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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Write Music, by Clement A. Harris
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: How to Write Music
+       Musical Orthography
+
+Author: Clement A. Harris
+
+Editor: Mallinson Randall
+
+Release Date: August 31, 2011 [EBook #37281]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO WRITE MUSIC ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jana Srna and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  [ Transcriber's Notes:
+
+    Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully
+    as possible, including inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation.
+    Some corrections of spelling and punctuation have been made. They
+    are listed at the end of the text.
+
+    Italic text has been marked with _underscores_.
+  ]
+
+
+
+
+  How to Write Music
+
+  Musical Orthography
+
+  By
+  Clement A. Harris
+  Associate of the Royal College of Organists
+
+  Edited by
+  Mallinson Randall
+
+  New York
+  The H. W. Gray Co.
+  Sole Agents for Novello & Co., Ltd.
+
+
+  Copyright, 1917
+  BY
+  THE H. W. GRAY CO.
+
+
+  Made in the United States of America
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+_The numbers refer to the Paragraph, not the Page._
+
+  Introductory                              1
+
+  Choice of Paper                           2
+
+  Scoring                                   3
+
+  Barring                                   4
+
+  Clefs                                     5
+
+  Signatures                                6
+
+  Notation of Rhythm                        8
+
+  Placing of Notes                         14
+
+  Rests                                    15
+
+  Dots                                     20
+
+  Stems                                    22
+
+  Hooks                                    29
+
+  Leger-Lines                              36
+
+  Vocal Music                              37
+
+  Open Score to Short                      41
+
+  Short Score to Open                      47
+
+  Extracting a Single Part from Score      50
+
+  Accidentals                              51
+
+  Legibility                               52
+
+  Facility                                 54
+
+  Copyright                                55
+
+  Proof Reading                            56
+
+  INDEX, Page 53.
+
+
+
+
+How to Write Music
+
+
+Introductory.
+
+1.--It is reasonable to expect that a musician shall be at least an
+accurate and legible writer as well as a reader of the language of his
+Art. The immense increase in the amount of music published, and its
+cheapness, seem rather to have increased than decreased this necessity,
+for they have vastly multiplied activity in the Art. If they have not
+intensified the necessity for music-writing, they have increased the
+number of those by whom the necessity is felt.
+
+Intelligent knowledge of Notation is the more necessary inasmuch as
+music-writing is in only a comparatively few cases mere copying. Even
+when writing from a copy, some alteration is frequently necessary, as
+will be shown in the following pages, requiring independent knowledge of
+the subject on the part of the copyist. (See _e.g._, par. 28.)
+
+Yet many musicians, thoroughly competent as performers, cannot write a
+measure of music without bringing a smile to the lips of the initiated.
+
+Many performers will play or sing a note at sight without hesitation,
+which, asked to write, they will first falter over and then bungle--at
+least by writing it at the wrong octave.
+
+The admirable working of theoretical examination papers is sometimes in
+ridiculous contrast with the puerility of the writing.
+
+Psychologists would probably say that this was because conceptual action
+is a higher mental function than perceptual: in other words, that
+recollection is harder than recognition.
+
+The remedy is simple. Recognition must be developed till it becomes
+recollection: the writing of music must be taught concurrently with the
+reading of it.
+
+This was once the case: music-writing was a necessary part of a
+musician's education. One may be the more surprised at its falling into
+disuse, inasmuch as phonography--in the musical sense--is a distinctly
+pleasant occupation. Without being either drawing or writing, it
+partakes of the nature of both.
+
+But many points in the writing of music are not now considered to form
+part of the Rudiments of Music, and are not included in primers on the
+subject.
+
+Hence the following pages.
+
+While containing some matter which may have escaped the attention of
+more advanced musicians, they should, in an educational course, either
+be used along with a Primer on the Elements, or immediately follow it.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Choice of Paper.
+
+2.--The first matter to claim attention in making a manuscript copy of
+music is choice of the right kind of music-paper. This will primarily be
+determined by the number of staves each score requires. Most paper
+contains twelve staves to the page. This is a most convenient number,
+allowing for a two-, three-, four-, or six-stave score.
+
+Song-paper: three-stave score, two staves being braced for the piano
+part, with a third for the voice part. This latter is at a considerable
+distance above the other staves, to allow room for writing in the words.
+
+Organ-music paper: three-stave score, two staves braced for manual part,
+and another underneath for pedal part.
+
+Quartet-paper: four-stave score, no brackets or clefs.
+
+Quartet-paper with accompaniment: six-stave score, two bracketed for
+piano part.
+
+Full-score paper: much smaller than short-score staves. Very useful for
+other purposes where a small, narrow stave is required.
+
+For piano and violin music, paper should be chosen the staves of which
+are wide apart, to allow of the large number of leger lines frequently
+required.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Scoring.
+
+3.--The paper chosen, the first use of a pen will be in ruling the
+score-lines. A "score" technically is as many staves as are _performed
+simultaneously_: two in pianoforte music, three in organ music, four in
+an unaccompanied quartet, six in four-part vocal music with piano
+accompaniment, and so on. These staves have a line drawn down their
+left-hand edge. Hence the name, from their being _scored_ through.
+
+Their position always being at the left-hand edge of the staves, and
+their length determined by the number of staves, they may be drawn
+before the length of the measures has been arranged.
+
+Care must be taken when a page is ruled at a time not to draw the
+score-line through more than the necessary number of staves. Except in a
+full score there will generally be at least two, and, of course, very
+often more, scores to the page.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Barring.
+
+4.--After the score-lines come the bar-lines. And with the arranging of
+these begins that _careful mapping-out_ of the whole work, neglect of
+which will lead to endless annoyance and dissatisfaction.
+
+Some music is so uniform that a given space may be assigned to each
+measure, and consequently a uniform number of measures to each score,
+provided that there is no change of key or time. In determining this
+space allowance must be made (1) in the first measure of each movement
+for the key and time signatures, which may require a considerable space;
+(2) in the first measure of each score for the _key_ signature: the time
+signature is only repeated at the beginning of each movement or when the
+time is changed; (3) regard must be had to where a turn-over will come,
+some passages allowing of this so much more easily than others; (4) also
+to the number of measures in the entire movement, otherwise a new page
+may have to be added for only one measure! (5) in vocal music careful
+regard must be paid to the words as well as the notes. A syllable will
+often require more space than a note, consequently in very simple music
+the words require more space than the music. In florid compositions a
+syllable, on the other hand, is often sung, not to several notes merely,
+but to several measures, and the music requires much more space than the
+words. In the former case the author has found it a good plan to write
+the words first, or at least a measure or two of them, as a guide in
+estimating their average length. But, while the words must not be
+cramped, they must fall under the notes to which they are to be sung,
+and as these notes must occupy as nearly as possible their proportionate
+part of the measure, the skilful scribe will keep both words and music
+in mind simultaneously. Where, however, in vocal or instrumental music
+the measures vary greatly, one having, perhaps, a single whole note and
+the next thirty-two thirty-second notes, it is necessary to plan each
+score separately, or the end may be reached with too much space for the
+last measure, but not enough for another one. Carrying a measure from
+the end of one score to the beginning of the next is not practised now,
+as it once was.
+
+Bar-lines are usually drawn through each stave of vocal music
+separately, and in instrumental music through as many staves as belong
+to the same instrument or group of instruments, _e.g._, through the two
+staves of a piano part, and the four or five belonging to the "strings"
+in a full score. These instrumental staves are also usually connected by
+a brace at the left-hand edge of each score thus:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+Uniform bar-lines may be ruled a page at a time, if care be taken not to
+make the line continuous through more than the required number of
+staves. It is a fault which one commits the moment watchfulness is
+relaxed, and entails much scratching out. Where the measures vary in
+length the ruling will most readily be done in light pencil with a T
+square, and afterwards inked. A single bar-line out of the perpendicular
+will spoil the appearance of a whole page.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Clefs.
+
+5.--The first actual musical characters to be written are the clefs.
+Misconception of the function of these is so common, not among practical
+musicians only, but on the part of elementary theorists, that a few
+words of explanation are necessary. The commonest fallacies are to
+suppose that if clefs are the right shape their exact position on the
+stave does not matter, and that their position varies. Both suppositions
+are, to quote a delightful Ruskinism, "accurately false." A clef
+identifies and originally was used with _a single line_, and identifies
+others only by their relationship to this. Hence its precise shape is of
+less importance than its being on the right line. Indeed, the shape of
+clefs has varied so much that many able practical musicians do not know
+that they were originally simple letters, the treble clef a small "g,"
+the bass clef a small "f." From this beginning has been evolved so
+elaborate a sign, sometimes not merely covering all the lines of a
+stave, but going beyond them, that it is necessary to explain which line
+a clef is on. Thus the "G," or treble clef, is on that line which its
+interior termination is on, and which it curls round, touching it in all
+_four times_. The upper part of the treble clef is sometimes kept within
+the stave, but, as in the present examples, more often rises above the
+stave. The point is merely a matter of taste.
+
+The C clef is on that line which has an oblique or straight stroke, or
+pot-hook, above and below.
+
+The F clef is on that line which its interior termination is on, and
+which it curls round either to the right or the left, and which has a
+dot above and below.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+And this position never varies. Whatever line the F clef is on is F,
+however many or few lines may be above or below it.
+
+In olden days any clef line might be taken with any number of lines
+above and below. For instance, the F line with two lines below and two
+above; or three below and one above. This is not now done with treble
+and bass clefs, which are only used with respectively the top and bottom
+five lines of the Great Stave of eleven lines. Hence care must be taken
+to write the treble clef on the _second_, and the bass clef on the
+_fourth_ line of its stave. But it is still customary to use the C clef,
+especially in viola and trombone music, with both two lines above and
+two below, making the alto stave; and three below and one above, making
+the tenor stave. These staves are also used in old vocal music, and
+familiarity with them is absolutely necessary in all advanced
+theoretical examinations. The C clef, therefore, _appears_ to move,
+being sometimes on the third and sometimes on the fourth line. Really it
+is always on the same line, and it is the _selection of lines_ which
+varies. Hence the misdescription of the treble and bass clefs as
+"immovable," the C clef as "movable."
+
+Note that all clefs are on lines; no clef is in a space. This is because
+the first attempt to accurately represent music to the eye was by means
+of a single line with a letter at the beginning. This was what has since
+become the fourth line, the clef line, of the bass stave.
+
+In pianoforte and organ music, high parts for the left hand, or low ones
+for the right, may be written either:
+
+By means of leger lines (Fig. 3, a);
+
+By changing the clef (b); or
+
+By writing the part in the stave proper to the other hand (c).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+The example, of course, illustrates a high part for the left hand.
+
+The first method is the hardest to write and read. There is not much to
+choose between the second and third. If the third be adopted care must
+be taken not to insert rests in the vacant stave: their absence shows
+that the _hand_ is not resting.
+
+When a part, in organ or piano music, though mainly in its proper stave,
+_begins_ with notes more easily written in the other, the clef proper to
+the part should be inserted, as showing its general character, and
+immediately followed by that in which the notes are most conveniently
+written. Thus Fig. 3, b, if the _first_ measure of a composition, should
+have an F clef immediately preceding the G clef in the left-hand part.
+
+A change of clef affecting the _first note of a score_ should be
+anticipated in the last measure of the previous score, and repeated in
+the measure affected. This is especially the case in regard to the first
+score of a new page involving a turn-over. In addition to anticipating
+the clef, the old plan of inserting a "direct" is to be recommended. See
+Fig. 4.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+The signature should be repeated in the changed clef. After a change of
+clef in the _middle_ of a score this is, of course, not necessary.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Signatures.
+
+6.--Following the clef comes the key signature. In printed music this is
+repeated at the beginning of every score. As preventing many mistakes
+the repetition is desirable. But in manuscript music it is very usual to
+repeat it only at the head of each page. Common faults are:
+
+(1) Placing the sharps or flats at the wrong octave. The first sharp
+should, in the treble clef, be on the top line, not in the bottom space.
+And the second flat should be in the top space, not on the bottom line.
+The customary way of writing signatures is not, in the writer's opinion,
+invariably the best. But solecisms, though not in themselves inaccurate,
+should be avoided as causing unnecessary trouble and confusion.
+
+(2) A perhaps commoner fault is in not allowing sufficient space for the
+signature, and therefore cramping it. Each sharp or flat should be well
+to the right-hand of the preceding one, never over or under it.
+
+(3) Sharps, flats, and naturals, like clefs, cover much more of the
+stave than the single line or space which they govern. Not nearly enough
+care is usually exercised to make the center of the sharp, or the loop
+of the flat, exactly correspond with this, as it should.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+7.--The time signature need only be inserted where there is a change of
+movement. In common time there is a choice between the numeral signature
+"4/4" and the letter signature "C." The latter is the more interesting
+historically. Originally it was not a letter at all; the monks, who
+originated modern musical notation, called triple time "perfect" in
+honor of the Blessed Trinity, and represented it with the sign of
+perfection--a circle: common, or quadruple time, they called imperfect,
+and cut a slice out of the right-hand side of the circle to represent
+imperfection. This printers, not unnaturally, mistook for the initial
+letter of "Common Time." But the numeral signature is rapidly
+superseding this, as showing the exact value of a measure, and being in
+accordance with the signatures of all other kinds of time.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Notation of Rhythm.
+
+8.--Following the time-signature come the notes. The guiding principle
+in writing these is that their right interpretation shall be apparent to
+the eye. Two points are of paramount importance. These are (1) the
+selection of the right characters (this of course only affects those who
+are writing original compositions or arrangements, not mere copists),
+and (2) the correct placing of these in the measure. The bare duration
+of a note, its merely arithmetical value, can generally be expressed in
+more ways than one. But this is not sufficient. That way must be
+selected which represents its _rhythm_, its correct accentuation, _to
+the eye_. Simple forms of time, as distinct from Compound, contain but
+few pitfalls, and even an inexperienced writer is not likely to go far
+wrong.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+9.--It may be as well to warn such an one, however, that it is not
+nowadays customary to dot an unaccented note or rest. The dot in this
+case would represent the succeeding accented beat, and not represent it
+nearly as significantly as does a tied note or separate rest; compare a
+and b, Fig. 5.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+10.--Tied notes should not be employed where a single note would
+represent the same sound _without misrepresenting the rhythm_. Their
+chief function is to represent durations which _cannot_ be represented
+by a single character, such as five eighth notes.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+11.--In pianoforte music a note is very occasionally intended to be
+reiterated before the first iteration has ceased to sound. This is
+effected by allowing the key to rise sufficiently to release the hammer,
+but not sufficiently to reimpose the damper on the string. The second
+sound therefore overtakes the first. (It is comparatively easy on some
+pianos and very hard on others.) As the sound, though periodically
+reinforced, is continuous, the composer indicates his intention by a
+tie. There is nothing but one's judgment to distinguish this from the
+ordinary kind of tie. The chief indication is the employment of a tie
+where a single musical character would otherwise have been better. For
+instance, the following tied sixteenth notes from the Adagio of
+Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 106, could better have been represented by
+eighth notes, had it not been for the intention of overlapping iteration
+(Fig. 6).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+The ties commencing in measure 134 of Beethoven's well-known Sonata
+Pastorale were evidently regarded by Cipriani Potter as of this order.
+As having been a personal friend of Beethoven's he was likely to know.
+(The great composer refers to him in corresponding with Ries in 1818.)
+The duration of these notes _could not have been written otherwise_ than
+by means of ties. The above test is therefore inapplicable; this is
+evidently why, in the edition edited by Potter, they are marked with a
+tie _plus_ a dot and horizontal stroke (Fig. 6a).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6a.]
+
+Another indication is the tying of an unaccented note to an accented
+one, thus obliterating the accent if the tie be observed literally
+(instances occur in Chopin's Valse, Op. 31, No. 1). So much critical
+judgment, however, is required to distinguish this treatment from that
+proper to a tie, that composers would do well to adopt some such method
+as Cipriani Potter's to make their exact meaning clear.
+
+This interpretation of a tie, according to which the notes, since they
+overlap, are _just not separated_, must not be confused with the
+_mezzo-staccato_ touch, also indicated with a slur, but having dots also
+(in the case of a single note indicated by a stroke with a dot), and
+which means that the notes are to be _just not joined_. In _legato_, of
+course, they should be neither separated nor overlapping, but exactly
+contiguous.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+12.--The commonest errors in simple time are not in regard to notes, but
+rests. This is because silence _cannot be divided or syncopated_, and
+therefore that would often be quite right as a representation of sound
+which is quite wrong as a representation of silence. Thus a beat should
+not be represented by two rests where one would do, though it might be
+by two notes (see a, Fig. 7). Nor one rest represent parts of two beats
+(see b, Fig. 7). Nor one rest represent an unaccented and an accented
+beat (see c, Fig. 7). In triple time it is better to avoid a single rest
+representing the latter and greater part of a measure (see d, Fig. 7),
+indeed, it may be said that half-note rests should not be used in triple
+time.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+13.--But in compound time errors, if not more numerous in kind, are much
+more common anyway in regard to _notes_ as distinct from rests. A note
+should never be written which represents a beat and _part_ of another.
+The commonest violation of this principle--and it is very common--is in
+writing a dotted half note in six-eight time; this divides the measure
+into three thirds instead of two halves, by representing a
+beat-and-a-third and two thirds of a beat (see a, Fig. 8). A
+beat-and-a-third, if required, should be represented by a note of the
+value of a beat tied to one of the value of a third, never by a single
+note equalling both--a half note in this case (see b, Fig. 8). A similar
+principle applies to rests. A measure's silence should be represented by
+rests divisible into beats, not by rests which fuse a beat and part of
+the next (see c, Fig. 8). Two dotted quarter notes in twelve-sixteen
+time are not so bad as a dotted half note in six-eight time, as they
+correctly represent the division of the measure into two halves, but
+they misrepresent these halves as consisting of three sixths of a
+measure whereas they rhythmically consist of two quarters (see d,
+Fig. 8).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+A twelve-sixteen measure of _silence_ is much easier to write, since it
+can be done by a single whole note rest, which is also commonly used as
+a measure-rest, irrespective of the value of the measure. (Hence the
+German name _taktpause_.) The six-eight measure of silence (see c,
+Fig. 8) might also, of course, have been written in the above way, or by
+_quarter_, _eighth_, _quarter_, _eighth_ rests in place of the dotted
+rests.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Placing of Notes.
+
+14.--The characters which will correctly represent the given rhythm
+having been determined, the second point is the correct placing of them
+in the measure. Mentally, at least, the measure should be divided into
+as many equal portions as there are beats in it. One well-known
+composer, it is said, _rules_ beat-lines in light pencil, as well as
+bar-lines, in his full scores. In very elaborate music this symmetrical
+arrangement cannot be fully carried out; sixty-four sixty-fourth notes
+cannot be written in the same space as one whole note; and a whole note
+would look lost in the space required for the sixty-fourth notes. But
+simple music can be made quite symmetrical, and in all music such
+beat-lines, actual or mental, are an invaluable check and guide.
+
+Each note should be placed in the _left_-hand end of its space. This is
+for the simple reason that music, like words, is read from left to right
+and, roughly, space represents duration. Any other arrangement is
+misleading, as may be seen from old music, in which a note was often
+placed in the _middle_ of its space. The following (Fig. 9) is an
+example from an organ work of Rinck's (1770-1846).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.]
+
+But for the fact that in open score half notes below the middle line
+have their stems turned down, even an expert would not improbably
+suppose the time to be four half notes in the bar. This is not the case,
+the time is two half notes and the whole note is to be sounded
+_simultaneously_ with the two half notes.
+
+"Confusion worse confounded," is, so far as the eye is concerned, hardly
+too strong a term to apply to the results of this illogical method when
+applied to polyphonic music. Compare a and b, Fig. 10, in the former of
+which four notes intended to be begun simultaneously are no two of them
+in line, owing to each being in the _middle_ of its space!
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+This practice was consistently carried out, even when it involved
+writing a note on the bar-line! or a note in one measure and its dot in
+the next (see Fig. 11).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+(Pianists will recall a modern instance, so far as the dot is concerned,
+in a little exercise in C major of Czerny's.)
+
+The practice cannot have been due to the non-invention of the "tie" or
+"bind." For though the first use of this is difficult to trace, clear
+instances, in the form of a bracket, ︷, occur in Morley's _Practical
+Music_, published in 1597.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Rests.
+
+15.--Rests, especially whole note rests, when used for a whole measure,
+are still very often illogically placed in the _middle_ of the space
+they represent. This has been defended on the ground that they represent
+silence or _inaction_, and that therefore no error can arise from their
+appearance being deferred. But a performer should be conscious of the
+action _or inaction_ of every voice or part. If there be a seeming
+vacuum or hiatus, how is he to know whether it is a note or rest which
+has been omitted? If he concludes, from the absence of any note, that a
+rest is intended, he can only _guess_ how long it will prove to be when
+it does come. Therefore, in the writer's opinion, rests should be
+located on the same principle as notes. If it be not a profanation to
+say so, since the example is from Bach, the rest in Fig. 12 would have
+been better placed at the beginning of the measure. Let a sheet of paper
+be held over the right half of the measure, and though the player will
+be able to begin, he will not know in how many parts the piece is
+written.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+16.--In open score, that is, in writing a single melody or part on one
+stave, it is usual to make whole note rests below the fourth line, and
+half note rests above the third. Quarter note rests should be written
+exactly in the middle of the stave. The crook of eighth note rests, and
+the upper crook of shorter rests, is generally placed in the third
+space, in the absence of any reason to the contrary. The stems of rests
+are, in manuscript music especially, better slanted somewhat. This helps
+to distinguish them from the stems of notes--in rapidly written
+manuscript a not unimportant thing!
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+17.--There are two forms of quarter note rest, the English, which is
+like the eighth note rest but turned to the right-hand, and the German,
+which is somewhat difficult to describe. The German is far the better of
+the two as being much more distinct from the eighth note rest. It is,
+however, harder to write, and of the slightly varying forms, perhaps the
+easiest is that with a crook at each end of a very oblique stem and
+which is thus very much like a reversed letter Z (see the first example
+in Fig. 13).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. Manuscript forms of German quarter note rest.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+18.--In short score, that is, in writing two or more parts or voices on
+one stave, the rests are placed, not only in the top or bottom space of
+the stave as may best indicate to which part they apply, but above and
+below it, involving, in the case of whole note and half note rests, the
+use of a leger-line (see b, Fig. 14). This is partly because _the stems
+of all rests are turned down_, and therefore cannot be made, as the
+stems of notes can, to indicate the part they belong to by the direction
+taken. This, therefore, has to be shown by their position on, or off,
+the stave (see Fig. 14).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. J. S. Bach.]
+
+It will be seen that the lower eighth note rest in the first example
+belongs to the same part as the following sixteenth note rest, though by
+no means on a line with it.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+19.--In modern piano music which is not of a strictly part-writing
+character, rests often represent the absence, not of a part or voice,
+_but of the hand_. If the notes, though representing as many parts as
+the piece can be supposed to possess, are all to be played by one hand,
+rests are employed to represent the absence of the other.
+
+And in music which _is_ of a part-writing character, though the parts
+are _incomplete_, rests are often _not_ employed if both hands are
+engaged (see Fig. 3, c, bass clef, supposing it to be of more than two
+parts).
+
+Bach rarely, if ever, employed rests to represent the hand; with him
+they always represent a voice. Thus in a melodic or one-part passage
+divided between the hands, each playing alternate groups, he used no
+rests to represent the absent hand. These, appearing simultaneously with
+the notes, would have implied a second part. With him rests represent a
+living, though absent, voice; in modern usage they frequently represent,
+not music, but the way of playing it. See Fig. 15, the first half of
+which is in _two_ parts, therefore rests represent the thirty-second
+note silences; and the second half of which is in _one_ part, therefore
+no rests are employed though only one hand is engaged at a time. It is
+from a B flat Prelude in Bach's _Well-tempered Clavier_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Dots.
+
+20.--Dots are used in music for three purposes: (1) as repeat marks, (2)
+to indicate semi-staccato, (3) to prolong a note one half. As repeat
+marks, they may be placed in each of the four spaces of the stave (which
+in the writer's opinion is the better plan, as being less liable to
+confusion with time-dots), or in the second and third spaces only, in
+accordance with a modern custom. _Staccato_ dots and _staccatissimo_
+dashes, when two parts are being written on one stave, should be placed
+below the note if applying to the lower part, and above if applying to
+the higher. In the case of open score (a single part on one stave), they
+are best placed on the side opposite the stem.
+
+Time-dots, or those which prolong a note one half, if applied to a note
+in a space, should be in the same space as the note; if applied to a
+note on a line they should be placed in the space above, if the next
+note of the part is higher, and in the space below if it is lower. The
+importance of this usage is often overlooked. If it cannot be called a
+rule, it is high time it was made one! When two parts are written on one
+stave, and a note is doubled, having two stems, one up and the other
+down, to indicate this, and in one part it is dotted, and in the other
+not, it is impossible, apart from this rule, to tell which part has the
+note dotted and which not (except, of course, from the context, which
+may expose any mistake). The following example from Henry Smart's
+"Festive March in D," for the organ, appears to contain two dotted half
+notes. It would probably be so read by anyone playing the passage at
+sight. The context shows that it is the eighth note not the half note
+which is intended to be dotted. All the dots except that to the last
+note but one should have been in the space _below_ the note, where this
+is on a line.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+Logic would suggest that where a doubled, that is a two-stemmed, note is
+dotted in both parts or voices, _two_ dots should follow one above the
+other. This would, however, be awkward when the note was in a space; and
+also when it was on a line, if, as in the last group above, _both_
+voices proceeded to a lower note (or both to a higher). For according to
+the rule here being considered, both dots would have to be in the space
+below (or above).
+
+There is another slight inaccuracy in the above example which will be
+noticed later on. Let the tyro try and find it!
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+21.--As regards distance from the note they prolong, time-dots may be
+written either _immediately_ after such note, as in Fig. 16, or in the
+part of the measure with which they synchronize, as in the following
+excerpt from Sterndale Bennett's piano study "The Lake."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.]
+
+Elsewhere throughout the same study the composer has placed dots
+immediately after the note they prolong. Here, therefore, he seems to
+have anticipated the objection that he was dotting _un_-accented notes
+(see "Notation of Rhythm," Par. 9), and to refute it by showing that
+there are in reality two series of accents in each measure, at cross
+purposes with each other, that, indeed, the alto, and tenor measures are
+an eighth note behind the treble, though they could not be written with
+separate bar-lines. This is clear when the whole passage is seen.
+Observe that the dot to the last note of a measure is placed at the
+beginning of the next, to make the overlapping clear to the eye. (Also
+that the dots to the last alto and tenor quarter notes are placed not in
+the space next, but in the space next-but-one higher than the note they
+prolong.) Dots are not infrequently placed thus--that is, in or near the
+part of the measure with which they synchronize--apart from any such
+purpose as that just explained.
+
+The dot made its first appearance in music about A.D. 1300. Sometimes it
+had a tail ("_punctus caudatus_") and looked not unlike an inverted
+comma. It did not, however, acquire its present meaning till about a
+century later.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Stems.
+
+22.--There is no rule as to the length of stems, and they vary greatly.
+The stems in a single group of notes are as often as not of different
+lengths, according to the position of the notes and the direction taken
+by the hook. A common fault is to make them too short, especially when
+the four hooks of a sixty-fourth note have to be added. This, however,
+is generally the result of a badly directed hook (see a, Fig. 18).
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+23.--As to the _direction_ they take there is a definite rule. In open
+score (when one part only is being written on a stave), the stems of
+notes _above_ the middle line should be turned _down_, the stems of
+those _below_ the middle line should be turned _up_ (see b, Fig. 18).
+The object of this is to keep the stems within the stave and prevent
+their sprawling above or below. The ill-equipped writer betrays himself
+by nothing more often than by sprawling stems.
+
+The stems in a group of notes are generally turned according to the
+direction of the first note, or the majority. In a group containing a
+wide skip they are often turned individually according to the rule,
+involving opposite directions, the hook being drawn between them (see c,
+Fig. 18).
+
+Five exceptions are common: (1) The stem of a grace note is almost
+invariably turned upwards, though according to Dr. Hullah it should be
+turned in the direction contrary to that of the stem of the principal
+note, for the sake of greater distinctness (see d, Fig. 18). In "copy"
+for the printer grace-notes are best written in red ink. (2) In piano
+music when a single part, or row of notes, is to be divided between the
+hands, one playing one group and the other the next, the stems of the
+right-hand notes are turned up, and those of the left down (see Fig. 15,
+latter half of measure). (3) Similarly in some organ music, especially
+that printed in Germany, pedal notes which are to be played by the right
+foot have the stems turned up, those by the left, down. (4) In vocal
+music, when a subsequent verse, though having the same notes, requires
+different time-values from the first verse, or a translation requires
+different time-values from the original language, the time-values
+required by one verse or language have the stems of the notes turned up,
+those required by the other down (see e, Fig. 18, from Molique's
+oratorio "Abraham"). (5) In music written on two staves, when the notes
+of a single group skip from one stave to the other, the hook is placed
+between the staves, and the stems of the notes on the lower stave are
+turned up, and of those on the upper stave down, irrespective of their
+relation to the middle line of the stave (see f, Fig. 18, from the
+"Moonlight" Sonata).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+24.--In short score, that is when two parts have to be written on one
+stave, the stems belonging to the upper part should be turned upwards,
+and those to the lower downwards. Only by this means can the course of
+the parts be made clear to the eye. When the parts cross, the rule must
+be strictly adhered to: the note belonging to the upper _part_, not the
+_upper note_, must have the upward stem. To make quite clear which note
+each stem belongs to, it is well in this case to make the notes a little
+less close together than they otherwise would be (see a, Fig. 19, a
+well-known case from a chant by Sir John Goss, where the tenor goes
+below the bass). Sometimes _more_ than two parts are written on one
+stave; in this case the stems of two parts must be turned the same way,
+and considerable ingenuity is required to make the course of the parts
+clear. Usually the middle part varies in the direction of its stems.
+Simultaneous notes are generally written not quite in a line with each
+other, to allow of separate stems: the stems are generally rather short,
+so as not to run into each other, and the hooks of simultaneous eighths
+and shorter notes do not concur. Two measures from Bach's piano fugues
+will illustrate these points (b and c, Fig. 19).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+25.--The stems of rests are always turned downwards.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+26.--There is also a definite rule as to the _side_ of a note at which
+the stem should be placed: stems turned upwards should be at the
+right-hand side of the note-head, those downwards, at the left. This
+rule is observed less in the case of half notes than of shorter
+notes--for what reason the writer is unable to say.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+27.--At one time whole notes and shorter notes were not round, but
+lozenge-shaped, the longer notes being square, and the stem was then in
+the middle, thus [Symbol: square note]. These gave way to round notes
+about the seventeenth century. Playford's well-known _Whole Booke of
+Psalms_, published about 1675, was probably one of the earliest books
+printed wholly with round notes.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+28.--It follows from the foregoing rules that even so apparently simple
+a task as transcribing a part--soprano, alto, tenor, or bass--from a
+short-score hymn or chant book into a choir part-book is not mere
+copying. In the hymn or chant book the stems of one part are all turned
+the same way: in the part-book they must be turned according to their
+relation to the middle line.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Hooks.
+
+29.--With one exception, hooks should be made at the _right-hand_ side
+of the stem; they are therefore sometimes at the same side as the
+note-head, and sometimes not.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+30.--The exception is when longer and shorter notes are combined in the
+same group. In this case the hooks not common to the whole group are
+invariably turned so as to lie _within_ the group, and, subject to this,
+if the group contains more than one beat, so as to lie _within_ the beat
+of which they form part.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+31.--Previous to 1660, each eighth or shorter note had a separate hook
+or hooks. But at the time of the Restoration, John Playford substituted
+a connecting horizontal line for the separate hooks of two or more
+eighths belonging to the same division of the measure. The device was
+copied by the Dutch, French, and Germans. The Italians did not adopt it
+till later. Thus, Marcello's Psalms, published in Venice as late as
+1724-27, have separate hooks. (In an edition in the writer's possession,
+published in 1757, _united_ hooks are used, but this is probably rather
+due to the _venue_ than to the later date.)
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+32.--Hooks in instrumental music must be united in strict accordance
+with the laws of rhythm (see "Notation of Rhythm," pars. 8-13). Thus,
+four eighth notes must not have the same hook in Compound Time: they
+must be grouped as three and one, or one and three, or two and two,
+according to the position they occupy in the beat they belong to. In
+three-four time, six eighth notes may have one hook, but in six-eight
+time they should preferably have separate hooks of three eighth notes
+each. Broadly speaking, the notes forming a single beat of the measure
+should be united in one hook, but very commonly two beats have one hook
+between them, especially in four-four time.
+
+In the case of sixteenths and shorter notes, the outermost hook often
+shows the half-measure, and the inner hook or hooks the sub-division
+into beats (see Fig. 21).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+33.--So closely should the hooks follow the rhythm, that where a phrase
+crosses the measure beginning at the end of one measure, and ending at
+the beginning of the next, the hook crosses the bar-line too, uniting
+notes in different measures (see a, Fig. 22). Notes may have the same
+hook though separated by a rest (see b, Fig. 22).
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+34.--The hook to a group of notes which ascends or descends may either
+slant in the direction taken by the notes, or may be straight (see c,
+Fig. 22). In the writer's opinion slanted hooks are preferable as being
+a better guide to the eye. In manuscript music, when hooks have to be
+drawn within the stave, and not above or below it, they should
+invariably be slanted when this is possible; otherwise they are very apt
+to coincide with the stave-lines, and fail of distinctness. A common
+fault is in not making them thick enough. Notes are sometimes "hooked"
+in accordance, not with the rhythm, but with the hand which is to play
+them (see d, Fig. 22). This is necessitated by the usage with regard to
+stems in such cases [see "Stems," par. 22, exception (2)].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+35.--In vocal music notes should not have the same hook which are sung
+to a different syllable (see "Vocal Music," par. 37). Subject to these
+exceptions, notes must be grouped according to their rhythm.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Leger-lines.
+
+36.--The appeal to the eye (see "Notation of Rhythm," par. 8, and
+"Placing of Notes," par. 14) must be maintained as regards the pitch as
+well as the duration of notes--their perpendicular as well as their
+horizontal position. Consequently leger-lines must be the same distance
+from the stave, and from each other, as the stave-lines are one from
+another. Carelessness in this matter is very common and very confusing.
+How often a lower note looks as though above a higher one, because
+leger-lines are cramped together in one case and too wide apart in
+another (see Fig. 23).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+"Two things which are equal to the same thing are equal to each other,"
+as Euclid says: let leger-lines be equidistant with stave-lines, and
+they will be level with each other.
+
+But accuracy in the number of lines is of more importance than the
+appeal to the eye, and the appeal to the eye must of course not be made
+a substitute for it. The context shows the high note in Fig. 24 (which
+is several times repeated) to have been _intended_ for E, the position
+of which, on the paper, it about occupies. But, being on the first
+leger-line, it _is_ A, and would be were it a yard above the stave! (The
+example is taken from a _printed_, not a manuscript copy! The first two
+notes are evidently intended as grace-notes, though the stems are turned
+down; the stems in the second half of the first measure should have been
+turned up.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Vocal Music.
+
+37.--In vocal music the singing of one syllable to two or more notes is
+shown in the case of whole notes, half notes, and quarters, by a slur
+(see Fig. 25).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. Te Deum. C. V. Stanford.]
+
+It will be seen from the above that a slur does not dispense with the
+necessity for tying consecutive notes of the same pitch, occurring in a
+passage sung to one syllable. For an apparent exception see a passage
+from Handel's "But who may abide":
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+But here, the repeated note occurring on a strong accent preceded by a
+weak one, is evidently intended _not_ to be tied, but to receive an
+emphasis. (Similar exceptions may be found in "Every Valley.")
+
+In modern music, when _all the notes of a measure_ are to be sung to the
+_same_ syllable, and there is _no likelihood of confusion_, the slur is
+often dispensed with. This is especially the case in Mendelssohn's
+music.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27. Mendelssohn's "St. Paul."]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+38.--Eighths and shorter notes, to which one syllable is to be sung,
+should have a united hook, _provided that they belong to the same
+rhythmic group_; and _separate_ hooks, though belonging to the same
+_rhythmic_ group, if sung to separate syllables:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+39.--Many writers place a slur over eighth notes, as well as quarters
+and longer notes, when sung to one syllable. But this is quite
+unnecessary with hooked notes unless, as in the preceding example, a
+syllable is sung to a whole group and _part_ of another, or _parts_ of
+two groups. Redundancy of slurs--very common in old music--is confusing
+rather than helpful.
+
+Intelligibility depends much upon getting the syllables exactly under or
+over the notes to which they are to be sung.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+40.--Syllables sung to notes extending over more space than themselves
+should be followed by dots if forming a complete word, and by strokes,
+or hyphens, if parts of a word. See preceding examples.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Open Score to Short Score.
+
+41.--In transcribing from open score to short score, a single sound sung
+by two voices simultaneously beginning _and ending_ at the same time,
+should, if a whole note, be represented by two note-heads linked; if a
+half note or shorter note, by having two stems, one up and the other
+down:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+42.--_Black_ notes, though of _different_ lengths, may have the same
+note-head if they _begin_ at the same time, the difference being shown
+in the hook or hooks:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.]
+
+But a whole note and a half note must have separate note-heads, since a
+stem would turn a whole note into a half note; and a whole note or half
+note and a quarter note must have separate note-heads, since a note
+cannot be white and black at the same time. In this case _the note-head
+of shorter duration must be written first_:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.]
+
+The rule is sometimes relaxed, and the longer note written first, when
+the shorter note is the first of a group.
+
+Albeit a half note and an eighth, or other hooked note, may have the
+same note-head, _provided this be that of the half note_, because the
+hook shows that in one part the note is intended to be read as an eighth
+note. They cannot have an eighth note-head because there is nothing to
+distinguish the stem of a half note from that of a quarter:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32. S. Heller.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+43.--Notes cannot have the same note-head which _begin_ at different
+times, even though they _end_ at the same time. This would involve
+writing one of them in the wrong part of the measure (see "Placing of
+Notes," par. 14).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.]
+
+Hence, as a dotted quarter is a sixteenth shorter than two dotted
+eighths and a sixteenth, and therefore the final note does not _begin_
+at the same time (though it _ends_ at the same time) in the treble and
+alto parts of the last group of Fig. 16 (par. 35), the example is
+inaccurate. It should have been written thus:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.]
+
+and would be so played were the passage given, say, to two violins.
+
+[The tyro must not mistake the above two final note-heads, the _longer_
+of which comes first, for a breach of the rule exemplified in Fig. 31
+(par. 42), and which applies to two notes which _begin_ at the same
+time. Here the longer note begins _before_ the shorter one.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+44.--In part-music all the accidentals in an open score will have to be
+reproduced in short score. Each performer is only supposed to read his
+own part, and cannot be assumed to have seen an accidental in another
+part which, had it been seen, would have rendered one in his own
+unnecessary. Thus the sharps in Fig. 35
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.]
+
+will remain in a transcription to short score,
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.]
+
+if intended for part-singers or players. (A pianist or organist would
+not need the second sharp in each stave, while probably _preferring_ it
+as a recognition of the part-writing character of the music.)
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+45.--In music which is _not_ part-writing, the transcriber will have to
+use his discretion as to the repetition of accidentals which have
+already appeared in another "part" in the same measure. The guiding
+principle will be to avoid the likelihood of error on the part of a
+competent reader.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+46.--Care must be taken to turn the stems of half notes and shorter
+notes according to the principles of short score, and not necessarily as
+they are in the open score.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Short Score to Open Score.
+
+47.--Co-relatively, in transcribing from short score to open, it will
+occasionally be necessary to put accidentals in the latter which are not
+in the former. The commonest form of this is probably in extracting a
+single part, soprano, alto, tenor, or bass, from an ordinary short score
+hymn or chant book, and writing it in a part-book for the particular
+voice. Thus, in transcribing the tenor of the following extract from the
+hymn-tune "Heathlands" into a part-book, it would be necessary to insert
+a natural before the A.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+48.--Far more often, however, it is necessary to _omit_ naturals used to
+contradict an accidental occurring in a part which is not being copied.
+Thus, in the following extract from the tune "Endless Alleluia," the
+natural in both the tenor and bass would be unnecessary were these parts
+written out separately from the other parts and each other.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
+
+(The A sharp in the tenor of this extract suggests C sharp so strongly
+apart from the rest of the harmony, that the natural is almost a
+necessity even had the previous treble C sharp not been included. Not
+being required according to rule, however, it should be enclosed in
+brackets--a not infrequent, and very commendable, device with careful
+writers, when an accidental is desirable but not necessary according to
+rule.)
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+49.--The stems, of course, must be turned up or down according to their
+position above or below the middle line, and not as in the short score.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Extracting a Single Part.
+
+50.--In copying out a single part from a score, full or short, care must
+be taken in abbreviating a number of measures' rest. The usual way of
+doing this is to write the number of measures over a single measure,
+thus:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
+
+But if a pause occurs in any of the other parts of the score this will
+not do. The number of bars before the pause must be counted, and the
+pause--or pauses--shown in the abbreviation as follows, assuming it to
+occur in the thirteenth bar:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Accidentals.
+
+51.--The necessity for inserting accidentals in a part-copy which may
+not appear in a short-score, has just been pointed out. Yet the musical
+Hercules is beset with a Charybdis as well as a Scylla. He may be drawn
+into the bad and very irritating modern habit of using accidentals which
+are not really called for. Accidentals where unnecessary are doubtless
+used with the object of making assurance doubly sure. They have
+_precisely the reverse effect_, besides being uncomplimentary--to put it
+mildly--to the intelligence of the performer. Sharps, flats, and
+naturals which sometimes are _foreign_ to the signature, and sometimes
+_duplicate_ it, cause confusion where there was previously assurance.
+Bad enough at all times, they are, when one is transposing at sight,
+exasperating to the last degree.
+
+An accidental is operative during the bar in which it occurs, and no
+further, unless it inflects the last note of a bar, and the next bar
+begins with the same note. It is so usual, however, to contradict an
+accidental in the bar _next_ to that in which it occurs, that this
+practice may almost be said to have become a rule, breach of which might
+cause uncertainty in all but the clearest cases. This is no
+justification for the absurd practice of some writers, of contradicting
+an inflection the next time the same note _un_-inflected occurs,
+_however far off this may be_!
+
+As a rule, a natural should only be used where the sharp or flat to be
+cancelled would _not_ have to be repeated were the inflection intended
+to continue.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Legibility.
+
+52.--A common cause of illegibility in manuscript music is what may be
+called a spider-like sameness in the web. Stems and hooks--indeed
+sometimes stems and note-heads!--are much of the same thickness and
+blackness. Compare them in printed music, and it will be seen that a
+dozen, perhaps a score, of stems could be spun out of one hook.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+53.--Should it be necessary to erase and rewrite a note, the blurred
+effect too often resulting may be almost entirely avoided by _penciling_
+the correct note before tracing it in ink. This produces a lead-lined
+groove and prevents the ink from running.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Facility.
+
+54.--Orthography is taught by the careful making--drawing rather than
+writing--of large letters. The formation of a more rapid and individual
+hand does not come till later. So with musical phonography. The student,
+at whatever cost of time and patience, must first acquire _accuracy and
+clearness_. Not till _these are gained_ must he think of rapidity and
+ease. Hence the consideration of facility has been deferred to the last.
+
+Facility is well worthy of consideration, especially on the part of
+those who have much music to write. A little thought will often show how
+a character may be made in one stroke, which in any other way will take
+two or more, and that without any loss of clearness.
+
+Thus a half note can be made in one stroke if begun at the point where
+the ring joins the stem; that is, at the _top_ of the ring for upward
+stems, at the _under part_ for downward stems.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
+
+Quarter notes may be made in one stroke if the head be begun first when
+the stem is upward, and the _stem_ first when the stem is downward.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
+
+If this very simple expedient were more generally known, the practice of
+writing downward as well as upward stems at the right-hand side of the
+note-head--never done in printed music--would not be as common as it is.
+It should be added that to make a quarter or half note satisfactorily in
+one stroke, a pliable pen, fine, but spreading under pressure, and
+rapidly recovering itself, is necessary, otherwise the head will be too
+thin or the stem too thick.
+
+Eighth notes, especially those with downward stems, are best made in two
+strokes. They can, however, be made in one if begun at the _bottom_.
+That is to say, those with upward stems must be begun at the head, and
+those with downward stems at the hook. This hook must be drawn thin, if
+made thick the pen will scratch when making the stem: if the head be
+made first the pen ends at the wrong side for a _downward_ stem.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.]
+
+Each shorter note requires an additional action.
+
+The G clef can be made in one stroke if begun at the innermost part of
+the curl, or at the downward extremity. The F clef requires three
+strokes, owing to the dots, each of which takes one to itself.
+
+The C clef requires four movements, so does a sharp. A flat may be made
+in one stroke, but is very apt to look like a half note. A natural
+requires two movements.
+
+Chords may be expeditiously formed, if with _downward_ stem, by making
+the top note, with stem, first, and then adding the other notes. Chords
+with upward stems should be begun at the bottom.
+
+(The joinings are purposely left imperfect to show the method. The
+numbers show the order of the four actions for the four notes.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.]
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Copyright.
+
+55.--A primer on musical orthography is hardly complete without a few
+words on Copyright. As long as a work is in manuscript and copies are
+not offered for sale it enjoys the same protection, under the common
+law, as if properly entered for copyright. It is an infringement of
+copyright to copy, reprint, publish, or vend the whole or any portion of
+a copyright work for any purpose whatsoever. It is an infringement to
+copy a hymn tune, a portion of an anthem, orchestral parts, or to
+transpose a song; such infringements can be prosecuted and the full
+penalty exacted. It can be readily understood that such copying deprives
+the composer or proprietor of his just returns from the sales of his
+work. To secure a copyright in the United States of America it is
+necessary to print on each and every copy, Copyright (date) by (name of
+proprietor), and to send to the Registrar of Copyright, Washington,
+D. C., two complete copies with a fee of one dollar for registration and
+a certificate under seal. The copyright is secured for twenty-eight
+years from the date of first publication with the privilege of a renewal
+for twenty-eight years, provided that notice of renewal is given the
+copyright office one year prior to the expiration of the first term.
+Securing an international copyright is usually undertaken by the
+publisher, as are also such matters as mechanical rights.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+56.--When the finished composition is ready for publication, a fair copy
+should be made and care exercised to see that it is legible and correct
+in every particular. A few suggestions as to proofreading and correcting
+may prove useful. There are certain symbols in universal use which are
+as follows:
+
+[Illustration: move over]
+
+[Illustration: take out]
+
+[Illustration: turn over]
+
+[Illustration: transpose]
+
+[Illustration: close up]
+
+[Illustration: space]
+
+[Illustration: wrong font]
+
+[Illustration: lower case]
+
+These symbols should be marked on the margin of the proof (see sample
+page), and no other instructions are necessary. Notes are indicated by
+their position on the staff not by their names. The value of a note is
+indicated by a fraction. Slurs are drawn in and indicated by the word
+"slur." Dots are encircled with a line to give them prominence.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+The numbers refer to the _Paragraph_, not the Page.
+
+                                        PARAGRAPH
+
+  Accidentals                           44-48, 51
+
+
+  Barring                                       4
+
+  Beat-lines                                   14
+
+  Bind                                         14
+
+  Black-notes                                  42
+
+
+  Change of Key                                 4
+
+  Change of Time                                7
+
+  Chords                                       54
+
+  Clefs                                         5
+
+  Common Faults      5, 6, 12, 13, 22, 34, 36, 52
+
+  Compound Time                                13
+
+  Copyright                                    55
+
+  Crossing Parts                               24
+
+
+  Direct                                        5
+
+  Dots                              20, 9, 14, 40
+
+
+  Erasures                                     53
+
+  Extracting a Single Part                     50
+
+
+  Facility                                     54
+
+
+  German Quarter Note Rests                    17
+
+  Grace-notes                                  23
+
+  Groups                   13, 23, 30, 32, 35, 38
+
+
+  Half Note Head with Eighth Note Hook         42
+
+  Historical Notes              7, 14, 21, 27, 31
+
+  Hooks                                    29, 42
+
+
+  Introductory                                  1
+
+
+  Key Signature                              4, 6
+
+
+  Leger-lines                                  36
+
+  Legibility                                   52
+
+
+  Mapping-out                                   4
+
+  Mercer's Psalter                              4
+
+  Morley's _Practical Music_                   14
+
+
+  Notation of Rhythm                        8, 32
+
+
+  Open Score                           16, 20, 23
+
+  Open Score to Short Score                    41
+
+  Organ Music                                  23
+
+  Over-lapping Iteration (Piano)               11
+
+
+  Paper                                         2
+
+  Part Writing                             19, 44
+
+  Pause                                        50
+
+  Placing of Notes                             14
+
+  Playford's "Whole Booke of Psalms"       27, 31
+
+
+  Rests                             15-19, 12, 50
+
+  Rhythm, Notation of                       8, 32
+
+
+  Scoring                                       3
+
+  Short Score                              18, 24
+
+  Short Score to Open                          42
+
+  Sign of Perfection                            7
+
+  Signatures                              6, 4, 7
+
+  Simple Time                                  12
+
+  Slur                                     37, 39
+
+  Sonata Pastorale                              9
+
+  Stems                                        22
+
+    Of Rests                           25, 16, 18
+
+  Stroke and Dot                                9
+
+
+  Three Parts on One Stave                     24
+
+  Ties                             10, 11, 14, 37
+
+  Time Signature                                7
+
+  Turn Over                                  4, 5
+
+
+  Unnecessary Accidentals                      51
+
+
+  Vocal music                              37, 23
+
+    (Exception 4)                          35, 40
+
+
+  Words (See also "Vocal Music")                4
+
+☞ _When a higher number precedes a lower in the above index, it is
+because it refers to a more important Paragraph._
+
+
+
+
+  [ Transcriber's Note:
+
+    The following is a list of corrections made to the original.
+    The first line is the original line, the second the corrected one.
+
+  Quartet-paper: four stave score, no brackets or clefs.
+  Quartet-paper: four-stave score, no brackets or clefs.
+
+  Leger-lines,
+  Leger-lines.
+
+  cannot be white and black at the same time. In this case _the notehead
+  cannot be white and black at the same time. In this case _the note-head
+
+  ]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Write Music, by Clement A. Harris
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO WRITE MUSIC ***
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