be represented
+by a single character, such as five eighth notes.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+11.--In pianoforte music a note is very occasionally intended to be
+reiterated before the first iteration has ceased to sound. This is
+effected by allowing the key to rise sufficiently to release the hammer,
+but not sufficiently to reimpose the damper on the string. The second
+sound therefore overtakes the first. (It is comparatively easy on some
+pianos and very hard on others.) As the sound, though periodically
+reinforced, is continuous, the composer indicates his intention by a
+tie. There is nothing but one's judgment to distinguish this from the
+ordinary kind of tie. The chief indication is the employment of a tie
+where a single musical character would otherwise have been better. For
+instance, the following tied sixteenth notes from the Adagio of
+Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 106, could better have been represented by
+eighth notes, had it not been for the intention of overlapping iteration
+(Fig. 6).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+The ties commencing in measure 134 of Beethoven's well-known Sonata
+Pastorale were evidently regarded by Cipriani Potter as of this order.
+As having been a personal friend of Beethoven's he was likely to know.
+(The great composer refers to him in corresponding with Ries in 1818.)
+The duration of these notes _could not have been written otherwise_ than
+by means of ties. The above test is therefore inapplicable; this is
+evidently why, in the edition edited by Potter, they are marked with a
+tie _plus_ a dot and horizontal stroke (Fig. 6a).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6a.]
+
+Another indication is the tying of an unaccented note to an accented
+one, thus obliterating the accent if the tie be observed literally
+(instances occur in Chopin's Valse, Op. 31, No. 1). So much critical
+judgment, however, is required to distinguish this treatment from that
+proper to a tie, that composers would do well to adopt some such method
+as Cipriani Potter's to make their exact meaning clear.
+
+This interpretation of a tie, according to which the notes, since they
+overlap, are _just not separated_, must not be confused with the
+_mezzo-staccato_ touch, also indicated with a slur, but having dots also
+(in the case of a single note indicated by a stroke with a dot), and
+which means that the notes are to be _just not joined_. In _legato_, of
+course, they should be neither separated nor overlapping, but exactly
+contiguous.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+12.--The commonest errors in simple time are not in regard to notes, but
+rests. This is because silence _cannot be divided or syncopated_, and
+therefore that would often be quite right as a representation of sound
+which is quite wrong as a representation of silence. Thus a beat should
+not be represented by two rests where one would do, though it might be
+by two notes (see a, Fig. 7). Nor one rest represent parts of two beats
+(see b, Fig. 7). Nor one rest represent an unaccented and an accented
+beat (see c, Fig. 7). In triple time it is better to avoid a single rest
+representing the latter and greater part of a measure (see d, Fig. 7),
+indeed, it may be said that half-note rests should not be used in triple
+time.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+13.--But in compound time errors, if not more numerous in kind, are much
+more common anyway in regard to _notes_ as distinct from rests. A note
+should never be written which represents a beat and _part_ of another.
+The commonest violation of this principle--and it is very common--is in
+writing a dotted half note in six-eight time; this divides the measure
+into three thirds instead of two halves, by representing a
+beat-and-a-third and two thirds of a beat (see a, Fig. 8). A
+beat-and-a-third, if required, should be represented by a note of the
+value of a beat tied to one of the value of a third, never by a single
+note equalling both--a half note in this case (see b, Fig. 8). A similar
+principle applies to rests. A measure's silence should be represented by
+rests divisible into beats, not by rests which fuse a beat and part of
+the next (see c, Fig. 8). Two dotted quarter notes in twelve-sixteen
+time are not so bad as a dotted half note in six-eight time, as they
+correctly represent the division of the measure into two halves, but
+they misrepresent these halves as consisting of three sixths of a
+measure whereas they rhythmically consist of two quarters (see d,
+Fig. 8).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+A twelve-sixteen measure of _silence_ is much easier to write, since it
+can be done by a single whole note rest, which is also commonly used as
+a measure-rest, irrespective of the value of the measure. (Hence the
+German name _taktpause_.) The six-eight measure of silence (see c,
+Fig. 8) might also, of course, have been written in the above way, or by
+_quarter_, _eighth_, _quarter_, _eighth_ rests in place of the dotted
+rests.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Placing of Notes.
+
+14.--The characters which will correctly represent the given rhythm
+having been determined, the second point is the correct placing of them
+in the measure. Mentally, at least, the measure should be divided into
+as many equal portions as there are beats in it. One well-known
+composer, it is said, _rules_ beat-lines in light pencil, as well as
+bar-lines, in his full scores. In very elaborate music this symmetrical
+arrangement cannot be fully carried out; sixty-four sixty-fourth notes
+cannot be written in the same space as one whole note; and a whole note
+would look lost in the space required for the sixty-fourth notes. But
+simple music can be made quite symmetrical, and in all music such
+beat-lines, actual or mental, are an invaluable check and guide.
+
+Each note should be placed in the _left_-hand end of its space. This is
+for the simple reason that music, like words, is read from left to right
+and, roughly, space represents duration. Any other arrangement is
+misleading, as may be seen from old music, in which a note was often
+placed in the _middle_ of its space. The following (Fig. 9) is an
+example from an organ work of Rinck's (1770-1846).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.]
+
+But for the fact that in open score half notes below the middle line
+have their stems turned down, even an expert would not improbably
+suppose the time to be four half notes in the bar. This is not the case,
+the time is two half notes and the whole note is to be sounded
+_simultaneously_ with the two half notes.
+
+"Confusion worse confounded," is, so far as the eye is concerned, hardly
+too strong a term to apply to the results of this illogical method when
+applied to polyphonic music. Compare a and b, Fig. 10, in the former of
+which four notes intended to be begun simultaneously are no two of them
+in line, owing to each being in the _middle_ of its space!
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+This practice was consistently carried out, even when it involved
+writing a note on the bar-line! or a note in one measure and its dot in
+the next (see Fig. 11).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+(Pianists will recall a modern instance, so far as the dot is concerned,
+in a little exercise in C major of Czerny's.)
+
+The practice cannot have been due to the non-invention of the "tie" or
+"bind." For though the first use of this is difficult to trace, clear
+instances, in the form of a bracket, }, occur in Morley's _Practical
+Music_, published in 1597.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Rests.
+
+15.--Rests, especially whole note rests, when used for a whole measure,
+are still very often illogically placed in the _middle_ of the space
+they represent. This has been defended on the ground that they represent
+silence or _inaction_, and that therefore no error can arise from their
+appearance being deferred. But a performer should be conscious of the
+action _or inaction_ of every voice or part. If there be a seeming
+vacuum or hiatus, how is he to know whether it is a note or rest which
+has been omitted? If he concludes, from the absence of any note, that a
+rest is intended, he can only _guess_ how long it will prove to be when
+it does come. Therefore, in the writer's opinion, rests should be
+located on the same principle as notes. If it be not a profanation to
+say so, since the example is from Bach, the rest in Fig. 12 would have
+been better placed at the beginning of the measure. Let a sheet of paper
+be held over the right half of the measure, and though the player will
+be able to begin, he will not know in how many parts the piece is
+written.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+16.--In open score, that is, in writing a single melody or part on one
+stave, it is usual to make whole note rests below the fourth line, and
+half note rests above the third. Quarter note rests should be written
+exactly in the middle of the stave. The crook of eighth note rests, and
+the upper crook of shorter rests, is generally placed in the third
+space, in the absence of any reason to the contrary. The stems of rests
+are, in manuscript music especially, better slanted somewhat. This helps
+to distinguish them from the stems of notes--in rapidly written
+manuscript a not unimportant thing!
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+17.--There are two forms of quarter note rest, the English, which is
+like the eighth note rest but turned to the right-hand, and the German,
+which is somewhat difficult to describe. The German is far the better of
+the two as being much more distinct from the eighth note rest. It is,
+however, harder to write, and of the slightly varying forms, perhaps the
+easiest is that with a crook at each end of a very oblique stem and
+which is thus very much like a reversed letter Z (see the first example
+in Fig. 13).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. Manuscript forms of German quarter note rest.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+18.--In short score, that is, in writing two or more parts or voices on
+one stave, the rests are placed, not only in the top or bottom space of
+the stave as may best indicate to which part they apply, but above and
+below it, involving, in the case of whole note and half note rests, the
+use of a leger-line (see b, Fig. 14). This is partly because _the stems
+of all rests are turned down_, and therefore cannot be made, as the
+stems of notes can, to indicate the part they belong to by the direction
+taken. This, therefore, has to be shown by their position on, or off,
+the stave (see Fig. 14).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. J. S. Bach.]
+
+It will be seen that the lower eighth note rest in the first example
+belongs to the same part as the following sixteenth note rest, though by
+no means on a line with it.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+19.--In modern piano music which is not of a strictly part-writing
+character, rests often represent the absence, not of a part or voice,
+_but of the hand_. If the notes, though representing as many parts as
+the piece can be supposed to possess, are all to be played by one hand,
+rests are employed to represent the absence of the other.
+
+And in music which _is_ of a part-writing character, though the parts
+are _incomplete_, rests are often _not_ employed if both hands are
+engaged (see Fig. 3, c, bass clef, supposing it to be of more than two
+parts).
+
+Bach rarely, if ever, employed rests to represent the hand; with him
+they always represent a voice. Thus in a melodic or one-part passage
+divided between the hands, each playing alternate groups, he used no
+rests to represent the absent hand. These, appearing simultaneously with
+the notes, would have implied a second part. With him rests represent a
+living, though absent, voice; in modern usage they frequently represent,
+not music, but the way of playing it. See Fig. 15, the first half of
+which is in _two_ parts, therefore rests represent the thirty-second
+note silences; and the second half of which is in _one_ part, therefore
+no rests are employed though only one hand is engaged at a time. It is
+from a B flat Prelude in Bach's _Well-tempered Clavier_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Dots.
+
+20.--Dots are used in music for three purposes: (1) as repeat marks, (2)
+to indicate semi-staccato, (3) to prolong a note one half. As repeat
+marks, they may be placed in each of the four spaces of the stave (which
+in the writer's opinion is the better plan, as being less liable to
+confusion with time-dots), or in the second and third spaces only, in
+accordance with a modern custom. _Staccato_ dots and _staccatissimo_
+dashes, when two parts are being written on one stave, should be placed
+below the note if applying to the lower part, and above if applying to
+the higher. In the case of open score (a single part on one stave), they
+are best placed on the side opposite the stem.
+
+Time-dots, or those which prolong a note one half, if applied to a note
+in a space, should be in the same space as the note; if applied to a
+note on a line they should be placed in the space above, if the next
+note of the part is higher, and in the space below if it is lower. The
+importance of this usage is often overlooked. If it cannot be called a
+rule, it is high time it was made one! When two parts are written on one
+stave, and a note is doubled, having two stems, one up and the other
+down, to indicate this, and in one part it is dotted, and in the other
+not, it is impossible, apart from this rule, to tell which part has the
+note dotted and which not (except, of course, from the context, which
+may expose any mistake). The following example from Henry Smart's
+"Festive March in D," for the organ, appears to contain two dotted half
+notes. It would probably be so read by anyone playing the passage at
+sight. The context shows that it is the eighth note not the half note
+which is intended to be dotted. All the dots except that to the last
+note but one should have been in the space _below_ the note, where this
+is on a line.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+Logic would suggest that where a doubled, that is a two-stemmed, note is
+dotted in both parts or voices, _two_ dots should follow one above the
+other. This would, however, be awkward when the note was in a space; and
+also when it was on a line, if, as in the last group above, _both_
+voices proceeded to a lower note (or both to a higher). For according to
+the rule here being considered, both dots would have to be in the space
+below (or above).
+
+There is another slight inaccuracy in the above example which will be
+noticed later on. Let the tyro try and find it!
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+21.--As regards distance from the note they prolong, time-dots may be
+written either _immediately_ after such note, as in Fig. 16, or in the
+part of the measure with which they synchronize, as in the following
+excerpt from Sterndale Bennett's piano study "The Lake."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.]
+
+Elsewhere throughout the same study the composer has placed dots
+immediately after the note they prolong. Here, therefore, he seems to
+have anticipated the objection that he was dotting _un_-accented notes
+(see "Notation of Rhythm," Par. 9), and to refute it by showing that
+there are in reality two series of accents in each measure, at cross
+purposes with each other, that, indeed, the alto, and tenor measures are
+an eighth note behind the treble, though they could not be written with
+separate bar-lines. This is clear when the whole passage is seen.
+Observe that the dot to the last note of a measure is placed at the
+beginning of the next, to make the overlapping clear to the eye. (Also
+that the dots to the last alto and tenor quarter notes are placed not in
+the space next, but in the space next-but-one higher than the note they
+prolong.) Dots are not infrequently placed thus--that is, in or near the
+part of the measure with which they synchronize--apart from any such
+purpose as that just explained.
+
+The dot made its first appearance in music about A.D. 1300. Sometimes it
+had a tail ("_punctus caudatus_") and looked not unlike an inverted
+comma. It did not, however, acquire its present meaning till about a
+century later.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Stems.
+
+22.--There is no rule as to the length of stems, and they vary greatly.
+The stems in a single group of notes are as often as not of different
+lengths, according to the position of the notes and the direction taken
+by the hook. A common fault is to make them too short, especially when
+the four hooks of a sixty-fourth note have to be added. This, however,
+is generally the result of a badly directed hook (see a, Fig. 18).
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+23.--As to the _direction_ they take there is a definite rule. In open
+score (when one part only is being written on a stave), the stems of
+notes _above_ the middle line should be turned _down_, the stems of
+those _below_ the middle line should be turned _up_ (see b, Fig. 18).
+The object of this is to keep the stems within the stave and prevent
+their sprawling above or below. The ill-equipped writer betrays himself
+by nothing more often than by sprawling stems.
+
+The stems in a group of notes are generally turned according to the
+direction of the first note, or the majority. In a group containing a
+wide skip they are often turned individually according to the rule,
+involving opposite directions, the hook being drawn between them (see c,
+Fig. 18).
+
+Five exceptions are common: (1) The stem of a grace note is almost
+invariably turned upwards, though according to Dr. Hullah it should be
+turned in the direction contrary to that of the stem of the principal
+note, for the sake of greater distinctness (see d, Fig. 18). In "copy"
+for the printer grace-notes are best written in red ink. (2) In piano
+music when a single part, or row of notes, is to be divided between the
+hands, one playing one group and the other the next, the stems of the
+right-hand notes are turned up, and those of the left down (see Fig. 15,
+latter half of measure). (3) Similarly in some organ music, especially
+that printed in Germany, pedal notes which are to be played by the right
+foot have the stems turned up, those by the left, down. (4) In vocal
+music, when a subsequent verse, though having the same notes, requires
+different time-values from the first verse, or a translation requires
+different time-values from the original language, the time-values
+required by one verse or language have the stems of the notes turned up,
+those required by the other down (see e, Fig. 18, from Molique's
+oratorio "Abraham"). (5) In music written on two staves, when the notes
+of a single group skip from one stave to the other, the hook is placed
+between the staves, and the stems of the notes on the lower stave are
+turned up, and of those on the upper stave down, irrespective of their
+relation to the middle line of the stave (see f, Fig. 18, from the
+"Moonlight" Sonata).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+24.--In short score, that is when two parts have to be written on one
+stave, the stems belonging to the upper part should be turned upwards,
+and those to the lower downwards. Only by this means can the course of
+the parts be made clear to the eye. When the parts cross, the rule must
+be strictly adhered to: the note belonging to the upper _part_, not the
+_upper note_, must have the upward stem. To make quite clear which note
+each stem belongs to, it is well in this case to make the notes a little
+less close together than they otherwise would be (see a, Fig. 19, a
+well-known case from a chant by Sir John Goss, where the tenor goes
+below the bass). Sometimes _more_ than two parts are written on one
+stave; in this case the stems of two parts must be turned the same way,
+and considerable ingenuity is required to make the course of the parts
+clear. Usually the middle part varies in the direction of its stems.
+Simultaneous notes are generally written not quite in a line with each
+other, to allow of separate stems: the stems are generally rather short,
+so as not to run into each other, and the hooks of simultaneous eighths
+and shorter notes do not concur. Two measures from Bach's piano fugues
+will illustrate these points (b and c, Fig. 19).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+25.--The stems of rests are always turned downwards.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+26.--There is also a definite rule as to the _side_ of a note at which
+the stem should be placed: stems turned upwards should be at the
+right-hand side of the note-head, those downwards, at the left. This
+rule is observed less in the case of half notes than of shorter
+notes--for what reason the writer is unable to say.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+27.--At one time whole notes and shorter notes were not round, but
+lozenge-shaped, the longer notes being square, and the stem was then in
+the middle, thus [Symbol: square note]. These gave way to round notes
+about the seventeenth century. Playford's well-known _Whole Booke of
+Psalms_, published about 1675, was probably one of the earliest books
+printed wholly with round notes.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+28.--It follows from the foregoing rules that even so apparently simple
+a task as transcribing a part--soprano, alto, tenor, or bass--from a
+short-score hymn or chant book into a choir part-book is not mere
+copying. In the hymn or chant book the stems of one part are all turned
+the same way: in the part-book they must be turned according to their
+relation to the middle line.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Hooks.
+
+29.--With one exception, hooks should be made at the _right-hand_ side
+of the stem; they are therefore sometimes at the same side as the
+note-head, and sometimes not.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+30.--The exception is when longer and shorter notes are combined in the
+same group. In this case the hooks not common to the whole group are
+invariably turned so as to lie _within_ the group, and, subject to this,
+if the group contains more than one beat, so as to lie _within_ the beat
+of which they form part.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+31.--Previous to 1660, each eighth or shorter note had a separate hook
+or hooks. But at the time of the Restoration, John Playford substituted
+a connecting horizontal line for the separate hooks of two or more
+eighths belonging to the same division of the measure. The device was
+copied by the Dutch, French, and Germans. The Italians did not adopt it
+till later. Thus, Marcello's Psalms, published in Venice as late as
+1724-27, have separate hooks. (In an edition in the writer's possession,
+published in 1757, _united_ hooks are used, but this is probably rather
+due to the _venue_ than to the later date.)
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+32.--Hooks in instrumental music must be united in strict accordance
+with the laws of rhythm (see "Notation of Rhythm," pars. 8-13). Thus,
+four eighth notes must not have the same hook in Compound Time: they
+must be grouped as three and one, or one and three, or two and two,
+according to the position they occupy in the beat they belong to. In
+three-four time, six eighth notes may have one hook, but in six-eight
+time they should preferably have separate hooks of three eighth notes
+each. Broadly speaking, the notes forming a single beat of the measure
+should be united in one hook, but very commonly two beats have one hook
+between them, especially in four-four time.
+
+In the case of sixteenths and shorter notes, the outermost hook often
+shows the half-measure, and the inner hook or hooks the sub-division
+into beats (see Fig. 21).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+33.--So closely should the hooks follow the rhythm, that where a phrase
+crosses the measure beginning at the end of one measure, and ending at
+the beginning of the next, the hook crosses the bar-line too, uniting
+notes in different measures (see a, Fig. 22). Notes may have the same
+hook though separated by a rest (see b, Fig. 22).
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+34.--The hook to a group of notes which ascends or descends may either
+slant in the direction taken by the notes, or may be straight (see c,
+Fig. 22). In the writer's opinion slanted hooks are preferable as being
+a better guide to the eye. In manuscript music, when hooks have to be
+drawn within the stave, and not above or below it, they should
+invariably be slanted when this is possible; otherwise they are very apt
+to coincide with the stave-lines, and fail of distinctness. A common
+fault is in not making them thick enough. Notes are sometimes "hooked"
+in accordance, not with the rhythm, but with the hand which is to play
+them (see d, Fig. 22). This is necessitated by the usage with regard to
+stems in such cases [see "Stems," par. 22, exception (2)].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+35.--In vocal music notes should not have the same hook which are sung
+to a different syllable (see "Vocal Music," par. 37). Subject to these
+exceptions, notes must be grouped according to their rhythm.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Leger-lines.
+
+36.--The appeal to the eye (see "Notation of Rhythm," par. 8, and
+"Placing of Notes," par. 14) must be maintained as regards the pitch as
+well as the duration of notes--their perpendicular as well as their
+horizontal position. Consequently leger-lines must be the same distance
+from the stave, and from each other, as the stave-lines are one from
+another. Carelessness in this matter is very common and very confusing.
+How often a lower note looks as though above a higher one, because
+leger-lines are cramped together in one case and too wide apart in
+another (see Fig. 23).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+"Two things which are equal to the same thing are equal to each other,"
+as Euclid says: let leger-lines be equidistant with stave-lines, and
+they will be level with each other.
+
+But accuracy in the number of lines is of more importance than the
+appeal to the eye, and the appeal to the eye must of course not be made
+a substitute for it. The context shows the high note in Fig. 24 (which
+is several times repeated) to have been _intended_ for E, the position
+of which, on the paper, it about occupies. But, being on the first
+leger-line, it _is_ A, and would be were it a yard above the stave! (The
+example is taken from a _printed_, not a manuscript copy! The first two
+notes are evidently intended as grace-notes, though the stems are turned
+down; the stems in the second half of the first measure should have been
+turned up.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Vocal Music.
+
+37.--In vocal music the singing of one syllable to two or more notes is
+shown in the case of whole notes, half notes, and quarters, by a slur
+(see Fig. 25).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. Te Deum. C. V. Stanford.]
+
+It will be seen from the above that a slur does not dispense with the
+necessity for tying consecutive notes of the same pitch, occurring in a
+passage sung to one syllable. For an apparent exception see a passage
+from Handel's "But who may abide":
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+But here, the repeated note occurring on a strong accent preceded by a
+weak one, is evidently intended _not_ to be tied, but to receive an
+emphasis. (Similar exceptions may be found in "Every Valley.")
+
+In modern music, when _all the notes of a measure_ are to be sung to the
+_same_ syllable, and there is _no likelihood of confusion_, the slur is
+often dispensed with. This is especially the case in Mendelssohn's
+music.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27. Mendelssohn's "St. Paul."]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+38.--Eighths and shorter notes, to which one syllable is to be sung,
+should have a united hook, _provided that they belong to the same
+rhythmic group_; and _separate_ hooks, though belonging to the same
+_rhythmic_ group, if sung to separate syllables:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+39.--Many writers place a slur over eighth notes, as well as quarters
+and longer notes, when sung to one syllable. But this is quite
+unnecessary with hooked notes unless, as in the preceding example, a
+syllable is sung to a whole group and _part_ of another, or _parts_ of
+two groups. Redundancy of slurs--very common in old music--is confusing
+rather than helpful.
+
+Intelligibility depends much upon getting the syllables exactly under or
+over the notes to which they are to be sung.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+40.--Syllables sung to notes extending over more space than themselves
+should be followed by dots if forming a complete word, and by strokes,
+or hyphens, if parts of a word. See preceding examples.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Open Score to Short Score.
+
+41.--In transcribing from open score to short score, a single sound sung
+by two voices simultaneously beginning _and ending_ at the same time,
+should, if a whole note, be represented by two note-heads linked; if a
+half note or shorter note, by having two stems, one up and the other
+down:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+42.--_Black_ notes, though of _different_ lengths, may have the same
+note-head if they _begin_ at the same time, the difference being shown
+in the hook or hooks:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.]
+
+But a whole note and a half note must have separate note-heads, since a
+stem would turn a whole note into a half note; and a whole note or half
+note and a quarter note must have separate note-heads, since a note
+cannot be white and black at the same time. In this case _the note-head
+of shorter duration must be written first_:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.]
+
+The rule is sometimes relaxed, and the longer note written first, when
+the shorter note is the first of a group.
+
+Albeit a half note and an eighth, or other hooked note, may have the
+same note-head, _provided this be that of the half note_, because the
+hook shows that in one part the note is intended to be read as an eighth
+note. They cannot have an eighth note-head because there is nothing to
+distinguish the stem of a half note from that of a quarter:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32. S. Heller.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+43.--Notes cannot have the same note-head which _begin_ at different
+times, even though they _end_ at the same time. This would involve
+writing one of them in the wrong part of the measure (see "Placing of
+Notes," par. 14).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.]
+
+Hence, as a dotted quarter is a sixteenth shorter than two dotted
+eighths and a sixteenth, and therefore the final note does not _begin_
+at the same time (though it _ends_ at the same time) in the treble and
+alto parts of the last group of Fig. 16 (par. 35), the example is
+inaccurate. It should have been written thus:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.]
+
+and would be so played were the passage given, say, to two violins.
+
+[The tyro must not mistake the above two final note-heads, the _longer_
+of which comes first, for a breach of the rule exemplified in Fig. 31
+(par. 42), and which applies to two notes which _begin_ at the same
+time. Here the longer note begins _before_ the shorter one.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+44.--In part-music all the accidentals in an open score will have to be
+reproduced in short score. Each performer is only supposed to read his
+own part, and cannot be assumed to have seen an accidental in another
+part which, had it been seen, would have rendered one in his own
+unnecessary. Thus the sharps in Fig. 35
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.]
+
+will remain in a transcription to short score,
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.]
+
+if intended for part-singers or players. (A pianist or organist would
+not need the second sharp in each stave, while probably _preferring_ it
+as a recognition of the part-writing character of the music.)
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+45.--In music which is _not_ part-writing, the transcriber will have to
+use his discretion as to the repetition of accidentals which have
+already appeared in another "part" in the same measure. The guiding
+principle will be to avoid the likelihood of error on the part of a
+competent reader.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+46.--Care must be taken to turn the stems of half notes and shorter
+notes according to the principles of short score, and not necessarily as
+they are in the open score.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Short Score to Open Score.
+
+47.--Co-relatively, in transcribing from short score to open, it will
+occasionally be necessary to put accidentals in the latter which are not
+in the former. The commonest form of this is probably in extracting a
+single part, soprano, alto, tenor, or bass, from an ordinary short score
+hymn or chant book, and writing it in a part-book for the particular
+voice. Thus, in transcribing the tenor of the following extract from the
+hymn-tune "Heathlands" into a part-book, it would be necessary to insert
+a natural before the A.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+48.--Far more often, however, it is necessary to _omit_ naturals used to
+contradict an accidental occurring in a part which is not being copied.
+Thus, in the following extract from the tune "Endless Alleluia," the
+natural in both the tenor and bass would be unnecessary were these parts
+written out separately from the other parts and each other.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
+
+(The A sharp in the tenor of this extract suggests C sharp so strongly
+apart from the rest of the harmony, that the natural is almost a
+necessity even had the previous treble C sharp not been included. Not
+being required according to rule, however, it should be enclosed in
+brackets--a not infrequent, and very commendable, device with careful
+writers, when an accidental is desirable but not necessary according to
+rule.)
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+49.--The stems, of course, must be turned up or down according to their
+position above or below the middle line, and not as in the short score.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Extracting a Single Part.
+
+50.--In copying out a single part from a score, full or short, care must
+be taken in abbreviating a number of measures' rest. The usual way of
+doing this is to write the number of measures over a single measure,
+thus:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
+
+But if a pause occurs in any of the other parts of the score this will
+not do. The number of bars before the pause must be counted, and the
+pause--or pauses--shown in the abbreviation as follows, assuming it to
+occur in the thirteenth bar:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Accidentals.
+
+51.--The necessity for inserting accidentals in a part-copy which may
+not appear in a short-score, has just been pointed out. Yet the musical
+Hercules is beset with a Charybdis as well as a Scylla. He may be drawn
+into the bad and very irritating modern habit of using accidentals which
+are not really called for. Accidentals where unnecessary are doubtless
+used with the object of making assurance doubly sure. They have
+_precisely the reverse effect_, besides being uncomplimentary--to put it
+mildly--to the intelligence of the performer. Sharps, flats, and
+naturals which sometimes are _foreign_ to the signature, and sometimes
+_duplicate_ it, cause confusion where there was previously assurance.
+Bad enough at all times, they are, when one is transposing at sight,
+exasperating to the last degree.
+
+An accidental is operative during the bar in which it occurs, and no
+further, unless it inflects the last note of a bar, and the next bar
+begins with the same note. It is so usual, however, to contradict an
+accidental in the bar _next_ to that in which it occurs, that this
+practice may almost be said to have become a rule, breach of which might
+cause uncertainty in all but the clearest cases. This is no
+justification for the absurd practice of some writers, of contradicting
+an inflection the next time the same note _un_-inflected occurs,
+_however far off this may be_!
+
+As a rule, a natural should only be used where the sharp or flat to be
+cancelled would _not_ have to be repeated were the inflection intended
+to continue.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Legibility.
+
+52.--A common cause of illegibility in manuscript music is what may be
+called a spider-like sameness in the web. Stems and hooks--indeed
+sometimes stems and note-heads!--are much of the same thickness and
+blackness. Compare them in printed music, and it will be seen that a
+dozen, perhaps a score, of stems could be spun out of one hook.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+53.--Should it be necessary to erase and rewrite a note, the blurred
+effect too often resulting may be almost entirely avoided by _penciling_
+the correct note before tracing it in ink. This produces a lead-lined
+groove and prevents the ink from running.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Facility.
+
+54.--Orthography is taught by the careful making--drawing rather than
+writing--of large letters. The formation of a more rapid and individual
+hand does not come till later. So with musical phonography. The student,
+at whatever cost of time and patience, must first acquire _accuracy and
+clearness_. Not till _these are gained_ must he think of rapidity and
+ease. Hence the consideration of facility has been deferred to the last.
+
+Facility is well worthy of consideration, especially on the part of
+those who have much music to write. A little thought will often show how
+a character may be made in one stroke, which in any other way will take
+two or more, and that without any loss of clearness.
+
+Thus a half note can be made in one stroke if begun at the point where
+the ring joins the stem; that is, at the _top_ of the ring for upward
+stems, at the _under part_ for downward stems.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
+
+Quarter notes may be made in one stroke if the head be begun first when
+the stem is upward, and the _stem_ first when the stem is downward.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
+
+If this very simple expedient were more generally known, the practice of
+writing downward as well as upward stems at the right-hand side of the
+note-head--never done in printed music--would not be as common as it is.
+It should be added that to make a quarter or half note satisfactorily in
+one stroke, a pliable pen, fine, but spreading under pressure, and
+rapidly recovering itself, is necessary, otherwise the head will be too
+thin or the stem too thick.
+
+Eighth notes, especially those with downward stems, are best made in two
+strokes. They can, however, be made in one if begun at the _bottom_.
+That is to say, those with upward stems must be begun at the head, and
+those with downward stems at the hook. This hook must be drawn thin, if
+made thick the pen will scratch when making the stem: if the head be
+made first the pen ends at the wrong side for a _downward_ stem.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.]
+
+Each shorter note requires an additional action.
+
+The G clef can be made in one stroke if begun at the innermost part of
+the curl, or at the downward extremity. The F clef requires three
+strokes, owing to the dots, each of which takes one to itself.
+
+The C clef requires four movements, so does a sharp. A flat may be made
+in one stroke, but is very apt to look like a half note. A natural
+requires two movements.
+
+Chords may be expeditiously formed, if with _downward_ stem, by making
+the top note, with stem, first, and then adding the other notes. Chords
+with upward stems should be begun at the bottom.
+
+(The joinings are purposely left imperfect to show the method. The
+numbers show the order of the four actions for the four notes.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Copyright.
+
+55.--A primer on musical orthography is hardly complete without a few
+words on Copyright. As long as a work is in manuscript and copies are
+not offered for sale it enjoys the same protection, under the common
+law, as if properly entered for copyright. It is an infringement of
+copyright to copy, reprint, publish, or vend the whole or any portion of
+a copyright work for any purpose whatsoever. It is an infringement to
+copy a hymn tune, a portion of an anthem, orchestral parts, or to
+transpose a song; such infringements can be prosecuted and the full
+penalty exacted. It can be readily understood that such copying deprives
+the composer or proprietor of his just returns from the sales of his
+work. To secure a copyright in the United States of America it is
+necessary to print on each and every copy, Copyright (date) by (name of
+proprietor), and to send to the Registrar of Copyright, Washington,
+D. C., two complete copies with a fee of one dollar for registration and
+a certificate under seal. The copyright is secured for twenty-eight
+years from the date of first publication with the privilege of a renewal
+for twenty-eight years, provided that notice of renewal is given the
+copyright office one year prior to the expiration of the first term.
+Securing an international copyright is usually undertaken by the
+publisher, as are also such matters as mechanical rights.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+56.--When the finished composition is ready for publication, a fair copy
+should be made and care exercised to see that it is legible and correct
+in every particular. A few suggestions as to proofreading and correcting
+may prove useful. There are certain symbols in universal use which are
+as follows:
+
+[Illustration: move over]
+
+[Illustration: take out]
+
+[Illustration: turn over]
+
+[Illustration: transpose]
+
+[Illustration: close up]
+
+[Illustration: space]
+
+[Illustration: wrong font]
+
+[Illustration: lower case]
+
+These symbols should be marked on the margin of the proof (see sample
+page), and no other instructions are necessary. Notes are indicated by
+their position on the staff not by their names. The value of a note is
+indicated by a fraction. Slurs are drawn in and indicated by the word
+"slur." Dots are encircled with a line to give them prominence.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+The numbers refer to the _Paragraph_, not the Page.
+
+                                        PARAGRAPH
+
+  Accidentals                           44-48, 51
+
+
+  Barring                                       4
+
+  Beat-lines                                   14
+
+  Bind                                         14
+
+  Black-notes                                  42
+
+
+  Change of Key                                 4
+
+  Change of Time                                7
+
+  Chords                                       54
+
+  Clefs                                         5
+
+  Common Faults      5, 6, 12, 13, 22, 34, 36, 52
+
+  Compound Time                                13
+
+  Copyright                                    55
+
+  Crossing Parts                               24
+
+
+  Direct                                        5
+
+  Dots                              20, 9, 14, 40
+
+
+  Erasures                                     53
+
+  Extracting a Single Part                     50
+
+
+  Facility                                     54
+
+
+  German Quarter Note Rests                    17
+
+  Grace-notes                                  23
+
+  Groups                   13, 23, 30, 32, 35, 38
+
+
+  Half Note Head with Eighth Note Hook         42
+
+  Historical Notes              7, 14, 21, 27, 31
+
+  Hooks                                    29, 42
+
+
+  Introductory                                  1
+
+
+  Key Signature                              4, 6
+
+
+  Leger-lines                                  36
+
+  Legibility                                   52
+
+
+  Mapping-out                                   4
+
+  Mercer's Psalter                              4
+
+  Morley's _Practical Music_                   14
+
+
+  Notation of Rhythm                        8, 32
+
+
+  Open Score                           16, 20, 23
+
+  Open Score to Short Score                    41
+
+  Organ Music                                  23
+
+  Over-lapping Iteration (Piano)               11
+
+
+  Paper                                         2
+
+  Part Writing                             19, 44
+
+  Pause                                        50
+
+  Placing of Notes                             14
+
+  Playford's "Whole Booke of Psalms"       27, 31
+
+
+  Rests                             15-19, 12, 50
+
+  Rhythm, Notation of                       8, 32
+
+
+  Scoring                                       3
+
+  Short Score                              18, 24
+
+  Short Score to Open                          42
+
+  Sign of Perfection                            7
+
+  Signatures                              6, 4, 7
+
+  Simple Time                                  12
+
+  Slur                                     37, 39
+
+  Sonata Pastorale                              9
+
+  Stems                                        22
+
+    Of Rests                           25, 16, 18
+
+  Stroke and Dot                                9
+
+
+  Three Parts on One Stave                     24
+
+  Ties                             10, 11, 14, 37
+
+  Time Signature                                7
+
+  Turn Over                                  4, 5
+
+
+  Unnecessary Accidentals                      51
+
+
+  Vocal music                              37, 23
+
+    (Exception 4)                          35, 40
+
+
+  Words (See also "Vocal Music")                4
+
+=> _When a higher number precedes a lower in the above index, it is
+because it refers to a more important Paragraph._
+
+
+
+
+  [ Transcriber's Note:
+
+    The following is a list of corrections made to the original.
+    The first line is the original line, the second the corrected one.
+
+  Quartet-paper: four stave score, no brackets or clefs.
+  Quartet-paper: four-stave score, no brackets or clefs.
+
+  Leger-lines,
+  Leger-lines.
+
+  cannot be white and black at the same time. In this case _the notehead
+  cannot be white and black at the same time. In this case _the note-head
+
+  ]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Write Music, by Clement A. Harris
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Write Music, by Clement A. Harris
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: How to Write Music
+       Musical Orthography
+
+Author: Clement A. Harris
+
+Editor: Mallinson Randall
+
+Release Date: August 31, 2011 [EBook #37281]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO WRITE MUSIC ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jana Srna and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<div id="tnote">
+<p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Notes:</b></p>
+
+<p>Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully
+as possible, including inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation.</p>
+
+<p>Some corrections of spelling and punctuation have been made.
+<span class="screen">They are marked <ins title="transcriber's note">like
+this</ins> in the text. The original text appears when hovering the cursor
+over the marked text.</span> A <a href="#tn-bottom">list of amendments</a> is
+at the end of the text.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h1>How to Write Music<br/>
+<small>Musical Orthography</small></h1>
+
+<p class="center" style="line-height: 1.4em;">By<br/>
+Clement A. Harris<br/>
+<small>Associate of the Royal College of Organists</small></p>
+
+<p class="center" style="line-height: 1.4em; margin: 2em auto 4em auto;">Edited by<br/>
+Mallinson Randall</p>
+
+<p class="center" style="line-height: 1.4em;"><span class="small-caps">New York</span><br/>
+The H.&nbsp;W. Gray Co.<br/>
+<small>Sole Agents for</small> <span class="small-caps">Novello &amp; Co., Ltd.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center page-break" style="line-height: 1.4em;"><span class="small-caps">Copyright</span>, 1917<br/>
+<small>BY</small><br/>
+THE H.&nbsp;W. GRAY CO.</p>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size: smaller; margin-top: 6em;">Made in the United States of America</p>
+
+<h2><a class="pagenum" name="Page_iii" title="iii"> </a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><i>The numbers refer to the Paragraph, not the Page.</i></p>
+
+<table id="toc" summary="Contents">
+<tr>
+	<td>Introductory</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Choice of Paper</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_2">2</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Scoring</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_3">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Barring</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_4">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Clefs</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_5">5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Signatures</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_6">6</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Notation of Rhythm</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_8">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Placing of Notes</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Rests</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_15">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Dots</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_20">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Stems</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_22">22</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Hooks</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_29">29</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Leger-Lines</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_36">36</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Vocal Music</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_37">37</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Open Score to Short</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_41">41</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Short Score to Open</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_47">47</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Extracting a Single Part from Score</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_50">50</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Accidentals</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_51">51</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Legibility</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_52">52</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Facility</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_54">54</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Copyright</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_55">55</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Proof Reading</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_56">56</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr style="margin: 1.25em auto; width: 4em;"/>
+
+<p class="center italic">INDEX, <a href="#Page_53">Page 53</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="center page-break" style="font-size: x-large;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_1" title="1"> </a>How to Write Music</p>
+
+<hr/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Introductory.
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Par_1">1.</a>&mdash;It is reasonable to expect that a
+musician shall be at least an accurate
+and legible writer as well as a reader of the
+language of his Art. The immense increase in
+the amount of music published, and its cheapness,
+seem rather to have increased than decreased
+this necessity, for they have vastly
+multiplied activity in the Art. If they have not
+intensified the necessity for music-writing, they
+have increased the number of those by whom
+the necessity is felt.</p>
+
+<p>Intelligent knowledge of Notation is the
+more necessary inasmuch as music-writing is in
+only a comparatively few cases mere copying.
+Even when writing from a copy, some alteration
+is frequently necessary, as will be shown
+in the following pages, requiring independent
+knowledge of the subject on the part of the
+copyist. (See <i>e.g.</i>, <a href="#Par_28">par.&nbsp;28</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Yet many musicians, thoroughly competent as
+performers, cannot write a measure of music without
+bringing a smile to the lips of the initiated.</p>
+
+<p>Many performers will play or sing a note at
+sight without hesitation, which, asked to write,
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_2" title="2"> </a>
+they will first falter over and then bungle&mdash;at
+least by writing it at the wrong octave.</p>
+
+<p>The admirable working of theoretical examination
+papers is sometimes in ridiculous contrast
+with the puerility of the writing.</p>
+
+<p>Psychologists would probably say that this
+was because conceptual action is a higher
+mental function than perceptual: in other
+words, that recollection is harder than recognition.</p>
+
+<p>The remedy is simple. Recognition must be
+developed till it becomes recollection: the writing
+of music must be taught concurrently with
+the reading of it.</p>
+
+<p>This was once the case: music-writing was a
+necessary part of a musician's education. One
+may be the more surprised at its falling
+into disuse, inasmuch as phonography&mdash;in the
+musical sense&mdash;is a distinctly pleasant occupation.
+Without being either drawing or writing,
+it partakes of the nature of both.</p>
+
+<p>But many points in the writing of music
+are not now considered to form part of the
+Rudiments of Music, and are not included in
+primers on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>Hence the following pages.</p>
+
+<p>While containing some matter which may
+have escaped the attention of more advanced
+musicians, they should, in an educational
+course, either be used along with a Primer
+on the Elements, or immediately follow it.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Choice of
+Paper.
+</p>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_3" title="3"> </a><a name="Par_2">2.</a>&mdash;The first matter to claim attention
+in making a manuscript copy of
+music is choice of the right kind of
+music-paper. This will primarily be determined
+by the number of staves each score requires.
+Most paper contains twelve staves to the page.
+This is a most convenient number, allowing for
+a two-, three-, four-, or six-stave score.</p>
+
+<p>Song-paper: three-stave score, two staves
+being braced for the piano part, with a third for
+the voice part. This latter is at a considerable
+distance above the other staves, to allow room
+for writing in the words.</p>
+
+<p>Organ-music paper: three-stave score, two
+staves braced for manual part, and another
+underneath for pedal part.</p>
+
+<p>Quartet-paper: <ins title="four stave">four-stave</ins> score, no brackets
+or clefs.</p>
+
+<p>Quartet-paper with accompaniment: six-stave
+score, two bracketed for piano part.</p>
+
+<p>Full-score paper: much smaller than short-score
+staves. Very useful for other purposes
+where a small, narrow stave is required.</p>
+
+<p>For piano and violin music, paper should be
+chosen the staves of which are wide apart, to
+allow of the large number of leger lines frequently
+required.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Scoring.
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Par_3">3.</a>&mdash;The paper chosen, the first use
+of a pen will be in ruling the score-lines.
+A &ldquo;score&rdquo; technically is as many
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_4" title="4"> </a>
+staves as are <em>performed simultaneously</em>: two in
+pianoforte music, three in organ music, four in
+an unaccompanied quartet, six in four-part
+vocal music with piano accompaniment, and
+so on. These staves have a line drawn down
+their left-hand edge. Hence the name, from
+their being <em>scored</em> through.</p>
+
+<p>Their position always being at the left-hand
+edge of the staves, and their length determined by
+the number of staves, they may be drawn before
+the length of the measures has been arranged.</p>
+
+<p>Care must be taken when a page is ruled at a
+time not to draw the score-line through more than
+the necessary number of staves. Except in a full
+score there will generally be at least two, and,
+of course, very often more, scores to the page.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Barring.
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Par_4">4.</a>&mdash;After the score-lines come the
+bar-lines. And with the arranging
+of these begins that <em>careful mapping-out</em> of the
+whole work, neglect of which will lead to endless
+annoyance and dissatisfaction.</p>
+
+<p>Some music is so uniform that a given space
+may be assigned to each measure, and consequently
+a uniform number of measures to each
+score, provided that there is no change of key
+or time. In determining this space allowance
+must be made (1) in the first measure of each
+movement for the key and time signatures,
+which may require a considerable space; (2)
+in the first measure of each score for the <em>key</em>
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_5" title="5"> </a>
+signature: the time signature is only repeated
+at the beginning of each movement or when the
+time is changed; (3) regard must be had to
+where a turn-over will come, some passages
+allowing of this so much more easily than
+others; (4) also to the number of measures
+in the entire movement, otherwise a new page
+may have to be added for only one measure!
+(5) in vocal music careful regard must be paid
+to the words as well as the notes. A syllable
+will often require more space than a note,
+consequently in very simple music the words
+require more space than the music. In florid
+compositions a syllable, on the other hand, is
+often sung, not to several notes merely, but
+to several measures, and the music requires
+much more space than the words. In the former
+case the author has found it a good plan to
+write the words first, or at least a measure or
+two of them, as a guide in estimating their
+average length. But, while the words must not
+be cramped, they must fall under the notes
+to which they are to be sung, and as these notes
+must occupy as nearly as possible their proportionate
+part of the measure, the skilful
+scribe will keep both words and music in mind
+simultaneously. Where, however, in vocal or
+instrumental music the measures vary greatly,
+one having, perhaps, a single whole note and
+the next thirty-two thirty-second notes, it is
+necessary to plan each score separately, or
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_6" title="6"> </a>
+the end may be reached with too much space
+for the last measure, but not enough for another
+one. Carrying a measure from the end
+of one score to the beginning of the next is not
+practised now, as it once was.</p>
+
+<p>Bar-lines are usually drawn through each
+stave of vocal music separately, and in instrumental
+music through as many staves as
+belong to the same instrument or group of
+instruments, <i>e.g.</i>, through the two staves of a
+piano part, and the four or five belonging to the
+&ldquo;strings&rdquo; in a full score. These instrumental
+staves are also usually connected by a brace
+at the left-hand edge of each score thus:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 202px;">
+<a name="Fig_1"><img src="images/fig01.png" width="202" height="118" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;1.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Uniform bar-lines may be ruled a page at a
+time, if care be taken not to make the line continuous
+through more than the required number
+of staves. It is a fault which one commits
+the moment watchfulness is relaxed, and entails
+much scratching out. Where the measures vary
+in length the ruling will most readily be done in
+light pencil with a T square, and afterwards
+inked. A single bar-line out of the perpendicular
+will spoil the appearance of a whole page.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Clefs.
+</p>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_7" title="7"> </a><a name="Par_5">5.</a>&mdash;The first actual musical characters
+to be written are the clefs.
+Misconception of the function of these is so
+common, not among practical musicians only,
+but on the part of elementary theorists, that a
+few words of explanation are necessary. The
+commonest fallacies are to suppose that if
+clefs are the right shape their exact position
+on the stave does not matter, and that their
+position varies. Both suppositions are, to
+quote a delightful Ruskinism, &ldquo;accurately
+false.&rdquo; A clef identifies and originally was used
+with <em>a single line</em>, and identifies others only
+by their relationship to this. Hence its precise
+shape is of less importance than its being on
+the right line. Indeed, the shape of clefs has
+varied so much that many able practical musicians
+do not know that they were originally
+simple letters, the treble clef a small &ldquo;g,&rdquo; the
+bass clef a small &ldquo;f.&rdquo; From this beginning has
+been evolved so elaborate a sign, sometimes
+not merely covering all the lines of a stave,
+but going beyond them, that it is necessary
+to explain which line a clef is on. Thus the
+&ldquo;G,&rdquo; or treble clef, is on that line which its
+interior termination is on, and which it curls
+round, touching it in all <em>four times</em>. The upper
+part of the treble clef is sometimes kept within
+the stave, but, as in the present examples,
+more often rises above the stave. The point is
+merely a matter of taste.</p>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_8" title="8"> </a>The C clef is on that line which has an oblique
+or straight stroke, or pot-hook, above and below.</p>
+
+<p>The F clef is on that line which its interior
+termination is on, and which it curls round
+either to the right or the left, and which has a
+dot above and below.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 337px;">
+<a name="Fig_2"><img src="images/fig02.png" width="337" height="56" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;2.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>And this position never varies. Whatever
+line the F clef is on is F, however many or few
+lines may be above or below it.</p>
+
+<p>In olden days any clef line might be taken
+with any number of lines above and below. For
+instance, the F line with two lines below and
+two above; or three below and one above.
+This is not now done with treble and bass
+clefs, which are only used with respectively the
+top and bottom five lines of the Great Stave of
+eleven lines. Hence care must be taken to
+write the treble clef on the <em>second</em>, and the
+bass clef on the <em>fourth</em> line of its stave. But it
+is still customary to use the C clef, especially
+in viola and trombone music, with both two
+lines above and two below, making the alto
+stave; and three below and one above, making
+the tenor stave. These staves are also used in
+old vocal music, and familiarity with them is
+absolutely necessary in all advanced theoretical
+examinations. The C clef, therefore, <em>appears</em>
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_9" title="9"> </a>
+to move, being sometimes on the third and
+sometimes on the fourth line. Really it is
+always on the same line, and it is the <em>selection
+of lines</em> which varies. Hence the misdescription
+of the treble and bass clefs as &ldquo;immovable,&rdquo;
+the C clef as &ldquo;movable.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Note that all clefs are on lines; no clef is in a
+space. This is because the first attempt to
+accurately represent music to the eye was by
+means of a single line with a letter at the beginning.
+This was what has since become the
+fourth line, the clef line, of the bass stave.</p>
+
+<p>In pianoforte and organ music, high parts
+for the left hand, or low ones for the right,
+may be written either:</p>
+
+<p>By means of leger lines (<a href="#Fig_3">Fig.&nbsp;3</a>, <i>a</i>);</p>
+
+<p>By changing the clef (<i>b</i>); or</p>
+
+<p>By writing the part in the stave proper to the
+other hand (<i>c</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 491px;">
+<a name="Fig_3"><img src="images/fig03.png" width="491" height="131" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;3.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The example, of course, illustrates a high
+part for the left hand.</p>
+
+<p>The first method is the hardest to write and
+read. There is not much to choose between
+the second and third. If the third be adopted
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_10" title="10"> </a>
+care must be taken not to insert rests in the
+vacant stave: their absence shows that the
+<em>hand</em> is not resting.</p>
+
+<p>When a part, in organ or piano music, though
+mainly in its proper stave, <em>begins</em> with notes
+more easily written in the other, the clef proper
+to the part should be inserted, as showing its
+general character, and immediately followed
+by that in which the notes are most conveniently
+written. Thus <a href="#Fig_3">Fig.&nbsp;3</a>, <i>b</i>, if the <em>first</em> measure
+of a composition, should have an F clef immediately
+preceding the G clef in the left-hand
+part.</p>
+
+<p>A change of clef affecting the <em>first note of
+a score</em> should be anticipated in the last
+measure of the previous score, and repeated
+in the measure affected. This is especially
+the case in regard to the first score of a new
+page involving a turn-over. In addition to
+anticipating the clef, the old plan of inserting
+a &ldquo;direct&rdquo; is to be recommended. See
+<a href="#Fig_4">Fig.&nbsp;4</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 485px;">
+<a name="Fig_4"><img src="images/fig04.png" width="485" height="156" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;4.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_11" title="11"> </a>The signature should be repeated in the
+changed clef. After a change of clef in the
+<em>middle</em> of a score this is, of course, not necessary.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Signatures.
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Par_6">6.</a>&mdash;Following the clef comes the key
+signature. In printed music this is
+repeated at the beginning of every score. As
+preventing many mistakes the repetition is
+desirable. But in manuscript music it is
+very usual to repeat it only at the head of each
+page. Common faults are:</p>
+
+<p>(1) Placing the sharps or flats at the wrong
+octave. The first sharp should, in the treble
+clef, be on the top line, not in the bottom
+space. And the second flat should be in the
+top space, not on the bottom line. The customary
+way of writing signatures is not, in the
+writer's opinion, invariably the best. But
+solecisms, though not in themselves inaccurate,
+should be avoided as causing unnecessary trouble
+and confusion.</p>
+
+<p>(2) A perhaps commoner fault is in not
+allowing sufficient space for the signature, and
+therefore cramping it. Each sharp or flat
+should be well to the right-hand of the preceding
+one, never over or under it.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Sharps, flats, and naturals, like clefs,
+cover much more of the stave than the single
+line or space which they govern. Not nearly
+enough care is usually exercised to make the
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_12" title="12"> </a>
+center of the sharp, or the loop of the flat,
+exactly correspond with this, as it should.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_7">7.</a>&mdash;The time signature need only be inserted
+where there is a change of movement. In
+common time there is a choice between the
+numeral signature &ldquo;4/4&rdquo; and the letter signature
+&ldquo;C.&rdquo; The latter is the more interesting
+historically. Originally it was not a letter at
+all; the monks, who originated modern musical
+notation, called triple time &ldquo;perfect&rdquo; in honor
+of the Blessed Trinity, and represented it
+with the sign of perfection&mdash;a circle: common,
+or quadruple time, they called imperfect, and
+cut a slice out of the right-hand side of the
+circle to represent imperfection. This printers,
+not unnaturally, mistook for the initial letter
+of &ldquo;Common Time.&rdquo; But the numeral signature
+is rapidly superseding this, as showing the
+exact value of a measure, and being in accordance
+with the signatures of all other kinds of
+time.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Notation of
+Rhythm.
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Par_8">8.</a>&mdash;Following the time-signature
+come the notes. The guiding principle
+in writing these is that their right
+interpretation shall be apparent to the eye.
+Two points are of paramount importance.
+These are (1) the selection of the right characters
+(this of course only affects those who are writing
+original compositions or arrangements, not
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_13" title="13"> </a>
+mere copists), and (2) the correct placing of
+these in the measure. The bare duration of a
+note, its merely arithmetical value, can generally
+be expressed in more ways than one. But
+this is not sufficient. That way must be selected
+which represents its <em>rhythm</em>, its correct accentuation,
+<em>to the eye</em>. Simple forms of time, as
+distinct from Compound, contain but few
+pitfalls, and even an inexperienced writer is
+not likely to go far wrong.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_9">9.</a>&mdash;It may be as well to warn such an one,
+however, that it is not nowadays customary
+to dot an unaccented note or rest. The dot
+in this case would represent the succeeding
+accented beat, and not represent it nearly as
+significantly as does a tied note or separate
+rest; compare <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, <a href="#Fig_5">Fig.&nbsp;5</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 371px;">
+<a name="Fig_5"><img src="images/fig05.png" width="371" height="116" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;5.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_10">10.</a>&mdash;Tied notes should not be employed
+where a single note would represent the same
+sound <em>without misrepresenting the rhythm</em>.
+Their chief function is to represent durations
+which <em>cannot</em> be represented by a single character,
+such as five eighth notes.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_14" title="14"> </a><a name="Par_11">11.</a>&mdash;In pianoforte music a note is very
+occasionally intended to be reiterated before
+the first iteration has ceased to sound. This
+is effected by allowing the key to rise sufficiently
+to release the hammer, but not sufficiently to
+reimpose the damper on the string. The second
+sound therefore overtakes the first. (It is
+comparatively easy on some pianos and very
+hard on others.) As the sound, though periodically
+reinforced, is continuous, the composer
+indicates his intention by a tie. There is nothing
+but one's judgment to distinguish this from
+the ordinary kind of tie. The chief indication
+is the employment of a tie where a single musical
+character would otherwise have been better.
+For instance, the following tied sixteenth notes
+from the Adagio of Beethoven's Sonata, Op.&nbsp;106,
+could better have been represented by
+eighth notes, had it not been for the intention
+of overlapping iteration (<a href="#Fig_6">Fig.&nbsp;6</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 341px;">
+<a name="Fig_6"><img src="images/fig06.png" width="341" height="82" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;6.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ties commencing in measure 134 of
+Beethoven's well-known Sonata Pastorale were
+evidently regarded by Cipriani Potter as of
+this order. As having been a personal friend
+of Beethoven's he was likely to know. (The
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_15" title="15"> </a>
+great composer refers to him in corresponding
+with Ries in 1818.) The duration of these
+notes <em>could not have been written otherwise</em> than
+by means of ties. The above test is therefore
+inapplicable; this is evidently why, in the edition
+edited by Potter, they are marked with a
+tie <em>plus</em> a dot and horizontal stroke (<a href="#Fig_6a">Fig.&nbsp;6a</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;">
+<a name="Fig_6a"><img src="images/fig06a.png" width="275" height="69" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;6a.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another indication is the tying of an unaccented
+note to an accented one, thus obliterating
+the accent if the tie be observed literally
+(instances occur in Chopin's Valse, Op.&nbsp;31, No.&nbsp;1).
+So much critical judgment, however, is
+required to distinguish this treatment from that
+proper to a tie, that composers would do well to
+adopt some such method as Cipriani Potter's
+to make their exact meaning clear.</p>
+
+<p>This interpretation of a tie, according to which
+the notes, since they overlap, are <em>just not separated</em>,
+must not be confused with the <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">mezzo-staccato</i>
+touch, also indicated with a slur, but
+having dots also (in the case of a single note
+indicated by a stroke with a dot), and which
+means that the notes are to be <em>just not joined</em>.
+In <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">legato</i>, of course, they should be neither separated
+nor overlapping, but exactly contiguous.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_16" title="16"> </a><a name="Par_12">12.</a>&mdash;The commonest errors in simple time
+are not in regard to notes, but rests. This is
+because silence <em>cannot be divided or syncopated</em>,
+and therefore that would often be quite right as
+a representation of sound which is quite wrong
+as a representation of silence. Thus a beat
+should not be represented by two rests where one
+would do, though it might be by two notes (see
+<i>a</i>, <a href="#Fig_7">Fig.&nbsp;7</a>). Nor one rest represent parts of two
+beats (see <i>b</i>, <a href="#Fig_7">Fig.&nbsp;7</a>). Nor one rest represent an
+unaccented and an accented beat (see <i>c</i>, <a href="#Fig_7">Fig.&nbsp;7</a>).
+In triple time it is better to avoid a single rest
+representing the latter and greater part of a
+measure (see <i>d</i>, <a href="#Fig_7">Fig.&nbsp;7</a>), indeed, it may be said that
+half-note rests should not be used in triple time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 486px;">
+<a name="Fig_7"><img src="images/fig07.png" width="486" height="127" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;7.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_13">13.</a>&mdash;But in compound time errors, if not
+more numerous in kind, are much more common
+anyway in regard to <em>notes</em> as distinct from rests.
+A note should never be written which represents
+a beat and <em>part</em> of another. The commonest
+violation of this principle&mdash;and it is very common&mdash;is
+in writing a dotted half note in six-eight
+time; this divides the measure into three
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_17" title="17"> </a>
+thirds instead of two halves, by representing
+a beat-and-a-third and two thirds of a beat
+(see <i>a</i>, <a href="#Fig_8">Fig.&nbsp;8</a>). A beat-and-a-third, if required,
+should be represented by a note of the value of
+a beat tied to one of the value of a third, never
+by a single note equalling both&mdash;a half note in
+this case (see <i>b</i>, <a href="#Fig_8">Fig.&nbsp;8</a>). A similar principle
+applies to rests. A measure's silence should be
+represented by rests divisible into beats, not by
+rests which fuse a beat and part of the next (see
+<i>c</i>, <a href="#Fig_8">Fig.&nbsp;8</a>). Two dotted quarter notes in twelve-sixteen
+time are not so bad as a dotted half
+note in six-eight time, as they correctly represent
+the division of the measure into two halves,
+but they misrepresent these halves as consisting
+of three sixths of a measure whereas they rhythmically
+consist of two quarters (see <i>d</i>, <a href="#Fig_8">Fig.&nbsp;8</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 471px;">
+<a name="Fig_8"><img src="images/fig08.png" width="471" height="274" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;8.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_18" title="18"> </a>A twelve-sixteen measure of <em>silence</em> is much
+easier to write, since it can be done by a single
+whole note rest, which is also commonly used
+as a measure-rest, irrespective of the value of
+the measure. (Hence the German name <i lang="de" xml:lang="de">taktpause</i>.)
+The six-eight measure of silence (see
+<i>c</i>, <a href="#Fig_8">Fig.&nbsp;8</a>) might also, of course, have been written
+in the above way, or by <em>quarter</em>, <em>eighth</em>, <em>quarter</em>,
+<em>eighth</em> rests in place of the dotted rests.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Placing of
+Notes.
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Par_14">14.</a>&mdash;The characters which will correctly
+represent the given rhythm
+having been determined, the second
+point is the correct placing of them in the measure.
+Mentally, at least, the measure should be
+divided into as many equal portions as there
+are beats in it. One well-known composer, it is
+said, <em>rules</em> beat-lines in light pencil, as well as
+bar-lines, in his full scores. In very elaborate
+music this symmetrical arrangement cannot be
+fully carried out; sixty-four sixty-fourth notes
+cannot be written in the same space as one whole
+note; and a whole note would look lost in the
+space required for the sixty-fourth notes. But
+simple music can be made quite symmetrical,
+and in all music such beat-lines, actual or mental,
+are an invaluable check and guide.</p>
+
+<p>Each note should be placed in the <em>left</em>-hand
+end of its space. This is for the simple reason
+that music, like words, is read from left to right
+and, roughly, space represents duration. Any
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_19" title="19"> </a>
+other arrangement is misleading, as may be
+seen from old music, in which a note was often
+placed in the <em>middle</em> of its space. The following
+(<a href="#Fig_9">Fig.&nbsp;9</a>) is an example from an organ work of
+Rinck's (1770&ndash;1846).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 186px;">
+<a name="Fig_9"><img src="images/fig09.png" width="186" height="53" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;9.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>But for the fact that in open score half notes
+below the middle line have their stems turned
+down, even an expert would not improbably
+suppose the time to be four half notes in the bar.
+This is not the case, the time is two half notes
+and the whole note is to be sounded <em>simultaneously</em>
+with the two half notes.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Confusion worse confounded,&rdquo; is, so far as
+the eye is concerned, hardly too strong a term
+to apply to the results of this illogical method
+when applied to polyphonic music. Compare
+<i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, <a href="#Fig_10">Fig.&nbsp;10</a>, in the former of which four
+notes intended to be begun simultaneously are
+no two of them in line, owing to each being in
+the <em>middle</em> of its space!</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 410px;">
+<a name="Fig_10"><img src="images/fig10.png" width="410" height="132" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;10.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_20" title="20"> </a>This practice was consistently carried out,
+even when it involved writing a note on the bar-line!
+or a note in one measure and its dot in the
+next (see <a href="#Fig_11">Fig.&nbsp;11</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;">
+<a name="Fig_11"><img src="images/fig11.png" width="380" height="46" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;11.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>(Pianists will recall a modern instance, so
+far as the dot is concerned, in a little exercise
+in C major of Czerny's.)</p>
+
+<p>The practice cannot have been due to the
+non-invention of the &ldquo;tie&rdquo; or &ldquo;bind.&rdquo; For
+though the first use of this is difficult to trace,
+clear instances, in the form of a bracket, ︷,
+occur in Morley's <cite>Practical Music</cite>, published
+in 1597.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Rests.
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Par_15">15.</a>&mdash;Rests, especially whole note
+rests, when used for a whole measure,
+are still very often illogically placed
+in the <em>middle</em> of the space they represent. This
+has been defended on the ground that they represent
+silence or <em>inaction</em>, and that therefore no
+error can arise from their appearance being deferred.
+But a performer should be conscious of
+the action <em>or inaction</em> of every voice or part.
+If there be a seeming vacuum or hiatus, how is
+he to know whether it is a note or rest which has
+been omitted? If he concludes, from the absence
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_21" title="21"> </a>
+of any note, that a rest is intended, he can
+only <em>guess</em> how long it will prove to be when it
+does come. Therefore, in the writer's opinion,
+rests should be located on the same principle as
+notes. If it be not a profanation to say so, since
+the example is from Bach, the rest in <a href="#Fig_12">Fig.&nbsp;12</a>
+would have been better placed at the beginning
+of the measure. Let a sheet of paper be held
+over the right half of the measure, and though
+the player will be able to begin, he will not know
+in how many parts the piece is written.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 184px;">
+<a name="Fig_12"><img src="images/fig12.png" width="184" height="107" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;12.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_16">16.</a>&mdash;In open score, that is, in writing a single
+melody or part on one stave, it is usual to make
+whole note rests below the fourth line, and
+half note rests above the third. Quarter note
+rests should be written exactly in the middle of
+the stave. The crook of eighth note rests, and
+the upper crook of shorter rests, is generally
+placed in the third space, in the absence of any
+reason to the contrary. The stems of rests are,
+in manuscript music especially, better slanted
+somewhat. This helps to distinguish them from
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_22" title="22"> </a>
+the stems of notes&mdash;in rapidly written manuscript
+a not unimportant thing!</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_17">17.</a>&mdash;There are two forms of quarter note
+rest, the English, which is like the eighth note
+rest but turned to the right-hand, and the
+German, which is somewhat difficult to describe.
+The German is far the better of the two as being
+much more distinct from the eighth note rest.
+It is, however, harder to write, and of the
+slightly varying forms, perhaps the easiest is
+that with a crook at each end of a very oblique
+stem and which is thus very much like a reversed
+letter Z (see the first example in <a href="#Fig_13">Fig.&nbsp;13</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a name="Fig_13"><img src="images/fig13.png" width="318" height="37" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption"><small>Manuscript forms of German quarter note rest.</small><br/>
+Fig.&nbsp;13.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_18">18.</a>&mdash;In short score, that is, in writing two or
+more parts or voices on one stave, the rests are
+placed, not only in the top or bottom space of
+the stave as may best indicate to which part
+they apply, but above and below it, involving,
+in the case of whole note and half note rests, the
+use of a leger-line (see <i>b</i>, <a href="#Fig_14">Fig.&nbsp;14</a>). This is
+partly because <em>the stems of all rests are turned
+down</em>, and therefore cannot be made, as the
+stems of notes can, to indicate the part they
+belong to by the direction taken. This, therefore,
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_23" title="23"> </a>
+has to be shown by their position on, or off,
+the stave (see <a href="#Fig_14">Fig.&nbsp;14</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 373px;">
+<a name="Fig_14"><img src="images/fig14.png" width="373" height="110" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;14.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It will be seen that the lower eighth note rest
+in the first example belongs to the same part
+as the following sixteenth note rest, though by
+no means on a line with it.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_19">19.</a>&mdash;In modern piano music which is not of a
+strictly part-writing character, rests often represent
+the absence, not of a part or voice, <em>but of the
+hand</em>. If the notes, though representing as
+many parts as the piece can be supposed to
+possess, are all to be played by one hand, rests
+are employed to represent the absence of the
+other.</p>
+
+<p>And in music which <em>is</em> of a part-writing character,
+though the parts are <em>incomplete</em>, rests are
+often <em>not</em> employed if both hands are engaged
+(see <a href="#Fig_3">Fig.&nbsp;3</a>, <i>c</i>, bass clef, supposing it to be of
+more than two parts).</p>
+
+<p>Bach rarely, if ever, employed rests to represent
+the hand; with him they always represent
+a voice. Thus in a melodic or one-part passage
+divided between the hands, each playing alternate
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_24" title="24"> </a>
+groups, he used no rests to represent the
+absent hand. These, appearing simultaneously
+with the notes, would have implied a second
+part. With him rests represent a living, though
+absent, voice; in modern usage they frequently
+represent, not music, but the way of playing it.
+See <a href="#Fig_15">Fig.&nbsp;15</a>, the first half of which is in <em>two</em> parts,
+therefore rests represent the thirty-second note
+silences; and the second half of which is in <em>one</em>
+part, therefore no rests are employed though
+only one hand is engaged at a time. It is from
+a B flat Prelude in Bach's <cite>Well-tempered
+Clavier</cite>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 487px;">
+<a name="Fig_15"><img src="images/fig15.png" width="487" height="275" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;15.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Dots.
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Par_20">20.</a>&mdash;Dots are used in music for
+three purposes: (1) as repeat marks,
+(2) to indicate semi-staccato, (3) to
+prolong a note one half. As repeat marks, they
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_25" title="25"> </a>
+may be placed in each of the four spaces of the
+stave (which in the writer's opinion is the better
+plan, as being less liable to confusion with time-dots),
+or in the second and third spaces only,
+in accordance with a modern custom. <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">Staccato</i>
+dots and <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">staccatissimo</i> dashes, when two parts
+are being written on one stave, should be placed
+below the note if applying to the lower part, and
+above if applying to the higher. In the case of
+open score (a single part on one stave), they are
+best placed on the side opposite the stem.</p>
+
+<p>Time-dots, or those which prolong a note one
+half, if applied to a note in a space, should be in
+the same space as the note; if applied to a note
+on a line they should be placed in the space
+above, if the next note of the part is higher, and
+in the space below if it is lower. The importance
+of this usage is often overlooked. If it
+cannot be called a rule, it is high time it was
+made one! When two parts are written on one
+stave, and a note is doubled, having two stems,
+one up and the other down, to indicate this,
+and in one part it is dotted, and in the other
+not, it is impossible, apart from this rule, to
+tell which part has the note dotted and which
+not (except, of course, from the context, which
+may expose any mistake). The following
+example from Henry Smart's &ldquo;Festive March in
+D,&rdquo; for the organ, appears to contain two dotted
+half notes. It would probably be so read by
+anyone playing the passage at sight. The context
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_26" title="26"> </a>
+shows that it is the eighth note not the
+half note which is intended to be dotted. All
+the dots except that to the last note but one
+should have been in the space <em>below</em> the note,
+where this is on a line.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 435px;">
+<a name="Fig_16"><img src="images/fig16.png" width="435" height="97" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;16.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Logic would suggest that where a doubled,
+that is a two-stemmed, note is dotted in both
+parts or voices, <em>two</em> dots should follow one above
+the other. This would, however, be awkward
+when the note was in a space; and also when it
+was on a line, if, as in the last group above, <em>both</em>
+voices proceeded to a lower note (or both to a
+higher). For according to the rule here being
+considered, both dots would have to be in the
+space below (or above).</p>
+
+<p>There is another slight inaccuracy in the
+above example which will be noticed later on.
+Let the tyro try and find it!</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_21">21.</a>&mdash;As regards distance from the note they
+prolong, time-dots may be written either <em>immediately</em>
+after such note, as in <a href="#Fig_16">Fig.&nbsp;16</a>, or in
+the part of the measure with which they synchronize,
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_27" title="27"> </a>
+as in the following excerpt from Sterndale
+Bennett's piano study &ldquo;The Lake.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 379px;">
+<a name="Fig_17"><img src="images/fig17.png" width="379" height="91" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;17.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Elsewhere throughout the same study the
+composer has placed dots immediately after the
+note they prolong. Here, therefore, he seems
+to have anticipated the objection that he was
+dotting <em>un</em>-accented notes (see &ldquo;Notation of
+Rhythm,&rdquo; <a href="#Par_9">Par.&nbsp;9</a>), and to refute it by showing
+that there are in reality two series of accents in
+each measure, at cross purposes with each other,
+that, indeed, the alto, and tenor measures are an
+eighth note behind the treble, though they could
+not be written with separate bar-lines. This is
+clear when the whole passage is seen. Observe
+that the dot to the last note of a measure is
+placed at the beginning of the next, to make the
+overlapping clear to the eye. (Also that the
+dots to the last alto and tenor quarter notes are
+placed not in the space next, but in the space
+next-but-one higher than the note they prolong.)
+Dots are not infrequently placed thus&mdash;that
+is, in or near the part of the measure with which
+they synchronize&mdash;apart from any such purpose
+as that just explained.</p>
+
+<p>The dot made its first appearance in music
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_28" title="28"> </a>
+about <span class="small-caps all-upper">A.D.</span>&nbsp;1300. Sometimes it had a tail
+(&ldquo;<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">punctus caudatus</i>&rdquo;) and looked not unlike an
+inverted comma. It did not, however, acquire
+its present meaning till about a century later.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Stems.
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Par_22">22.</a>&mdash;There is no rule as to the
+length of stems, and they vary greatly.
+The stems in a single group of notes are as often
+as not of different lengths, according to the
+position of the notes and the direction taken by
+the hook. A common fault is to make them too
+short, especially when the four hooks of a sixty-fourth
+note have to be added. This, however,
+is generally the result of a badly directed hook
+(see <i>a</i>, <a href="#Fig_18">Fig.&nbsp;18</a>).</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_23">23.</a>&mdash;As to the <em>direction</em> they take there is a
+definite rule. In open score (when one part
+only is being written on a stave), the stems of
+notes <em>above</em> the middle line should be turned
+<em>down</em>, the stems of those <em>below</em> the middle line
+should be turned <em>up</em> (see <i>b</i>, <a href="#Fig_18">Fig.&nbsp;18</a>). The object
+of this is to keep the stems within the stave and
+prevent their sprawling above or below. The
+ill-equipped writer betrays himself by nothing
+more often than by sprawling stems.</p>
+
+<p>The stems in a group of notes are generally
+turned according to the direction of the first
+note, or the majority. In a group containing a
+wide skip they are often turned individually
+according to the rule, involving opposite directions,
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_29" title="29"> </a>
+the hook being drawn between them (see
+<i>c</i>, <a href="#Fig_18">Fig.&nbsp;18</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Five exceptions are common: (1) The stem of a
+grace note is almost invariably turned upwards,
+though according to Dr. Hullah it should be
+turned in the direction contrary to that of the
+stem of the principal note, for the sake of greater
+distinctness (see <i>d</i>, <a href="#Fig_18">Fig.&nbsp;18</a>). In &ldquo;copy&rdquo; for
+the printer grace-notes are best written in red
+ink. (2) In piano music when a single part, or
+row of notes, is to be divided between the hands,
+one playing one group and the other the next,
+the stems of the right-hand notes are turned up,
+and those of the left down (see <a href="#Fig_15">Fig.&nbsp;15</a>, latter
+half of measure). (3) Similarly in some organ
+music, especially that printed in Germany,
+pedal notes which are to be played by the right
+foot have the stems turned up, those by the left,
+down. (4) In vocal music, when a subsequent
+verse, though having the same notes, requires
+different time-values from the first verse, or a
+translation requires different time-values from
+the original language, the time-values required
+by one verse or language have the stems of the
+notes turned up, those required by the other
+down (see <i>e</i>, <a href="#Fig_18">Fig.&nbsp;18</a>, from Molique's oratorio
+&ldquo;Abraham&rdquo;). (5) In music written on two
+staves, when the notes of a single group skip
+from one stave to the other, the hook is placed
+between the staves, and the stems of the notes
+on the lower stave are turned up, and of those
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_30" title="30"> </a>
+on the upper stave down, irrespective of their
+relation to the middle line of the stave (see <i>f</i>,
+<a href="#Fig_18">Fig.&nbsp;18</a>, from the &ldquo;Moonlight&rdquo; Sonata).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 488px;">
+<a name="Fig_18"><img src="images/fig18.png" width="488" height="253" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;18.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_24">24.</a>&mdash;In short score, that is when two parts
+have to be written on one stave, the stems belonging
+to the upper part should be turned upwards,
+and those to the lower downwards.
+Only by this means can the course of the parts
+be made clear to the eye. When the parts cross,
+the rule must be strictly adhered to: the note
+belonging to the upper <em>part</em>, not the <em>upper note</em>,
+must have the upward stem. To make quite
+clear which note each stem belongs to, it is well
+in this case to make the notes a little less close
+together than they otherwise would be (see <i>a</i>,
+<a href="#Fig_19">Fig.&nbsp;19</a>, a well-known case from a chant by Sir
+John Goss, where the tenor goes below the bass).
+Sometimes <em>more</em> than two parts are written on
+one stave; in this case the stems of two parts
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_31" title="31"> </a>
+must be turned the same way, and considerable
+ingenuity is required to make the course of the
+parts clear. Usually the middle part varies in
+the direction of its stems. Simultaneous notes
+are generally written not quite in a line with
+each other, to allow of separate stems: the stems
+are generally rather short, so as not to run into
+each other, and the hooks of simultaneous
+eighths and shorter notes do not concur. Two
+measures from Bach's piano fugues will illustrate
+these points (<i>b</i> and <i>c</i>, <a href="#Fig_19">Fig.&nbsp;19</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 490px;">
+<a name="Fig_19"><img src="images/fig19.png" width="490" height="91" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;19.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_25">25.</a>&mdash;The stems of rests are always turned
+downwards.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_26">26.</a>&mdash;There is also a definite rule as to the <em>side</em>
+of a note at which the stem should be placed:
+stems turned upwards should be at the right-hand
+side of the note-head, those downwards,
+at the left. This rule is observed less in the
+case of half notes than of shorter notes&mdash;for
+what reason the writer is unable to say.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_27">27.</a>&mdash;At one time whole notes and shorter
+notes were not round, but lozenge-shaped, the
+longer notes being square, and the stem was then
+in the middle, thus <img src="images/square_note.png" width="19" height="27" alt="square note"/>. These gave way to
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_32" title="32"> </a>
+round notes about the seventeenth century.
+Playford's well-known <cite>Whole Booke of Psalms</cite>,
+published about 1675, was probably one of the
+earliest books printed wholly with round notes.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_28">28.</a>&mdash;It follows from the foregoing rules that
+even so apparently simple a task as transcribing
+a part&mdash;soprano, alto, tenor, or bass&mdash;from a
+short-score hymn or chant book into a choir
+part-book is not mere copying. In the hymn
+or chant book the stems of one part are all
+turned the same way: in the part-book they
+must be turned according to their relation to the
+middle line.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Hooks.
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Par_29">29.</a>&mdash;With one exception, hooks
+should be made at the <em>right-hand</em> side
+of the stem; they are therefore sometimes at the
+same side as the note-head, and sometimes not.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_30">30.</a>&mdash;The exception is when longer and shorter
+notes are combined in the same group. In this
+case the hooks not common to the whole group
+are invariably turned so as to lie <em>within</em> the
+group, and, subject to this, if the group contains
+more than one beat, so as to lie <em>within</em>
+the beat of which they form part.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 403px;">
+<a name="Fig_20"><img src="images/fig20.png" width="403" height="54" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;20.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_33" title="33"> </a><a name="Par_31">31.</a>&mdash;Previous to 1660, each eighth or
+shorter note had a separate hook or hooks.
+But at the time of the Restoration, John Playford
+substituted a connecting horizontal line
+for the separate hooks of two or more eighths
+belonging to the same division of the measure.
+The device was copied by the Dutch, French,
+and Germans. The Italians did not adopt it
+till later. Thus, Marcello's Psalms, published
+in Venice as late as 1724&ndash;27, have separate
+hooks. (In an edition in the writer's possession,
+published in 1757, <em>united</em> hooks are used, but
+this is probably rather due to the <em>venue</em> than to
+the later date.)</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_32">32.</a>&mdash;Hooks in instrumental music must be
+united in strict accordance with the laws of
+rhythm (see &ldquo;Notation of Rhythm,&rdquo; pars.&nbsp;<a href="#Par_8">8</a>&ndash;13).
+Thus, four eighth notes must not have the same
+hook in Compound Time: they must be
+grouped as three and one, or one and three, or
+two and two, according to the position they
+occupy in the beat they belong to. In three-four
+time, six eighth notes may have one hook,
+but in six-eight time they should preferably
+have separate hooks of three eighth notes each.
+Broadly speaking, the notes forming a single
+beat of the measure should be united in one
+hook, but very commonly two beats have one
+hook between them, especially in four-four
+time.</p>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_34" title="34"> </a>In the case of sixteenths and shorter notes,
+the outermost hook often shows the half-measure,
+and the inner hook or hooks the sub-division
+into beats (see <a href="#Fig_21">Fig.&nbsp;21</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 487px;">
+<a name="Fig_21"><img src="images/fig21.png" width="487" height="51" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;21.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_33">33.</a>&mdash;So closely should the hooks follow the
+rhythm, that where a phrase crosses the measure
+beginning at the end of one measure, and ending
+at the beginning of the next, the hook
+crosses the bar-line too, uniting notes in different
+measures (see <i>a</i>, <a href="#Fig_22">Fig.&nbsp;22</a>). Notes may have the
+same hook though separated by a rest (see <i>b</i>,
+<a href="#Fig_22">Fig.&nbsp;22</a>).</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_34">34.</a>&mdash;The hook to a group of notes which ascends
+or descends may either slant in the direction
+taken by the notes, or may be straight (see
+<i>c</i>, <a href="#Fig_22">Fig.&nbsp;22</a>). In the writer's opinion slanted
+hooks are preferable as being a better guide to
+the eye. In manuscript music, when hooks
+have to be drawn within the stave, and not
+above or below it, they should invariably be
+slanted when this is possible; otherwise they
+are very apt to coincide with the stave-lines,
+and fail of distinctness. A common fault is in
+not making them thick enough. Notes are
+sometimes &ldquo;hooked&rdquo; in accordance, not with
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_35" title="35"> </a>
+the rhythm, but with the hand which is to play
+them (see <i>d</i>, <a href="#Fig_22">Fig.&nbsp;22</a>). This is necessitated by
+the usage with regard to stems in such cases
+[see &ldquo;Stems,&rdquo; <a href="#Par_22">par.&nbsp;22</a>, exception (2)].</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 489px;">
+<a name="Fig_22"><img src="images/fig22.png" width="489" height="184" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;22.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_35">35.</a>&mdash;In vocal music notes should not have
+the same hook which are sung to a different
+syllable (see &ldquo;Vocal Music,&rdquo; <a href="#Par_37">par.&nbsp;37</a>). Subject
+to these exceptions, notes must be grouped
+according to their rhythm.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+<ins title="Leger-lines,">Leger-lines.</ins>
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Par_36">36.</a>&mdash;The appeal to the eye (see
+&ldquo;Notation of Rhythm,&rdquo; <a href="#Par_8">par.&nbsp;8</a>, and
+&ldquo;Placing of Notes,&rdquo; <a href="#Par_14">par.&nbsp;14</a>) must be maintained
+as regards the pitch as well as the duration
+of notes&mdash;their perpendicular as well as
+their horizontal position. Consequently leger-lines
+must be the same distance from the stave,
+and from each other, as the stave-lines are one
+from another. Carelessness in this matter is
+very common and very confusing. How often
+a lower note looks as though above a higher one,
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_36" title="36"> </a>
+because leger-lines are cramped together in one
+case and too wide apart in another (see <a href="#Fig_23">Fig.&nbsp;23</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 211px;">
+<a name="Fig_23"><img src="images/fig23.png" width="211" height="115" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;23.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Two things which are equal to the same
+thing are equal to each other,&rdquo; as Euclid says:
+let leger-lines be equidistant with stave-lines,
+and they will be level with each other.</p>
+
+<p>But accuracy in the number of lines is of
+more importance than the appeal to the eye,
+and the appeal to the eye must of course not be
+made a substitute for it. The context shows the
+high note in <a href="#Fig_24">Fig.&nbsp;24</a> (which is several times
+repeated) to have been <em>intended</em> for E, the position
+of which, on the paper, it about occupies.
+But, being on the first leger-line, it <em>is</em> A, and
+would be were it a yard above the stave! (The
+example is taken from a <em>printed</em>, not a manuscript
+copy! The first two notes are evidently
+intended as grace-notes, though the stems are
+turned down; the stems in the second half of
+the first measure should have been turned up.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;">
+<a name="Fig_24"><img src="images/fig24.png" width="323" height="80" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;24.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Vocal Music.
+</p>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_37" title="37"> </a><a name="Par_37">37.</a>&mdash;In vocal music the singing of
+one syllable to two or more notes is
+shown in the case of whole notes, half notes,
+and quarters, by a slur (see <a href="#Fig_25">Fig.&nbsp;25</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 492px;">
+<a name="Fig_25"><img src="images/fig25.png" width="492" height="94" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;25.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It will be seen from the above that a slur
+does not dispense with the necessity for tying
+consecutive notes of the same pitch, occurring
+in a passage sung to one syllable. For an
+apparent exception see a passage from Handel's
+&ldquo;But who may abide&rdquo;:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 415px;">
+<a name="Fig_26"><img src="images/fig26.png" width="415" height="76" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;26.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>But here, the repeated note occurring on a
+strong accent preceded by a weak one, is evidently
+intended <em>not</em> to be tied, but to receive
+an emphasis. (Similar exceptions may be
+found in &ldquo;Every Valley.&rdquo;)</p>
+
+<p>In modern music, when <em>all the notes of a measure</em>
+are to be sung to the <em>same</em> syllable, and there
+is <em>no likelihood of confusion</em>, the slur is often
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_38" title="38"> </a>
+dispensed with. This is especially the case in
+Mendelssohn's music.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 487px;">
+<a name="Fig_27"><img src="images/fig27.png" width="487" height="99" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;27.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_38">38.</a>&mdash;Eighths and shorter notes, to which one
+syllable is to be sung, should have a united hook,
+<em>provided that they belong to the same rhythmic
+group</em>; and <em>separate</em> hooks, though belonging to
+the same <em>rhythmic</em> group, if sung to separate
+syllables:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 338px;">
+<a name="Fig_28"><img src="images/fig28.png" width="338" height="73" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;28.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_39">39.</a>&mdash;Many writers place a slur over eighth
+notes, as well as quarters and longer notes, when
+sung to one syllable. But this is quite unnecessary
+with hooked notes unless, as in the preceding
+example, a syllable is sung to a whole group
+and <em>part</em> of another, or <em>parts</em> of two groups.
+Redundancy of slurs&mdash;very common in old
+music&mdash;is confusing rather than helpful.</p>
+
+<p>Intelligibility depends much upon getting the
+syllables exactly under or over the notes to
+which they are to be sung.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_39" title="39"> </a><a name="Par_40">40.</a>&mdash;Syllables sung to notes extending over
+more space than themselves should be followed
+by dots if forming a complete word, and by
+strokes, or hyphens, if parts of a word. See
+preceding examples.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Open Score
+to Short
+Score.
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Par_41">41.</a>&mdash;In transcribing from open
+score to short score, a single sound
+sung by two voices simultaneously
+beginning <em>and ending</em> at the same time, should,
+if a whole note, be represented by two note-heads
+linked; if a half note or shorter note, by
+having two stems, one up and the other down:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 192px;">
+<a name="Fig_29"><img src="images/fig29.png" width="192" height="56" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;29.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_42">42.</a>&mdash;<em>Black</em> notes, though of <em>different</em> lengths,
+may have the same note-head if they <em>begin</em> at
+the same time, the difference being shown in the
+hook or hooks:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 176px;">
+<a name="Fig_30"><img src="images/fig30.png" width="176" height="77" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;30.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>But a whole note and a half note must have
+separate note-heads, since a stem would turn a
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_40" title="40"> </a>
+whole note into a half note; and a whole note
+or half note and a quarter note must have
+separate note-heads, since a note cannot be
+white and black at the same time. In this
+case <em>the <ins title="notehead">note-head</ins> of shorter duration must be
+written first</em>:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 485px;">
+<a name="Fig_31"><img src="images/fig31.png" width="485" height="67" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;31.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The rule is sometimes relaxed, and the longer
+note written first, when the shorter note is the
+first of a group.</p>
+
+<p>Albeit a half note and an eighth, or other
+hooked note, may have the same note-head,
+<em>provided this be that of the half note</em>, because the
+hook shows that in one part the note is intended
+to be read as an eighth note. They cannot
+have an eighth note-head because there is nothing
+to distinguish the stem of a half note from
+that of a quarter:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 233px;">
+<a name="Fig_32"><img src="images/fig32.png" width="233" height="78" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;32.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_43">43.</a>&mdash;Notes cannot have the same note-head
+which <em>begin</em> at different times, even though they
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_41" title="41"> </a>
+<em>end</em> at the same time. This would involve
+writing one of them in the wrong part of the
+measure (see &ldquo;Placing of Notes,&rdquo; <a href="#Par_14">par.&nbsp;14</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 415px;">
+<a name="Fig_33"><img src="images/fig33.png" width="415" height="88" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;33.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Hence, as a dotted quarter is a sixteenth
+shorter than two dotted eighths and a sixteenth,
+and therefore the final note does not <em>begin</em> at
+the same time (though it <em>ends</em> at the same time)
+in the treble and alto parts of the last group of
+<a href="#Fig_16">Fig.&nbsp;16</a> (<a href="#Par_35">par.&nbsp;35</a>), the example is inaccurate.
+It should have been written thus:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 148px;">
+<a name="Fig_34"><img src="images/fig34.png" width="148" height="78" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;34.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="no-indent">and would be so played were the passage given,
+say, to two violins.</p>
+
+<p>[The tyro must not mistake the above two
+final note-heads, the <em>longer</em> of which comes
+first, for a breach of the rule exemplified in <a href="#Fig_31">Fig.&nbsp;31</a>
+(<a href="#Par_42">par.&nbsp;42</a>), and which applies to two notes
+which <em>begin</em> at the same time. Here the longer
+note begins <em>before</em> the shorter one.]</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_42" title="42"> </a><a name="Par_44">44.</a>&mdash;In part-music all the accidentals in an
+open score will have to be reproduced in short
+score. Each performer is only supposed to
+read his own part, and cannot be assumed to
+have seen an accidental in another part which,
+had it been seen, would have rendered one in his
+own unnecessary. Thus the sharps in <a href="#Fig_35">Fig.&nbsp;35</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 192px;">
+<a name="Fig_35"><img src="images/fig35.png" width="192" height="227" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;35.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="no-indent">will remain in a transcription to short score,</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 190px;">
+<a name="Fig_36"><img src="images/fig36.png" width="190" height="125" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;36.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="no-indent">if intended for part-singers or players. (A
+pianist or organist would not need the second
+sharp in each stave, while probably <em>preferring</em>
+it as a recognition of the part-writing character
+of the music.)</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_43" title="43"> </a><a name="Par_45">45.</a>&mdash;In music which is <em>not</em> part-writing, the
+transcriber will have to use his discretion as to
+the repetition of accidentals which have already
+appeared in another &ldquo;part&rdquo; in the same measure.
+The guiding principle will be to avoid the likelihood
+of error on the part of a competent reader.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_46">46.</a>&mdash;Care must be taken to turn the stems of
+half notes and shorter notes according to the
+principles of short score, and not necessarily
+as they are in the open score.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Short Score
+to Open
+Score.
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Par_47">47.</a>&mdash;Co-relatively, in transcribing
+from short score to open, it will occasionally
+be necessary to put accidentals
+in the latter which are not in the former.
+The commonest form of this is probably in
+extracting a single part, soprano, alto, tenor,
+or bass, from an ordinary short score hymn or
+chant book, and writing it in a part-book for
+the particular voice. Thus, in transcribing the
+tenor of the following extract from the hymn-tune
+&ldquo;Heathlands&rdquo; into a part-book, it would
+be necessary to insert a natural before the A.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 288px;">
+<a name="Fig_37"><img src="images/fig37.png" width="288" height="139" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;37.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_44" title="44"> </a><a name="Par_48">48.</a>&mdash;Far more often, however, it is necessary
+to <em>omit</em> naturals used to contradict an accidental
+occurring in a part which is not being copied.
+Thus, in the following extract from the tune
+&ldquo;Endless Alleluia,&rdquo; the natural in both the
+tenor and bass would be unnecessary were these
+parts written out separately from the other
+parts and each other.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 249px;">
+<a name="Fig_38"><img src="images/fig38.png" width="249" height="133" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;38.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>(The A sharp in the tenor of this extract suggests
+C sharp so strongly apart from the rest
+of the harmony, that the natural is almost a
+necessity even had the previous treble C sharp
+not been included. Not being required according
+to rule, however, it should be enclosed in
+brackets&mdash;a not infrequent, and very commendable,
+device with careful writers, when an accidental
+is desirable but not necessary according
+to rule.)</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a name="Par_49">49.</a>&mdash;The stems, of course, must be turned up
+or down according to their position above or
+below the middle line, and not as in the short
+score.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Extracting
+a Single
+Part.
+</p>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_45" title="45"> </a><a name="Par_50">50.</a>&mdash;In copying out a single part
+from a score, full or short, care must
+be taken in abbreviating a number of
+measures' rest. The usual way of doing this
+is to write the number of measures over a single
+measure, thus:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 155px;">
+<a name="Fig_39"><img src="images/fig39.png" width="155" height="54" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;39.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>But if a pause occurs in any of the other parts
+of the score this will not do. The number of
+bars before the pause must be counted, and the
+pause&mdash;or pauses&mdash;shown in the abbreviation as
+follows, assuming it to occur in the thirteenth bar:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 306px;">
+<a name="Fig_40"><img src="images/fig40.png" width="306" height="54" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;40.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Accidentals.
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Par_51">51.</a>&mdash;The necessity for inserting
+accidentals in a part-copy which may
+not appear in a short-score, has just been
+pointed out. Yet the musical Hercules is beset
+with a Charybdis as well as a Scylla. He may
+be drawn into the bad and very irritating
+modern habit of using accidentals which are not
+really called for. Accidentals where unnecessary
+are doubtless used with the object of
+making assurance doubly sure. They have <em>precisely
+the reverse effect</em>, besides being uncomplimentary&mdash;to
+put it mildly&mdash;to the intelligence
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_46" title="46"> </a>
+of the performer. Sharps, flats, and naturals
+which sometimes are <em>foreign</em> to the signature,
+and sometimes <em>duplicate</em> it, cause confusion
+where there was previously assurance. Bad
+enough at all times, they are, when one is transposing
+at sight, exasperating to the last degree.</p>
+
+<p>An accidental is operative during the bar in
+which it occurs, and no further, unless it inflects
+the last note of a bar, and the next bar begins
+with the same note. It is so usual, however,
+to contradict an accidental in the bar <em>next</em> to
+that in which it occurs, that this practice may
+almost be said to have become a rule, breach of
+which might cause uncertainty in all but the
+clearest cases. This is no justification for the
+absurd practice of some writers, of contradicting
+an inflection the next time the same note <em>un</em>-inflected
+occurs, <em>however far off this may be</em>!</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, a natural should only be used where
+the sharp or flat to be cancelled would <em>not</em>
+have to be repeated were the inflection intended
+to continue.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Legibility.
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Par_52">52.</a>&mdash;A common cause of illegibility
+in manuscript music is what may be
+called a spider-like sameness in the web. Stems
+and hooks&mdash;indeed sometimes stems and note-heads!&mdash;are
+much of the same thickness and
+blackness. Compare them in printed music,
+and it will be seen that a dozen, perhaps a
+score, of stems could be spun out of one hook.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_47" title="47"> </a><a name="Par_53">53.</a>&mdash;Should it be necessary to erase and rewrite
+a note, the blurred effect too often resulting
+may be almost entirely avoided by <em>penciling</em>
+the correct note before tracing it in ink. This
+produces a lead-lined groove and prevents the
+ink from running.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Facility.
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Par_54">54.</a>&mdash;Orthography is taught by the
+careful making&mdash;drawing rather than
+writing&mdash;of large letters. The formation of a
+more rapid and individual hand does not come
+till later. So with musical phonography. The
+student, at whatever cost of time and patience,
+must first acquire <em>accuracy and clearness</em>. Not
+till <em>these are gained</em> must he think of rapidity
+and ease. Hence the consideration of facility
+has been deferred to the last.</p>
+
+<p>Facility is well worthy of consideration, especially
+on the part of those who have much music
+to write. A little thought will often show how
+a character may be made in one stroke, which
+in any other way will take two or more, and
+that without any loss of clearness.</p>
+
+<p>Thus a half note can be made in one stroke
+if begun at the point where the ring joins the
+stem; that is, at the <em>top</em> of the ring for upward
+stems, at the <em>under part</em> for downward stems.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 120px;">
+<a name="Fig_41"><img src="images/fig41.png" width="120" height="51" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;41.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_48" title="48"> </a>Quarter notes may be made in one stroke if
+the head be begun first when the stem is upward,
+and the <em>stem</em> first when the stem is downward.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 101px;">
+<a name="Fig_42"><img src="images/fig42.png" width="101" height="46" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;42.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If this very simple expedient were more generally
+known, the practice of writing downward
+as well as upward stems at the right-hand side
+of the note-head&mdash;never done in printed music&mdash;would
+not be as common as it is. It should be
+added that to make a quarter or half note satisfactorily
+in one stroke, a pliable pen, fine, but
+spreading under pressure, and rapidly recovering
+itself, is necessary, otherwise the head will be
+too thin or the stem too thick.</p>
+
+<p>Eighth notes, especially those with downward
+stems, are best made in two strokes. They can,
+however, be made in one if begun at the <em>bottom</em>.
+That is to say, those with upward stems must
+be begun at the head, and those with downward
+stems at the hook. This hook must be drawn
+thin, if made thick the pen will scratch when
+making the stem: if the head be made first the
+pen ends at the wrong side for a <em>downward</em> stem.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 113px;">
+<a name="Fig_43"><img src="images/fig43.png" width="113" height="49" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;43.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_49" title="49"> </a>Each shorter note requires an additional
+action.</p>
+
+<p>The G clef can be made in one stroke if
+begun at the innermost part of the curl, or at
+the downward extremity. The F clef requires
+three strokes, owing to the dots, each of which
+takes one to itself.</p>
+
+<p>The C clef requires four movements, so does
+a sharp. A flat may be made in one stroke,
+but is very apt to look like a half note. A
+natural requires two movements.</p>
+
+<p>Chords may be expeditiously formed, if with
+<em>downward</em> stem, by making the top note, with
+stem, first, and then adding the other notes.
+Chords with upward stems should be begun at
+the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>(The joinings are purposely left imperfect to
+show the method. The numbers show the order
+of the four actions for the four notes.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 126px;">
+<a name="Fig_44"><img src="images/fig44.png" width="126" height="102" alt=""/></a>
+<p class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;44.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p class="sidenote">
+Copyright.
+</p>
+
+<p><a name="Par_55">55.</a>&mdash;A primer on musical orthography
+is hardly complete without a
+few words on Copyright. As long as
+a work is in manuscript and copies are not
+offered for sale it enjoys the same protection,
+<a class="pagenum" name="Page_50" title="50"> </a>
+under the common law, as if properly entered
+for copyright. It is an infringement of copyright
+to copy, reprint, publish, or vend the
+whole or any portion of a copyright work for
+any purpose whatsoever. It is an infringement
+to copy a hymn tune, a portion of an anthem,
+orchestral parts, or to transpose a song; such
+infringements can be prosecuted and the full
+penalty exacted. It can be readily understood
+that such copying deprives the composer or
+proprietor of his just returns from the sales of
+his work. To secure a copyright in the United
+States of America it is necessary to print on
+each and every copy, Copyright (date) by (name
+of proprietor), and to send to the Registrar of
+Copyright, Washington, D.&nbsp;C., two complete
+copies with a fee of one dollar for registration
+and a certificate under seal. The copyright is
+secured for twenty-eight years from the date of
+first publication with the privilege of a renewal
+for twenty-eight years, provided that notice of
+renewal is given the copyright office one year
+prior to the expiration of the first term. Securing
+an international copyright is usually
+undertaken by the publisher, as are also such
+matters as mechanical rights.</p>
+
+<hr class="thought-break"/>
+
+<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_51" title="51"> </a><a name="Par_56">56.</a>&mdash;When the finished composition is ready
+for publication, a fair copy should be made and
+care exercised to see that it is legible and correct
+in every particular. A few suggestions as to
+proofreading and correcting may prove useful.
+There are certain symbols in universal use
+which are as follows:</p>
+
+<table id="symbols" summary="Proof reading symbols">
+<tr>
+    <td class="center"><img src="images/move-over.png" width="35" height="48" alt=""/></td>
+    <td>move over</td>
+    <td class="center gap"><img src="images/close-up.png" width="41" height="38" alt=""/></td>
+    <td>close up</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+    <td class="center"><img src="images/take-out.png" width="26" height="34" alt=""/></td>
+    <td>take out</td>
+    <td class="center gap"><img src="images/space.png" width="38" height="37" alt=""/></td>
+    <td>space</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+    <td class="center"><img src="images/turn-over.png" width="26" height="37" alt=""/></td>
+    <td>turn over</td>
+    <td class="center gap"><img src="images/wrong-font.png" width="74" height="45" alt=""/></td>
+    <td>wrong font</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+    <td class="center"><img src="images/transpose.png" width="52" height="32" alt=""/></td>
+    <td>transpose</td>
+    <td class="center gap"><img src="images/lower-case.png" width="77" height="42" alt=""/></td>
+    <td>lower case</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>These symbols should be marked on the margin
+of the proof (see <a href="#sample_page">sample page</a>), and no other
+instructions are necessary. Notes are indicated
+by their position on the staff not by their names.
+The value of a note is indicated by a fraction.
+Slurs are drawn in and indicated by the word
+&ldquo;slur.&rdquo; Dots are encircled with a line to give
+them prominence.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 578px;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_52" title="52"> </a>
+<a name="sample_page"><img src="images/sample_page.png" width="578" height="600" alt=""/></a>
+</div>
+
+<h2><a class="pagenum" name="Page_53" title="53"> </a>INDEX</h2>
+
+<hr/>
+
+<p class="center">The numbers refer to the <em>Paragraph</em>, not the Page.</p>
+
+<table id="index" summary="Index">
+<tr>
+    <th colspan="2">PARAGRAPH</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Accidentals</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_44">44</a>&ndash;48, <a href="#Par_51">51</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Barring</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_4">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Beat-lines</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Bind</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Black-notes</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Change of Key</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_4">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Change of Time</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_7">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Chords</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_54">54</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Clefs</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_5">5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Common Faults</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_5">5</a>, <a href="#Par_6">6</a>, <a href="#Par_12">12</a>, <a href="#Par_13">13</a>, <a href="#Par_22">22</a>, <a href="#Par_34">34</a>, <a href="#Par_36">36</a>, <a href="#Par_52">52</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Compound Time</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_13">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Copyright</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_55">55</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Crossing Parts</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_24">24</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Direct</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_5">5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Dots</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_20">20</a>, <a href="#Par_9">9</a>, <a href="#Par_14">14</a>, <a href="#Par_40">40</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Erasures</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_53">53</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Extracting a Single Part</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_50">50</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Facility</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_54">54</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">German Quarter Note Rests</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_17">17</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Grace-notes</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_23">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Groups</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_13">13</a>, <a href="#Par_23">23</a>, <a href="#Par_30">30</a>, <a href="#Par_32">32</a>, <a href="#Par_35">35</a>, <a href="#Par_38">38</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Half Note Head with Eighth Note Hook</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Historical Notes</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_7">7</a>, <a href="#Par_14">14</a>, <a href="#Par_21">21</a>, <a href="#Par_27">27</a>, <a href="#Par_31">31</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Hooks</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_29">29</a>, <a href="#Par_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Introductory</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Key Signature</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_4">4</a>, <a href="#Par_6">6</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Leger-lines</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_36">36</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Legibility</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_52">52</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Mapping-out</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_4">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Mercer's Psalter</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_4">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Morley's <cite>Practical Music</cite></td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Notation of Rhythm</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_8">8</a>, <a href="#Par_32">32</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Open Score</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_16">16</a>, <a href="#Par_20">20</a>, <a href="#Par_23">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Open Score to Short Score</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_41">41</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Organ Music</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_23">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Over-lapping Iteration (Piano)</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_11">11</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Paper</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_2">2</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Part Writing</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_19">19</a>, <a href="#Par_44">44</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Pause</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_50">50</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Placing of Notes</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Playford's &ldquo;Whole Booke of Psalms&rdquo;</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_27">27</a>, <a href="#Par_31">31</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Rests</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_15">15</a>&ndash;19, <a href="#Par_12">12</a>, <a href="#Par_50">50</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Rhythm, Notation of</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_8">8</a>, <a href="#Par_32">32</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Scoring</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_3">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Short Score</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_18">18</a>, <a href="#Par_24">24</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Short Score to Open</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Sign of Perfection</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_7">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Signatures</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_6">6</a>, <a href="#Par_4">4</a>, <a href="#Par_7">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Simple Time</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_12">12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Slur</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_37">37</a>, <a href="#Par_39">39</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Sonata Pastorale</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_9">9</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td><a class="pagenum" name="Page_54" title="54"> </a>Stems</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_22">22</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="indent">Of Rests</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_25">25</a>, <a href="#Par_16">16</a>, <a href="#Par_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Stroke and Dot</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_9">9</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Three Parts on One Stave</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_24">24</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Ties</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_10">10</a>, <a href="#Par_11">11</a>, <a href="#Par_14">14</a>, <a href="#Par_37">37</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Time Signature</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_7">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td>Turn Over</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_4">4</a>, <a href="#Par_5">5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Unnecessary Accidentals</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_51">51</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Vocal music</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_37">37</a>, <a href="#Par_23">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="indent">(Exception 4)</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_35">35</a>, <a href="#Par_40">40</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td class="new-letter">Words (See also &ldquo;Vocal Music&rdquo;)</td>
+	<td class="right"><a href="#Par_4">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr/>
+
+<p>☞ <i>When a higher number precedes a lower in the above index,
+it is because it refers to a more important Paragraph.</i></p>
+
+<div id="tnote-bottom">
+<p class="center"><a name="tn-bottom"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b></a></p>
+<p>The following is a list of corrections made to the original. The
+first passage is the original passage, the second the corrected one.</p>
+
+<ul id="corrections">
+<li><a href="#Page_3">Page 3</a>:<br/>
+Quartet-paper: <span class="correction">four stave</span> score, no brackets<br/>
+Quartet-paper: <span class="correction">four-stave</span> score, no brackets
+</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_35">Page 35</a>:<br/>
+<span class="correction">Leger-lines,</span><br/>
+<span class="correction">Leger-lines.</span>
+</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_40">Page 40</a>:<br/>
+case <i>the <span class="correction">notehead</span> of shorter duration must be</i><br/>
+case <i>the <span class="correction">note-head</span> of shorter duration must be</i>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Write Music, by Clement A. Harris
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@@ -0,0 +1,1907 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Write Music, by Clement A. Harris
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: How to Write Music
+       Musical Orthography
+
+Author: Clement A. Harris
+
+Editor: Mallinson Randall
+
+Release Date: August 31, 2011 [EBook #37281]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO WRITE MUSIC ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jana Srna and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  [ Transcriber's Notes:
+
+    Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully
+    as possible, including inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation.
+    Some corrections of spelling and punctuation have been made. They
+    are listed at the end of the text.
+
+    Italic text has been marked with _underscores_.
+  ]
+
+
+
+
+  How to Write Music
+
+  Musical Orthography
+
+  By
+  Clement A. Harris
+  Associate of the Royal College of Organists
+
+  Edited by
+  Mallinson Randall
+
+  New York
+  The H. W. Gray Co.
+  Sole Agents for Novello & Co., Ltd.
+
+
+  Copyright, 1917
+  BY
+  THE H. W. GRAY CO.
+
+
+  Made in the United States of America
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+_The numbers refer to the Paragraph, not the Page._
+
+  Introductory                              1
+
+  Choice of Paper                           2
+
+  Scoring                                   3
+
+  Barring                                   4
+
+  Clefs                                     5
+
+  Signatures                                6
+
+  Notation of Rhythm                        8
+
+  Placing of Notes                         14
+
+  Rests                                    15
+
+  Dots                                     20
+
+  Stems                                    22
+
+  Hooks                                    29
+
+  Leger-Lines                              36
+
+  Vocal Music                              37
+
+  Open Score to Short                      41
+
+  Short Score to Open                      47
+
+  Extracting a Single Part from Score      50
+
+  Accidentals                              51
+
+  Legibility                               52
+
+  Facility                                 54
+
+  Copyright                                55
+
+  Proof Reading                            56
+
+  INDEX, Page 53.
+
+
+
+
+How to Write Music
+
+
+Introductory.
+
+1.--It is reasonable to expect that a musician shall be at least an
+accurate and legible writer as well as a reader of the language of his
+Art. The immense increase in the amount of music published, and its
+cheapness, seem rather to have increased than decreased this necessity,
+for they have vastly multiplied activity in the Art. If they have not
+intensified the necessity for music-writing, they have increased the
+number of those by whom the necessity is felt.
+
+Intelligent knowledge of Notation is the more necessary inasmuch as
+music-writing is in only a comparatively few cases mere copying. Even
+when writing from a copy, some alteration is frequently necessary, as
+will be shown in the following pages, requiring independent knowledge of
+the subject on the part of the copyist. (See _e.g._, par. 28.)
+
+Yet many musicians, thoroughly competent as performers, cannot write a
+measure of music without bringing a smile to the lips of the initiated.
+
+Many performers will play or sing a note at sight without hesitation,
+which, asked to write, they will first falter over and then bungle--at
+least by writing it at the wrong octave.
+
+The admirable working of theoretical examination papers is sometimes in
+ridiculous contrast with the puerility of the writing.
+
+Psychologists would probably say that this was because conceptual action
+is a higher mental function than perceptual: in other words, that
+recollection is harder than recognition.
+
+The remedy is simple. Recognition must be developed till it becomes
+recollection: the writing of music must be taught concurrently with the
+reading of it.
+
+This was once the case: music-writing was a necessary part of a
+musician's education. One may be the more surprised at its falling into
+disuse, inasmuch as phonography--in the musical sense--is a distinctly
+pleasant occupation. Without being either drawing or writing, it
+partakes of the nature of both.
+
+But many points in the writing of music are not now considered to form
+part of the Rudiments of Music, and are not included in primers on the
+subject.
+
+Hence the following pages.
+
+While containing some matter which may have escaped the attention of
+more advanced musicians, they should, in an educational course, either
+be used along with a Primer on the Elements, or immediately follow it.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Choice of Paper.
+
+2.--The first matter to claim attention in making a manuscript copy of
+music is choice of the right kind of music-paper. This will primarily be
+determined by the number of staves each score requires. Most paper
+contains twelve staves to the page. This is a most convenient number,
+allowing for a two-, three-, four-, or six-stave score.
+
+Song-paper: three-stave score, two staves being braced for the piano
+part, with a third for the voice part. This latter is at a considerable
+distance above the other staves, to allow room for writing in the words.
+
+Organ-music paper: three-stave score, two staves braced for manual part,
+and another underneath for pedal part.
+
+Quartet-paper: four-stave score, no brackets or clefs.
+
+Quartet-paper with accompaniment: six-stave score, two bracketed for
+piano part.
+
+Full-score paper: much smaller than short-score staves. Very useful for
+other purposes where a small, narrow stave is required.
+
+For piano and violin music, paper should be chosen the staves of which
+are wide apart, to allow of the large number of leger lines frequently
+required.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Scoring.
+
+3.--The paper chosen, the first use of a pen will be in ruling the
+score-lines. A "score" technically is as many staves as are _performed
+simultaneously_: two in pianoforte music, three in organ music, four in
+an unaccompanied quartet, six in four-part vocal music with piano
+accompaniment, and so on. These staves have a line drawn down their
+left-hand edge. Hence the name, from their being _scored_ through.
+
+Their position always being at the left-hand edge of the staves, and
+their length determined by the number of staves, they may be drawn
+before the length of the measures has been arranged.
+
+Care must be taken when a page is ruled at a time not to draw the
+score-line through more than the necessary number of staves. Except in a
+full score there will generally be at least two, and, of course, very
+often more, scores to the page.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Barring.
+
+4.--After the score-lines come the bar-lines. And with the arranging of
+these begins that _careful mapping-out_ of the whole work, neglect of
+which will lead to endless annoyance and dissatisfaction.
+
+Some music is so uniform that a given space may be assigned to each
+measure, and consequently a uniform number of measures to each score,
+provided that there is no change of key or time. In determining this
+space allowance must be made (1) in the first measure of each movement
+for the key and time signatures, which may require a considerable space;
+(2) in the first measure of each score for the _key_ signature: the time
+signature is only repeated at the beginning of each movement or when the
+time is changed; (3) regard must be had to where a turn-over will come,
+some passages allowing of this so much more easily than others; (4) also
+to the number of measures in the entire movement, otherwise a new page
+may have to be added for only one measure! (5) in vocal music careful
+regard must be paid to the words as well as the notes. A syllable will
+often require more space than a note, consequently in very simple music
+the words require more space than the music. In florid compositions a
+syllable, on the other hand, is often sung, not to several notes merely,
+but to several measures, and the music requires much more space than the
+words. In the former case the author has found it a good plan to write
+the words first, or at least a measure or two of them, as a guide in
+estimating their average length. But, while the words must not be
+cramped, they must fall under the notes to which they are to be sung,
+and as these notes must occupy as nearly as possible their proportionate
+part of the measure, the skilful scribe will keep both words and music
+in mind simultaneously. Where, however, in vocal or instrumental music
+the measures vary greatly, one having, perhaps, a single whole note and
+the next thirty-two thirty-second notes, it is necessary to plan each
+score separately, or the end may be reached with too much space for the
+last measure, but not enough for another one. Carrying a measure from
+the end of one score to the beginning of the next is not practised now,
+as it once was.
+
+Bar-lines are usually drawn through each stave of vocal music
+separately, and in instrumental music through as many staves as belong
+to the same instrument or group of instruments, _e.g._, through the two
+staves of a piano part, and the four or five belonging to the "strings"
+in a full score. These instrumental staves are also usually connected by
+a brace at the left-hand edge of each score thus:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+Uniform bar-lines may be ruled a page at a time, if care be taken not to
+make the line continuous through more than the required number of
+staves. It is a fault which one commits the moment watchfulness is
+relaxed, and entails much scratching out. Where the measures vary in
+length the ruling will most readily be done in light pencil with a T
+square, and afterwards inked. A single bar-line out of the perpendicular
+will spoil the appearance of a whole page.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Clefs.
+
+5.--The first actual musical characters to be written are the clefs.
+Misconception of the function of these is so common, not among practical
+musicians only, but on the part of elementary theorists, that a few
+words of explanation are necessary. The commonest fallacies are to
+suppose that if clefs are the right shape their exact position on the
+stave does not matter, and that their position varies. Both suppositions
+are, to quote a delightful Ruskinism, "accurately false." A clef
+identifies and originally was used with _a single line_, and identifies
+others only by their relationship to this. Hence its precise shape is of
+less importance than its being on the right line. Indeed, the shape of
+clefs has varied so much that many able practical musicians do not know
+that they were originally simple letters, the treble clef a small "g,"
+the bass clef a small "f." From this beginning has been evolved so
+elaborate a sign, sometimes not merely covering all the lines of a
+stave, but going beyond them, that it is necessary to explain which line
+a clef is on. Thus the "G," or treble clef, is on that line which its
+interior termination is on, and which it curls round, touching it in all
+_four times_. The upper part of the treble clef is sometimes kept within
+the stave, but, as in the present examples, more often rises above the
+stave. The point is merely a matter of taste.
+
+The C clef is on that line which has an oblique or straight stroke, or
+pot-hook, above and below.
+
+The F clef is on that line which its interior termination is on, and
+which it curls round either to the right or the left, and which has a
+dot above and below.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+And this position never varies. Whatever line the F clef is on is F,
+however many or few lines may be above or below it.
+
+In olden days any clef line might be taken with any number of lines
+above and below. For instance, the F line with two lines below and two
+above; or three below and one above. This is not now done with treble
+and bass clefs, which are only used with respectively the top and bottom
+five lines of the Great Stave of eleven lines. Hence care must be taken
+to write the treble clef on the _second_, and the bass clef on the
+_fourth_ line of its stave. But it is still customary to use the C clef,
+especially in viola and trombone music, with both two lines above and
+two below, making the alto stave; and three below and one above, making
+the tenor stave. These staves are also used in old vocal music, and
+familiarity with them is absolutely necessary in all advanced
+theoretical examinations. The C clef, therefore, _appears_ to move,
+being sometimes on the third and sometimes on the fourth line. Really it
+is always on the same line, and it is the _selection of lines_ which
+varies. Hence the misdescription of the treble and bass clefs as
+"immovable," the C clef as "movable."
+
+Note that all clefs are on lines; no clef is in a space. This is because
+the first attempt to accurately represent music to the eye was by means
+of a single line with a letter at the beginning. This was what has since
+become the fourth line, the clef line, of the bass stave.
+
+In pianoforte and organ music, high parts for the left hand, or low ones
+for the right, may be written either:
+
+By means of leger lines (Fig. 3, a);
+
+By changing the clef (b); or
+
+By writing the part in the stave proper to the other hand (c).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+The example, of course, illustrates a high part for the left hand.
+
+The first method is the hardest to write and read. There is not much to
+choose between the second and third. If the third be adopted care must
+be taken not to insert rests in the vacant stave: their absence shows
+that the _hand_ is not resting.
+
+When a part, in organ or piano music, though mainly in its proper stave,
+_begins_ with notes more easily written in the other, the clef proper to
+the part should be inserted, as showing its general character, and
+immediately followed by that in which the notes are most conveniently
+written. Thus Fig. 3, b, if the _first_ measure of a composition, should
+have an F clef immediately preceding the G clef in the left-hand part.
+
+A change of clef affecting the _first note of a score_ should be
+anticipated in the last measure of the previous score, and repeated in
+the measure affected. This is especially the case in regard to the first
+score of a new page involving a turn-over. In addition to anticipating
+the clef, the old plan of inserting a "direct" is to be recommended. See
+Fig. 4.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+The signature should be repeated in the changed clef. After a change of
+clef in the _middle_ of a score this is, of course, not necessary.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Signatures.
+
+6.--Following the clef comes the key signature. In printed music this is
+repeated at the beginning of every score. As preventing many mistakes
+the repetition is desirable. But in manuscript music it is very usual to
+repeat it only at the head of each page. Common faults are:
+
+(1) Placing the sharps or flats at the wrong octave. The first sharp
+should, in the treble clef, be on the top line, not in the bottom space.
+And the second flat should be in the top space, not on the bottom line.
+The customary way of writing signatures is not, in the writer's opinion,
+invariably the best. But solecisms, though not in themselves inaccurate,
+should be avoided as causing unnecessary trouble and confusion.
+
+(2) A perhaps commoner fault is in not allowing sufficient space for the
+signature, and therefore cramping it. Each sharp or flat should be well
+to the right-hand of the preceding one, never over or under it.
+
+(3) Sharps, flats, and naturals, like clefs, cover much more of the
+stave than the single line or space which they govern. Not nearly enough
+care is usually exercised to make the center of the sharp, or the loop
+of the flat, exactly correspond with this, as it should.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+7.--The time signature need only be inserted where there is a change of
+movement. In common time there is a choice between the numeral signature
+"4/4" and the letter signature "C." The latter is the more interesting
+historically. Originally it was not a letter at all; the monks, who
+originated modern musical notation, called triple time "perfect" in
+honor of the Blessed Trinity, and represented it with the sign of
+perfection--a circle: common, or quadruple time, they called imperfect,
+and cut a slice out of the right-hand side of the circle to represent
+imperfection. This printers, not unnaturally, mistook for the initial
+letter of "Common Time." But the numeral signature is rapidly
+superseding this, as showing the exact value of a measure, and being in
+accordance with the signatures of all other kinds of time.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Notation of Rhythm.
+
+8.--Following the time-signature come the notes. The guiding principle
+in writing these is that their right interpretation shall be apparent to
+the eye. Two points are of paramount importance. These are (1) the
+selection of the right characters (this of course only affects those who
+are writing original compositions or arrangements, not mere copists),
+and (2) the correct placing of these in the measure. The bare duration
+of a note, its merely arithmetical value, can generally be expressed in
+more ways than one. But this is not sufficient. That way must be
+selected which represents its _rhythm_, its correct accentuation, _to
+the eye_. Simple forms of time, as distinct from Compound, contain but
+few pitfalls, and even an inexperienced writer is not likely to go far
+wrong.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+9.--It may be as well to warn such an one, however, that it is not
+nowadays customary to dot an unaccented note or rest. The dot in this
+case would represent the succeeding accented beat, and not represent it
+nearly as significantly as does a tied note or separate rest; compare a
+and b, Fig. 5.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+10.--Tied notes should not be employed where a single note would
+represent the same sound _without misrepresenting the rhythm_. Their
+chief function is to represent durations which _cannot_ be represented
+by a single character, such as five eighth notes.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+11.--In pianoforte music a note is very occasionally intended to be
+reiterated before the first iteration has ceased to sound. This is
+effected by allowing the key to rise sufficiently to release the hammer,
+but not sufficiently to reimpose the damper on the string. The second
+sound therefore overtakes the first. (It is comparatively easy on some
+pianos and very hard on others.) As the sound, though periodically
+reinforced, is continuous, the composer indicates his intention by a
+tie. There is nothing but one's judgment to distinguish this from the
+ordinary kind of tie. The chief indication is the employment of a tie
+where a single musical character would otherwise have been better. For
+instance, the following tied sixteenth notes from the Adagio of
+Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 106, could better have been represented by
+eighth notes, had it not been for the intention of overlapping iteration
+(Fig. 6).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+The ties commencing in measure 134 of Beethoven's well-known Sonata
+Pastorale were evidently regarded by Cipriani Potter as of this order.
+As having been a personal friend of Beethoven's he was likely to know.
+(The great composer refers to him in corresponding with Ries in 1818.)
+The duration of these notes _could not have been written otherwise_ than
+by means of ties. The above test is therefore inapplicable; this is
+evidently why, in the edition edited by Potter, they are marked with a
+tie _plus_ a dot and horizontal stroke (Fig. 6a).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6a.]
+
+Another indication is the tying of an unaccented note to an accented
+one, thus obliterating the accent if the tie be observed literally
+(instances occur in Chopin's Valse, Op. 31, No. 1). So much critical
+judgment, however, is required to distinguish this treatment from that
+proper to a tie, that composers would do well to adopt some such method
+as Cipriani Potter's to make their exact meaning clear.
+
+This interpretation of a tie, according to which the notes, since they
+overlap, are _just not separated_, must not be confused with the
+_mezzo-staccato_ touch, also indicated with a slur, but having dots also
+(in the case of a single note indicated by a stroke with a dot), and
+which means that the notes are to be _just not joined_. In _legato_, of
+course, they should be neither separated nor overlapping, but exactly
+contiguous.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+12.--The commonest errors in simple time are not in regard to notes, but
+rests. This is because silence _cannot be divided or syncopated_, and
+therefore that would often be quite right as a representation of sound
+which is quite wrong as a representation of silence. Thus a beat should
+not be represented by two rests where one would do, though it might be
+by two notes (see a, Fig. 7). Nor one rest represent parts of two beats
+(see b, Fig. 7). Nor one rest represent an unaccented and an accented
+beat (see c, Fig. 7). In triple time it is better to avoid a single rest
+representing the latter and greater part of a measure (see d, Fig. 7),
+indeed, it may be said that half-note rests should not be used in triple
+time.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+13.--But in compound time errors, if not more numerous in kind, are much
+more common anyway in regard to _notes_ as distinct from rests. A note
+should never be written which represents a beat and _part_ of another.
+The commonest violation of this principle--and it is very common--is in
+writing a dotted half note in six-eight time; this divides the measure
+into three thirds instead of two halves, by representing a
+beat-and-a-third and two thirds of a beat (see a, Fig. 8). A
+beat-and-a-third, if required, should be represented by a note of the
+value of a beat tied to one of the value of a third, never by a single
+note equalling both--a half note in this case (see b, Fig. 8). A similar
+principle applies to rests. A measure's silence should be represented by
+rests divisible into beats, not by rests which fuse a beat and part of
+the next (see c, Fig. 8). Two dotted quarter notes in twelve-sixteen
+time are not so bad as a dotted half note in six-eight time, as they
+correctly represent the division of the measure into two halves, but
+they misrepresent these halves as consisting of three sixths of a
+measure whereas they rhythmically consist of two quarters (see d,
+Fig. 8).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+A twelve-sixteen measure of _silence_ is much easier to write, since it
+can be done by a single whole note rest, which is also commonly used as
+a measure-rest, irrespective of the value of the measure. (Hence the
+German name _taktpause_.) The six-eight measure of silence (see c,
+Fig. 8) might also, of course, have been written in the above way, or by
+_quarter_, _eighth_, _quarter_, _eighth_ rests in place of the dotted
+rests.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Placing of Notes.
+
+14.--The characters which will correctly represent the given rhythm
+having been determined, the second point is the correct placing of them
+in the measure. Mentally, at least, the measure should be divided into
+as many equal portions as there are beats in it. One well-known
+composer, it is said, _rules_ beat-lines in light pencil, as well as
+bar-lines, in his full scores. In very elaborate music this symmetrical
+arrangement cannot be fully carried out; sixty-four sixty-fourth notes
+cannot be written in the same space as one whole note; and a whole note
+would look lost in the space required for the sixty-fourth notes. But
+simple music can be made quite symmetrical, and in all music such
+beat-lines, actual or mental, are an invaluable check and guide.
+
+Each note should be placed in the _left_-hand end of its space. This is
+for the simple reason that music, like words, is read from left to right
+and, roughly, space represents duration. Any other arrangement is
+misleading, as may be seen from old music, in which a note was often
+placed in the _middle_ of its space. The following (Fig. 9) is an
+example from an organ work of Rinck's (1770-1846).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.]
+
+But for the fact that in open score half notes below the middle line
+have their stems turned down, even an expert would not improbably
+suppose the time to be four half notes in the bar. This is not the case,
+the time is two half notes and the whole note is to be sounded
+_simultaneously_ with the two half notes.
+
+"Confusion worse confounded," is, so far as the eye is concerned, hardly
+too strong a term to apply to the results of this illogical method when
+applied to polyphonic music. Compare a and b, Fig. 10, in the former of
+which four notes intended to be begun simultaneously are no two of them
+in line, owing to each being in the _middle_ of its space!
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+This practice was consistently carried out, even when it involved
+writing a note on the bar-line! or a note in one measure and its dot in
+the next (see Fig. 11).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+(Pianists will recall a modern instance, so far as the dot is concerned,
+in a little exercise in C major of Czerny's.)
+
+The practice cannot have been due to the non-invention of the "tie" or
+"bind." For though the first use of this is difficult to trace, clear
+instances, in the form of a bracket, }, occur in Morley's _Practical
+Music_, published in 1597.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Rests.
+
+15.--Rests, especially whole note rests, when used for a whole measure,
+are still very often illogically placed in the _middle_ of the space
+they represent. This has been defended on the ground that they represent
+silence or _inaction_, and that therefore no error can arise from their
+appearance being deferred. But a performer should be conscious of the
+action _or inaction_ of every voice or part. If there be a seeming
+vacuum or hiatus, how is he to know whether it is a note or rest which
+has been omitted? If he concludes, from the absence of any note, that a
+rest is intended, he can only _guess_ how long it will prove to be when
+it does come. Therefore, in the writer's opinion, rests should be
+located on the same principle as notes. If it be not a profanation to
+say so, since the example is from Bach, the rest in Fig. 12 would have
+been better placed at the beginning of the measure. Let a sheet of paper
+be held over the right half of the measure, and though the player will
+be able to begin, he will not know in how many parts the piece is
+written.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+16.--In open score, that is, in writing a single melody or part on one
+stave, it is usual to make whole note rests below the fourth line, and
+half note rests above the third. Quarter note rests should be written
+exactly in the middle of the stave. The crook of eighth note rests, and
+the upper crook of shorter rests, is generally placed in the third
+space, in the absence of any reason to the contrary. The stems of rests
+are, in manuscript music especially, better slanted somewhat. This helps
+to distinguish them from the stems of notes--in rapidly written
+manuscript a not unimportant thing!
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+17.--There are two forms of quarter note rest, the English, which is
+like the eighth note rest but turned to the right-hand, and the German,
+which is somewhat difficult to describe. The German is far the better of
+the two as being much more distinct from the eighth note rest. It is,
+however, harder to write, and of the slightly varying forms, perhaps the
+easiest is that with a crook at each end of a very oblique stem and
+which is thus very much like a reversed letter Z (see the first example
+in Fig. 13).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. Manuscript forms of German quarter note rest.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+18.--In short score, that is, in writing two or more parts or voices on
+one stave, the rests are placed, not only in the top or bottom space of
+the stave as may best indicate to which part they apply, but above and
+below it, involving, in the case of whole note and half note rests, the
+use of a leger-line (see b, Fig. 14). This is partly because _the stems
+of all rests are turned down_, and therefore cannot be made, as the
+stems of notes can, to indicate the part they belong to by the direction
+taken. This, therefore, has to be shown by their position on, or off,
+the stave (see Fig. 14).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. J. S. Bach.]
+
+It will be seen that the lower eighth note rest in the first example
+belongs to the same part as the following sixteenth note rest, though by
+no means on a line with it.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+19.--In modern piano music which is not of a strictly part-writing
+character, rests often represent the absence, not of a part or voice,
+_but of the hand_. If the notes, though representing as many parts as
+the piece can be supposed to possess, are all to be played by one hand,
+rests are employed to represent the absence of the other.
+
+And in music which _is_ of a part-writing character, though the parts
+are _incomplete_, rests are often _not_ employed if both hands are
+engaged (see Fig. 3, c, bass clef, supposing it to be of more than two
+parts).
+
+Bach rarely, if ever, employed rests to represent the hand; with him
+they always represent a voice. Thus in a melodic or one-part passage
+divided between the hands, each playing alternate groups, he used no
+rests to represent the absent hand. These, appearing simultaneously with
+the notes, would have implied a second part. With him rests represent a
+living, though absent, voice; in modern usage they frequently represent,
+not music, but the way of playing it. See Fig. 15, the first half of
+which is in _two_ parts, therefore rests represent the thirty-second
+note silences; and the second half of which is in _one_ part, therefore
+no rests are employed though only one hand is engaged at a time. It is
+from a B flat Prelude in Bach's _Well-tempered Clavier_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Dots.
+
+20.--Dots are used in music for three purposes: (1) as repeat marks, (2)
+to indicate semi-staccato, (3) to prolong a note one half. As repeat
+marks, they may be placed in each of the four spaces of the stave (which
+in the writer's opinion is the better plan, as being less liable to
+confusion with time-dots), or in the second and third spaces only, in
+accordance with a modern custom. _Staccato_ dots and _staccatissimo_
+dashes, when two parts are being written on one stave, should be placed
+below the note if applying to the lower part, and above if applying to
+the higher. In the case of open score (a single part on one stave), they
+are best placed on the side opposite the stem.
+
+Time-dots, or those which prolong a note one half, if applied to a note
+in a space, should be in the same space as the note; if applied to a
+note on a line they should be placed in the space above, if the next
+note of the part is higher, and in the space below if it is lower. The
+importance of this usage is often overlooked. If it cannot be called a
+rule, it is high time it was made one! When two parts are written on one
+stave, and a note is doubled, having two stems, one up and the other
+down, to indicate this, and in one part it is dotted, and in the other
+not, it is impossible, apart from this rule, to tell which part has the
+note dotted and which not (except, of course, from the context, which
+may expose any mistake). The following example from Henry Smart's
+"Festive March in D," for the organ, appears to contain two dotted half
+notes. It would probably be so read by anyone playing the passage at
+sight. The context shows that it is the eighth note not the half note
+which is intended to be dotted. All the dots except that to the last
+note but one should have been in the space _below_ the note, where this
+is on a line.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+Logic would suggest that where a doubled, that is a two-stemmed, note is
+dotted in both parts or voices, _two_ dots should follow one above the
+other. This would, however, be awkward when the note was in a space; and
+also when it was on a line, if, as in the last group above, _both_
+voices proceeded to a lower note (or both to a higher). For according to
+the rule here being considered, both dots would have to be in the space
+below (or above).
+
+There is another slight inaccuracy in the above example which will be
+noticed later on. Let the tyro try and find it!
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+21.--As regards distance from the note they prolong, time-dots may be
+written either _immediately_ after such note, as in Fig. 16, or in the
+part of the measure with which they synchronize, as in the following
+excerpt from Sterndale Bennett's piano study "The Lake."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.]
+
+Elsewhere throughout the same study the composer has placed dots
+immediately after the note they prolong. Here, therefore, he seems to
+have anticipated the objection that he was dotting _un_-accented notes
+(see "Notation of Rhythm," Par. 9), and to refute it by showing that
+there are in reality two series of accents in each measure, at cross
+purposes with each other, that, indeed, the alto, and tenor measures are
+an eighth note behind the treble, though they could not be written with
+separate bar-lines. This is clear when the whole passage is seen.
+Observe that the dot to the last note of a measure is placed at the
+beginning of the next, to make the overlapping clear to the eye. (Also
+that the dots to the last alto and tenor quarter notes are placed not in
+the space next, but in the space next-but-one higher than the note they
+prolong.) Dots are not infrequently placed thus--that is, in or near the
+part of the measure with which they synchronize--apart from any such
+purpose as that just explained.
+
+The dot made its first appearance in music about A.D. 1300. Sometimes it
+had a tail ("_punctus caudatus_") and looked not unlike an inverted
+comma. It did not, however, acquire its present meaning till about a
+century later.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Stems.
+
+22.--There is no rule as to the length of stems, and they vary greatly.
+The stems in a single group of notes are as often as not of different
+lengths, according to the position of the notes and the direction taken
+by the hook. A common fault is to make them too short, especially when
+the four hooks of a sixty-fourth note have to be added. This, however,
+is generally the result of a badly directed hook (see a, Fig. 18).
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+23.--As to the _direction_ they take there is a definite rule. In open
+score (when one part only is being written on a stave), the stems of
+notes _above_ the middle line should be turned _down_, the stems of
+those _below_ the middle line should be turned _up_ (see b, Fig. 18).
+The object of this is to keep the stems within the stave and prevent
+their sprawling above or below. The ill-equipped writer betrays himself
+by nothing more often than by sprawling stems.
+
+The stems in a group of notes are generally turned according to the
+direction of the first note, or the majority. In a group containing a
+wide skip they are often turned individually according to the rule,
+involving opposite directions, the hook being drawn between them (see c,
+Fig. 18).
+
+Five exceptions are common: (1) The stem of a grace note is almost
+invariably turned upwards, though according to Dr. Hullah it should be
+turned in the direction contrary to that of the stem of the principal
+note, for the sake of greater distinctness (see d, Fig. 18). In "copy"
+for the printer grace-notes are best written in red ink. (2) In piano
+music when a single part, or row of notes, is to be divided between the
+hands, one playing one group and the other the next, the stems of the
+right-hand notes are turned up, and those of the left down (see Fig. 15,
+latter half of measure). (3) Similarly in some organ music, especially
+that printed in Germany, pedal notes which are to be played by the right
+foot have the stems turned up, those by the left, down. (4) In vocal
+music, when a subsequent verse, though having the same notes, requires
+different time-values from the first verse, or a translation requires
+different time-values from the original language, the time-values
+required by one verse or language have the stems of the notes turned up,
+those required by the other down (see e, Fig. 18, from Molique's
+oratorio "Abraham"). (5) In music written on two staves, when the notes
+of a single group skip from one stave to the other, the hook is placed
+between the staves, and the stems of the notes on the lower stave are
+turned up, and of those on the upper stave down, irrespective of their
+relation to the middle line of the stave (see f, Fig. 18, from the
+"Moonlight" Sonata).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+24.--In short score, that is when two parts have to be written on one
+stave, the stems belonging to the upper part should be turned upwards,
+and those to the lower downwards. Only by this means can the course of
+the parts be made clear to the eye. When the parts cross, the rule must
+be strictly adhered to: the note belonging to the upper _part_, not the
+_upper note_, must have the upward stem. To make quite clear which note
+each stem belongs to, it is well in this case to make the notes a little
+less close together than they otherwise would be (see a, Fig. 19, a
+well-known case from a chant by Sir John Goss, where the tenor goes
+below the bass). Sometimes _more_ than two parts are written on one
+stave; in this case the stems of two parts must be turned the same way,
+and considerable ingenuity is required to make the course of the parts
+clear. Usually the middle part varies in the direction of its stems.
+Simultaneous notes are generally written not quite in a line with each
+other, to allow of separate stems: the stems are generally rather short,
+so as not to run into each other, and the hooks of simultaneous eighths
+and shorter notes do not concur. Two measures from Bach's piano fugues
+will illustrate these points (b and c, Fig. 19).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+25.--The stems of rests are always turned downwards.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+26.--There is also a definite rule as to the _side_ of a note at which
+the stem should be placed: stems turned upwards should be at the
+right-hand side of the note-head, those downwards, at the left. This
+rule is observed less in the case of half notes than of shorter
+notes--for what reason the writer is unable to say.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+27.--At one time whole notes and shorter notes were not round, but
+lozenge-shaped, the longer notes being square, and the stem was then in
+the middle, thus [Symbol: square note]. These gave way to round notes
+about the seventeenth century. Playford's well-known _Whole Booke of
+Psalms_, published about 1675, was probably one of the earliest books
+printed wholly with round notes.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+28.--It follows from the foregoing rules that even so apparently simple
+a task as transcribing a part--soprano, alto, tenor, or bass--from a
+short-score hymn or chant book into a choir part-book is not mere
+copying. In the hymn or chant book the stems of one part are all turned
+the same way: in the part-book they must be turned according to their
+relation to the middle line.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Hooks.
+
+29.--With one exception, hooks should be made at the _right-hand_ side
+of the stem; they are therefore sometimes at the same side as the
+note-head, and sometimes not.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+30.--The exception is when longer and shorter notes are combined in the
+same group. In this case the hooks not common to the whole group are
+invariably turned so as to lie _within_ the group, and, subject to this,
+if the group contains more than one beat, so as to lie _within_ the beat
+of which they form part.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+31.--Previous to 1660, each eighth or shorter note had a separate hook
+or hooks. But at the time of the Restoration, John Playford substituted
+a connecting horizontal line for the separate hooks of two or more
+eighths belonging to the same division of the measure. The device was
+copied by the Dutch, French, and Germans. The Italians did not adopt it
+till later. Thus, Marcello's Psalms, published in Venice as late as
+1724-27, have separate hooks. (In an edition in the writer's possession,
+published in 1757, _united_ hooks are used, but this is probably rather
+due to the _venue_ than to the later date.)
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+32.--Hooks in instrumental music must be united in strict accordance
+with the laws of rhythm (see "Notation of Rhythm," pars. 8-13). Thus,
+four eighth notes must not have the same hook in Compound Time: they
+must be grouped as three and one, or one and three, or two and two,
+according to the position they occupy in the beat they belong to. In
+three-four time, six eighth notes may have one hook, but in six-eight
+time they should preferably have separate hooks of three eighth notes
+each. Broadly speaking, the notes forming a single beat of the measure
+should be united in one hook, but very commonly two beats have one hook
+between them, especially in four-four time.
+
+In the case of sixteenths and shorter notes, the outermost hook often
+shows the half-measure, and the inner hook or hooks the sub-division
+into beats (see Fig. 21).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+33.--So closely should the hooks follow the rhythm, that where a phrase
+crosses the measure beginning at the end of one measure, and ending at
+the beginning of the next, the hook crosses the bar-line too, uniting
+notes in different measures (see a, Fig. 22). Notes may have the same
+hook though separated by a rest (see b, Fig. 22).
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+34.--The hook to a group of notes which ascends or descends may either
+slant in the direction taken by the notes, or may be straight (see c,
+Fig. 22). In the writer's opinion slanted hooks are preferable as being
+a better guide to the eye. In manuscript music, when hooks have to be
+drawn within the stave, and not above or below it, they should
+invariably be slanted when this is possible; otherwise they are very apt
+to coincide with the stave-lines, and fail of distinctness. A common
+fault is in not making them thick enough. Notes are sometimes "hooked"
+in accordance, not with the rhythm, but with the hand which is to play
+them (see d, Fig. 22). This is necessitated by the usage with regard to
+stems in such cases [see "Stems," par. 22, exception (2)].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+35.--In vocal music notes should not have the same hook which are sung
+to a different syllable (see "Vocal Music," par. 37). Subject to these
+exceptions, notes must be grouped according to their rhythm.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Leger-lines.
+
+36.--The appeal to the eye (see "Notation of Rhythm," par. 8, and
+"Placing of Notes," par. 14) must be maintained as regards the pitch as
+well as the duration of notes--their perpendicular as well as their
+horizontal position. Consequently leger-lines must be the same distance
+from the stave, and from each other, as the stave-lines are one from
+another. Carelessness in this matter is very common and very confusing.
+How often a lower note looks as though above a higher one, because
+leger-lines are cramped together in one case and too wide apart in
+another (see Fig. 23).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+"Two things which are equal to the same thing are equal to each other,"
+as Euclid says: let leger-lines be equidistant with stave-lines, and
+they will be level with each other.
+
+But accuracy in the number of lines is of more importance than the
+appeal to the eye, and the appeal to the eye must of course not be made
+a substitute for it. The context shows the high note in Fig. 24 (which
+is several times repeated) to have been _intended_ for E, the position
+of which, on the paper, it about occupies. But, being on the first
+leger-line, it _is_ A, and would be were it a yard above the stave! (The
+example is taken from a _printed_, not a manuscript copy! The first two
+notes are evidently intended as grace-notes, though the stems are turned
+down; the stems in the second half of the first measure should have been
+turned up.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Vocal Music.
+
+37.--In vocal music the singing of one syllable to two or more notes is
+shown in the case of whole notes, half notes, and quarters, by a slur
+(see Fig. 25).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. Te Deum. C. V. Stanford.]
+
+It will be seen from the above that a slur does not dispense with the
+necessity for tying consecutive notes of the same pitch, occurring in a
+passage sung to one syllable. For an apparent exception see a passage
+from Handel's "But who may abide":
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+But here, the repeated note occurring on a strong accent preceded by a
+weak one, is evidently intended _not_ to be tied, but to receive an
+emphasis. (Similar exceptions may be found in "Every Valley.")
+
+In modern music, when _all the notes of a measure_ are to be sung to the
+_same_ syllable, and there is _no likelihood of confusion_, the slur is
+often dispensed with. This is especially the case in Mendelssohn's
+music.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27. Mendelssohn's "St. Paul."]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+38.--Eighths and shorter notes, to which one syllable is to be sung,
+should have a united hook, _provided that they belong to the same
+rhythmic group_; and _separate_ hooks, though belonging to the same
+_rhythmic_ group, if sung to separate syllables:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+39.--Many writers place a slur over eighth notes, as well as quarters
+and longer notes, when sung to one syllable. But this is quite
+unnecessary with hooked notes unless, as in the preceding example, a
+syllable is sung to a whole group and _part_ of another, or _parts_ of
+two groups. Redundancy of slurs--very common in old music--is confusing
+rather than helpful.
+
+Intelligibility depends much upon getting the syllables exactly under or
+over the notes to which they are to be sung.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+40.--Syllables sung to notes extending over more space than themselves
+should be followed by dots if forming a complete word, and by strokes,
+or hyphens, if parts of a word. See preceding examples.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Open Score to Short Score.
+
+41.--In transcribing from open score to short score, a single sound sung
+by two voices simultaneously beginning _and ending_ at the same time,
+should, if a whole note, be represented by two note-heads linked; if a
+half note or shorter note, by having two stems, one up and the other
+down:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+42.--_Black_ notes, though of _different_ lengths, may have the same
+note-head if they _begin_ at the same time, the difference being shown
+in the hook or hooks:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.]
+
+But a whole note and a half note must have separate note-heads, since a
+stem would turn a whole note into a half note; and a whole note or half
+note and a quarter note must have separate note-heads, since a note
+cannot be white and black at the same time. In this case _the note-head
+of shorter duration must be written first_:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.]
+
+The rule is sometimes relaxed, and the longer note written first, when
+the shorter note is the first of a group.
+
+Albeit a half note and an eighth, or other hooked note, may have the
+same note-head, _provided this be that of the half note_, because the
+hook shows that in one part the note is intended to be read as an eighth
+note. They cannot have an eighth note-head because there is nothing to
+distinguish the stem of a half note from that of a quarter:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32. S. Heller.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+43.--Notes cannot have the same note-head which _begin_ at different
+times, even though they _end_ at the same time. This would involve
+writing one of them in the wrong part of the measure (see "Placing of
+Notes," par. 14).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.]
+
+Hence, as a dotted quarter is a sixteenth shorter than two dotted
+eighths and a sixteenth, and therefore the final note does not _begin_
+at the same time (though it _ends_ at the same time) in the treble and
+alto parts of the last group of Fig. 16 (par. 35), the example is
+inaccurate. It should have been written thus:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.]
+
+and would be so played were the passage given, say, to two violins.
+
+[The tyro must not mistake the above two final note-heads, the _longer_
+of which comes first, for a breach of the rule exemplified in Fig. 31
+(par. 42), and which applies to two notes which _begin_ at the same
+time. Here the longer note begins _before_ the shorter one.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+44.--In part-music all the accidentals in an open score will have to be
+reproduced in short score. Each performer is only supposed to read his
+own part, and cannot be assumed to have seen an accidental in another
+part which, had it been seen, would have rendered one in his own
+unnecessary. Thus the sharps in Fig. 35
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.]
+
+will remain in a transcription to short score,
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.]
+
+if intended for part-singers or players. (A pianist or organist would
+not need the second sharp in each stave, while probably _preferring_ it
+as a recognition of the part-writing character of the music.)
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+45.--In music which is _not_ part-writing, the transcriber will have to
+use his discretion as to the repetition of accidentals which have
+already appeared in another "part" in the same measure. The guiding
+principle will be to avoid the likelihood of error on the part of a
+competent reader.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+46.--Care must be taken to turn the stems of half notes and shorter
+notes according to the principles of short score, and not necessarily as
+they are in the open score.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Short Score to Open Score.
+
+47.--Co-relatively, in transcribing from short score to open, it will
+occasionally be necessary to put accidentals in the latter which are not
+in the former. The commonest form of this is probably in extracting a
+single part, soprano, alto, tenor, or bass, from an ordinary short score
+hymn or chant book, and writing it in a part-book for the particular
+voice. Thus, in transcribing the tenor of the following extract from the
+hymn-tune "Heathlands" into a part-book, it would be necessary to insert
+a natural before the A.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+48.--Far more often, however, it is necessary to _omit_ naturals used to
+contradict an accidental occurring in a part which is not being copied.
+Thus, in the following extract from the tune "Endless Alleluia," the
+natural in both the tenor and bass would be unnecessary were these parts
+written out separately from the other parts and each other.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
+
+(The A sharp in the tenor of this extract suggests C sharp so strongly
+apart from the rest of the harmony, that the natural is almost a
+necessity even had the previous treble C sharp not been included. Not
+being required according to rule, however, it should be enclosed in
+brackets--a not infrequent, and very commendable, device with careful
+writers, when an accidental is desirable but not necessary according to
+rule.)
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+49.--The stems, of course, must be turned up or down according to their
+position above or below the middle line, and not as in the short score.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Extracting a Single Part.
+
+50.--In copying out a single part from a score, full or short, care must
+be taken in abbreviating a number of measures' rest. The usual way of
+doing this is to write the number of measures over a single measure,
+thus:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
+
+But if a pause occurs in any of the other parts of the score this will
+not do. The number of bars before the pause must be counted, and the
+pause--or pauses--shown in the abbreviation as follows, assuming it to
+occur in the thirteenth bar:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Accidentals.
+
+51.--The necessity for inserting accidentals in a part-copy which may
+not appear in a short-score, has just been pointed out. Yet the musical
+Hercules is beset with a Charybdis as well as a Scylla. He may be drawn
+into the bad and very irritating modern habit of using accidentals which
+are not really called for. Accidentals where unnecessary are doubtless
+used with the object of making assurance doubly sure. They have
+_precisely the reverse effect_, besides being uncomplimentary--to put it
+mildly--to the intelligence of the performer. Sharps, flats, and
+naturals which sometimes are _foreign_ to the signature, and sometimes
+_duplicate_ it, cause confusion where there was previously assurance.
+Bad enough at all times, they are, when one is transposing at sight,
+exasperating to the last degree.
+
+An accidental is operative during the bar in which it occurs, and no
+further, unless it inflects the last note of a bar, and the next bar
+begins with the same note. It is so usual, however, to contradict an
+accidental in the bar _next_ to that in which it occurs, that this
+practice may almost be said to have become a rule, breach of which might
+cause uncertainty in all but the clearest cases. This is no
+justification for the absurd practice of some writers, of contradicting
+an inflection the next time the same note _un_-inflected occurs,
+_however far off this may be_!
+
+As a rule, a natural should only be used where the sharp or flat to be
+cancelled would _not_ have to be repeated were the inflection intended
+to continue.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Legibility.
+
+52.--A common cause of illegibility in manuscript music is what may be
+called a spider-like sameness in the web. Stems and hooks--indeed
+sometimes stems and note-heads!--are much of the same thickness and
+blackness. Compare them in printed music, and it will be seen that a
+dozen, perhaps a score, of stems could be spun out of one hook.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+53.--Should it be necessary to erase and rewrite a note, the blurred
+effect too often resulting may be almost entirely avoided by _penciling_
+the correct note before tracing it in ink. This produces a lead-lined
+groove and prevents the ink from running.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Facility.
+
+54.--Orthography is taught by the careful making--drawing rather than
+writing--of large letters. The formation of a more rapid and individual
+hand does not come till later. So with musical phonography. The student,
+at whatever cost of time and patience, must first acquire _accuracy and
+clearness_. Not till _these are gained_ must he think of rapidity and
+ease. Hence the consideration of facility has been deferred to the last.
+
+Facility is well worthy of consideration, especially on the part of
+those who have much music to write. A little thought will often show how
+a character may be made in one stroke, which in any other way will take
+two or more, and that without any loss of clearness.
+
+Thus a half note can be made in one stroke if begun at the point where
+the ring joins the stem; that is, at the _top_ of the ring for upward
+stems, at the _under part_ for downward stems.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
+
+Quarter notes may be made in one stroke if the head be begun first when
+the stem is upward, and the _stem_ first when the stem is downward.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
+
+If this very simple expedient were more generally known, the practice of
+writing downward as well as upward stems at the right-hand side of the
+note-head--never done in printed music--would not be as common as it is.
+It should be added that to make a quarter or half note satisfactorily in
+one stroke, a pliable pen, fine, but spreading under pressure, and
+rapidly recovering itself, is necessary, otherwise the head will be too
+thin or the stem too thick.
+
+Eighth notes, especially those with downward stems, are best made in two
+strokes. They can, however, be made in one if begun at the _bottom_.
+That is to say, those with upward stems must be begun at the head, and
+those with downward stems at the hook. This hook must be drawn thin, if
+made thick the pen will scratch when making the stem: if the head be
+made first the pen ends at the wrong side for a _downward_ stem.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.]
+
+Each shorter note requires an additional action.
+
+The G clef can be made in one stroke if begun at the innermost part of
+the curl, or at the downward extremity. The F clef requires three
+strokes, owing to the dots, each of which takes one to itself.
+
+The C clef requires four movements, so does a sharp. A flat may be made
+in one stroke, but is very apt to look like a half note. A natural
+requires two movements.
+
+Chords may be expeditiously formed, if with _downward_ stem, by making
+the top note, with stem, first, and then adding the other notes. Chords
+with upward stems should be begun at the bottom.
+
+(The joinings are purposely left imperfect to show the method. The
+numbers show the order of the four actions for the four notes.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Copyright.
+
+55.--A primer on musical orthography is hardly complete without a few
+words on Copyright. As long as a work is in manuscript and copies are
+not offered for sale it enjoys the same protection, under the common
+law, as if properly entered for copyright. It is an infringement of
+copyright to copy, reprint, publish, or vend the whole or any portion of
+a copyright work for any purpose whatsoever. It is an infringement to
+copy a hymn tune, a portion of an anthem, orchestral parts, or to
+transpose a song; such infringements can be prosecuted and the full
+penalty exacted. It can be readily understood that such copying deprives
+the composer or proprietor of his just returns from the sales of his
+work. To secure a copyright in the United States of America it is
+necessary to print on each and every copy, Copyright (date) by (name of
+proprietor), and to send to the Registrar of Copyright, Washington,
+D. C., two complete copies with a fee of one dollar for registration and
+a certificate under seal. The copyright is secured for twenty-eight
+years from the date of first publication with the privilege of a renewal
+for twenty-eight years, provided that notice of renewal is given the
+copyright office one year prior to the expiration of the first term.
+Securing an international copyright is usually undertaken by the
+publisher, as are also such matters as mechanical rights.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+56.--When the finished composition is ready for publication, a fair copy
+should be made and care exercised to see that it is legible and correct
+in every particular. A few suggestions as to proofreading and correcting
+may prove useful. There are certain symbols in universal use which are
+as follows:
+
+[Illustration: move over]
+
+[Illustration: take out]
+
+[Illustration: turn over]
+
+[Illustration: transpose]
+
+[Illustration: close up]
+
+[Illustration: space]
+
+[Illustration: wrong font]
+
+[Illustration: lower case]
+
+These symbols should be marked on the margin of the proof (see sample
+page), and no other instructions are necessary. Notes are indicated by
+their position on the staff not by their names. The value of a note is
+indicated by a fraction. Slurs are drawn in and indicated by the word
+"slur." Dots are encircled with a line to give them prominence.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+The numbers refer to the _Paragraph_, not the Page.
+
+                                        PARAGRAPH
+
+  Accidentals                           44-48, 51
+
+
+  Barring                                       4
+
+  Beat-lines                                   14
+
+  Bind                                         14
+
+  Black-notes                                  42
+
+
+  Change of Key                                 4
+
+  Change of Time                                7
+
+  Chords                                       54
+
+  Clefs                                         5
+
+  Common Faults      5, 6, 12, 13, 22, 34, 36, 52
+
+  Compound Time                                13
+
+  Copyright                                    55
+
+  Crossing Parts                               24
+
+
+  Direct                                        5
+
+  Dots                              20, 9, 14, 40
+
+
+  Erasures                                     53
+
+  Extracting a Single Part                     50
+
+
+  Facility                                     54
+
+
+  German Quarter Note Rests                    17
+
+  Grace-notes                                  23
+
+  Groups                   13, 23, 30, 32, 35, 38
+
+
+  Half Note Head with Eighth Note Hook         42
+
+  Historical Notes              7, 14, 21, 27, 31
+
+  Hooks                                    29, 42
+
+
+  Introductory                                  1
+
+
+  Key Signature                              4, 6
+
+
+  Leger-lines                                  36
+
+  Legibility                                   52
+
+
+  Mapping-out                                   4
+
+  Mercer's Psalter                              4
+
+  Morley's _Practical Music_                   14
+
+
+  Notation of Rhythm                        8, 32
+
+
+  Open Score                           16, 20, 23
+
+  Open Score to Short Score                    41
+
+  Organ Music                                  23
+
+  Over-lapping Iteration (Piano)               11
+
+
+  Paper                                         2
+
+  Part Writing                             19, 44
+
+  Pause                                        50
+
+  Placing of Notes                             14
+
+  Playford's "Whole Booke of Psalms"       27, 31
+
+
+  Rests                             15-19, 12, 50
+
+  Rhythm, Notation of                       8, 32
+
+
+  Scoring                                       3
+
+  Short Score                              18, 24
+
+  Short Score to Open                          42
+
+  Sign of Perfection                            7
+
+  Signatures                              6, 4, 7
+
+  Simple Time                                  12
+
+  Slur                                     37, 39
+
+  Sonata Pastorale                              9
+
+  Stems                                        22
+
+    Of Rests                           25, 16, 18
+
+  Stroke and Dot                                9
+
+
+  Three Parts on One Stave                     24
+
+  Ties                             10, 11, 14, 37
+
+  Time Signature                                7
+
+  Turn Over                                  4, 5
+
+
+  Unnecessary Accidentals                      51
+
+
+  Vocal music                              37, 23
+
+    (Exception 4)                          35, 40
+
+
+  Words (See also "Vocal Music")                4
+
+=> _When a higher number precedes a lower in the above index, it is
+because it refers to a more important Paragraph._
+
+
+
+
+  [ Transcriber's Note:
+
+    The following is a list of corrections made to the original.
+    The first line is the original line, the second the corrected one.
+
+  Quartet-paper: four stave score, no brackets or clefs.
+  Quartet-paper: four-stave score, no brackets or clefs.
+
+  Leger-lines,
+  Leger-lines.
+
+  cannot be white and black at the same time. In this case _the notehead
+  cannot be white and black at the same time. In this case _the note-head
+
+  ]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Write Music, by Clement A. Harris
+
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