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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Autobiography of an Electron, by Charles R.
+(Charles Robert) Gibson
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Autobiography of an Electron
+       Wherein the Scientific Ideas of the Present Time Are Explained in an Interesting and Novel Fashion
+
+
+Author: Charles R. (Charles Robert) Gibson
+
+
+
+Release Date: June 17, 2011  [eBook #36456]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN ELECTRON***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Sharon Joiner, Erica Pfister-Altschul, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images
+generously made available by Internet Archive/American Libraries
+(http://www.archive.org/details/americana)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
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+      See 36456-h.htm or 36456-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/36456/36456-h/36456-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/36456/36456-h.zip)
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/American Libraries. See
+      http://www.archive.org/details/autobiographyofe00gibsrich
+
+
+
+
+
+THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN ELECTRON
+
+
+[Illustration: A WELL-KNOWN PHENOMENON PRODUCED BY ELECTRONS
+
+_Photo_
+
+_The Fleet Agency_
+
+A sudden discharge of electrons from cloud to cloud, or from cloud to
+the earth, constitutes what we call "lightning."]
+
+
+THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN ELECTRON.
+
+Wherein the Scientific Ideas of the Present
+Time Are Explained in an Interesting
+and Novel Fashion
+
+by
+
+CHARLES R. GIBSON, F.R.S.E.
+
+Author of "Scientific Ideas of To-Day," "Electricity of To-Day"
+"The Romance of Modern Electricity," _&c. &c._
+
+Illustrated
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Philadelphia
+J. B. Lippincott Company
+London: Seeley & Co. Limited
+1911
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Although text-books of science may appear to the general reader to be
+"very dry" material, there is no doubt that, when scientific facts and
+theories are put into everyday language, the general reader is genuinely
+interested. The reception accorded to the present author's _Scientific
+Ideas of To-day_ bears out this fact. While that volume explains, in
+non-technical language, the latest scientific theories, it aims at
+giving a fairly full account, which, of course, necessitates going into
+a great deal of detail. That the book has been appreciated by very
+varied classes of readers is evident from the large numbers of
+appreciative letters received from different quarters. But the author
+believes that if the story of modern science were told in a still more
+popular style, it would serve a further useful purpose. For there are
+readers who do not care to go into details, and yet would like to take
+an intelligent interest in the scientific progress of the present day.
+Some of those readers do not wish to trouble about names and dates,
+while the mere mention of rates of vibration and such-like is a worry to
+them. They wish a book which they may read with the same ease as an
+interesting novel. Hence the form of the present volume.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The author is indebted to Professor James Muir, M.A., D.Sc., of the
+Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, and to H. Stanley Allen,
+M.A., D.Sc., Senior Lecturer in Physics at King's College, University of
+London, for very kindly reading the proof-sheets. The author is indebted
+further to Professor Muir in connection with some of the illustrations,
+and for others to Dixon and Corbitt and R. S. Newall, Ltd., Glasgow;
+Siemens Schuckert Werke, Berlin.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+WHAT THE STORY IS ABOUT
+
+The Scribe introduces the Electron to the reader. He has something
+    to say also about the mysterious æther which pervades all
+    space. He emphasises the fact that the electron is a real
+    existing thing                                                    21
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE ELECTRON'S PREFACE
+
+The Electron explains the reason why it has written its
+    autobiography                                                     29
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE NEW ARRIVAL
+
+The Electron points out who the new arrival is really. It relates
+    an amusing experience. It tells how man disturbed electrons
+    before he discovered their existence. An ancient experiment,
+    and what the wise men of the East thought about it. How
+    electrons are responsible for the electrification of any
+    object. Handled by a new experimenter, they surprise man. Man
+    becomes of special interest to the electrons                      32
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+SOME GOOD SPORT
+
+The Electron explains how man succeeded in crowding them together,
+    with some rather exciting results from the overcrowding. One
+    historical incident. Man's fear of the consequences. How a
+    party of electrons wrecked a church steeple. An unfortunate
+    accident                                                          42
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+MY EARLIEST RECOLLECTIONS
+
+The Electron's story begins at a very far distant period, before
+    this world had taken shape. The Electron was present when the
+    atoms of matter were being formed. The birth of the moon.
+    Something still to be discovered. The moulding of the planet.
+    Boiling oceans. The electrons took an active part in making
+    sea-water salt. The Electron explains why it has been chosen to
+    write the story of itself and its fellows                         52
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+MAN PAYS US SOME ATTENTION
+
+The electrons are encouraged by one of the experiments made by man.
+    They hope it may lead to their discovery, so that their
+    services may be recognised. The Electron's experience in a
+    vacuum tube. A disappointment and a revival of hope. A great
+    declaration by one individual man. The Electron misjudges man.
+    Mention of a great discovery. The christening of the electrons    60
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+A STEADY MARCH
+
+The Electron explains how they produce the electric current. How
+    man discovered means of making the electrons march. A simple
+    explanation of how a complete electric circuit is always
+    necessary. How an "earth circuit" works. How the marching
+    electrons can do work                                             68
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+A USEFUL DANCE
+
+A perpetual dance. A responsible position. How the safety of the
+    mariner depends upon the electrons' dance. How electrons
+    produce a magnet. A convenient kind of magnet, which gains and
+    loses its attractive power when desired. How a permanent magnet
+    is made. The great service of electrons in modern life            76
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+HOW WE CARRY MAN'S NEWS
+
+The method of sending the news. The Electron's personal experience.
+    A series of forced marches. How man controls the electrons. How
+    the electrons reproduce the signals                               86
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+HOW WE COMMUNICATE WITH DISTANT SHIPS
+
+An entirely different means of communication. A surprise to man,
+    but not to the electrons. How the electrons produce waves in
+    the surrounding æther. How these waves disturb distant
+    electrons. The Electron's personal experience. Its description
+    of its actions in a wireless telegraph station                    94
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+HOW WE REPRODUCE SPEECH
+
+Why it is not correct to speak of the electrons as carriers of
+    speech. The action of electrons in the working of telephones.
+    The Electron's own experience in wireless telephony              106
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+OUR HEAVIEST DUTIES
+
+A roving commission. How electrons can move gigantic cars and
+    trains. The action of electrons in dynamos and motors. How the
+    electrons transmit the energy. What makes the motor go           116
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+A BOON TO MAN
+
+A simple explanation of how the electrons produce light. How the
+    Electron provides a connecting link between matter and the
+    æther. How light reaches the earth from the sun. How the
+    electrons produce that beautiful luminous effect which man
+    calls an "Aurora." How the earth has become a negatively
+    charged body. How electrons produce radiant heat. The
+    difference between light and heat                                126
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+HOW WE PRODUCE COLOUR
+
+What colour is really. How the different colour sensations are
+    stimulated by the electrons. The Electron as a faithful
+    satellite to the atom. How electrons can produce the different
+    æther waves. How the electrons respond to the different waves.
+    The production of artificial light. Co-operation of the
+    electrons. Man's ridiculously wasteful processes. The
+    electrons' secret                                                136
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+WE SEND MESSAGES FROM THE STARS
+
+The kind of messages referred to. How the electrons have informed
+    man of what the stars are made. How man reads the electrons'
+    wireless messages. How it is other electrons that enable man to
+    read the messages. The real explanation of reflection of light.
+    How light is absorbed by some objects. How some substances are
+    transparent. Why objects appear coloured. What makes the lines
+    in the spectra of stars. The spectroscope                        144
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+HOW MAN PROVED OUR EXISTENCE
+
+How man reasoned out a plan for detecting the electron. How the
+    electrons altered some lines in the spectrum. The curious
+    manner in which the Electron informed man that certain stars
+    are approaching this planet, while others are receding from it   158
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+MY X-RAY EXPERIENCE
+
+X-rays are an old story to some electrons. The Electron's personal
+    experience. A very sudden stop. How electrons made a
+    fluorescent screen send out light. The electrons assist the
+    surgeon. A curious find. Detecting imitation diamonds. The
+    Electron and the mummy                                           166
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+OUR RELATIONSHIP TO THE ATOMS
+
+How the atoms of matter attract one another. What constitutes the
+    temperature of a body. What the atoms are made of. An important
+    thing still to discover about the atom. The elements. How the
+    electrons produce compound substances. The real explanation of
+    chemical changes                                                 178
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+HOW WE MADE THE WORLD TALK
+
+It was nothing new on the part of the electrons. Exaggerated
+    rumours. The electrons and radium. Fast-flying electrons.
+    Atomic explosions                                                186
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+The Electron is made to sum up a few of the wonders which it has
+    related, in order to emphasise the great services which
+    electrons render to man                                          194
+
+APPENDIX                                                             200
+
+INDEX                                                                211
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+A WELL-KNOWN PHENOMENON PRODUCED BY ELECTRONS             _Frontispiece_
+
+DAMAGE DONE BY A PARTY OF ELECTRONS                                   45
+
+A TOBACCO TIN DEFYING GRAVITATION                                     79
+
+A MOTOR-CAR WITH WIRELESS TELEGRAPH                                   99
+
+A TRAIN IMPELLED BY MOVING ELECTRONS                                 119
+
+PROTECTION AGAINST A DISCHARGE OF ELECTRONS                          129
+
+THE SPECTROSCOPE AND THE ELECTRONS' WIRELESS MESSAGES                149
+
+HOW ELECTRONS PRODUCE X-RAY IMAGES                                   171
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+WHAT THE STORY IS ABOUT
+
+
+The reason for writing this story is given in the Preface, but the title
+is so strange that the reader will wish naturally to know what the story
+is about. What is an electron? Is it an imaginary thing, or is it a
+reality?
+
+One of the reasons for writing this story in its present form is to help
+the reader to realise that electrons are not mythical, but real existing
+things, and by far the most interesting things we know anything about.
+The discovery of electrons has shed a new light upon the meaning of very
+many things which have been puzzles until now. They give us a reasonable
+explanation of the cause of light and colour. They provide a new idea of
+the constitution of matter. They enable us to picture an electric
+current, and they give us definite, though by no means final, answers
+to the why and wherefore of magnetism, chemical union, and
+radio-activity.
+
+The story is imaginary only in so far that one of the electrons itself
+is supposed to tell the tale. But in the endeavour to make the story
+interesting, there has been no sacrifice of accuracy in the statements
+of fact.
+
+While all names and dates, and many other details, have been kept out
+rigidly from the story, a note of the more important of these has been
+added in an Appendix for the sake of those readers who may wish to refer
+to them.
+
+It will be well to introduce the electron to the reader before leaving
+it to speak for itself. We have definite experimental proof of the
+existence of electrons, and yet it is very difficult to realise their
+existence, for two reasons. In the first place, they are so
+infinitesimally small. We count a microbe a small thing; we can see it
+only with the aid of a very powerful microscope. Yet that little speck
+of matter contains myriads of particles or _atoms_. An atom of matter is
+therefore an inconceivably little thing, but even that is a great giant
+compared to an electron. Our second difficulty in realising the
+existence of an electron is that it is not any form of what we call
+_matter_; it is a particle of _electricity_, whatever that may be.
+
+From the earliest experiments it became evident that there were two
+distinct kinds of electricity. These were described by the pioneer
+workers as _positive_ and _negative_ electricities. To-day we have
+definite experimental proof that negative electricity is composed of
+separate particles or units. Just as matter is composed of invisible
+atoms, so also is negative electricity of an atomic nature. These
+particles of negative electricity have been christened electrons,
+_electron_ being the Greek word for _amber_, from which man first
+obtained electricity. Of course no one can ever hope to see an electron,
+but physicists have been able to determine its size and _mass_, its
+electric charge, and the speeds at which it moves.
+
+While it has been known for more than a century that _light_ is merely
+waves in the all-pervading æther of space, set up by incandescent
+bodies, it has been a puzzle always how matter could cause waves in the
+æther, as it offers no resistance to the movement of matter through it.
+Here we are on the back of a great planet, flying through space at the
+enormous rate of one thousand miles per minute, and yet our flimsy
+atmospheric blanket is in no way disturbed by the æther through which we
+are flying. In the following story we shall see that these electrons
+help us towards a solution of this and many other problems; they provide
+the missing link between matter and the æther.
+
+But what is this _æther_ of which one hears so much in these days? The
+truth is we know nothing of its nature. We cannot say whether it is
+lighter than the lightest gas or denser than the densest solid. The
+æther, whatever it may be, is as real as the air we breathe. It is the
+medium which brings us light and heat from the sun, and which carries
+our wireless telegraph and telephone messages. The whole universe is
+moving in this great æther ocean.
+
+In order to make the electron's story perfectly intelligible to every
+reader, I have added a short explanatory note at the beginning of each
+chapter. These notes merely state the facts about which the electron is
+speaking.
+
+To make the electron's story as realistic as possible, it has been
+necessary to give the imaginary electron perfect freedom of knowledge
+concerning itself and its surroundings. In our schooldays we had to
+write the autobiographies of steel pens, and such-like, but these
+inanimate things had to be endowed with powers of thought, feeling, and
+desire. It is very important, however, to remember that an electron is a
+particle of negative electricity--_a real existing thing_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE ELECTRON'S PREFACE
+
+
+While many scientific men now understand our place in the universe, we
+electrons are anxious that every person should know the very important
+part which we play in the workaday world. It was for this reason that my
+fellow-electrons urged me to write my own biography. My difficulty has
+been to find a scribe who would put down my story in the way I desired.
+The first man with whom I opened negotiations wished me to give him
+dates and names of which I knew nothing. And he asked such stupid
+questions about where I was born and who my parents were, as if I were
+flesh and blood.
+
+I am pleased to say that my relationship with the scribe who has put
+down my story in the following pages has been of the most friendly
+description. Apart from a little tiff which we had at the outset, there
+has been no difference of opinion. He complained that I related things
+in too abstract a form. However, we got over the difficulty by a
+compromise; I have allowed him to place what he calls "The Scribe's
+Note" at the beginning of each chapter, but it will be understood
+clearly that these are merely convenient embellishments, and that I am
+responsible for the story of my own experiences.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE NEW ARRIVAL
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER THREE_
+
+    It will be well to keep clearly in mind that an electron is a
+    real particle of negative electricity.
+
+    Electrons have been discovered only within recent years.
+
+    No matter from what substances we take them, they are always
+    identical in every respect.
+
+    Some electrons are attached to the atoms of matter in such a way
+    that they may be removed easily from one object to another.
+
+    When a surplus of these detachable electrons is crowded on to
+    any object, we say that it is charged with negative electricity.
+
+    We speak of the other object, which has lost these same
+    electrons, as being charged with positive electricity.
+
+    In this chapter the electron refers to the old-world experiment
+    in which a piece of amber when rubbed attracts any light object
+    to it.
+
+    For many ages man believed this to be a special property
+    belonging to amber alone.
+
+    One of Queen Elizabeth's physicians discovered that this
+    property was common to all substances.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE NEW ARRIVAL
+
+
+It is most amusing to me and my fellow-electrons to hear intelligent
+people speak of us as though we were new arrivals on this planet. Dear
+me! We were here for countless ages before man put in an appearance. I
+wonder if any man can realise that we have been on the move ever since
+the foundations of this world were laid. It is man himself who is the
+new arrival.
+
+It does seem strange to us that men should be so distinctly different
+from one another. We electrons are at a decided disadvantage, for we are
+all identical in every respect. I have no individual name--it would
+serve no purpose. Even if you could see me, you could not distinguish me
+from any other electron. I wonder sometimes if men appreciate the great
+advantage they have in possessing individual names. I was impressed
+with this thought one fine summer morning. While I was riding on the
+back of a particle of gas in the atmosphere, I was carried through the
+open window of a nursery just as the under-nurse was putting the room in
+order. A little later there was some commotion in the nursery, for the
+young mother and her mother had come to see the twin daughters being
+bathed by the nurses. The grandmother happened to remark how very much
+alike the two little infants were. She said laughingly to the head nurse
+that she must be careful not to get the children mixed. But the big
+brother, aged five years, remarked that it would not matter really how
+much they were mixed until they got their names. Sometimes I wish we
+electrons did differ from one another, so that we might each possess an
+individual name, but no doubt it is necessary for us all to be exactly
+alike.
+
+Long before man had discovered us, he caused us deliberately to do
+certain things. He was mystified by the results of his experiments, for
+he was not aware of our presence. A few of my fellow-electrons have
+rather hazy recollections of being disturbed while clinging to a piece
+of amber. They had been disturbed often before in a similar way, by
+being rubbed against a piece of woollen cloth, and the result had been
+always that a number of electrons let go their hold upon the cloth and
+crowded on to the amber. The overcrowding was uncomfortable, but it
+happened usually that the surplus electrons found some means of escape
+to the earth, where there is no need of excessive crowding.
+
+On the occasion to which I refer, it so happened that the rubbing had
+been unusually vigorous and prolonged, so that the electrons were
+crowded on to the amber in great numbers. In their endeavour to escape
+they produced a strain or stress in the surrounding æther, and this
+caused a small piece of straw, which was lying within the disturbed
+area, to be forced towards the amber.
+
+What attracted the attention of the electrons was that the man who was
+holding the piece of amber removed the clinging straw and replaced it
+exactly where it had been lying. In the meantime he had been handling
+the amber, and many of the crowded electrons had managed to make a bolt
+for the earth by way of the man's body. They did this so very quietly
+that the man did not feel any sensation. However, as soon as the amber
+was rubbed again, a similar crowd provided the same attractive property.
+We electrons became impatient to hear what man would say of our work,
+for it was apparent that he had noticed the movements of the straw. You
+will hardly believe me when I tell you to what decision these wise men
+of the East came. They declared that, in rubbing the amber, it had
+received heat and life. As if life could be originated in any such
+simple manner!
+
+You can picture our disappointment when we found that man was going to
+ignore our presence. Occasionally we were given opportunities of
+displaying our abilities in drawing light objects towards pieces of
+rubbed amber. But the funny thing was that man got hold of the stupid
+idea that this attractive property belonged to the amber instead of to
+us. If he had only tried pieces of sulphur, resin, or glass, he would
+have found that these substances would have acted just as well. You see
+it was not really the substance, but we electrons who were the active
+agents.
+
+We had given up all hope of being discovered, when news came along that
+a learned man was on the hunt for us. He was crowding us on to all sorts
+of substances. He rubbed a piece of glass with some silk, and at first
+he was surprised greatly to see light objects jump towards the excited
+glass. Of course, we were not surprised in the very least. The only
+thing that amused us was to find that he was making out a list of the
+different substances which showed attractive properties when rubbed. He
+could not, evidently, get away from the idea that it was the substances
+themselves that became attractive.
+
+We were sorry that the poor experimenter wasted so much time and energy
+in trying to crowd us on to a piece of metal rod. He rubbed and he
+rubbed that metal, but it would attract nothing, and I shall tell you
+the reason. You know that we electrons hate overcrowding; indeed we
+always separate from one another as far as possible when there is no
+force pulling us together. We only crowded on to the amber because we
+could not help ourselves; we had no way of escape, for amber is a
+substance we cannot pass through. But we have no difficulty whatever in
+making our way along a piece of metal, and as soon as the rubbing
+began, some electrons moved off the metal by way of the man's arm and
+body to make room for those being crowded on to the metal from the
+rubber. And so there never was any overcrowding, and consequently no
+straining of the æther. But it was not long before we found that man had
+succeeded in cutting off our way of escape. He had attached a glass
+handle to the metal rod, and we were compelled to overcrowd upon the
+metal as we could not pass through the glass handle. Neighbouring light
+objects were attracted by the excited or "electrified" metal. Even this
+demonstration did not put man upon our track.
+
+Perhaps I should explain in passing, that when a glass rod is rubbed
+with a silk handkerchief we crowd on to the silk, and not on to the
+glass. This leaves the glass rod short of electrons, and the æther is
+strained so that light objects are attracted. Man did notice that there
+was some difference between a piece of amber and a piece of glass when
+these were excited. What the difference was he could not imagine, but to
+distinguish the two different conditions he said that the amber was
+charged with _negative_ electricity and the glass with _positive_
+electricity.
+
+From that time forward man became of special interest to us. We felt
+sure that sooner or later he was bound to recognise that we were at work
+behind the scenes. It seemed to us, however, that man was desperately
+slow in turning his attention towards us, and we tried to waken him up
+in a rather alarming fashion, as I shall relate in the succeeding
+chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+SOME GOOD SPORT
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER FOUR_
+
+    Men began to make glass plate machines for producing
+    electrification on a larger scale.
+
+    The electric spark is produced.
+
+    The electron tells the story of the first attempt to store
+    electricity in a glass jar.
+
+    This is what we do now by means of a Leyden jar.
+
+    A sudden expulsion of electrons from one object to another is
+    called a discharge of electricity.
+
+    Lightning is a discharge of electrons from a cloud to the earth
+    or from cloud to cloud.
+
+    In repeating Franklin's experiment of drawing electricity from
+    thunder-clouds, a Russian professor received a fatal shock.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+SOME GOOD SPORT
+
+
+Now I must tell you of a surprise in which I took an active part. Some
+man thought he would separate a great crowd of us from our friends. Of
+course, he did not think really of _us_, but whatever he may have
+supposed he was doing, he succeeded in accumulating greater crowds of us
+together than he had done previously. He managed this by making simple
+machines to do the rubbing for him on a larger scale. The result was
+really too much for us; we were kept crowding on to a sort of brass comb
+arrangement from which we could not escape, as the metal was attached to
+a glass support. Talk about overcrowding! I had never experienced the
+like before, and I felt sure some catastrophe would happen. Suddenly
+there was a stampede, during which a great crowd of electrons forced
+their way across to a neighbouring object and thence to the earth. I
+can assure you it was no joke getting through the air. We all tried to
+leap together, but some of the crowd were forced back upon us; then bang
+forward we went again, back once more, and so on till we settled down to
+our normal condition. Of course all this surging to and fro occupied far
+less time than it takes to tell. Indeed, I could not tell you what a
+very small fraction of a second it took.
+
+I wish you had seen the experimenter's surprise as we made this jump. We
+caused such a bombardment in the air that there was a bright spark
+accompanied by a regular explosion. Some men ran away with the idea that
+electricity was a mysterious fire, which only showed itself when it
+mixed with the atmosphere. Nothing delighted us more, after our own
+surprise was over, than to have a chance of repeating these explosions,
+to the alarm of the experimenters. But the best sport of all was to
+come, and when I heard of it I was so disappointed that I had not been
+one of the sporting party. It came about in the following way.
+
+[Illustration: DAMAGE DONE BY A PARTY OF ELECTRONS
+
+_By permission of Dixon and Corbitt and R. S. Newall, Ltd._
+
+_Glasgow_
+
+When a myriad of electrons is discharged suddenly from a cloud to the
+earth, it happens sometimes that considerable damage is done. The above
+photograph is of a church steeple damaged by lightning in 1875. No
+lightning-conductor was provided, so the electrons had to get to earth
+by way of the steeple itself, with the disastrous result as shown.]
+
+One learned man thought he had hit upon a good idea. He tried to
+crowd a tremendous number of us into some water contained in a glass
+jar. Without condescending to think of us, he crowded an enormous number
+of electrons from one of his rubbing machines along a piece of chain
+which led them into water. The overcrowding was appalling, for it was
+impossible to escape through the glass vessel. Things had reached a
+terrible state, when the experimenter stopped the machine and put
+forward his hand to lift the chain out of the water. Now was the chance
+of escape, so the whole excited crowd made one wild rush to earth by way
+of the experimenter's body. The rapid surging to and fro of the crowd
+racked the man's muscles. I wish I had been there to see him jump; they
+say it was something grand. You can imagine how the little sinners
+enjoyed the joke; they knew they were safe, as man had no idea of their
+existence at that time.
+
+Another man was foolhardy enough to try a similar experiment, and they
+say that his alarm was even greater; indeed, he swore he would not take
+another shock even for the crown of France. We were all eager to get
+opportunities of alarming man, not that we wished him any harm, but we
+thought he might pay us a little more attention.
+
+I remember one occasion upon which some of us were boasting of what we
+had done in the way of alarming men, whereupon one fellow-electron
+rather belittled our doings. He maintained that he had jumped all the
+way from a cloud to the earth, along with a crowd of other electrons. In
+doing so they had scared the inhabitants of a whole village, for they
+alighted upon the steeple of a church, and in their wild rush they
+played such havoc among the atoms composing the steeple that they did
+considerable outward damage to the great structure.
+
+I may as well confess that we are not free agents in performing these
+gigantic jumps; we are compelled to go with the crowd when things are in
+such a state of stress. We simply cannot hold on to the atoms of matter
+upon which we happen to be located. It is only under very considerable
+pressure that we can perform this class of jump, and I beg to assure you
+that we are perfectly helpless in those cases where we have been dashed
+upon some poor creature with a message of death.
+
+Alas! on one occasion I was one of a party who killed a very learned
+man. It was most distasteful to us; we could not possibly prevent it. He
+had erected a long rod which extended up into the air, and terminated at
+the lower end in his laboratory. Some of us who were in the upper
+atmosphere were forced on to this iron rod, and from past experience we
+quite expected that we should be subjected to a sudden expulsion to
+earth. Indeed we were waiting for the experimenter to provide us with a
+means of escape, when suddenly he brought his head too near to the end
+of the rod, and in a moment we were dashed to earth through his body. We
+learned with deep regret that the poor man had been robbed of his life.
+
+To turn to something of a happier nature, I shall proceed to tell you of
+some of my earliest recollections. Remember I shall be speaking of a
+time long before man existed--even before this great planet was a solid
+ball.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+MY EARLIEST RECOLLECTIONS
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER FIVE_
+
+    This great globe upon which we live was once a glowing mass of
+    flaming gas.
+
+    It is possible that the whole solar system was once one great
+    mass.
+
+    In any case, we have no doubt that the moon is simply the result
+    of a part of our glowing mass having become detached.
+
+    In the hottest stars we find only the lightest atoms of matter,
+    such as hydrogen gas, the atoms of heavier substances being
+    found in stars which have begun to cool down.
+
+    The electrons have been present from the very beginning, and it
+    is they who go to make up the atoms of matter.
+
+    We picture an atom of matter as a miniature solar system of
+    revolving electrons.
+
+    There is doubtless a corresponding amount of positive
+    electricity, but so far we have no evidence of its nature.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+MY EARLIEST RECOLLECTIONS
+
+
+Before giving an account of the everyday duties which we perform, it may
+interest you to hear something of our early history.
+
+Not only have we been on the move ever since the beginning of this
+world, but some of us have clear recollections of this planet long
+before it was a solid body. The whole world was a great ball of flaming
+gas. I have heard some fellow-electrons say that we were attached to a
+greater mass of incandescent gas before the beginning of this world, but
+I have no personal recollections of it. But one thing I do remember is a
+great upheaval which caused a large mass of gas to become detached from
+our habitation. Without any warning a great myriad of our
+fellow-electrons were carried away on this smaller mass. At first this
+detached mass circled around our greater mass at very close quarters,
+but we soon found that our friends were being carried farther and
+farther away, until they are now circling around this solid planet at a
+comparatively great distance. Man calls this detached mass _the moon_,
+and when I have heard children say in fun that they wish they could
+visit the man in the moon, I have longed to go and see how it fares with
+those fellow-electrons who seem to be separated from us in such a
+permanent manner.
+
+After this exciting event, which I have heard described as "the birth of
+the moon," our great ball of flaming gas began to cool gradually. But
+you will be interested in what happened before the moon's birth. I saw a
+crowd of electrons suddenly congregate together along with _something_
+else which man has not discovered. Never mind the other part, but
+picture a number of electrons forming a little world of their own. There
+they went whirling around in a giddy dance. I saw these little worlds or
+"atoms" being formed all around, and I feel truly thankful now that I
+was not caught in the mad whirl, for these fellow-electrons have been
+kept hard at it ever since, imprisoned within a single atom. I have met
+a very few electrons who have escaped from within an atom, but I shall
+tell you about them later on.
+
+The first thing I noticed was that each of the atoms had practically the
+same number of electrons in it. At that time I thought only in an
+abstract way, but since then I have learned that these were _hydrogen_
+atoms; hydrogen being the lightest substance known to man. Exactly what
+happened next I cannot recollect, but my attention was attracted later
+to larger congregations of electrons forming other little worlds of
+their own. These atoms were, of course, heavier than the hydrogen atoms.
+I saw quite a variety of different systems, of which I thought then in
+an abstract fashion, but which I know now to be atoms of _oxygen_,
+_nitrogen_, _carbon_, _iron_, _copper_, and so on. While man has given
+the atoms these distinguishing names, you will understand that the
+incidents which I am relating took place long before there was any
+appearance of solidity about our planet; these substances were all in a
+gaseous state.
+
+After this, I recollect that there was a great envelope of water-vapour
+condensed around the planet. Some condensed into liquid water upon the
+surface of the globe, while part was suspended in the form of clouds.
+Some of my fellow-electrons acted as _nuclei_ or foundations for the
+formation of the cloud particles. The water which condensed upon the
+earth settled down in the hollows, which had been produced previously by
+the immense pressure of the water-vapour envelope. We can hardly believe
+it is the same world.
+
+You cannot imagine how strange it was to see the great oceans boiling
+and steaming; of course, they were fresh water then. I need hardly tell
+you that they have become salt only because the rivers have brought down
+sodium into them, and when these sodium atoms unite with chlorine atoms
+they form particles of common salt. I know all about this because we
+electrons play a very important part in all such combinations.
+
+One very memorable recollection is that of life originating in the
+oceans. I wish I could let you into the secret of _the origin of life_,
+but, according to the Creator's plan, man must find out for himself.
+Your guesses are all wide of the mark.
+
+By the way, perhaps I should explain why I have been selected to write
+this biography. The first reason is that I am a free or detachable
+electron, and the second point in my favour is that I have had
+exceptional opportunities of seeing about me. I have heard men say that
+lookers-on see most of the game, and as I have witnessed the gradual
+evolution of things, you will understand that I have views of my own. A
+casual observer might think that things had deteriorated, for long ago
+there were immense monsters upon this planet, and these would put all
+modern creatures in the shade as far as size and strength are concerned.
+But one of the most interesting things to me has been to watch the
+evolution of man, and more especially the gradual development of his
+brain. Indeed, sometimes I have wished that I had happened to be an
+electron in the brain of a man; but, on the other hand, my career would
+not have been of the varied kind which it has been.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+MAN PAYS US SOME ATTENTION
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER SIX_
+
+    Men found that by exhausting the air from glass globes or tubes
+    it was possible to pass electric discharges through them, and in
+    so doing some very beautiful luminous effects were produced
+    within the vacuum tubes.
+
+    It was when experimenting with one of these tubes that a
+    scientist suggested that radiant particles were being shot
+    across the tube.
+
+    These particles were really electrons, but it was thought at
+    that time that they were atoms of matter.
+
+    Another scientist declared, from certain mathematical
+    calculations, that there existed extremely small particles of
+    something around the atoms of matter, and that it was the motion
+    of these in the æther which produced _light_.
+
+    People were not willing to accept this theory.
+
+    Some time later another scientist was able to prove by
+    experiment that these particles did exist.
+
+    This was done by means of the spectroscope, as will be related
+    by the electron in a later chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+MAN PAYS US SOME ATTENTION
+
+
+From the little I have told you already of our experiences, you will see
+that men had been making many experiments in which we electrons took a
+very active part. It was disappointing that even although we had
+surprised man in so many different ways, he had never become suspicious
+of our presence. One day, however, we did begin to hope for recognition.
+I was present, with a great crowd of electrons, imprisoned within a
+glass globe from which the air had been extracted. We were very pleased
+to find that the surrounding space had been cleared of air, for it was
+apparent that the experimenter was going to make us jump across from one
+end of the glass tube to the other.
+
+A crowd of us had collected on the extremity of a wire, or "electrode,"
+at the one end of the tube, while another similar crowd was present on
+the other electrode at the opposite end of the tube. While I speak of a
+crowd, meaning that there were millions of us, I do not suggest that we
+were overcrowded, for we had plenty of elbow-room to move about on the
+atoms to which we were attached. All in a moment the scene was changed.
+We felt a crowd of electrons pressing us forward and forcing us right up
+to the very end of the electrode. We found that the crowd was
+approaching by a wire leading into the tube. Soon the crowding had
+reached such a condition that we became alarmed; we could see no way of
+escape. We were imprisoned by the glass walls, but we soon discovered
+that many of the electrons who had been stationed on the other electrode
+had deserted their posts and fled along a wire leading out of the tube.
+If we could only follow them. It would be a tremendous jump to get over
+to the other wire, but the way was fairly clear of air. When the
+overcrowding reached a certain point we were literally shot across from
+the one electrode to the other. This was the first time I had ever
+experienced anything of the kind, but many fellow-electrons had gone
+through similar performances for years at the hands of other
+experimenters.
+
+However, it was somewhat alarming to be fired off like a rocket across
+the tube. What happened after that I cannot recollect, but some time
+later I was present in that or a similar tube when I heard the
+experimenter say to a friend that he believed there were particles
+flying across his tube. We sent news all along the line stating that at
+last we had been discovered, and I can assure you that we felt proud.
+But our joy was not long-lived, for it turned out that we were
+considered to be particles or atoms of matter; the experimenter spoke of
+us as "radiant matter." This was a real disappointment.
+
+It took us some time to recover from our disappointment at being
+mistaken for clumsy atoms of matter. We are of a higher order of things
+altogether. No atom of matter can travel at speeds such as we can. We
+cross these vacuum tubes with speeds equal to millions of miles per
+minute.
+
+A great many of us were kept busy within vacuum tubes by other
+experimenters, but nothing very exciting happened. Indeed, we had lost
+all hope of attracting man's attention to ourselves as long as we were
+imprisoned within these tubes. In the meantime our hopes were revived by
+news which reached us from another quarter.
+
+We heard that a very learned man had declared boldly that there did
+exist little particles which revolved around the atoms of matter, and
+that it was the motion of these tiny particles in the æther which
+produced the well-known waves of _light_. There was considerable
+rejoicing among us, for we were anxious to have our services recognised
+by man. This great man was not guessing merely; he was willing to prove
+by mathematical calculations that we did exist in reality. Of course, we
+ourselves required no proof of our existence, but we believed that man
+would be convinced. Our high hopes were soon laid low; news reached us
+that people were shaking their heads and saying that figures could be
+made to prove anything.
+
+After we had settled down to our ordinary duties, we got word that at
+last man had really detected us in a flame of gas. This seemed quite
+reasonable, for, as I shall relate to you in another chapter, we have a
+very lively time of it in a flame of gas. However, when we were
+informed that man had discovered us by means of a sort of telescope
+arrangement, I, for one, began to doubt the truth of the discovery. Some
+time before this I had heard that men were spying at gas flames in the
+hope of finding us, and this seemed most ridiculous, for if man could
+not see the large congregations of us called _atoms_, how could he
+expect to see individual electrons? My ignorance was dispelled when it
+was explained that man had not been looking for us directly, but for the
+æther waves which we produce. But I have not had an opportunity of
+explaining to you how some of us produce waves in the æther; I shall
+have to wait till a later chapter. In the meantime I may say that since
+this important discovery I have taken some part in an experiment similar
+to the historic one wherein we were detected, but of that too I shall
+have more to say again.
+
+The rejoicing at this discovery was not confined to us, for men of
+science were quick to grasp the importance which was attached to this
+new knowledge. We felt that man was bound to acknowledge our services
+from that day. The next event was our christening, and this was not all
+plain sailing. Indeed, we have been rather annoyed with one name which
+some good friends persist in giving us. I refer to the name _corpuscle_,
+which we feel to be a sort of nickname, although it may have been
+suggested in all kindness. It may be difficult for you to appreciate our
+dislike to this name, but it seems to us to savour too much of material
+things. It is not dignified; you must remember we are not matter. We are
+delighted with what we prefer to call our real name--electron--for that
+speaks of electricity. As you know, we are units of particles of
+negative electricity, and so this seems a most sensible and suitable
+name. But I must hasten to tell of some of our everyday duties in which
+we serve man.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+A STEADY MARCH
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER SEVEN_
+
+    The steady motion of electrons from atom to atom along a wire,
+    or other conductor, constitutes the well-known "electric
+    current."
+
+    The moving electrons disturb the æther around the wire and
+    produce what we know as a "magnetic field."
+
+    The electron explains why it is necessary to have a complete
+    circuit before any electric current can take place.
+
+    Also how one length of wire may be used to connect two distant
+    places provided the two extremities of the wire are buried in
+    the earth.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+A STEADY MARCH
+
+
+Personally I knew nothing about marching until quite recently. Indeed,
+none of my fellow-electrons seem to have had definite ideas of regular
+marches previous to last century. That century is prominent in our
+history as well as in man's. There is no doubt that before then we must
+have made more or less regular marches through the crust of the earth
+and elsewhere; but for myself I have no such recollection previous to
+the following occasion.
+
+The experience was not a very exciting one. I found myself passing along
+from atom to atom in a copper wire. But what was of special interest to
+us was that it became evident that these enforced marches were being
+deliberately controlled by man. Of course you will understand that man
+knew nothing of our existence at that time. All he knew was that when
+he placed a piece of zinc and a piece of copper in a chemical solution,
+there were certain effects produced in some mysterious fashion. For
+instance, when he connected the top of the two metals in this chemical
+cell or "battery" by a piece of wire, he got what he described as an
+_electric current_. Now all that happened really was this. The chemical
+action in this battery which man had devised caused a rearrangement
+among the atoms composing the metals and the solution, with the result
+that we poor electrons had to rearrange our domiciles. As an
+accumulation of electrons gathered on the zinc, some of us were forced
+along the connecting wire towards the copper. As long as the chemical
+action in the battery was kept up, so long were we kept on the march
+from the zinc to the copper by way of the wire.
+
+Man tried increasing the length of this wire bridge across which we had
+to pass, but we had no difficulty in making our way along. But you must
+not run away with the idea that we rush along the wire with lightning
+speed. Although we can fly through the æther at a prodigious speed, our
+progress from atom to atom in a wire is more like a snail-pace. As a
+matter of fact, our rate of march is much less than the walking pace of
+a man; indeed it may be stated conveniently as so many yards per hour.
+
+Some people may find it difficult to believe that our rate of march is
+so very slow. Their front door is a good many yards away from their
+electric bell, but it does not take us an hour, or any appreciable part
+of a minute, to summon the maid. The secret is that there is a whole
+regiment of us along the wire, and before one of us moves on to a
+neighbouring atom, another electron must move off that atom and on to
+its neighbour, and so on. In this way the electrons at the far end of
+the wire commence to move at practically the same moment as those near
+the battery.
+
+It has been a source of amusement to me to see people perfectly
+mystified by the fact that they can get no electric current unless they
+have a complete circuit. What else could they expect? How could man
+march if he had no road to march on? You see, the reason for our march
+is that we wish to escape from the overcrowding on the zinc, and we are
+forced towards the copper. The atoms composing the wire are our
+stepping-stones, and if there is not a complete chain of atoms we are
+helpless. You have already heard how we can jump an air-space under very
+great pressure, but that condition does not exist in the present case.
+When we are disturbed by the chemical action of the battery, we should
+prefer to have a short-cut from the zinc to the copper, but if the only
+path man gives us is by way of a long wire, then we must be content to
+travel that road, in order to reach the copper. It is a matter of little
+moment to us what arrangement man makes as long as he gives us a
+complete path. For instance, he may lead us out from the zinc to a
+distant telegraph instrument, and then, instead of providing a second
+wire to take us back to the battery, he may conduct us by a short wire
+to the earth. We are quite content to lose ourselves in this great
+reservoir, provided man places another short wire from the earth to the
+copper of the battery at the other end of the line. Then as we slip off
+at the one end of the line, an equal number of electrons can climb up at
+the other end, and thus enable all our friends in the long wire to keep
+up a steady march.
+
+This march of ours is not merely a means of transporting ourselves from
+one place to another; it is to enable us to do work. It is only when we
+are in motion that we can do useful work, for we must move before we can
+disturb the æther, and it is by means of the æther that we transmit
+energy.
+
+If you place a magnetic needle or mariner's compass near a wire along
+which we are making a steady march, you will find that we can affect our
+fellow-electrons who are stationed within the magnetic needle. We cause
+the needle to swing round and take up a position at right angles to our
+line of march. We succeed in doing this because these electrons in the
+magnetic needle are on the move also. But this reminds me that I have
+never told you how we produce that æther disturbance which you call
+_magnetism_.
+
+When, as children, you played with toy magnets in the nursery, little
+did you think that there was a host of tiny electrons amusing you. And
+yet we electrons are responsible entirely for all magnetic effects, as I
+shall proceed to explain.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+A USEFUL DANCE
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER EIGHT_
+
+    We believe magnetism to be due to electrons revolving around
+    atoms of iron and other magnetic substances, as related by the
+    electron in this chapter.
+
+    We have seen that the steady motion of electrons along a wire
+    produces a magnetic field around the wire.
+
+    Therefore if we have electrons revolving round and round the
+    atoms in a piece of iron, there will be a miniature magnetic
+    field around each atom.
+
+    The electron explains why a piece of iron does not show the
+    magnetic power locked up within it until it is "magnetised."
+
+    The electron refers to electro-magnets; an electro-magnet is
+    simply a piece of soft iron with a coil of insulated wire wound
+    around it.
+
+    The iron only shows its magnetic power as long as a current of
+    electricity is kept passing through the surrounding coil of
+    wire, for reasons which the electron explains.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+A USEFUL DANCE
+
+
+I may tell you quite frankly that I have never taken part in the
+perpetual dance of which I am about to tell you. I am of a free
+and roaming disposition, but I have often watched some of my
+fellow-electrons at this work. Of course, it is pleasant work, as all
+our duties are, now that man acknowledges our services.
+
+We are responsible for the behaviour of the mariner's compass needle. It
+is we who cause it to point continually in one definite direction. If we
+ceased to dance around the iron atoms in the compass needle aboard a
+ship, the man at the helm could not tell in what direction he was going,
+and sooner or later he would be almost certain to wreck his vessel. For
+this service alone man ought to be grateful to us, but before I have
+finished my story, you will find that even this important duty is but a
+small affair when compared with many of our other tasks.
+
+There is one matter I should like to make quite clear to you. Although
+we electrons are all identical, we have different stations to fill. You
+have doubtless become familiar with my roving disposition, and you
+probably think of me as a detachable electron. Then there are our
+friends who are locked up within the atoms of matter--part and parcel of
+the atom. And now I am introducing you to those electrons who act as
+satellites to the atoms, revolving around them at a comparatively great
+distance, just as the moon revolves around the earth. These are the
+electrons which give rise to the magnetism in a piece of iron. There are
+other electrons which perform very rapid revolutions around all classes
+of atoms, but I shall introduce these friends later on.
+
+[Illustration: A TOBACCO-TIN DEFYING GRAVITATION
+
+That phenomenon known as "magnetism" is due to the steady locomotion of
+electrons, as explained in the text. Here we see a large magnet
+attracting a tinned iron box which is tethered to the table by two
+cords. The result is that the box is supported in the air. The spiral
+wires are connected to the electro-magnet, an explanation of which is
+given in Chapter VIII.]
+
+I need hardly remark that a piece of ordinary iron does not behave like
+a magnet. Indeed, it is fortunate that it does not. If it did, man could
+not get along with his work very well. The hammer would stick to the
+head of the nail it had struck, the fire-irons would stick to the
+fender, while the cook's pots and pans would hold on to the kitchen
+range. That would be a very stupid arrangement, but we electrons have
+really no say in the matter of arrangement. We are always on the move,
+performing a perpetual dance around the iron atoms, but the atoms
+arrange themselves in a higgledy-piggledy fashion, so that the electrons
+on one atom pull the æther in one direction while others pull the æther
+in an opposite direction. In this way the outward effect is not
+perceptible. When, however, man places a coil of wire around the iron,
+and makes a crowd of electrons march along the wire, these marching
+electrons affect the æther, which in turn influences the satellite
+electrons which are revolving around the atoms of iron. You may be
+somewhat surprised when I tell you that, owing to this æther
+disturbance, these satellite electrons are able to produce a
+rearrangement among the atoms. If you doubt my word, you may easily
+prove the truth of the statement. If you magnetise a long bar of iron
+you will find that its length is actually altered. This is due to our
+having disturbed the arrangement of the atoms.
+
+Perhaps I should explain that when we force the atoms into their new
+condition, we can do so only under the æther stress set up by our
+fellow-electrons who are marching in the neighbouring wire. Whenever
+their march ceases the æther stress is withdrawn, and the atoms are able
+to fall back into their old higgledy-piggledy condition. In this way man
+is able to make a piece of iron a magnet and to unmake it as often as he
+cares by simply switching on and off the electric current from the wire
+surrounding the iron.
+
+If a piece of hard steel is used in place of soft iron, then we find
+that the atoms are not so easily disturbed, but when they are once
+brought into line with one another, they will remain in their new
+condition after the æther disturbance has been withdrawn. It may seem
+strange to you that quite a small percentage of carbon atoms added to
+the pure soft iron should cause such a marked difference, but the matter
+seems plain enough to us. Man was so impressed with the manner in which
+the atoms were evidently fixed in their new condition that he spoke of
+_permanent magnets_. It is especially fortunate for man that these
+pieces of steel do retain their magnetism, and give us a reliable
+mariner's compass. But I shall tell you how you may disturb even these
+sedate atoms. If you hammer the metal very vigorously, or if you heat it
+to redness, you will find that the atoms have been freed from what
+appeared to be their permanent position, and they are back to their old
+higgledy-piggledy condition, so that we electrons are all opposing one
+another. Remember we are hard at work all the time although we may be
+giving no outward sign of our activity.
+
+While we render an important aid to man by providing this permanent
+magnet for his compass, you will find that a very great deal of our
+assistance to man in his everyday life depends upon our behaviour in
+soft iron electro-magnets. It is in these that man can control our
+behaviour at will. It is through this simple piece of apparatus--the
+electro-magnet--that man has been able to accomplish so much in
+signalling to his friends at a distance. It is also by means of these
+electro-magnets that man can get us to turn an electric motor, and so
+on. But I must tell you, first of all, how we enable man to signal to a
+distance, or, in other words, how we carry man's news.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+HOW WE CARRY MAN'S NEWS
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER NINE_
+
+    The electron explains wherein its method differs from all other
+    methods.
+
+    It is well known that within recent years the old iron telegraph
+    wires have been replaced by much lighter copper wires; the
+    electron explains the reason for this change.
+
+    It describes how the electrons manage to work the most widely
+    used form of telegraph instrument, which is called the "Morse,"
+    after its inventor.
+
+    Here we find one of the practical applications of the
+    electro-magnet described in the preceding chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+HOW WE CARRY MAN'S NEWS
+
+
+It is we electrons who have so very far outdistanced all material
+carriers of news. You must acknowledge that the best runner, the
+swiftest horse, the fastest express train, and the prize carrier pigeon,
+are all nowhere when compared with us electrons.
+
+But I do not wish to mislead you in any way, and I can speak from
+personal experience in this case. We do not race off with man's messages
+in the same sense as these other messengers do. Our swiftness of
+communication depends upon the simple fact that man provides a whole
+connecting regiment of us between the two distant places. And when the
+order to march is given we all move off at practically the same moment.
+In this way the electrons at the far end of the connecting wire are able
+to cause signals there immediately. This is the secret of man's success
+in being able to hold immediate communication with his distant friends.
+His success is due entirely to the co-operation of us electrons.
+
+My personal experience has been in connection with a very simple
+telegraphic arrangement. Indeed, the most of our duties in transmitting
+messages are performed with this particular kind of instrument, known as
+a "Morse sounder."
+
+At the time of which I speak, I had become attached to an atom of iron
+in the end of a long telegraph wire. From this you will probably guess
+that my experience was gained some time ago, for man does not use iron
+wires nowadays in fitting up telegraph lines. He used iron at first, and
+some of these lines still exist, but when he discovered that a very much
+lighter copper wire would serve the same purpose, he discarded the heavy
+iron wires. Man explained the matter by saying that the copper offered
+less resistance to the electric current, and the majority of people were
+quite satisfied with this kind of explanation. Of course these are
+merely convenient phrases which give man no real reason for the
+difference. The real reason is that we electrons are able to move about
+from one copper atom to another with very much greater ease than we can
+among the iron atoms. That is the reason why man made the change from
+iron to copper wires, although he had no idea of the reason at the time.
+
+To return to my experience in connection with a telegraph instrument, I
+found that we were being subjected to a series of forced marches. The
+whole regiment of electrons along the line made a forward move. The line
+of march ended in a short length of fine wire wound around a piece of
+soft iron to form an electro-magnet. The end of the wire dipped into the
+earth, as I have explained in an earlier chapter.
+
+Now all that we electrons had to do was to make a forward move, halt,
+forward again, another halt, and so on. Sometimes the signal to halt was
+longer in being given than at other times, but we found that this was
+intentional, and that there were two definite lengths of march. I have
+explained already how we marching electrons cause an electro-magnet to
+attract a piece of iron and let it go again as soon as we cease
+marching. It only remains for me to give you a general statement of how
+we work the Morse telegraph.
+
+Man has arranged a little lever with an iron end-piece immediately above
+the electro-magnet, so that the magnet may attract it. Of course you are
+aware that it is the electrons within the soft-iron core of the
+electro-magnet who produce the magnetic effect. Every time we electrons
+in the surrounding wire make a forward move, the electro-magnet pulls
+down the end of the little lever referred to. As long as we keep
+marching, so long will the end of the lever remain down, but the moment
+we halt, the lever is free to be pulled up by a spring attached to it.
+The movements of the lever indicate the length of our long and short
+marches, and it is by means of these that man sends signals. All that he
+does is to control our march, by means of an electric push and a battery
+at one end of the wire, and it is we who produce the signals at the
+distant end of the wire. Each time man presses the push we move the
+distant lever. When we pull the lever down it is so arranged that it
+makes a sound like "click," and when we let it spring up against a stop
+it makes another sound not unlike "clack." Our long and short marches
+are therefore converted into long and short "click-clacks." Man has made
+a simple code of signals representing his alphabet, and right merrily do
+we rap out the signals for which we receive orders at the distant end of
+the wire, while some one at the other end listens to the sounds we cause
+to be made.
+
+I have told you enough of our duties to let you see how we are able to
+carry man's news from one part of the earth to any other part. By far
+the greatest part of our signalling work is done with this simple Morse
+sounder.
+
+It may interest you to note that we can produce those signals far faster
+than man can read them. When man found this out he took advantage of our
+powers. He made an automatic transmitter which could manipulate the
+make-and-break of the battery current far more rapidly than any human
+fingers could do. Then as we rapped off the signals with lightning speed
+at the distant end, he attached a little ink-wheel to the end of the
+moving lever, so that it could mark short and long strokes on a ribbon
+of paper passing close to it. Although man could not distinguish the
+signals by his ear he was able to read the record of those we caused to
+be left upon the paper ribbon.
+
+We have been made to work many other forms of telegraph instruments. In
+some of these we control type-letters, while in others we imitate
+handwriting, but all these are merely adaptations of our powers of
+marching. We are proud of our achievements in rapid signalling, which
+all right-thinking people have not been slow to acknowledge.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+HOW WE COMMUNICATE WITH DISTANT SHIPS
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER TEN_
+
+    In this chapter the electron deals with that modern
+    marvel--_Wireless Telegraphy_.
+
+    Here the æther of space plays a very prominent part.
+
+    The author has given some particulars about the æther in the
+    first chapter (_What the Story is about_).
+
+    In conjunction with that, the electron may be left to tell its
+    own story.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+HOW WE COMMUNICATE WITH DISTANT SHIPS
+
+
+Our duties in this case are totally different from those of which I have
+been telling you. While we electrons can do many wonderful things, we
+cannot march through space. We may be fired off like bullets from the
+sun to the earth, but that is quite another matter. I shall have
+something to say about that fact later on. You have seen already that
+man can make us jump only a very short distance, even when he has
+cleared our path of the obstructing air, as he does in a vacuum tube.
+
+If men were to provide us with a complete path of metal atoms from the
+shore to the ship, we could set to work upon the simple plan which I
+have described in the preceding chapter. But, needless to say, man has
+more sense than to attempt to keep up metallic connection with a ship
+going away out to sea.
+
+Even the wisest men were surprised when they heard that we electrons
+could signal through space to great distances without any connecting
+wires. We ourselves were not surprised. Had we not been doing this very
+thing from the foundation of the world? Our fellow-electrons in the sun
+have never ceased to communicate with those of us upon the earth. Of
+course I am referring at present to those æther waves which man calls
+_heat_ and _light_. But the waves which we make to carry man's messages
+through space are of the very same nature, the only difference being
+that they are much longer, or, in other words, much farther apart. They
+do not follow each other so closely, and they do not affect the eye or
+the sense of touch. However, these long waves are able to bestir some of
+us electrons who are situated at a great distance from the sending
+electrons.
+
+Our method of producing such waves in the æther is by surging to and fro
+from atom to atom in an upright wire. When we make a rapid to-and-fro
+motion we send out great waves in the æther. The original plan adopted
+by man was to make us jump across a spark-gap, but in this case also it
+was our rapid oscillation to and fro that produced the waves. If we wish
+the waves to carry to a great distance, we must club together in
+considerable force to supply the necessary energy. The energy which we
+can get from a battery and induction coil is not sufficient for any very
+long distances. In such cases we require the aid of a _dynamo_, a
+machine about which I shall have some experience to relate in another
+chapter.
+
+In communicating through space, our position is very similar to that of
+two men shouting to one another over a distance. The one man disturbs
+the air, thus sending air-waves (sound) over to his friend, and these
+waves produce certain sensations which he can interpret. I should like
+you to understand that we electrons are upon a higher plane than atoms
+of matter. We cause waves in the all-pervading æther, not among clumsy
+particles of air. After these æther waves have travelled enormous
+distances they retain sufficient energy to disturb electrons situated at
+the distant place.
+
+I shall tell you of the first experience I had in this connection. I
+found myself attached to an atom of _nickel_, a kind of atom which looks
+to us electrons very much like an iron atom, because it has nearly the
+same number of electrons composing it, only they are arranged
+differently. But I was telling you that I found myself on this nickel
+atom sealed up in a small glass tube. Of course there were myriads of
+similar atoms all around me, but I did not feel very happy. I was being
+urged forward, and yet I could not get across from some atoms to others,
+for the nickel was in the form of loose filings. From past experience I
+knew that there was a battery along the line somewhere; I could feel the
+strain. All of a sudden I was startled to find that I could move
+forward. Exactly what happened, I am not at liberty to tell, but this
+much I may say, that it was the arrival of some æther waves which
+altered the condition of things among the filings in the tube.
+
+[Illustration: A MOTOR-CAR WITH WIRELESS TELEGRAPH
+
+It has become quite a fashion in America to have motor-cars fitted up
+for wireless telegraphy. That the electrons play an important part in
+telegraphing through space is explained fully in Chapter X.]
+
+We had just started out on our march forward when we received such a
+shaking that we found ourselves in the same isolated positions as at
+first; we could not get across from one particle to another. More
+æther waves arrived, we made a fresh start, then came another rude
+shaking, and so on we went starting and stopping. Indeed, it was the
+regularity of these long and short marches that gave me the first idea
+that we were being controlled by some telegraph operator. We were amused
+to find that the rude shaking, of which I have been telling you, was
+caused by the action of some of our fellow-electrons. Some of them in
+their march around an electro-magnet in the receiving instrument caused
+a little lever to knock against our tube and give us a sudden jolt.
+
+I should like you to notice that the energy with which we moved the
+telegraph instrument did not come from the distant station. It was a
+local battery which worked the receiving instrument, but this battery
+was controlled by the incoming æther waves affecting the tube of
+filings. There is really no mystery about the matter, but I am anxious
+not to take credit for anything more wonderful than we have actually
+accomplished.
+
+We electrons have rendered a very great service to man by enabling him
+to communicate with his friends who are far out on the ocean, and cut
+off from all possible chance of material communication. We are willing
+to serve man on land also, though we very much prefer the ordinary
+marching arrangement if he will provide a connecting wire. The fact is
+that we find it very much more difficult to send æther waves over land
+than we do over water.
+
+I have heard some men ask how many different telegraph instruments may
+be worked at one place simultaneously without confusion. That is a
+question for man himself to answer. We electrons are able to produce any
+variety of waves of different frequency or length; it remains only for
+man to construct apparatus that will respond only to a definite rate of
+waves. I hear that man has made considerable progress in tuning the
+wireless instruments.
+
+Some men are eager to get us to carry messages through space across the
+great oceans from shore to shore. We shall not refuse, provided man
+supplies sufficient energy, but I must admit that we electrons prefer
+the submarine cable. Of course man may put this down to our laziness; we
+certainly prefer as little severe straining as possible.
+
+I have been telling you of my earliest and only personal experience in
+connection with space telegraphy. I understand that greatly improved
+methods have been adopted since that time, but I have never happened to
+drift in their direction.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+HOW WE REPRODUCE SPEECH
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER ELEVEN_
+
+    In the first part of this chapter the electron explains the part
+    it plays in ordinary telephony.
+
+    The reader will picture the transmitting instrument at the one
+    end of the line influencing the receiving instrument at the
+    distant end.
+
+    Towards the end of the chapter the electron turns its attention
+    to the newer subject of _wireless telephony_, which has been
+    accomplished now over a distance of several hundred miles.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+HOW WE REPRODUCE SPEECH
+
+
+My scribe suggested a rather clumsy title for this chapter--"Electrons
+_versus_ atoms as carriers of speech." I expect he made this suggestion
+without much thought, for there are two serious objections to such a
+title.
+
+In the first place, we are not carriers of speech. We are controlled by
+speech at one end of the telephone line, and we make a reproduction of
+the speech at the distant end of the line. No sound passes between the
+two places; there is only a movement of electrons along the connecting
+line.
+
+My second objection to the hurriedly suggested title is that it is
+hardly fair to make any comparison between the achievements of atoms of
+matter and those of ourselves. We are not in the same category as
+atoms. Besides, we electrons are dependent entirely upon the material
+atoms for making our work useful to man. For instance, we might keep on
+making waves in the æther for all time, and yet if the atoms of matter
+were to pay no heed to those imperceptible waves, man would never be
+aware of their presence. Indeed we electrons act solely as go-betweens.
+On the other hand, it is only fair to ourselves to point out that a
+group of atoms in one town could never communicate with a group of atoms
+in a distant town unless we electrons came to their aid. It is true that
+over a very short distance the atoms may communicate directly. For
+instance, if a heavy blow is given to a large gong, the atoms of metal
+may vibrate so energetically that they succeed in disturbing the atoms
+of gas of the surrounding atmosphere for some considerable distance. But
+in the case of speech, the speaker cannot supply any great energy, so
+that he can disturb the atmosphere only to a very limited distance. We
+electrons, however, can do yeoman service in this respect. We have
+enabled men to speak to one another over immense distances.
+
+The whole affair is very simple. Man speaks and causes the atmospheric
+atoms to vibrate and impinge upon a light disc or diaphragm in a simple
+instrument which man has named the _telephone_. This vibrating disc
+presses upon a myriad of carbon particles contained in a small case or
+box, the disc forming one side of the box. When these carbon particles
+are pressed together we electrons can get across more easily from atom
+to atom. There is a battery urging us forward, but our motion is
+dependent entirely upon the manner in which the vibrating disc presses
+upon the carbon particles. I cannot describe our movement in the
+line-wire as a march; it is in reality a surging to and fro.
+
+You will understand that this to-and-fro motion of the electrons in the
+line-wire varies according to the vibrations of the sending disc, which
+is controlled by the speaker's voice. At the distant end of the line we
+electrons bring our magnetic powers into action. We keep varying the
+attractive powers of an electro-magnet, according to the motion of the
+electrons in the wire. This ever-changing magnet produces vibrations in
+an iron disc which is fixed close to the magnet. This disc is set
+vibrating in exact sympathy with the sending disc. When the listener
+places this receiving disc close to his ear, the vibrations are carried
+by the atmospheric atoms to his hearing apparatus. All that we electrons
+have done is to cause one disc to vibrate in exact synchrony with
+another distant disc. But that is all that is required, for the
+receiving disc will reproduce similar air-vibrations to those set up by
+the man's voice at the distant place. I have pointed out already that we
+do not attempt to carry the sound. It is true that the atoms of matter
+do the hard work, but it is we electrons who enable a group of atoms in
+one town to communicate with a group of atoms in a distant town.
+
+It was natural that as soon as man found that he could work his
+telegraph instruments without the aid of connecting wires, he should try
+to do the same with his telephone instruments. We were sorry when we
+found men trying to use the original spark-telegraphy methods for
+telephones. While we had no difficulty in operating a telegraph
+instrument by means of æther waves and the tube of filings, it was quite
+impossible for us to produce telephone vibrations on the same
+principle. This spark method was a too rough-and-ready plan. The waves
+we produced were like sudden splashes in the æther ocean, whereas we
+knew that we must produce regular trains of continuous waves in order to
+reproduce telephone vibrations. However, you may be aware that we have
+succeeded by a different arrangement of apparatus. Indeed it may
+interest you to know that one of my most recent experiences has been in
+connection with some wireless-telephone experiments.
+
+Unfortunately I was not in a very favourable position to learn all that
+was going on, but it was quite exciting work. I happened to be attached
+to an atom of copper in a length of wire which had been run up into the
+air on a sort of flag-pole arrangement. I need hardly say that I was not
+alone, for by this time you will have become accustomed to picture
+myriads of electrons occupying a very small space.
+
+We were set vibrating to and fro with tremendous energy, but what
+bothered me most was the great variation in our movements. It was the
+nature of these variations which gave me the clue that we were being
+controlled by the vibrations of a telephone disc. I can tell you we did
+make a complex series of waves in the surrounding æther! These waves
+went out through space and influenced some electrons stationed at a
+great distance. When these electrons at the receiving station were set
+in motion they controlled the electric current from a local battery
+which set a second telephone disc vibrating in synchrony with the one at
+the sending station.
+
+On questioning some of my fellow-electrons who happened to have been
+nearer the transmitting part of the instrument than I had been, I got
+some interesting information. They tell me that there was a dynamo and
+an arc lamp in our circuit, while the telephone instrument was in a
+neighbouring circuit. The electrons surging to and fro in the telephone
+circuit influenced those energetic electrons in the arc-lamp circuit to
+which the ærial wire was attached. You see that my position in the ærial
+wire was not a very advantageous one for observing what was taking
+place.
+
+This was truly a great achievement--to enable one man to speak to
+another distant hundreds of miles, and without the aid of any connecting
+wire. I think you will agree with me that we have excelled all past
+records in the world of wonders.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+OUR HEAVIEST DUTIES
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER TWELVE_
+
+    Here the electron explains its behaviour in a dynamo at work.
+
+    The principle of the dynamo was discovered by Faraday in the
+    thirties of last century.
+
+    He found that when a coil of wire was moved through a magnetic
+    field, there was a current of electricity induced in the moving
+    coil.
+
+    Experimental machines were constructed, and after a while a
+    practical dynamo was evolved.
+
+    Wires are attached to a dynamo and the electric current is led
+    out.
+
+    This current may be conducted to a distant tramway car, and, by
+    sending the current through an electric motor, mechanical motion
+    is produced and the car propelled along.
+
+    An electric motor is practically the same as a dynamo, but
+    instead of turning its coil round in order to produce an
+    electric current, we pass a current into the coil and it moves
+    round. It will be sufficient to leave the electron to tell its
+    own story.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+OUR HEAVIEST DUTIES
+
+
+This is another of those roving commissions in which I have been
+privileged to take part on more than one occasion.
+
+If you think of the giant size of an electric tramway car or a railway
+train, and try to compare one of these with an electron, such as your
+humble servant, it will seem quite ridiculous that I should suggest that
+it is we electrons who move those huge vehicles. Yet such is the actual
+case.
+
+Of course we require the application of very considerable power to urge
+us to so heavy a task. All the energy which we can get from a few
+electric batteries might enable us to drive a toy car, but when it comes
+to turning the wheels of a real car or train, we require a
+correspondingly greater amount of energy.
+
+I may as well tell you quite frankly that we electrons are only the
+intermediaries or go-betweens. Indeed, you must have noticed that in
+every case we act merely as a connecting link between matter and the
+æther, and between the æther and matter.
+
+But what I want to tell you of, is the part we play in moving an
+electric car or railway train. It is really all very simple if you could
+only see it from our standpoint. Picture a host of us attached to copper
+atoms in a coil of wire which is being moved through that disturbed
+æther called a _magnetic field_. We are set in motion immediately. It is
+true that when we are moved forward into the field we march off in one
+direction, only to be arrested and made to move off in the opposite
+direction as we leave the field, but it really makes no difference in
+our working capabilities as long as we are kept on the move. This is
+what is actually taking place in the armature of a dynamo as it revolves
+between the poles of the electro-magnet. There is no peace for us so
+long as the coil is kept revolving; we are kept in a constant state of
+rapid to-and-fro motion.
+
+[Illustration: A TRAIN IMPELLED BY MOVING ELECTRONS
+
+_By permission of Siemens Schuckert Werke_
+
+_Berlin_
+
+It is remarkable that the motion of electrons in an electric conductor
+can result in the movement of heavy vehicles. How this comes about is
+explained in Chapter XII.]
+
+This is all we electrons do in a dynamo, but when the ends of the outer
+circuit or mains are brought into contact with the ends of our
+revolving coil, we set the electrons in the mains surging to and fro in
+step with ourselves. Man describes this motion of the electrons in the
+mains as an _alternating electric current_, but by a simple commutator
+on the dynamo he may arrange that we set the electrons marching in one
+direction in the mains. This he describes as a _direct electric
+current_.
+
+It is a matter of indifference to us whether man drives our coil round
+by means of a steam-engine, a water-wheel, or a wind-mill; all that we
+electrons want is to be kept surging or vibrating to and fro. Now you
+will be able to appreciate how we electrons get up sufficient motion to
+enable us to perform what I have described as _our heaviest duties_.
+
+Perhaps you will find it difficult to believe me when I tell you that as
+we march along the connecting wire to a distant tramway car we transmit
+the energy through the surrounding æther, and not through the wire. This
+is our mode of working in every case, whether it be an electric bell, a
+telegraph, or telephone. That is to say, while we electrons move from
+atom to atom in the connecting wire, it is the disturbed æther
+surrounding us which transmits the energy. You must have realised by
+this time how very intimate is the relationship between ourselves and
+the æther.
+
+To return to the tale of our tramway work, you will picture my
+fellow-electrons aboard the car being energised by the incoming current.
+Those electrons present in the armature coil of the motor are set into
+motion, as also are those in the wire of the neighbouring
+electro-magnet. The result is that these two sets of electrons so
+disturb the æther and affect one another that the coil is moved round
+into a different position. You will remember the experiment of which I
+told you, in which a magnetic needle would insist always in taking up a
+position at right angles to a wire in which an electric current is
+passing. Well, when the motor coil has turned into its new position, we
+electrons receive an impulse from our friends in the line-wire which
+causes us to retrace our steps in the coil. This action of ours causes
+the coil to make a further movement in the same direction as at first.
+Again we change our direction of march, and again the coil changes its
+position towards the electro-magnet. The sole duty of these electrons in
+the armature coil is to keep surging to and fro, while those electrons
+in the electro-magnet keep up a steady march in one direction. This
+arrangement necessitates the armature coil to keep changing its position
+continually, and when we have the armature coil spinning round at a
+steady pace, it is easy for man to connect the armature to the axles of
+the tramway car and cause us to drive the wheels round.
+
+I need hardly say that it makes no difference to us whether we are asked
+to drive a tramway car, a railway train, or a host of machines in a
+factory or workshop. All that we electrons in the motor require is to
+have sufficient energy passed along to us from our fellows in the
+distant dynamo. Again I admit frankly that the atoms of matter play a
+very important part in these our heaviest duties, but you will see that
+without our active assistance they could not transmit the necessary
+energy to a distant car or train.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+A BOON TO MAN
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER THIRTEEN_
+
+    While it has been known for a long time that _light_ and
+    _radiant heat_ are merely waves in the æther, it was not known
+    until recently how these waves were produced.
+
+    The discovery of electrons has given us a reasonable solution of
+    our difficulty.
+
+    The electron explains the actions of its fellows in this great
+    work of producing light and heat.
+
+    Incidentally the electron explains how they produce an aurora in
+    the heavens, and how it is that the earth has become a
+    negatively electrified body.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+A BOON TO MAN
+
+
+Every living thing is dependent upon our activities. It is we electrons
+who send out heat and light from the sun, and it is we who receive these
+on their arrival upon this planet. Our action in the matter is really
+very simple, but until man discovered our existence, he was mystified
+considerably.
+
+We were amused to hear man say that the atoms of incandescent matter in
+the sun produced waves in the æther, and that when these æther waves
+fell upon other atoms on this planet, these were set into a state of
+vibration, thus producing heat and light. Now if man had only stopped to
+think, he would have seen how ridiculous it was to speak of atoms of
+matter producing waves in the æther. He ought to have known that atoms
+of matter cannot affect the æther, for it offers no resistance to
+matter moving through it.
+
+Man might have pictured himself riding on the back of this great planet,
+flying through space at a speed very similar to that of a rifle bullet,
+and yet even the flimsy blanket of air surrounding the planet is not
+disturbed by the æther through which it is rushing.
+
+It is true that the atoms of matter play an important part in the origin
+of heat, but the atoms in the sun could no more affect the atoms on the
+earth than could a man on the earth push the moon about. It is the very
+intimate connection between us electrons and the all-pervading æther
+which enables our fellows in the sun to communicate with those of us
+upon this planet. Where would man be without us?
+
+[Illustration: PROTECTION AGAINST A DISCHARGE OF ELECTRONS
+
+_By permission of Siemens Schuckert Werke_
+
+_Berlin_
+
+When a man is encased completely in an over-all made of flexible
+metallic gauze he is proof against shock due to a discharge of
+high-tension electricity. The part played by electrons in the case of
+electric shock is explained in Chapter IV.]
+
+I cannot understand wherein man should find any mystery in connection
+with this very simple action of ours. You will picture our distant
+fellow-electrons making very rapid revolutions around the atoms of
+matter to which they are attached as satellites. Just as the moon
+circles around the earth, so do we circle around our atoms, but at an
+enormously greater speed. Of course the whole length of our orbit is
+inconceivably small, and the speed of our revolutions is inconceivably
+great. It is our rapid motion through the æther which produces those
+waves known to man as radiant heat and light. Some one may ask how it is
+that we electrons can disturb the æther while the giant atoms cannot.
+The obvious answer is that we are not matter, but electricity; we are
+not in the same category as atoms of matter.
+
+To complete the picture which I was drawing, you have only to think of
+the æther waves arriving upon this planet and disturbing sympathetic
+electrons, causing them to revolve around their atoms in similar fashion
+to our distant fellows who are producing the æther waves.
+
+It may be that some people get confused between this action and that of
+those electrons who are shot off bodily from the sun towards the earth.
+Believe me, there is no connection between the two things. The stream of
+electrons shot off from the sun is deflected towards the magnetic poles
+of the earth, and as the electrons enter the upper layers of the
+atmosphere they produce that beautiful luminous effect which man
+describes as an _Aurora_.
+
+I have never taken part in one of these great displays, for, as far as
+my recollection goes, I have never been in the sun, although some
+fellow-electrons declare that at one time we were all in the same great
+glowing mass of which the sun, and every member of the solar system,
+formed a part. However that may be, I certainly have no experience of
+auroræ, but I have assisted in producing the very same effect upon a
+small scale within a vacuum tube. The air remaining in these so-called
+vacuum tubes is just as rarified as the air in the upper layers of the
+atmosphere, and when we are shot across the tube we act in the same way
+as those electrons arriving upon this planet from the sun.
+
+You will observe that as a surplus of electrons arrives upon the earth
+from the sun, the earth is naturally a negatively electrified body, but
+I need hardly say that the earth does not keep all the electrons which
+arrive upon it.
+
+My scribe points out that I am wandering from the story which I set out
+to tell in this chapter, so I shall try and please him.
+
+The direct cause of light, whether it be natural or artificial, is the
+rapid motion of electrons around atoms of matter. If they revolve at a
+comparatively slow speed they produce those æther waves which man calls
+_radiant heat_. If these satellite electrons, however, desire to affect
+the eye of man, they have to move around at a very much greater speed.
+If we travel at too fast a speed, then we cease to cause the sensation
+of light. But, believe me, all the waves we make are of the same nature,
+no matter what names man has given them. The only difference we can make
+in the waves is the rate at which they follow one another. Of course we
+can also make them larger or smaller in height, or, in other words, of
+greater or less amplitude, but that does not affect their properties.
+
+In the following chapter I shall tell you of some remarkable phenomena
+which our different æther waves produce in the brain of man.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+HOW WE PRODUCE COLOUR
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER FOURTEEN_
+
+    Colour is merely a sensation in the brain.
+
+    What the electrons really produce are æther waves, and these
+    give rise to the sensations of colour.
+
+    However, the electrons may claim to produce colour in the same
+    sense as we savages produce pain in fellow-men by firing
+    rifle-bullets at them.
+
+    The electron explains how some objects appear white, while
+    others are red, and so forth.
+
+    It explains also how electrons produce artificial light.
+
+    The electron twits man upon his ridiculously wasteful processes
+    of obtaining artificial light.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+HOW WE PRODUCE COLOUR
+
+
+In the preceding chapter I have been telling you how we electrons
+produce waves in the æther ocean. I pointed out that if we make the
+waves follow each other at too slow or too fast a rate they fail to
+affect man's eyes.
+
+It may seem strange to you that only a very small range of our æther
+waves should affect man's visionary apparatus. Of course this limitation
+lies beyond our province; we can produce endless variety of æther
+waves--it is man's organs which fail to appreciate the bulk of these.
+However, there is plenty of variety in the sensations which we can
+produce in man. If we make the waves follow each other at a certain
+speed, man says he has the sensation of _red_. If we move faster, he
+speaks of _orange-colour_, and as we increase our speed he names his
+further sensations as _yellow_, _green_, _blue_, and _violet_. Then if
+we combine all these waves--that is, if we produce them all at one
+time--he says he has the sensation of _white_. If we produce none of
+these waves, he calls the result _black_.
+
+While we electrons are very versatile, our actions are dependent in a
+great measure upon circumstances. For instance, if an electron is acting
+as a satellite to one particular kind of atom, its rate of revolution
+around that atom may be very different from that of an electron
+similarly attached to another kind of atom. We electrons are all
+identical, but the speed of revolution is determined by the kind of
+atom. The reason is very simple; electrons revolve around some atoms at
+a much greater distance than they would around other atoms. Those making
+only the smaller orbits not only get around their atoms in less time,
+but they are also travelling at a greater pace. It is this fact which
+enables the electrons to produce the various wave-lengths which
+stimulate the different colour sensations in the brain of man.
+
+I think you will have no difficulty in seeing how it is that we come to
+produce such a variety of wave-lengths--in other words, how we are able
+to make the waves follow each other more or less rapidly. You will
+understand that we do not produce colours; we merely make various waves
+in the æther, and these waves excite the colour sensations in man. I
+mention this simple fact, because I hear many people speaking of our
+æther waves as "coloured rays," which, of course, is quite a ridiculous
+description.
+
+Suppose some of those waves which give rise to the red sensation happen
+to fall upon a lump of matter which contains only electrons capable of
+producing waves that affect the green sensation. What will happen? There
+will be no response, and the object, although viewed by "red light,"
+will appear black.
+
+If an object, such as the white paper upon which my scribe is recording
+my story, contains a variety of atoms with electrons capable of
+revolving at all the different rates which produce colour sensations,
+then when "white light" falls upon the object it appears white (all the
+colour sensations combined). If, on the other hand, a "red light" only
+falls upon it, then only the electrons capable of responding to that
+rate of wave will be set in motion, and the object will appear red, and
+so on with the other rates of æther waves.
+
+So far I have been telling you what happens when different waves of
+light fall upon us. Now I shall endeavour to explain how man has caused
+us to produce artificial light. At present all man's methods in this
+direction are dependent upon making some substance so hot that it
+becomes incandescent. Even his most modern methods seem to us to be
+ridiculously wasteful and most roundabout. I shall speak only of the
+electric glow lamp, as I have had some experience in connection with
+this.
+
+On one occasion I had been taking part in a regular forward march from
+copper atom to copper atom in a conducting wire. I had no idea of the
+purpose of our march till I suddenly found myself handed over to some
+carbon atoms, who were in a very lively state of vibration. We had much
+more difficulty in making our way through this substance, and it was the
+passive resistance offered to the advance of the electrons who had
+preceded me that had driven the carbon atoms into this state of great
+excitement. In our march through the copper conductor we had been
+offered very little resistance, so that we had left the copper atoms in
+peace--at least man could not detect easily any excitement (heat). But
+so long as our forced march was maintained among the carbon atoms, so
+long did the high temperature exist.
+
+You will understand I and the other marching electrons did not produce
+the waves of light sent out by the glow lamp. What we did was to set the
+atoms of carbon into a rapid vibratory state, and they in turn caused
+their satellite electrons to hasten their pace. Some electrons produced
+one rate of waves, and some another rate, but by the time the carbon was
+incandescent there were electrons sending out all the variety of
+wave-lengths, the combination of which produces the sensation of white.
+
+I have accused man of adopting very wasteful processes, so I had better
+explain the matter. In the preceding description of what is occurring in
+an electric glow lamp, I have spoken only of those æther waves which
+constitute light. But there are myriads of electrons in the carbon of
+the glow lamp that never attain the requisite speed to produce those
+waves; they revolve around their atoms at too slow a rate. They
+certainly disturb the æther, but the crests of the waves are so far
+apart that they do not affect the eyes of man. The business of these
+waves is to set up heat in the bodies upon which they fall. You may be
+surprised to know that in this contrivance of man, called an electric
+glow lamp, and, indeed, in all his other artificial light-producers, he
+causes far more electrons to produce radiant heat than the desired light
+waves. A most wasteful process!
+
+Man has a long way to travel yet before he succeeds in producing
+artificial light by a reasonable process. Indeed I doubt if any of you
+can realise, as we do, how exceedingly stupid the existing methods are.
+Think for a moment of the glow-worm, in which we electrons produce light
+without setting up any wasteful heat waves. There is a strong contrast
+between this peaceful plan and that of the excited carbon atoms. When
+will man succeed in discovering this secret of ours?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+WE SEND MESSAGES FROM THE STARS
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER FIFTEEN_
+
+    It is remarkable that man has been able to discover what the
+    distant stars are made of.
+
+    Our knowledge concerning the chemistry of the stars has been
+    obtained by means of the spectroscope, in which a beam of light
+    from the star is passed through a glass prism.
+
+    The result is the well-known image of the coloured spectrum, in
+    which certain well-defined lines appear, according to the
+    distant elements originating the æther waves.
+
+    The electron explains the whole subject from its own point of
+    view.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+WE SEND MESSAGES FROM THE STARS
+
+
+It is only within recent times that man has observed that we send
+messages from the distant stars to this planet. But there is nothing new
+to us in this proceeding; we have been busy sending these messages ever
+since the solar system was formed. Through all those ages we have kept
+on sending these messages, knowing that in time man must come to take
+notice of them.
+
+If the subject should happen to be new to you, you will be anxious to
+know to what kind of messages I refer. Needless to say, they are
+wireless messages--waves in the great æther ocean. The waves, to which I
+refer specially, fall within that small range of which I told you
+something in the preceding chapter. In other words, they are those waves
+to which man has given the name _light_. But what special information
+do these waves, coming from the stars, convey to man? They tell him of
+what materials these distant stars are made. Needless to say, it is we
+electrons who produce those informative waves.
+
+You are familiar with our method of producing waves. You know that we
+whirl around the atoms of matter at prodigious speeds, and that
+according to the number of revolutions we make per second, we produce
+waves of corresponding frequencies.
+
+In an earlier chapter I have hinted that the speed of the revolving
+electron is determined by the kind of atom to which it acts as a
+satellite. For instance, when electrons revolve around iron atoms they
+produce certain wave-lengths, while those moving around hydrogen atoms
+produce an entirely different series of waves. But how is man to
+recognise these?
+
+It is quite evident that man may gaze at a distant star and be little
+the wiser concerning the different lengths of the waves which impinge
+upon his eyes. He may observe that the sensation is inclined to red,
+from which he may infer that the waves are long ones--that they are
+farther apart than some of the waves produced by a white-hot body. But
+had man been content to try and decipher our wireless messages in this
+rough-and-ready manner, he would never have gained the interesting
+information which we have now placed in his hands. How, then, did we
+enable man to read our messages?
+
+Our plan may seem to be somewhat mysterious, but I assure you that it is
+really very simple. When these æther waves of light fall upon a
+triangular prism of glass, the waves are bent out of their normally
+straight path. But the point that may seem strange to you, is that those
+waves which produce the sensation of red are not bent so much as the
+others. The more rapidly the waves follow one another, the greater is
+the bending of such a ray from its original direction. In this way the
+various wave-lengths are all spread out, so that they form an image like
+a coloured ribbon, red at one end, being followed by orange, yellow,
+green, blue, and violet. Every man must be familiar with this coloured
+spectrum. When some of my fellows are enclosed in drops of water in the
+air they produce a great rainbow spectrum across the heavens. But I
+must tell you how we electrons succeed in bending these rays of light.
+
+I have told you already how we either absorb or reflect the æther waves
+which happen to fall upon us. In most substances it is only those
+electrons very near the surface that are disturbed. They succeed in
+stopping the waves. They may do this in either of two different ways. If
+the satellite electrons are attracted strongly by their atoms, the
+electrons will spin around the atoms keeping time to the movements of
+the incoming waves, and in this way the electrons take up the energy of
+the waves. In doing this, the electrons send out fresh waves in the
+æther. This is the real explanation of what man calls _reflection_ of
+light.
+
+[Illustration: THE SPECTROSCOPE AND THE ELECTRONS' WIRELESS MESSAGES
+
+The spectroscope is seen in the extreme left of No. 1 photograph. The
+instrument is explained at page 207.
+
+The operator is passing an electric current through a glass tube
+containing a rarefied gas, causing the gas to become luminous. When he
+examines its light through the spectroscope he sees bright lines as
+shown in photograph No. 2, and from the position of these lines he can
+tell what substance is producing the light. No. 2 is the spectrum of
+mercury vapour. No. 3 is part of the spectrum of the sun. Note the dark
+lines, as explained in the text.]
+
+In the second case, the electrons are not so firmly attached to their
+atoms, so that the incoming waves dislodge them, and they are knocked
+about from atom to atom, and in this way the energy of the waves is
+frittered away. Man speaks of the light having been _absorbed_ by the
+substance upon which it fell. In both cases the only electrons which
+take part in these actions are those electrons who can move in
+sympathy with the incoming waves.
+
+It will be clear to you that only those of us who are near the surface
+of a substance know anything about these incoming waves. The electrons
+attached to atoms in the interior of the substance are left in peace,
+owing to the defensive actions of our fellows on the outside. But this
+is not the case with all substances. There are some congregations of
+atoms through which the æther waves can make their way. Man calls such
+materials _transparent_; for example, glass and water are transparent
+substances. The fact of the matter is that in such substances none of us
+are able to respond to the incoming waves, and so we cannot stop them. I
+should say almost none of us, for there are always a few electrons
+present who happen to be in sympathy with the incoming waves. That is
+why no substance is perfectly transparent.
+
+The point concerning which I wish to speak in particular is this.
+Although we allow the æther waves to pass through such substances, we do
+offer some slight resistance to the passage of the waves; the faster the
+to-and-fro motion of the waves, the more resistance do we offer. That
+is why the waves of highest frequency are bent farthest from the
+straight line when passed through a glass prism. We actually force the
+æther waves to travel slower through a piece of glass than through the
+air.
+
+Now there should be no mystery concerning our action in a triangular
+piece of glass. Whatever combination of æther waves falls upon it, the
+different trains of waves are sorted out according to their frequencies.
+Suppose, for instance, that æther waves emitted from some incandescent
+sodium are passed through a glass prism. The bulk of the electrons
+attached to the sodium atoms are capable of revolving at speeds which
+produce waves causing the sensation of yellow. Hence there will appear a
+very distinct line of yellow light in the spectrum. But why should the
+light be in the form of a line? Simply because our æther waves are
+passed through a narrow slit in a shutter. But I need not trouble you
+with further details of our actions, which, although very simple to us,
+may seem somewhat strange to you.
+
+You will understand, however, that we form bright lines in different
+parts of the spectrum, according to the kinds of atoms to which we are
+attached. It was this fact which attracted man's attention to our
+wireless messages. He soon discovered the meaning of these lines, for he
+commenced to take exact notes of the different positions in which we
+placed these lines. He saw that when we were attached to hydrogen atoms
+we always produced three prominent lines; a very distinct line in the
+red section, another in the blue part, and a third one somewhat fainter
+and farther along in the blue. On the other hand, when attached to
+sodium atoms, we produced two very distinct lines in the yellow. When
+attached to iron atoms we produced a great variety of lines in the
+spectrum. Of course these substances have to be incandescent to enable
+us to produce the æther waves.
+
+Now it will be clear to you how we send wireless messages from the
+distant stars. These stars are great masses of flaming gases, so that
+the satellite electrons are kept busy dancing attendance to excited
+atoms. The electrons are constantly sending out æther waves, which reach
+this planet. We sort out these waves when man passes them through a
+glass prism, mounted in a telescope arrangement which he calls a
+_spectroscope_. He then examines the positions of the lines we produce
+in the resulting spectrum, and from these he knows what kinds of atoms
+are present in the distant star. It is we who have informed man that
+there are forty different materials in the sun, the most common of which
+are hydrogen, sodium, iron, copper, nickel, and zinc. Of course these
+all exist in a gaseous form.
+
+There is one point about which I need hardly trouble you, although it is
+worth mentioning in passing. While we produce bright lines in the
+spectrum of any incandescent substance on this planet, our messages from
+the stars appear as dark lines. The reason for this is that there are
+cooler masses of the gases surrounding the incandescent masses forming
+the stars, and these cooler gases completely absorb the waves we
+produce. So completely are these waves absorbed that blank spaces are
+left in the spectrum, and these are the dark lines to which I refer. As
+they are in the same positions that the bright lines would have occupied
+had the waves reached the earth, it makes no difference to the reading
+of our messages.
+
+Curiously enough, some of our actions in forming lines in the spectrum
+led to our actual discovery by man; but I shall tell you of this in the
+following chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+HOW MAN PROVED OUR EXISTENCE
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER SIXTEEN_
+
+    Several men of note declared that "little particles" revolved
+    around the atoms of matter, and that it was the motion of these
+    particles which produced the well-known æther waves of light.
+
+    This idea was suggested by the result of certain mathematical
+    calculations.
+
+    It was some time before real experimental proof was obtained.
+
+    The electron tells its own tale of this great discovery.
+
+    When the electron speaks of a spectrum line being shifted up or
+    down the scale, it means towards the violet or the red end
+    respectively.
+
+    We may picture the spectrum as analogous to the keyboard of a
+    piano.
+
+    In the second part of this chapter, the electron explains how it
+    has enabled man to discover that certain stars are approaching
+    the earth, while others are receding from it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+HOW MAN PROVED OUR EXISTENCE
+
+
+We electrons had waited long ages for man to acknowledge our services,
+but we did not despise the acknowledgment which a few men accorded us
+upon the basis of their mathematical calculations. It was natural,
+however, that we should want something more definite than this.
+
+You can imagine our joy when real experimental proof of our existence
+was established. Perhaps you think that we should have been satisfied
+with this. But even this did not bring acknowledgment from many outside
+scientific circles, and not even from all within those circles. As our
+services to man are universal, we feel that all men should become
+acquainted with our doings. Indeed that was the chief argument used by
+my fellow-electrons, who urged me to write this autobiography. The
+story of our actual discovery by man is an interesting one.
+
+It all came about in a very simple manner, but in quite a different way
+from what most electrons expected. Man reasoned within himself that if
+we electrons really did revolve around atoms and thus produce waves in
+the æther, as had been suggested, he ought to be able to affect our
+movements by disturbing the æther in which we were revolving. Of course
+man cannot disturb the æther directly; he must employ some of us to do
+this for him. He caused us to produce a very powerful magnetic field,
+which, as you know, is a disturbance of the æther. Man did not bother
+thinking about _us_ in this connection; he simply sent an electric
+current around an electro-magnet, but I have explained to you the very
+active part we play in electric and magnetic actions.
+
+From my story in the preceding chapter, you are aware that man had
+observed the meaning of the bright lines in the spectrum of any
+incandescent body. When he examined the æther waves we send out from
+sodium atoms, he found two very distinct lines in the yellow. Because of
+the brightness of these lines, man selected a sodium flame to
+experiment with in the present case.
+
+You will picture a great host of my fellow-electrons revolving around
+the atoms in a sodium flame. The flame was placed between the poles of a
+very powerful electro-magnet, and a beam of æther waves (light) produced
+by us was directed into the spectroscope. The experimenter focussed all
+his attention upon one of the bright yellow lines. He noted very
+carefully the exact position in which we placed it. He then produced the
+magnetic field around the flame, in which my fellow-electrons were
+revolving at a steady pace, and, behold, the line which he was watching
+split up into two lines, one taking up a position a little higher up the
+spectrum scale, and the other going a little lower down towards the red
+end. What could this mean?
+
+Man had no difficulty in knowing the cause of this alteration; indeed,
+it was exactly what he had hoped would take place. Of the two new lines,
+one represented waves a little shorter, while the other line indicated
+waves a little longer or farther apart, than the original waves forming
+the single line. This could only come about by some of the electrons
+having had their rate of revolution increased, while that of others had
+been reduced. These alterations were due to the æther disturbance (the
+magnetic field). Those electrons whose orbits happened to lie in one
+position had their rate of revolution increased, while those whose
+orbits lay in another position had their speed reduced. Man was
+convinced at last that we "particles" were real existing things.
+
+Whenever man withdrew the æther disturbance, the electrons fell back
+into their natural rate of revolution, and the original single line
+appeared in the spectrum.
+
+I took no part in the original experiment which gave absolute proof of
+our existence, but since then I have been present in a laboratory when
+the same experiment has been repeated.
+
+
+This is not the only case in which we alter the positions of definite
+lines in the spectrum. Indeed, we have given man some interesting
+information about the motions of distant stars--information which he
+could not have obtained in any other way. We have sent wireless messages
+from distant stars, indicating that they were approaching the earth,
+while electrons aboard other stars have signalled that they are receding
+from the earth. All this may seem mysterious to you, and yet our actions
+in the matter are very simple. Indeed, we do nothing but what I have
+told you of in the preceding chapters. We send out definite wave-lengths
+in the manner described already. But if we are on board a star which is
+travelling towards the earth, our waves will naturally follow a little
+closer at each other's heels. On the other hand, if the star is receding
+from the earth, the waves must be a little farther apart than they would
+be if the star were at rest.
+
+You will understand that the electrons are revolving at the same speeds
+in both cases, but the forward movement of the star crowds the waves
+together, while a receding star stretches them out a little farther
+apart. The result at the receiving end is that the crowded waves are
+just as though they had come from electrons revolving at a greater speed
+than is actually the case. Hence the line appears farther along the
+spectrum, up the scale of frequencies, than would have been the case
+had the star not been moving forward in the line of sight. Thus if the
+hydrogen lines, of which I have spoken elsewhere, should appear higher
+up the spectrum than usual, then man knows that the star from which
+these waves are coming is approaching the earth.
+
+It will be evident that when known lines in the spectrum are shifted
+down the scale (towards the red end of the spectrum), then the rate of
+the waves has been decreased, and man knows that the star carrying these
+stimulating electrons is receding from him.
+
+You will observe that we electrons perform no new duty in connection
+with this matter; it is entirely the motion of the body carrying us that
+alters the positions of the lines. But I must hasten on to tell you of
+some personal experiences.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+MY X-RAY EXPERIENCES
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER SEVENTEEN_
+
+    The present generation were all very much interested in the
+    discovery of X-rays.
+
+    With the aid of a battery and an induction coil, man causes an
+    energetic electrical discharge to pass through a vacuum tube.
+
+    When the flying electrons strike upon a little metal target
+    placed in their path, they produce the well-known Roentgen rays.
+
+    We have all become familiar with the great penetrating powers of
+    these rays.
+
+    The electron may be left to tell its own story.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+MY X-RAY EXPERIENCES
+
+
+It was no surprise to us that we could produce what man calls X-rays,
+but we were very much surprised at the use to which man put these
+splashes which we made in the æther. A limited number of us had been
+producing X-rays on our own account for many ages, but I shall tell you
+of that in a later chapter, when you will hear how we made the world
+talk.
+
+I must tell you of my own experiences in connection with these X-rays,
+which I hear some men describe also as _Roentgen rays_. I found myself
+once more within a large vacuum tube, and as soon as I felt a crowd of
+my fellows pushing me forward, I was quite prepared to be shot across
+the tube, as on previous occasions. Personally, I was not prepared for
+what was to come. Just as we reached the centre of the tube we collided
+with a metal plate or target. It was no joke to be pulled up so suddenly
+when travelling at a terrific speed. I noticed at the time that our very
+sudden stoppage had a peculiar effect upon the æther. Of course we never
+bothered about a name for this disturbance; it is man who requires to
+have names for everything. He was quite right to call this æther
+disturbance "X-rays," for even now he does not know the real nature of
+these. I have heard him describe them as thin pulses in the æther, but
+there is something more.
+
+I may as well confess that although we observed this æther disturbance
+arising from our sudden stoppage, we paid little attention to it, until
+it became apparent that man was continuing to produce these rays for
+some special purpose. He had discovered that we could shoot these rays
+right through many solid substances which were not transparent to light.
+But I have not told you how man came to know that we could produce these
+penetrating rays.
+
+On one occasion we were sending out these rays, which, by the way, do
+not cause any sensation in man's visionary apparatus. The room was in
+darkness. Some of the invisible rays fell upon a collection of small
+chemical crystals which were fixed on the surface of a screen. Our
+fellow-electrons, who were attached to the atoms of the crystals, were
+bestirred into action. They could not reflect the X-rays, but they set
+up regular trains of waves in the æther, some of which came within the
+range that affects man's vision. Man knew that this chemical screen
+could not produce light on its own account, and it became apparent that
+the vacuum tube must be sending some æther waves towards the chemical
+screen.
+
+As the electrons on the screen produced an æther disturbance different
+from that which fell upon it, man called this a _fluorescent screen_.
+
+At first we took merely a passing interest in the experiments which man
+made with these X-rays of ours, for it seemed to us as though man
+thought them only good enough for amusing his friends. Indeed, we paid
+little heed to what he was doing, until we observed that the rays were
+being used by surgeons. We were interested at once, for here we could
+serve man.
+
+My first experience in this connection was quite interesting. A young
+girl had got a needle into her hand while she was playing about, and the
+surgeons were at a loss to know where the needle had lodged. We lost no
+time in producing X-rays which could penetrate the flesh of the hand,
+and reach the fluorescent screen on the other side. The bones of the
+hand blocked the way of our rays, but not so completely as the needle
+did. Hence we produced upon the screen a faint shadow of the flesh of
+the hand, a much deeper image of the bones, and a black shadow of the
+needle. This enabled the surgeon to see where the needle was hiding.
+
+Sometimes we were called upon to produce rays for detecting bullets in
+the flesh, or for showing the nature of a fractured bone. We were never
+surprised to find that our call was to detect a coin in the throat of a
+child, but in this connection a big surprise awaited some of us. I was
+not one of the party, but I have the information from some
+fellow-electrons.
+
+[Illustration: HOW ELECTRONS PRODUCE X-RAY IMAGES
+
+The upper photograph shows the X-ray apparatus in use. The operator is
+examining the bones of the lady's hand, which she places between the
+X-ray tube and the fluorescent screen. The rays pass through the flesh,
+but are obstructed by the bones, the rings, and the bangle, so that a
+shadowgraph or image is formed upon the screen, which becomes luminous
+where the rays succeed in reaching it. The actual examination is made in
+a dark room. Owing to the way X-ray photos are taken (by contact) the
+image is reversed in a photograph, so that a left looks like a right
+hand.]
+
+A party of electrons were present within an X-ray tube at a large
+hospital, when they were called upon to produce rays for examining
+the throat of a little girl. They had become so used to this call that
+they did not doubt there would be a coin in the child's throat. However,
+they lost no time in producing the penetrating rays, and you can imagine
+their surprise when they produced the image of a toy bicycle upon the
+screen. It seemed ridiculous that such a toy could have entered a
+child's throat.
+
+When we had shown the surgeons exactly where the toy was, they set to
+work to remove it. The electrons heard later that the operation was
+successful in every way. Every one was interested, and we were proud. I
+do not wish to appear boastful, but I wonder how many operations owe
+their success to these rays which we produce for man.
+
+It was natural that man should try if these searching rays could affect
+the chemicals upon a photographic plate, and we soon proved that they
+could. It made no difference to us whether man kept the plate sealed up
+in its light-proof envelope, or whether he placed the plate within a
+wooden box. These protecting covers offered no barrier to our rays. We
+produced shadowgraphs of any objects placed between our tube and the
+photographic plate.
+
+Two of my early experiences may be of interest to you. The first of
+these seemed to me a rather tame affair. Our X-ray tube appeared to be
+arranged for the amusement of fashionable folk. One grand lady placed
+her hand behind the fluorescent screen, whereupon we produced an image
+of the bones of her hand and very dark images of all the many rings upon
+her fingers. Several of the rings had enormous diamonds, but it was
+after she had gone away that I overheard two gentlemen speaking about
+the rings. One asked the other if he had observed the beautiful
+diamonds, whereupon the other roared with laughter. It seems that we
+proved them to be imitation diamonds, for our rays could not penetrate
+them, whereas they have no difficulty in passing through real diamonds.
+We therefore produced black shadows of the imitation diamonds. Little
+did the grand lady know how we had exposed her sham jewels.
+
+My second experience was a very curious one. I learned that our tube was
+being carried to some distance. After a while we were placed beside a
+peculiar-looking object, which the men referred to as the "mummy." One
+of the men suggested that they should photograph its feet, but before
+doing so they darkened the room and set us to work upon the fluorescent
+screen. The owner of the mummy got rather nervous as to what we might
+disclose, and as the force urging us into action was somewhat erratic at
+first, we produced only a very indistinct image. We were greatly amused
+at the nervous excitement of the owner; he seemed to think our verdict
+was that there were no bones. However, the man with the apparatus soon
+got things into better condition, and this enabled us to produce X-rays
+satisfactorily. The result was that they secured some excellent
+photographs of the hidden bones of the mummy.
+
+Before telling you how we made the world talk, I should like to give you
+a clear idea of our relationship to the atoms of matter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+OUR RELATIONSHIP TO THE ATOMS
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER EIGHTEEN_
+
+    We have no doubt that an atom of matter is a miniature solar
+    system of revolving electrons.
+
+    These electrons, being negative particles of electricity, would
+    repel each other just as any two similarly electrified bodies
+    do.
+
+    There must therefore be some equivalent of positive electricity,
+    but whether this exists in the form of a sphere or in separate
+    particles we have no definite knowledge.
+
+    One atom differs from another in the number of electrons which
+    go to make up the atom.
+
+    The electron explains how the atoms of matter are united to one
+    another, how different compound substances are formed, and how
+    chemical changes take place.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+OUR RELATIONSHIP TO THE ATOMS
+
+
+I am sorry that this part of my story must remain incomplete for the
+present. I am not free to tell you all I know; you must try and get
+behind the scenes on your own account.
+
+One thing I am at liberty to tell you is that my fellow-electrons who
+are locked up within the atoms are not without hope that they may gain
+their freedom once more at some future time. I know this first-hand, for
+I have met some fellow-electrons who have escaped from within an atom,
+but I shall delay telling you about these fellows till the succeeding
+chapter. My object in mentioning this fact now is to give you confidence
+in what I am about to say regarding the nature of the atom.
+
+On one occasion I overheard a conversation between two men who were
+discussing the construction of matter. One remarked that the atoms were
+the bricks of the universe, whereupon the other asked how the little
+bricks were cemented together. I wish that man could have seen a lump of
+matter as we see it. He would have been surprised to learn that the
+atoms never really touch each other. They are always surging to and fro,
+or _vibrating_, and it is this motion which constitutes the
+_temperature_ of the body which they compose.
+
+It must be clear, however, that in a solid body one atom attracts
+another atom across the intervening atomic spaces. This is another duty
+devolving upon us; what we do, really, is to upset the electric balance
+between the different atoms, and thus produce electrical attraction.
+
+First of all, perhaps, I should explain that the different kinds of
+atoms are simply congregations of different numbers of electrons. Of
+course there is the other part, of which I am forbidden to speak--the
+part which man vaguely describes as _positive electricity_. However, you
+may take it from me that while it is true that the main difference
+between an atom of gold and an atom of iron, or of oxygen, is in the
+number of electrons it contains, there is a very important difference in
+the arrangement of the electrons. You know that they form rings outside
+one another, all of which revolve at enormous speeds. The number of
+electrons in the different rings varies according to the kind of atom.
+
+It is quite correct for man to speak of the atoms containing certain
+definite numbers of electrons, but I should like you to understand
+clearly that the exact number of electrons is not permanently fixed; one
+or more electrons can slip off one atom and become attached to a
+neighbouring atom which happens to be capable of accepting it or them.
+It is the interchange of these few detachable electrons that causes one
+atom to attract another. In other words, it is the differently charged
+atoms which attract each other, just as man crowds a surplus of
+electrons on to one object and finds it attracted bodily towards another
+object having a deficiency of electrons.
+
+It is this electrical attraction between the atoms which enables us to
+build up the particles, or _molecules_, of matter in such a variety of
+forms. First of all, we play the most important part within the atoms.
+We have formed only a limited number of such atoms. I am not free to
+tell you exactly how many, for man has discovered only about eighty of
+these different congregations of electrons, each kind of which he calls
+an _element_. The way in which we have coupled these different
+elementary atoms together must appear remarkable to all thinking men;
+there seems to be no end to the possible variety of combinations.
+
+In one case we unite an atom of _chlorine_ to an atom of _sodium_ and
+thereby produce a molecule of common salt. In another case we unite an
+atom of _oxygen_ to two atoms of _hydrogen_, and the resulting
+combination is an invisible molecule of ordinary water.
+
+It has always seemed to me very strange how some men have difficulty in
+regard to these combinations. I have heard a man ask how two different
+gases, hydrogen and oxygen, when united, should form a liquid, and not a
+gas. I wish you could see things as we see them. The atoms are neither
+gaseous, liquid, nor solid; they are little worlds of revolving
+electrons.
+
+I have spoken of the attraction between atoms, and again between
+molecules, in forming a solid body. It will be clear that there is less
+of this _cohesive force_ in the case of a liquid, whereas it is absent
+entirely in the case of a gas. In this case the molecules have become so
+far separated from one another that they cease to attract each other,
+and if left free they will soon part company, and spread themselves
+broadcast over the face of the earth.
+
+Whether a substance passes into a solid, a liquid, or a gaseous state,
+the atoms remain constant, but their vibratory motion is altered very
+considerably. However, I was about to tell you that we electrons can
+make some very interesting combinations of atoms. Those I have mentioned
+so far are of a very simple nature, but we have built up individual
+molecules containing hundreds of atoms. We link about a hundred atoms
+together and produce a molecule of what man calls _alum_, and we require
+to unite about a thousand atoms together to make one molecule of
+_albumen_ (the white of an egg).
+
+
+When man speaks of a chemical change having taken place in a substance,
+it is simply the electrons who have made a friendly interchange of
+detachable electrons, thereby causing a different assemblage of the same
+atoms. During these changes we never alter the nature of the atom. That
+little world of revolving electrons known as an atom of gold, remains
+always an atom of gold. But you must not run away with the idea that the
+atoms will never change. Indeed, man has discovered that the atoms are
+not eternal, as I shall explain in the following chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+HOW WE MADE THE WORLD TALK
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER NINETEEN_
+
+    The discovery of radium is within the memory of all.
+
+    Many exaggerated statements went abroad at the outset, but the
+    real facts are full of interest, and they have shed much new
+    light on many subjects.
+
+    Three different kinds of radiation were found to be emitted by
+    radium.
+
+    At first man could not tell what these were, so he named them
+    after the first three letters of the Greek alphabet--Alpha,
+    Beta, and Gamma, rays.
+
+    The electron tells the interesting story of these rays, and
+    relates the experiences of some fellow-electrons who escaped
+    from within a radium atom.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+HOW WE MADE THE WORLD TALK
+
+
+We electrons were amused at the stir which we unconsciously caused
+throughout the civilised world. We had done nothing different from what
+we had been doing for ages, but a few men had been taking note of what
+we were about, and when the phenomena to which I refer became known to
+the world, many wild rumours were circulated.
+
+One of these rumours was to the effect that steam-engines and their
+expensive furnaces were to disappear very quickly. If the two last words
+had been omitted--I should not say that the prophecy is untrue, but man
+has a long way to travel yet before reaching that goal. My fellows
+within the atoms have sufficient energy to supply all mankind with power
+if he could but unlock even a small fraction of it.
+
+Another statement was that this newly discovered substance, _radium_,
+could cure some diseases which man had believed to be incurable. All I
+shall say about this is that the statement was an exaggerated one.
+
+Then it was said that radium disproved much of man's scientific
+knowledge, but instead of that being so, we electrons have greatly
+extended man's knowledge by our radio-active actions. If any man
+believed the atoms of matter to be eternal, we certainly disproved that.
+Here, in radium, man could see atoms going to pieces.
+
+I have questioned a fellow-electron who escaped from a radium atom as to
+what upset their equilibrium, but I find that he does not know, or he
+pretends not to know. All he has told me is that he was flung off
+suddenly from within the atom with great energy, for he had been
+revolving at a tremendous speed. In his sudden flight he passed some
+newly formed _helium_ atoms, which contained many of those electrons who
+had been his co-partners in the former radium atom. Being an electron,
+he was travelling at a far greater speed than these flying atoms of
+matter, but he assures me that these helium atoms were going faster
+than atoms can travel under any other circumstances.
+
+Another thing that this escaped electron told me was that when he and
+his fellow-electrons made a sudden start on leaving the atom of radium
+they caused a proper splash in the surrounding æther, just such as we
+electrons produce when we are suddenly stopped in an X-ray tube. Man
+observed these rays proceeding from radium, but, not knowing the cause
+of them, he called them _gamma rays_. We can, of course, produce
+radiographs when these rays fall upon photographic plates. Indeed, some
+of my fellow-electrons, when escaping from radium, have produced rays
+sufficient to penetrate a six-inch boulder and affect a photographic
+plate lying beneath the boulder. In time man recognised these rays as
+X-rays.
+
+Man did not find only these rays--he discovered that electrons were
+escaping, but before he had recognised what we were, he had named us
+_beta rays_. These fast-flying electrons have had experiences which
+never fall to electrons except when escaping from an atom. Their
+velocity is so great that they can be shot right through a sheet of
+aluminium foil. If these escaped electrons are allowed to settle on any
+object, they will necessarily cause an overcrowding, or, in other words,
+the object will become negatively electrified.
+
+The one thing that puzzled man most was to find out what the helium
+atoms were. He had named them _alpha_ rays, but as he found he could not
+get them to penetrate even a thin sheet of paper, he was confident that
+they must be atoms of matter. It was only when he had gathered
+sufficient to examine the spectrum that he found these to be helium
+atoms.
+
+I think what really made the world talk was the fact that electrons were
+escaping from what had been supposed to be an eternal habitation. In
+other words, this material radium was actually going to pieces. That is
+to say, _gradually_, as far as man is concerned, for, looking at it from
+our point of view, the word _gradual_ seems out of place entirely. The
+breaking up of an atom is really of the nature of an explosion. It is a
+continual bombardment that is proceeding in radium. Why man is apt to
+think of it as a gradual effect is that there is such an enormous
+number of atoms in a tiny speck of radium, that even the incessant
+series of explosions will take a very long time to break down the whole
+of the small particle.
+
+Electrons differ in their opinions as to whether man will succeed in
+drawing upon this internal energy of the atom. My own difficulty is
+that, having been a roaming electron at all times, I have no idea
+regarding the cause of the atomic explosions. I have remarked already
+that the electrons locked up within the atoms possess more energy than
+man could ever use. If all these electrons were deprived of their
+energy, the atoms of matter would cease to exist, and man, where would
+he be?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER TWENTY_
+
+    Not many of us have realised the true importance of electrons in
+    the Creator's plans.
+
+    In the following short chapter the electron is made to sum up a
+    few of the wonders which it has related, in order to focus our
+    attention upon the grand place which the electrons occupy in the
+    universe.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+From what I have told you of myself and my fellow-electrons, it must be
+apparent that we are of tremendous importance to man. I have told you
+something of the part we played in building up this world--how we not
+only form the atoms of matter, but also hold these bricks of the
+universe together. I have given you a rough sketch of the composition of
+these bricks.
+
+You must have realised also that without us the whole universe would be
+in darkness. There would be no light, no heat, and consequently no life.
+Indeed, there could be no material existence without us.
+
+Where would man be if we failed to perform our mission? He could not
+exist if we even neglected a few of our duties. Not only do we form the
+atoms of which his body is composed, also holding these together, but
+we produce all those chemical changes within his body which are
+absolutely necessary to maintain life. His very thoughts are dependent
+upon our activities.
+
+I have told you how we send man's messages across the earth, and how we
+transmit power from place to place. Also how we have enabled man to gain
+knowledge of the distant stars, and to examine the bones of his living
+body.
+
+
+If man could cross-examine me or any of my fellows, I expect the first
+question would be--What are you electrons made of? But man must find
+this out for himself. The Creator has placed man in a world full of
+activity, and it is of intense interest to man to discover the meaning
+of all that lies around him. That is why I have been bound over by my
+fellows to tell you only so much of our history as man has discovered.
+But I am disclosing no secret when I admit that our very existence as
+electrons is dependent upon the æther.
+
+
+If I can find another scribe to write a revised biography for me a few
+hundred years hence, I shall have a much more interesting tale to tell,
+for many of our doings, of which man knows nothing at present, will be
+secrets no longer by that time.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON APPENDIX_
+
+    As explained by the author in Chapter I., this appendix has been
+    added for the sake of those readers who may wish further details
+    than have been given in the electron's story.
+
+    It is only necessary to give a brief notice of the more
+    important particulars, as the author has written recently upon
+    this subject in a popular form.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Scientific Ideas of To-day." By Chas. R. Gibson, F.R.S.E.
+(London: Seeley & Co., Ltd. Five shillings net.)]
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+It was known two thousand years ago that when a piece of amber was
+rubbed with a woollen cloth, the amber would attract light objects
+towards it. Amber was considered to be unique in this respect.
+
+
+About the year 1600, one of Queen Elizabeth's physicians, Dr. William
+Gilbert, inquired into this attractive property of amber. He found that
+many other substances possessed the same property. Indeed it is common
+to all substances in some degree. We say the amber or other object is
+"electrified."
+
+
+It was observed by the early experimenters that there were two kinds of
+electrification. To one of these they gave the name _positive
+electricity_, and to the other _negative electricity_.
+
+
+Every electrified object will attract an object which is not
+electrified, and two objects which are oppositely electrified will
+attract one another also. But two objects which are similarly
+electrified will repel each other.
+
+
+Man got tired of rubbing objects by hand, so he fitted up simple
+machines in which glass cylinders or plates were rubbed against leather
+cushions. The electricity was then collected by little metal points
+supported on an insulated metal sphere.
+
+
+The experiment of attempting to store electricity in a glass vessel
+filled with water was made at the University of Leyden (Netherlands).
+The water was replaced later by a coating of tin-foil on the inner
+surface, while a similar metallic coating on the outside took the place
+of the experimenter's hand. These jars are called _Leyden jars_, after
+the place in which the discovery was made.
+
+
+About 1790, Professor Galvani, of Italy, observed that the legs of a
+freshly killed frog twitched at each discharge of an electrical machine.
+Later he found that the same twitching occurred when he connected
+certain parts with a piece of copper and zinc. He believed this to be
+due to "animal electricity" secreted within the frog.
+
+
+Professor Volta, also of Italy, proved that Galvani's idea was wrong,
+and that the electricity resided in the metals rather than in the frog.
+He showed that when two pieces of dissimilar metal were put in contact
+with one another, there was a slight transference of electricity between
+them. He constructed a pile of copper and zinc discs, with a moist cloth
+between each pair or couple, and by connecting wires from the top copper
+disc to the lowest zinc disc he was able to show that an appreciable
+current of electricity was produced. Later he placed a piece of copper
+and a piece of zinc in a vessel containing acidulated water, whereupon
+he found that a steady current of electricity was obtained. This was the
+invention of electric batteries.
+
+
+The phenomena of _magnetism_ were known to the ancients, but it was not
+until the nineteenth century that we found any real connection between
+electricity and magnetism. In 1819, a Danish philosopher, Hans
+Christian Oersted, discovered that an electric current passing in a wire
+affected a magnet in its neighbourhood. If the magnet was supported on a
+pivot, after the manner of a compass needle, it would turn round and
+take up a position at right angles to the wire carrying the electric
+current.
+
+
+The molecular theory of magnetism presumes that every molecule of iron
+is a tiny magnet, having a north and south pole. In a piece of
+unmagnetised iron, these tiny magnets are all lying so that they
+neutralise one another. When they are turned round so that their north
+poles are all lying in one direction, then the iron is said to be
+magnetised.
+
+
+The electron theory of magnetism does not do away with the older
+molecular theory just referred to. The electron theory goes a step
+farther, and tells us that these molecules are magnets because of a
+steady motion of electrons around the atoms of iron.
+
+
+It was discovered in 1825 that when an electric current was sent through
+an insulated wire wound around a piece of soft iron, the iron became a
+magnet; when the current was stopped the magnetism disappeared. Such
+magnets are called _electro-magnets_. If a piece of hard steel is
+treated in the same way it becomes a _permanent magnet_. It was this
+intimate connection between electricity and magnetism, or, in other
+words, the invention of these electro-magnets, which brought us electric
+bells, telegraphs, telephones, dynamos, and electric motors.
+
+
+It should be noted that while iron is attracted by either pole of a
+magnet, there is such a thing as magnetic repulsion. This, however,
+takes place only between two magnets, and then only between like poles.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Some German physicists made a number of electrical experiments with
+vacuum tubes. When Sir William Crookes (England) was experimenting with
+similar vacuum tubes he suggested that matter was in a "radiant" state
+during the electric discharge within the tubes.
+
+
+In 1880, H. A. Lorentz, of Amsterdam, declared that light was due to the
+motion of small particles revolving around the atoms of matter.
+
+
+Professor Zeeman, of Holland, produced experimental proof of Lorentz's
+theory. He showed that the revolving "particles" were influenced by a
+powerful magnetic field, in the manner explained in the electron's
+story. This discovery was made in 1896, or sixteen years after Lorentz's
+declaration. It was Dr. Johnstone Stoney, of Dublin University
+(Ireland), who christened these particles "electrons."
+
+
+The X-rays were observed for the first time by Professor Roentgen, of
+Germany, in 1895. The screens used for viewing the luminous effects
+produced by the X-rays are coated with very fine crystals of _barium
+platinocyanide_. These screens were in use for another purpose previous
+to the discovery of X-rays.
+
+
+We know now that _chemical affinity_ is merely electrical attraction
+between the atoms of matter.
+
+
+The spectroscope consists of a glass prism, or series of prisms, mounted
+between two metal tubes. One tube is provided at one end with a vertical
+slit, through which the light that is to be examined is passed. At the
+other end of the tube is a lens, so that the beam of light from the slit
+emerges through the lens as a pencil of parallel rays. The pencil of
+light then falls upon the glass prism, striking it at an angle. In
+passing through the prism, the light is bent round so that it enters the
+second tube, which is simply a small telescope. The prism separates the
+æther waves according to their wave-lengths, and produces the well-known
+coloured spectrum, which is magnified by the telescope. The reason for
+the bending of the different waves is explained in the electron's
+story.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Absorption of light, 148
+
+Æther, the, 24
+
+Æther waves, 96, 131, 133, 137, 146, 148, 163
+
+Alpha rays from radium, 190
+
+Alternating electric current, 121
+
+Amber electrified, 32, 34 to 37, 201
+
+Artificial light, 140, 142
+
+Atoms breaking up, 188, 190
+
+Atoms co-operating with electrons, 108, 123
+
+Atom's internal energy, 187, 191
+
+Atoms of matter, 52, 54, 78, 128, 180, 184
+
+Attraction between atoms, 180
+
+Attraction, electrical, 35, 202
+
+Attraction, magnetic, 78, 205
+
+Aurora, 132
+
+Automatic telegraph transmitter, 91
+
+
+Battery, electric, 70, 203
+
+Beginning of the world, 53
+
+Beta rays from radium, 189
+
+Birth of the moon, 52, 54
+
+Bricks of the universe, 180, 195
+
+
+Chemical affinity, 206
+
+Chemical combinations, 56, 182
+
+Chemistry of the stars, 52, 55, 144, 153
+
+Chlorine atoms, 56, 182
+
+Cloud formation, 56
+
+Circuit, earth, 72
+
+Coherer, tube, 98
+
+Cohesive force, 183
+
+Colour, 136
+
+Compass needle, 77
+
+Complete electric circuit, 71
+
+Conductors, 37, 68
+
+Connecting link between æther and matter, 118, 127
+
+Corpuscles, 66
+
+Crookes, Sir William, 205
+
+Current of electricity, 68
+
+
+Dark lines in spectrum, 154
+
+Detachable electrons, 78, 181
+
+Detecting imitation diamonds, 174
+
+Direct electric current, 121
+
+Discharge of electricity, 42
+
+Discharge through a vacuum, 60
+
+Discovery of electrons, 160, 206
+
+Discovery of X-rays, 169
+
+Dynamo, 116, 118
+
+
+Earth circuit, 72
+
+Electrical discharge, 42
+
+Electricity, positive, 23, 32, 39, 52, 180
+
+Electricity, negative, 23, 32, 39
+
+Electric battery, 70
+
+Electric current, 68, 70
+
+Electric motor, 116, 122
+
+Electric shock, 47
+
+Electrified objects, 37, 38, 201
+
+Electro-magnets, 76, 81, 83, 118, 205
+
+Electrodes, 61
+
+Electrocution, 49
+
+Electron as a go-between, 118
+
+Electron, derivation of the word, 23
+
+Electron, discovery of, 160, 206
+
+Electrons, 25, 32, 66, 78, 138, 162, 195
+
+Energy transmission through the æther, 73, 121
+
+Energy within the atom, 187, 191
+
+
+Field, magnetic, 68, 76, 118
+
+Fluorescent screen, 169, 206
+
+
+Galvani's discovery, 202
+
+Gamma rays from radium, 189
+
+Gilbert's discovery, 201
+
+Glass, electrified, 37, 38
+
+Glass prism, 147, 152
+
+Glow-lamp, electric, 140, 141
+
+Glow-worm, 142
+
+
+Heat, radiant, 126, 131, 133, 142
+
+Helium atoms, 188, 190
+
+Hydrogen atoms, 55, 182
+
+
+Insulators (non-conductors), 37, 47
+
+Iron atoms, 77
+
+Iron wires discarded, 88
+
+
+Lamp, electric, 140
+
+Leyden jar, 42, 202
+
+Light, 23, 60, 64, 133
+
+Light absorbed, 148
+
+Light, artificial, 140, 142
+
+Light, reflected, 148
+
+Lightning, 42, 48
+
+Lines in the spectrum, 152, 154, 160, 162
+
+Lorentz's declaration, 206
+
+
+Magnetic attraction, 78, 205
+
+Magnetic field, 68, 76, 118
+
+Magnetic repulsion, 205
+
+Magnetism, 73, 76, 203, 204
+
+Magnetism and electricity, 73
+
+Magnets, electro-, 76, 81, 83, 205
+
+Magnets, permanent, 83
+
+Mariner's compass, 77
+
+Matter, 52, 54
+
+Metal electrified, 37, 38
+
+Molecules of matter, 181, 183
+
+Moon's birth, 52, 54
+
+Morse telegraph, 88
+
+Motion in line of sight, 162
+
+Motor, electric, 116, 122
+
+
+Negative electricity, 23, 32, 39
+
+
+Oersted's discovery, 204
+
+Oxygen atoms, 182
+
+
+Permanent magnets, 82
+
+Positive electricity, 23, 32, 39, 52, 180
+
+Prism of glass, 147, 152
+
+
+Radiant heat, 131, 133, 142
+
+Radiant matter, 63, 205
+
+Radium, 188
+
+Rainbow, 147
+
+Rays from radium, 189, 190
+
+Reflection of light, 148
+
+Repulsion, electrical, 202
+
+Repulsion, magnetic, 205
+
+Roentgen rays, 167
+
+Roentgen's discovery, 168, 206
+
+
+Sea, cause of saltness, 56
+
+Shock, electric, 47
+
+Silk, electrified, 38
+
+Sodium atoms, 56, 182
+
+Spark, electric, 44
+
+Spectroscope, 152, 154, 207
+
+Spectrum, 144, 147, 152, 154
+
+Speed of electrons in conductor, 70
+
+Stars approaching the earth, 162
+
+Stars, constituents of the, 52, 55, 146
+
+Stoney, Dr. Johnstone, 206
+
+Sun, constituents of the, 154
+
+Sun's heat, 128, 131
+
+
+Telegraph signals, 90
+
+Telegraphy, wireless, 95
+
+Telephone, 109
+
+Telephony, wireless, 110
+
+Temperature, 180
+
+Tramway, electric, 117, 118, 122
+
+Transparent substances, 149
+
+
+Vacuum tubes, 60, 61, 132, 205
+
+Velocity of electrons, 70
+
+Volta's discovery, 203
+
+
+Waves in the æther, 96, 133, 137, 146, 148, 163
+
+Wireless messages from the stars, 162
+
+Wireless telegraphy, 95
+
+Wireless telephony, 110
+
+
+X-rays, 166, 206
+
+X-rays from radium, 189
+
+X-ray photography, 173
+
+
+Zeeman proves existence of electrons, 161, 206
+
+
+Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO.
+Edinburgh & London
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+    The following changes have been made to the original text:
+
+    Page xi:  "always necessary, How" changed to "always necessary. How"
+    Page 205: "vacuum tubes, When" changed to "vacuum tubes. When"
+    Page 214: "Negative electricity, 23, 32, 9" changed to "Negative
+	          electricity, 23, 32, 39"
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN ELECTRON***
+
+
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Autobiography of an Electron, by Charles R.
+(Charles Robert) Gibson</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: Autobiography of an Electron</p>
+<p>       Wherein the Scientific Ideas of the Present Time Are Explained in an Interesting and Novel Fashion</p>
+<p>Author: Charles R. (Charles Robert) Gibson</p>
+<p>Release Date: June 17, 2011  [eBook #36456]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN ELECTRON***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>E-text prepared by Sharon Joiner, Erica Pfister-Altschul,<br />
+    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br />
+    from page images generously made available by<br />
+    Internet Archive/American Libraries<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.archive.org/details/americana">http://www.archive.org/details/americana</a>)</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/American Libraries. See
+      <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/autobiographyofe00gibsrich">
+      http://www.archive.org/details/autobiographyofe00gibsrich</a>
+	</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h1>THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY<br />
+OF AN ELECTRON</h1>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="position: relative; width: 500px;">
+  <a href="images/figfrontis-800.jpg">
+    <img src="images/figfrontis-400.jpg"
+    width="255" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a>
+  <p>
+  <small><i>Photo</i>
+  <span class="ralign"><i>The Fleet Agency</i></span></small>
+  </p>
+
+  <p class="smcap bold center">A Well-known Phenomenon Produced by Electrons</p>
+
+  <p>A sudden discharge of electrons from cloud to cloud, or from cloud to
+  the earth, constitutes what we call "lightning."</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h1>THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY<br />
+OF AN ELECTRON.</h1>
+
+<p class="center">WHEREIN THE SCIENTIFIC IDEAS OF THE PRESENT<br />
+TIME ARE EXPLAINED IN AN INTERESTING<br />
+AND NOVEL FASHION</p>
+
+<h3><small>BY</small><br />
+CHARLES R. GIBSON, F.R.S.E.</h3>
+
+<p class="center">AUTHOR OF "SCIENTIFIC IDEAS OF TO-DAY," "ELECTRICITY OF TO-DAY"<br />
+"THE ROMANCE OF MODERN ELECTRICITY," <i>&amp;c. &amp;c.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center">ILLUSTRATED</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center">PHILADELPHIA<br />
+J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY<br />
+<span class="smcap">LONDON: SEELEY &amp; CO. Limited</span><br />
+1911</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></div>
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<p>Although text-books of science may appear
+to the general reader to be "very dry"
+material, there is no doubt that, when scientific
+facts and theories are put into everyday
+language, the general reader is genuinely
+interested. The reception accorded to the
+present author's <i>Scientific Ideas of To-day</i>
+bears out this fact. While that volume explains,
+in non-technical language, the latest
+scientific theories, it aims at giving a fairly
+full account, which, of course, necessitates
+going into a great deal of detail. That the
+book has been appreciated by very varied
+classes of readers is evident from the large
+numbers of appreciative letters received from
+different quarters. But the author believes
+that if the story of modern science were told
+in a still more popular style, it would serve
+a further useful purpose. For there are
+readers who do not care to go into details,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span>
+and yet would like to take an intelligent interest
+in the scientific progress of the present
+day. Some of those readers do not wish to
+trouble about names and dates, while the
+mere mention of rates of vibration and such-like
+is a worry to them. They wish a book
+which they may read with the same ease as
+an interesting novel. Hence the form of
+the present volume.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The author is indebted to Professor James
+Muir, M.A., D.Sc., of the Glasgow and West
+of Scotland Technical College, and to H. Stanley
+Allen, M.A., D.Sc., Senior Lecturer in
+Physics at King's College, University of
+London, for very kindly reading the proof-sheets.
+The author is indebted further to
+Professor Muir in connection with some of
+the illustrations, and for others to Dixon
+and Corbitt and R. S. Newall, Ltd., Glasgow;
+Siemens Schuckert Werke, Berlin.</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<ul class="TOC">
+  <li><span class="ralign">PAGE</span></li>
+
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a><br />
+  WHAT THE STORY IS ABOUT</li>
+  <li class="description">The Scribe introduces the Electron to the reader. He has
+  something to say also about the mysterious &aelig;ther
+  which pervades all space. He emphasises the fact
+  that the electron is a real existing thing
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></span></li>
+
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a><br />
+  THE ELECTRON'S PREFACE</li>
+  <li class="description">The Electron explains the reason why it has written its
+  autobiography
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></span></li>
+
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a><br />
+  THE NEW ARRIVAL</li>
+  <li class="description">The Electron points out who the new arrival is really. It
+  relates an amusing experience. It tells how man disturbed
+  electrons before he discovered their existence.
+  An ancient experiment, and what the wise men of the
+  East thought about it. How electrons are responsible
+  for the electrification of any object. Handled by a
+  new experimenter, they surprise man. Man becomes
+  of special interest to the electrons
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span></div>
+
+<ul class="TOC">
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a><br />
+  SOME GOOD SPORT</li>
+  <li class="description">The Electron explains how man succeeded in crowding
+  them together, with some rather exciting results from
+  the overcrowding. One historical incident. Man's
+  fear of the consequences. How a party of electrons
+  wrecked a church steeple. An unfortunate accident
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></span></li>
+
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a><br />
+  MY EARLIEST RECOLLECTIONS</li>
+  <li class="description">The Electron's story begins at a very far distant period,
+  before this world had taken shape. The Electron was
+  present when the atoms of matter were being formed.
+  The birth of the moon. Something still to be discovered.
+  The moulding of the planet. Boiling oceans.
+  The electrons took an active part in making sea-water
+  salt. The Electron explains why it has been chosen
+  to write the story of itself and its fellows
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></span></li>
+
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a><br />
+  MAN PAYS US SOME ATTENTION</li>
+  <li class="description">The electrons are encouraged by one of the experiments
+  made by man. They hope it may lead to their discovery,
+  so that their services may be recognised. The
+  Electron's experience in a vacuum tube. A disappointment
+  and a revival of hope. A great declaration by
+  one individual man. The Electron misjudges man.
+  Mention of a great discovery. The christening of the
+  electrons
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></div>
+
+<ul class="TOC">
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a><br />
+  A STEADY MARCH</li>
+  <li class="description">The Electron explains how they produce the electric current.
+  How man discovered means of making the electrons
+  march. A simple explanation of how a complete
+  electric circuit is always necessary. How an "earth
+  circuit" works. How the marching electrons can do
+  work
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></span></li>
+
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a><br />
+  A USEFUL DANCE</li>
+  <li class="description">A perpetual dance. A responsible position. How the
+  safety of the mariner depends upon the electrons'
+  dance. How electrons produce a magnet. A convenient
+  kind of magnet, which gains and loses its
+  attractive power when desired. How a permanent
+  magnet is made. The great service of electrons in
+  modern life
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></span></li>
+
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a><br />
+  HOW WE CARRY MAN'S NEWS</li>
+  <li class="description">The method of sending the news. The Electron's personal
+  experience. A series of forced marches. How man
+  controls the electrons. How the electrons reproduce
+  the signals
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></div>
+
+<ul class="TOC">
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a><br />
+  HOW WE COMMUNICATE WITH DISTANT SHIPS</li>
+  <li class="description">An entirely different means of communication. A surprise
+  to man, but not to the electrons. How the electrons
+  produce waves in the surrounding &aelig;ther. How these
+  waves disturb distant electrons. The Electron's personal
+  experience. Its description of its actions in a
+  wireless telegraph station
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></span></li>
+
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a><br />
+  HOW WE REPRODUCE SPEECH</li>
+  <li class="description">Why it is not correct to speak of the electrons as carriers of
+  speech. The action of electrons in the working of
+  telephones. The Electron's own experience in wireless
+  telephony
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></span></li>
+
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a><br />
+  OUR HEAVIEST DUTIES</li>
+  <li class="description">A roving commission. How electrons can move gigantic
+  cars and trains. The action of electrons in dynamos
+  and motors. How the electrons transmit the energy.
+  What makes the motor go
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></span></li>
+
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a><br />
+  A BOON TO MAN</li>
+  <li class="description">A simple explanation of how the electrons produce light.
+  How the Electron provides a connecting link between
+  matter and the &aelig;ther. How light reaches the earth</li>
+</ul>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></div>
+
+<ul class="TOC">
+  <li class="description">from the sun. How the electrons produce that beautiful
+  luminous effect which man calls an "Aurora."
+  How the earth has become a negatively charged body.
+  How electrons produce radiant heat. The difference
+  between light and heat
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></span></li>
+
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a><br />
+  HOW WE PRODUCE COLOUR</li>
+  <li class="description">What colour is really. How the different colour sensations
+  are stimulated by the electrons. The Electron as a
+  faithful satellite to the atom. How electrons can
+  produce the different &aelig;ther waves. How the electrons
+  respond to the different waves. The production of
+  artificial light. Co-operation of the electrons. Man's
+  ridiculously wasteful processes. The electrons' secret
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></span></li>
+
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a><br />
+  WE SEND MESSAGES FROM THE STARS</li>
+  <li class="description">The kind of messages referred to. How the electrons
+  have informed man of what the stars are made. How
+  man reads the electrons' wireless messages. How it is
+  other electrons that enable man to read the messages.
+  The real explanation of reflection of light. How light
+  is absorbed by some objects. How some substances
+  are transparent. Why objects appear coloured. What
+  makes the lines in the spectra of stars. The spectroscope
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span></div>
+
+<ul class="TOC">
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a><br />
+  HOW MAN PROVED OUR EXISTENCE</li>
+  <li class="description">How man reasoned out a plan for detecting the electron.
+  How the electrons altered some lines in the spectrum.
+  The curious manner in which the Electron informed
+  man that certain stars are approaching this planet,
+  while others are receding from it
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></span></li>
+
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a><br />
+  MY X-RAY EXPERIENCE</li>
+  <li class="description">X-rays are an old story to some electrons. The Electron's
+  personal experience. A very sudden stop. How
+  electrons made a fluorescent screen send out light.
+  The electrons assist the surgeon. A curious find.
+  Detecting imitation diamonds. The Electron and the
+  mummy
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></span></li>
+
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</a><br />
+  OUR RELATIONSHIP TO THE ATOMS</li>
+  <li class="description">How the atoms of matter attract one another. What constitutes
+  the temperature of a body. What the atoms
+  are made of. An important thing still to discover
+  about the atom. The elements. How the electrons
+  produce compound substances. The real explanation
+  of chemical changes
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span></div>
+
+<ul class="TOC">
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX</a><br />
+  HOW WE MADE THE WORLD TALK</li>
+  <li class="description">It was nothing new on the part of the electrons. Exaggerated
+  rumours. The electrons and radium. Fast-flying
+  electrons. Atomic explosions
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></span></li>
+
+  <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX</a><br />
+  CONCLUSION</li>
+  <li class="description">The Electron is made to sum up a few of the wonders which
+  it has related, in order to emphasise the great services
+  which electrons render to man
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></span></li>
+
+  <li class="description"><a href="#APPENDIX">APPENDIX</a>
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></span></li>
+
+  <li class="description"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a>
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span></div>
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<ul class="TOC">
+  <li class="description">  &nbsp; <span class="ralign">PAGE</span></li>
+
+  <li class="description">
+  <span class="smcap">A Well-known Phenomenon produced by Electrons</span>
+  <span class="ralign"><i>Frontispiece</i></span>  </li>
+
+  <li class="description">
+  <span class="smcap">Damage Done by a Party of Electrons</span>
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></span>  </li>
+
+  <li class="description">
+  <span class="smcap">A Tobacco Tin defying Gravitation</span>
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></span>  </li>
+
+  <li class="description">
+  <span class="smcap">A Motor-car with Wireless Telegraph</span>
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></span>  </li>
+
+  <li class="description">
+  <span class="smcap">A Train Impelled by Moving Electrons</span>
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></span>  </li>
+
+  <li class="description">
+  <span class="smcap">Protection against a Discharge of Electrons</span>
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></span>  </li>
+
+  <li class="description">
+  <span class="smcap">The Spectroscope and the Electrons' Wireless Messages</span>
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></span>  </li>
+
+  <li class="description">
+  <span class="smcap">How Electrons Produce X-ray Images</span>
+  <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></span>  </li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h2>WHAT THE STORY IS ABOUT</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<p>The reason for writing this story is given
+in the Preface, but the title is so strange
+that the reader will wish naturally to know
+what the story is about. What is an electron?
+Is it an imaginary thing, or is it a
+reality?</p>
+
+<p>One of the reasons for writing this story
+in its present form is to help the reader to
+realise that electrons are not mythical, but
+real existing things, and by far the most
+interesting things we know anything about.
+The discovery of electrons has shed a new
+light upon the meaning of very many things
+which have been puzzles until now. They
+give us a reasonable explanation of the cause
+of light and colour. They provide a new idea
+of the constitution of matter. They enable
+us to picture an electric current, and they
+give us definite, though by no means final,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+answers to the why and wherefore of magnetism,
+chemical union, and radio-activity.</p>
+
+<p>The story is imaginary only in so far that
+one of the electrons itself is supposed to tell
+the tale. But in the endeavour to make
+the story interesting, there has been no
+sacrifice of accuracy in the statements of
+fact.</p>
+
+<p>While all names and dates, and many other
+details, have been kept out rigidly from the
+story, a note of the more important of these
+has been added in an Appendix for the sake
+of those readers who may wish to refer to
+them.</p>
+
+<p>It will be well to introduce the electron to
+the reader before leaving it to speak for
+itself. We have definite experimental proof
+of the existence of electrons, and yet it is
+very difficult to realise their existence, for
+two reasons. In the first place, they are so
+infinitesimally small. We count a microbe a
+small thing; we can see it only with the aid
+of a very powerful microscope. Yet that
+little speck of matter contains myriads of
+particles or <i>atoms</i>. An atom of matter is
+therefore an inconceivably little thing, but
+even that is a great giant compared to an
+elec<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>tron.
+Our second difficulty in realising the
+existence of an electron is that it is not any
+form of what we call <i>matter</i>; it is a particle of
+<i>electricity</i>, whatever that may be.</p>
+
+<p>From the earliest experiments it became
+evident that there were two distinct kinds of
+electricity. These were described by the
+pioneer workers as <i>positive</i> and <i>negative</i>
+electricities. To-day we have definite experimental
+proof that negative electricity is
+composed of separate particles or units. Just
+as matter is composed of invisible atoms, so
+also is negative electricity of an atomic
+nature. These particles of negative electricity
+have been christened electrons, <i>electron</i>
+being the Greek word for <i>amber</i>, from which
+man first obtained electricity. Of course no
+one can ever hope to see an electron, but
+physicists have been able to determine its
+size and <i>mass</i>, its electric charge, and the
+speeds at which it moves.</p>
+
+<p>While it has been known for more than
+a century that <i>light</i> is merely waves in the
+all-pervading &aelig;ther of space, set up by incandescent
+bodies, it has been a puzzle always
+how matter could cause waves in the &aelig;ther, as
+it offers no resistance to the movement of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+matter through it. Here we are on the back
+of a great planet, flying through space at
+the enormous rate of one thousand miles per
+minute, and yet our flimsy atmospheric
+blanket is in no way disturbed by the &aelig;ther
+through which we are flying. In the following
+story we shall see that these electrons
+help us towards a solution of this and many
+other problems; they provide the missing link
+between matter and the &aelig;ther.</p>
+
+<p>But what is this <i>&aelig;ther</i> of which one hears
+so much in these days? The truth is we know
+nothing of its nature. We cannot say whether
+it is lighter than the lightest gas or denser
+than the densest solid. The &aelig;ther, whatever
+it may be, is as real as the air we breathe. It
+is the medium which brings us light and heat
+from the sun, and which carries our wireless
+telegraph and telephone messages. The
+whole universe is moving in this great &aelig;ther
+ocean.</p>
+
+<p>In order to make the electron's story
+perfectly intelligible to every reader, I have
+added a short explanatory note at the beginning
+of each chapter. These notes merely
+state the facts about which the electron is
+speaking.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+To make the electron's story as realistic as
+possible, it has been necessary to give the
+imaginary electron perfect freedom of knowledge
+concerning itself and its surroundings.
+In our schooldays we had to write the
+autobiographies of steel pens, and such-like,
+but these inanimate things had to be endowed
+with powers of thought, feeling, and desire.
+It is very important, however, to remember
+that an electron is a particle of negative
+electricity&mdash;<i>a real existing thing</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h2>THE ELECTRON'S PREFACE</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+While many scientific men now understand
+our place in the universe, we electrons are
+anxious that every person should know the
+very important part which we play in the
+workaday world. It was for this reason
+that my fellow-electrons urged me to write
+my own biography. My difficulty has been
+to find a scribe who would put down my
+story in the way I desired. The first man
+with whom I opened negotiations wished me
+to give him dates and names of which I knew
+nothing. And he asked such stupid questions
+about where I was born and who my parents
+were, as if I were flesh and blood.</p>
+
+<p>I am pleased to say that my relationship
+with the scribe who has put down my story
+in the following pages has been of the most
+friendly description. Apart from a little tiff
+which we had at the outset, there has been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+no difference of opinion. He complained that
+I related things in too abstract a form. However,
+we got over the difficulty by a compromise;
+I have allowed him to place what
+he calls "The Scribe's Note" at the beginning
+of each chapter, but it will be understood
+clearly that these are merely convenient
+embellishments, and that I am responsible for
+the story of my own experiences.</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h2>THE NEW ARRIVAL</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER THREE</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It will be well to keep clearly in mind
+that an electron is a real particle of negative
+electricity.</p>
+
+<p>Electrons have been discovered only within
+recent years.</p>
+
+<p>No matter from what substances we take
+them, they are always identical in every respect.</p>
+
+<p>Some electrons are attached to the atoms
+of matter in such a way that they may be
+removed easily from one object to another.</p>
+
+<p>When a surplus of these detachable electrons
+is crowded on to any object, we say that
+it is charged with negative electricity.</p>
+
+<p>We speak of the other object, which has
+lost these same electrons, as being charged
+with positive electricity.</p>
+
+<p>In this chapter the electron refers to the
+old-world experiment in which a piece of
+amber when rubbed attracts any light object
+to it.</p>
+
+<p>For many ages man believed this to be a
+special property belonging to amber alone.</p>
+
+<p>One of Queen Elizabeth's physicians discovered
+that this property was common to
+all substances.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+It is most amusing to me and my fellow-electrons
+to hear intelligent people speak of
+us as though we were new arrivals on this
+planet. Dear me! We were here for countless
+ages before man put in an appearance.
+I wonder if any man can realise that we have
+been on the move ever since the foundations
+of this world were laid. It is man himself
+who is the new arrival.</p>
+
+<p>It does seem strange to us that men should
+be so distinctly different from one another.
+We electrons are at a decided disadvantage,
+for we are all identical in every respect. I
+have no individual name&mdash;it would serve no
+purpose. Even if you could see me, you
+could not distinguish me from any other
+electron. I wonder sometimes if men appreciate
+the great advantage they have in possessing
+individual names. I was impressed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+with this thought one fine summer morning.
+While I was riding on the back of a particle
+of gas in the atmosphere, I was carried
+through the open window of a nursery just
+as the under-nurse was putting the room in
+order. A little later there was some commotion
+in the nursery, for the young mother
+and her mother had come to see the twin
+daughters being bathed by the nurses. The
+grandmother happened to remark how very
+much alike the two little infants were. She
+said laughingly to the head nurse that she
+must be careful not to get the children mixed.
+But the big brother, aged five years, remarked
+that it would not matter really how much
+they were mixed until they got their names.
+Sometimes I wish we electrons did differ from
+one another, so that we might each possess an
+individual name, but no doubt it is necessary
+for us all to be exactly alike.</p>
+
+<p>Long before man had discovered us, he
+caused us deliberately to do certain things.
+He was mystified by the results of his experiments,
+for he was not aware of our presence.
+A few of my fellow-electrons have rather
+hazy recollections of being disturbed while
+clinging to a piece of amber. They had been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+disturbed often before in a similar way, by
+being rubbed against a piece of woollen cloth,
+and the result had been always that a number
+of electrons let go their hold upon the cloth
+and crowded on to the amber. The overcrowding
+was uncomfortable, but it happened
+usually that the surplus electrons found some
+means of escape to the earth, where there is
+no need of excessive crowding.</p>
+
+<p>On the occasion to which I refer, it so
+happened that the rubbing had been unusually
+vigorous and prolonged, so that
+the electrons were crowded on to the amber
+in great numbers. In their endeavour to
+escape they produced a strain or stress in
+the surrounding &aelig;ther, and this caused a
+small piece of straw, which was lying within
+the disturbed area, to be forced towards
+the amber.</p>
+
+<p>What attracted the attention of the electrons
+was that the man who was holding
+the piece of amber removed the clinging
+straw and replaced it exactly where it had
+been lying. In the meantime he had been
+handling the amber, and many of the crowded
+electrons had managed to make a bolt for
+the earth by way of the man's body. They
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+did this so very quietly that the man did
+not feel any sensation. However, as soon
+as the amber was rubbed again, a similar
+crowd provided the same attractive property.
+We electrons became impatient to hear what
+man would say of our work, for it was
+apparent that he had noticed the movements
+of the straw. You will hardly believe me
+when I tell you to what decision these wise
+men of the East came. They declared that,
+in rubbing the amber, it had received heat
+and life. As if life could be originated in
+any such simple manner!</p>
+
+<p>You can picture our disappointment when
+we found that man was going to ignore our
+presence. Occasionally we were given opportunities
+of displaying our abilities in drawing
+light objects towards pieces of rubbed amber.
+But the funny thing was that man got hold
+of the stupid idea that this attractive property
+belonged to the amber instead of to us. If
+he had only tried pieces of sulphur, resin,
+or glass, he would have found that these
+substances would have acted just as well.
+You see it was not really the substance,
+but we electrons who were the active agents.</p>
+
+<p>We had given up all hope of being
+dis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>covered,
+when news came along that a learned
+man was on the hunt for us. He was crowding
+us on to all sorts of substances. He rubbed
+a piece of glass with some silk, and at first
+he was surprised greatly to see light objects
+jump towards the excited glass. Of course,
+we were not surprised in the very least. The
+only thing that amused us was to find that
+he was making out a list of the different
+substances which showed attractive properties
+when rubbed. He could not, evidently, get
+away from the idea that it was the substances
+themselves that became attractive.</p>
+
+<p>We were sorry that the poor experimenter
+wasted so much time and energy in trying
+to crowd us on to a piece of metal rod. He
+rubbed and he rubbed that metal, but it
+would attract nothing, and I shall tell you
+the reason. You know that we electrons
+hate overcrowding; indeed we always separate
+from one another as far as possible when
+there is no force pulling us together. We
+only crowded on to the amber because we
+could not help ourselves; we had no way
+of escape, for amber is a substance we cannot
+pass through. But we have no difficulty
+whatever in making our way along a piece
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+of metal, and as soon as the rubbing began,
+some electrons moved off the metal by way
+of the man's arm and body to make room
+for those being crowded on to the metal from
+the rubber. And so there never was any
+overcrowding, and consequently no straining
+of the &aelig;ther. But it was not long before
+we found that man had succeeded in cutting
+off our way of escape. He had attached a glass
+handle to the metal rod, and we were compelled
+to overcrowd upon the metal as we could
+not pass through the glass handle. Neighbouring
+light objects were attracted by the
+excited or "electrified" metal. Even this
+demonstration did not put man upon our
+track.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps I should explain in passing, that
+when a glass rod is rubbed with a silk handkerchief
+we crowd on to the silk, and not on to
+the glass. This leaves the glass rod short
+of electrons, and the &aelig;ther is strained so that
+light objects are attracted. Man did notice
+that there was some difference between a
+piece of amber and a piece of glass when
+these were excited. What the difference was
+he could not imagine, but to distinguish the
+two different conditions he said that the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+amber was charged with <i>negative</i> electricity
+and the glass with <i>positive</i> electricity.</p>
+
+<p>From that time forward man became of
+special interest to us. We felt sure that
+sooner or later he was bound to recognise
+that we were at work behind the scenes. It
+seemed to us, however, that man was desperately
+slow in turning his attention towards
+us, and we tried to waken him up in a rather
+alarming fashion, as I shall relate in the
+succeeding chapter.</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h2>SOME GOOD SPORT</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER FOUR</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Men began to make glass plate machines
+for producing electrification on a larger scale.</p>
+
+<p>The electric spark is produced.</p>
+
+<p>The electron tells the story of the first
+attempt to store electricity in a glass jar.</p>
+
+<p>This is what we do now by means of a
+Leyden jar.</p>
+
+<p>A sudden expulsion of electrons from one
+object to another is called a discharge of
+electricity.</p>
+
+<p>Lightning is a discharge of electrons from
+a cloud to the earth or from cloud to cloud.</p>
+
+<p>In repeating Franklin's experiment of drawing
+electricity from thunder-clouds, a Russian
+professor received a fatal shock.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+Now I must tell you of a surprise in which
+I took an active part. Some man thought
+he would separate a great crowd of us from
+our friends. Of course, he did not think
+really of <i>us</i>, but whatever he may have
+supposed he was doing, he succeeded in
+accumulating greater crowds of us together
+than he had done previously. He managed
+this by making simple machines to do the
+rubbing for him on a larger scale. The
+result was really too much for us; we were
+kept crowding on to a sort of brass comb
+arrangement from which we could not escape,
+as the metal was attached to a glass support.
+Talk about overcrowding! I had never experienced
+the like before, and I felt sure
+some catastrophe would happen. Suddenly
+there was a stampede, during which a great
+crowd of electrons forced their way across
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+to a neighbouring object and thence to the
+earth. I can assure you it was no joke
+getting through the air. We all tried to
+leap together, but some of the crowd were
+forced back upon us; then bang forward
+we went again, back once more, and so on
+till we settled down to our normal condition.
+Of course all this surging to and fro occupied
+far less time than it takes to tell. Indeed, I
+could not tell you what a very small fraction
+of a second it took.</p>
+
+<p>I wish you had seen the experimenter's
+surprise as we made this jump. We caused
+such a bombardment in the air that there
+was a bright spark accompanied by a regular
+explosion. Some men ran away with the
+idea that electricity was a mysterious fire,
+which only showed itself when it mixed with
+the atmosphere. Nothing delighted us more,
+after our own surprise was over, than to
+have a chance of repeating these explosions,
+to the alarm of the experimenters. But the
+best sport of all was to come, and when I
+heard of it I was so disappointed that I had
+not been one of the sporting party. It came
+about in the following way.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="position: relative; width: 500px;">
+  <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"><!--[Pg 45]--></a></span>
+  <a href="images/figp45-800.jpg">
+    <img src="images/figp45-400.jpg"
+    width="309" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a>
+  <p>
+  <small><i>By permission of Dixon and Corbitt and R. S. Newall, Ltd.</i>
+  <span class="ralign"><i>Glasgow</i></span></small>
+  </p>
+
+  <p class="smcap bold center">Damage Done by a Party of Electrons</p>
+
+  <p>When a myriad of electrons is discharged suddenly from a cloud to
+  the earth, it happens sometimes that considerable damage is done.
+  The above photograph is of a church steeple damaged by lightning
+  in 1875. No lightning-conductor was provided, so the electrons
+  had to get to earth by way of the steeple itself, with the
+  disastrous result as shown.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>One learned man thought he had hit upon
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+a good idea. He tried to crowd a tremendous
+number of us into some water contained in a
+glass jar. Without condescending to think
+of us, he crowded an enormous number of
+electrons from one of his rubbing machines
+along a piece of chain which led them into
+water. The overcrowding was appalling, for
+it was impossible to escape through the glass
+vessel. Things had reached a terrible state,
+when the experimenter stopped the machine
+and put forward his hand to lift the chain
+out of the water. Now was the chance of
+escape, so the whole excited crowd made one
+wild rush to earth by way of the experimenter's
+body. The rapid surging to and fro
+of the crowd racked the man's muscles. I
+wish I had been there to see him jump; they
+say it was something grand. You can imagine
+how the little sinners enjoyed the joke; they
+knew they were safe, as man had no idea
+of their existence at that time.</p>
+
+<p>Another man was foolhardy enough to try
+a similar experiment, and they say that his
+alarm was even greater; indeed, he swore he
+would not take another shock even for the
+crown of France. We were all eager to get
+opportunities of alarming man, not that we
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
+wished him any harm, but we thought he
+might pay us a little more attention.</p>
+
+<p>I remember one occasion upon which some
+of us were boasting of what we had done
+in the way of alarming men, whereupon one
+fellow-electron rather belittled our doings.
+He maintained that he had jumped all the
+way from a cloud to the earth, along with
+a crowd of other electrons. In doing so
+they had scared the inhabitants of a whole
+village, for they alighted upon the steeple
+of a church, and in their wild rush they played
+such havoc among the atoms composing the
+steeple that they did considerable outward
+damage to the great structure.</p>
+
+<p>I may as well confess that we are not free
+agents in performing these gigantic jumps;
+we are compelled to go with the crowd when
+things are in such a state of stress. We
+simply cannot hold on to the atoms of matter
+upon which we happen to be located. It is
+only under very considerable pressure that
+we can perform this class of jump, and I
+beg to assure you that we are perfectly helpless
+in those cases where we have been dashed
+upon some poor creature with a message of
+death.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+Alas! on one occasion I was one of a party
+who killed a very learned man. It was most
+distasteful to us; we could not possibly prevent
+it. He had erected a long rod which
+extended up into the air, and terminated at
+the lower end in his laboratory. Some of
+us who were in the upper atmosphere were
+forced on to this iron rod, and from past
+experience we quite expected that we should
+be subjected to a sudden expulsion to earth.
+Indeed we were waiting for the experimenter
+to provide us with a means of escape, when
+suddenly he brought his head too near to
+the end of the rod, and in a moment we
+were dashed to earth through his body. We
+learned with deep regret that the poor man
+had been robbed of his life.</p>
+
+<p>To turn to something of a happier nature,
+I shall proceed to tell you of some of my
+earliest recollections. Remember I shall be
+speaking of a time long before man existed&mdash;even
+before this great planet was a solid ball.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h2>MY EARLIEST RECOLLECTIONS</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER FIVE</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>This great globe upon which we live was
+once a glowing mass of flaming gas.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible that the whole solar system
+was once one great mass.</p>
+
+<p>In any case, we have no doubt that the
+moon is simply the result of a part of our
+glowing mass having become detached.</p>
+
+<p>In the hottest stars we find only the lightest
+atoms of matter, such as hydrogen gas, the
+atoms of heavier substances being found in
+stars which have begun to cool down.</p>
+
+<p>The electrons have been present from the
+very beginning, and it is they who go to make
+up the atoms of matter.</p>
+
+<p>We picture an atom of matter as a miniature
+solar system of revolving electrons.</p>
+
+<p>There is doubtless a corresponding amount
+of positive electricity, but so far we have no
+evidence of its nature.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+Before giving an account of the everyday
+duties which we perform, it may interest
+you to hear something of our early history.</p>
+
+<p>Not only have we been on the move ever
+since the beginning of this world, but some
+of us have clear recollections of this planet
+long before it was a solid body. The whole
+world was a great ball of flaming gas. I
+have heard some fellow-electrons say that
+we were attached to a greater mass of incandescent
+gas before the beginning of this
+world, but I have no personal recollections
+of it. But one thing I do remember is a
+great upheaval which caused a large mass
+of gas to become detached from our habitation.
+Without any warning a great myriad
+of our fellow-electrons were carried away
+on this smaller mass. At first this detached
+mass circled around our greater mass at very
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+close quarters, but we soon found that our
+friends were being carried farther and farther
+away, until they are now circling around this
+solid planet at a comparatively great distance.
+Man calls this detached mass <i>the moon</i>, and
+when I have heard children say in fun that
+they wish they could visit the man in the
+moon, I have longed to go and see how it
+fares with those fellow-electrons who seem
+to be separated from us in such a permanent
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>After this exciting event, which I have
+heard described as "the birth of the moon,"
+our great ball of flaming gas began to cool
+gradually. But you will be interested in what
+happened before the moon's birth. I saw a
+crowd of electrons suddenly congregate together
+along with <i>something</i> else which man
+has not discovered. Never mind the other
+part, but picture a number of electrons forming
+a little world of their own. There they
+went whirling around in a giddy dance. I
+saw these little worlds or "atoms" being
+formed all around, and I feel truly thankful
+now that I was not caught in the mad whirl,
+for these fellow-electrons have been kept
+hard at it ever since, imprisoned within a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
+single atom. I have met a very few electrons
+who have escaped from within an atom, but I
+shall tell you about them later on.</p>
+
+<p>The first thing I noticed was that each of
+the atoms had practically the same number
+of electrons in it. At that time I thought
+only in an abstract way, but since then I have
+learned that these were <i>hydrogen</i> atoms;
+hydrogen being the lightest substance known
+to man. Exactly what happened next I cannot
+recollect, but my attention was attracted
+later to larger congregations of electrons
+forming other little worlds of their own.
+These atoms were, of course, heavier than
+the hydrogen atoms. I saw quite a variety
+of different systems, of which I thought then
+in an abstract fashion, but which I know now
+to be atoms of <i>oxygen</i>, <i>nitrogen</i>, <i>carbon</i>, <i>iron</i>,
+<i>copper</i>, and so on. While man has given the
+atoms these distinguishing names, you will
+understand that the incidents which I am
+relating took place long before there was
+any appearance of solidity about our planet;
+these substances were all in a gaseous state.</p>
+
+<p>After this, I recollect that there was a
+great envelope of water-vapour condensed
+around the planet. Some condensed into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+liquid water upon the surface of the globe,
+while part was suspended in the form of
+clouds. Some of my fellow-electrons acted
+as <i>nuclei</i> or foundations for the formation
+of the cloud particles. The water which condensed
+upon the earth settled down in the
+hollows, which had been produced previously
+by the immense pressure of the water-vapour
+envelope. We can hardly believe it is the
+same world.</p>
+
+<p>You cannot imagine how strange it was
+to see the great oceans boiling and steaming;
+of course, they were fresh water then.
+I need hardly tell you that they have become
+salt only because the rivers have
+brought down sodium into them, and when
+these sodium atoms unite with chlorine atoms
+they form particles of common salt. I know
+all about this because we electrons play a
+very important part in all such combinations.</p>
+
+<p>One very memorable recollection is that
+of life originating in the oceans. I wish I
+could let you into the secret of <i>the origin
+of life</i>, but, according to the Creator's plan,
+man must find out for himself. Your guesses
+are all wide of the mark.</p>
+
+<p>By the way, perhaps I should explain why
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+I have been selected to write this biography.
+The first reason is that I am a free or detachable
+electron, and the second point in
+my favour is that I have had exceptional
+opportunities of seeing about me. I have
+heard men say that lookers-on see most of the
+game, and as I have witnessed the gradual
+evolution of things, you will understand that I
+have views of my own. A casual observer
+might think that things had deteriorated,
+for long ago there were immense monsters
+upon this planet, and these would put all
+modern creatures in the shade as far as size
+and strength are concerned. But one of
+the most interesting things to me has been
+to watch the evolution of man, and more
+especially the gradual development of his
+brain. Indeed, sometimes I have wished that
+I had happened to be an electron in the brain
+of a man; but, on the other hand, my career
+would not have been of the varied kind which
+it has been.</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h2>MAN PAYS US SOME ATTENTION</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER SIX</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Men found that by exhausting the air from
+glass globes or tubes it was possible to pass
+electric discharges through them, and in so
+doing some very beautiful luminous effects
+were produced within the vacuum tubes.</p>
+
+<p>It was when experimenting with one of
+these tubes that a scientist suggested that
+radiant particles were being shot across the
+tube.</p>
+
+<p>These particles were really electrons, but
+it was thought at that time that they were
+atoms of matter.</p>
+
+<p>Another scientist declared, from certain
+mathematical calculations, that there existed
+extremely small particles of something around
+the atoms of matter, and that it was the
+motion of these in the &aelig;ther which produced
+<i>light</i>.</p>
+
+<p>People were not willing to accept this
+theory.</p>
+
+<p>Some time later another scientist was able
+to prove by experiment that these particles
+did exist.</p>
+
+<p>This was done by means of the spectroscope,
+as will be related by the electron in a later
+chapter.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+From the little I have told you already of
+our experiences, you will see that men had
+been making many experiments in which
+we electrons took a very active part. It was
+disappointing that even although we had
+surprised man in so many different ways, he
+had never become suspicious of our presence.
+One day, however, we did begin to hope for
+recognition. I was present, with a great
+crowd of electrons, imprisoned within a glass
+globe from which the air had been extracted.
+We were very pleased to find that the surrounding
+space had been cleared of air,
+for it was apparent that the experimenter
+was going to make us jump across from one
+end of the glass tube to the other.</p>
+
+<p>A crowd of us had collected on the extremity
+of a wire, or "electrode," at the one
+end of the tube, while another similar crowd
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+was present on the other electrode at the
+opposite end of the tube. While I speak of a
+crowd, meaning that there were millions of us,
+I do not suggest that we were overcrowded,
+for we had plenty of elbow-room to move
+about on the atoms to which we were attached.
+All in a moment the scene was changed. We
+felt a crowd of electrons pressing us forward
+and forcing us right up to the very end of
+the electrode. We found that the crowd was
+approaching by a wire leading into the tube.
+Soon the crowding had reached such a condition
+that we became alarmed; we could
+see no way of escape. We were imprisoned
+by the glass walls, but we soon discovered
+that many of the electrons who had been
+stationed on the other electrode had deserted
+their posts and fled along a wire leading
+out of the tube. If we could only follow
+them. It would be a tremendous jump to
+get over to the other wire, but the way
+was fairly clear of air. When the overcrowding
+reached a certain point we were
+literally shot across from the one electrode
+to the other. This was the first time I had
+ever experienced anything of the kind, but
+many fellow-electrons had gone through
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+similar performances for years at the hands
+of other experimenters.</p>
+
+<p>However, it was somewhat alarming to be
+fired off like a rocket across the tube. What
+happened after that I cannot recollect, but
+some time later I was present in that or a
+similar tube when I heard the experimenter
+say to a friend that he believed there were
+particles flying across his tube. We sent
+news all along the line stating that at last we
+had been discovered, and I can assure you
+that we felt proud. But our joy was not
+long-lived, for it turned out that we were
+considered to be particles or atoms of matter;
+the experimenter spoke of us as "radiant
+matter." This was a real disappointment.</p>
+
+<p>It took us some time to recover from our
+disappointment at being mistaken for clumsy
+atoms of matter. We are of a higher order
+of things altogether. No atom of matter can
+travel at speeds such as we can. We cross
+these vacuum tubes with speeds equal to
+millions of miles per minute.</p>
+
+<p>A great many of us were kept busy within
+vacuum tubes by other experimenters, but
+nothing very exciting happened. Indeed, we
+had lost all hope of attracting man's attention
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+to ourselves as long as we were imprisoned
+within these tubes. In the meantime our
+hopes were revived by news which reached
+us from another quarter.</p>
+
+<p>We heard that a very learned man had
+declared boldly that there did exist little
+particles which revolved around the atoms
+of matter, and that it was the motion of
+these tiny particles in the &aelig;ther which produced
+the well-known waves of <i>light</i>. There
+was considerable rejoicing among us, for we
+were anxious to have our services recognised
+by man. This great man was not guessing
+merely; he was willing to prove by mathematical
+calculations that we did exist in
+reality. Of course, we ourselves required
+no proof of our existence, but we believed
+that man would be convinced. Our high
+hopes were soon laid low; news reached us
+that people were shaking their heads and
+saying that figures could be made to prove
+anything.</p>
+
+<p>After we had settled down to our ordinary
+duties, we got word that at last man had
+really detected us in a flame of gas. This
+seemed quite reasonable, for, as I shall relate
+to you in another chapter, we have a very
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+lively time of it in a flame of gas. However,
+when we were informed that man had discovered
+us by means of a sort of telescope
+arrangement, I, for one, began to doubt the
+truth of the discovery. Some time before
+this I had heard that men were spying at
+gas flames in the hope of finding us, and this
+seemed most ridiculous, for if man could not
+see the large congregations of us called <i>atoms</i>,
+how could he expect to see individual electrons?
+My ignorance was dispelled when it
+was explained that man had not been looking
+for us directly, but for the &aelig;ther waves which
+we produce. But I have not had an opportunity
+of explaining to you how some of us
+produce waves in the &aelig;ther; I shall have to
+wait till a later chapter. In the meantime
+I may say that since this important discovery
+I have taken some part in an experiment
+similar to the historic one wherein we were
+detected, but of that too I shall have more to
+say again.</p>
+
+<p>The rejoicing at this discovery was not confined
+to us, for men of science were quick to
+grasp the importance which was attached to
+this new knowledge. We felt that man was
+bound to acknowledge our services from that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+day. The next event was our christening,
+and this was not all plain sailing. Indeed,
+we have been rather annoyed with one name
+which some good friends persist in giving us.
+I refer to the name <i>corpuscle</i>, which we feel
+to be a sort of nickname, although it may
+have been suggested in all kindness. It may
+be difficult for you to appreciate our dislike
+to this name, but it seems to us to savour too
+much of material things. It is not dignified;
+you must remember we are not matter. We
+are delighted with what we prefer to call our
+real name&mdash;electron&mdash;for that speaks of
+electricity. As you know, we are units of
+particles of negative electricity, and so this
+seems a most sensible and suitable name.
+But I must hasten to tell of some of our
+everyday duties in which we serve man.</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h2>A STEADY MARCH</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER SEVEN</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The steady motion of electrons from atom
+to atom along a wire, or other conductor,
+constitutes the well-known "electric current."</p>
+
+<p>The moving electrons disturb the &aelig;ther
+around the wire and produce what we know
+as a "magnetic field."</p>
+
+<p>The electron explains why it is necessary
+to have a complete circuit before any electric
+current can take place.</p>
+
+<p>Also how one length of wire may be used
+to connect two distant places provided the
+two extremities of the wire are buried in
+the earth.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+Personally I knew nothing about marching
+until quite recently. Indeed, none of my
+fellow-electrons seem to have had definite
+ideas of regular marches previous to last
+century. That century is prominent in our
+history as well as in man's. There is no
+doubt that before then we must have made
+more or less regular marches through the
+crust of the earth and elsewhere; but for
+myself I have no such recollection previous
+to the following occasion.</p>
+
+<p>The experience was not a very exciting one.
+I found myself passing along from atom to
+atom in a copper wire. But what was of
+special interest to us was that it became
+evident that these enforced marches were
+being deliberately controlled by man. Of
+course you will understand that man knew
+nothing of our existence at that time. All he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+knew was that when he placed a piece of zinc
+and a piece of copper in a chemical solution,
+there were certain effects produced in some
+mysterious fashion. For instance, when he
+connected the top of the two metals in this
+chemical cell or "battery" by a piece of wire,
+he got what he described as an <i>electric
+current</i>. Now all that happened really was
+this. The chemical action in this battery
+which man had devised caused a rearrangement
+among the atoms composing the metals
+and the solution, with the result that we poor
+electrons had to rearrange our domiciles. As
+an accumulation of electrons gathered on the
+zinc, some of us were forced along the
+connecting wire towards the copper. As long
+as the chemical action in the battery was
+kept up, so long were we kept on the march
+from the zinc to the copper by way of the
+wire.</p>
+
+<p>Man tried increasing the length of this wire
+bridge across which we had to pass, but we
+had no difficulty in making our way along.
+But you must not run away with the idea
+that we rush along the wire with lightning
+speed. Although we can fly through the
+&aelig;ther at a prodigious speed, our progress
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+from atom to atom in a wire is more like a
+snail-pace. As a matter of fact, our rate of
+march is much less than the walking pace of
+a man; indeed it may be stated conveniently
+as so many yards per hour.</p>
+
+<p>Some people may find it difficult to believe
+that our rate of march is so very slow. Their
+front door is a good many yards away from
+their electric bell, but it does not take us an
+hour, or any appreciable part of a minute,
+to summon the maid. The secret is that there
+is a whole regiment of us along the wire, and
+before one of us moves on to a neighbouring
+atom, another electron must move off that
+atom and on to its neighbour, and so on. In
+this way the electrons at the far end of the
+wire commence to move at practically the
+same moment as those near the battery.</p>
+
+<p>It has been a source of amusement to me
+to see people perfectly mystified by the fact
+that they can get no electric current unless
+they have a complete circuit. What else could
+they expect? How could man march if he
+had no road to march on? You see, the reason
+for our march is that we wish to escape from
+the overcrowding on the zinc, and we are
+forced towards the copper. The atoms
+com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>posing
+the wire are our stepping-stones, and
+if there is not a complete chain of atoms we
+are helpless. You have already heard how
+we can jump an air-space under very great
+pressure, but that condition does not exist
+in the present case. When we are disturbed
+by the chemical action of the battery, we
+should prefer to have a short-cut from the
+zinc to the copper, but if the only path man
+gives us is by way of a long wire, then we
+must be content to travel that road, in order
+to reach the copper. It is a matter of little
+moment to us what arrangement man makes
+as long as he gives us a complete path. For
+instance, he may lead us out from the zinc
+to a distant telegraph instrument, and then,
+instead of providing a second wire to take
+us back to the battery, he may conduct us
+by a short wire to the earth. We are quite
+content to lose ourselves in this great reservoir,
+provided man places another short
+wire from the earth to the copper of the
+battery at the other end of the line. Then
+as we slip off at the one end of the line, an
+equal number of electrons can climb up at
+the other end, and thus enable all our friends
+in the long wire to keep up a steady march.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+This march of ours is not merely a means
+of transporting ourselves from one place to
+another; it is to enable us to do work. It
+is only when we are in motion that we can
+do useful work, for we must move before
+we can disturb the &aelig;ther, and it is by means
+of the &aelig;ther that we transmit energy.</p>
+
+<p>If you place a magnetic needle or mariner's
+compass near a wire along which we are
+making a steady march, you will find that
+we can affect our fellow-electrons who are
+stationed within the magnetic needle. We
+cause the needle to swing round and take up
+a position at right angles to our line of
+march. We succeed in doing this because
+these electrons in the magnetic needle are
+on the move also. But this reminds me that
+I have never told you how we produce that
+&aelig;ther disturbance which you call <i>magnetism</i>.</p>
+
+<p>When, as children, you played with toy
+magnets in the nursery, little did you think
+that there was a host of tiny electrons amusing
+you. And yet we electrons are responsible
+entirely for all magnetic effects, as I shall
+proceed to explain.</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h2>A USEFUL DANCE</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER EIGHT</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>We believe magnetism to be due to electrons
+revolving around atoms of iron and other magnetic
+substances, as related by the electron in
+this chapter.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that the steady motion of
+electrons along a wire produces a magnetic
+field around the wire.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore if we have electrons revolving
+round and round the atoms in a piece of iron,
+there will be a miniature magnetic field around
+each atom.</p>
+
+<p>The electron explains why a piece of iron
+does not show the magnetic power locked
+up within it until it is "magnetised."</p>
+
+<p>The electron refers to electro-magnets; an
+electro-magnet is simply a piece of soft iron
+with a coil of insulated wire wound around it.</p>
+
+<p>The iron only shows its magnetic power as
+long as a current of electricity is kept passing
+through the surrounding coil of wire, for
+reasons which the electron explains.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+I may tell you quite frankly that I have
+never taken part in the perpetual dance of
+which I am about to tell you. I am of a
+free and roaming disposition, but I have often
+watched some of my fellow-electrons at this
+work. Of course, it is pleasant work, as all
+our duties are, now that man acknowledges
+our services.</p>
+
+<p>We are responsible for the behaviour of
+the mariner's compass needle. It is we who
+cause it to point continually in one definite
+direction. If we ceased to dance around the
+iron atoms in the compass needle aboard a
+ship, the man at the helm could not tell in
+what direction he was going, and sooner
+or later he would be almost certain to
+wreck his vessel. For this service alone
+man ought to be grateful to us, but before I
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+have finished my story, you will find that
+even this important duty is but a small affair
+when compared with many of our other
+tasks.</p>
+
+<p>There is one matter I should like to make
+quite clear to you. Although we electrons
+are all identical, we have different stations
+to fill. You have doubtless become familiar
+with my roving disposition, and you probably
+think of me as a detachable electron. Then
+there are our friends who are locked up within
+the atoms of matter&mdash;part and parcel of the
+atom. And now I am introducing you to
+those electrons who act as satellites to the
+atoms, revolving around them at a comparatively
+great distance, just as the moon revolves
+around the earth. These are the electrons
+which give rise to the magnetism in a piece
+of iron. There are other electrons which
+perform very rapid revolutions around all
+classes of atoms, but I shall introduce these
+friends later on.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="position: relative; width: 500px;">
+  <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"><!--[Pg 79]--></a></span>
+  <a href="images/figp79-800.jpg">
+    <img src="images/figp79-400.jpg"
+    width="324" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a>
+  <p class="smcap bold center">A Tobacco-Tin Defying Gravitation</p>
+
+  <p>That phenomenon known as "magnetism" is due to the steady
+  locomotion of electrons, as explained in the text. Here we see a
+  large magnet attracting a tinned iron box which is tethered to
+  the table by two cords. The result is that the box is supported
+  in the air. The spiral wires are connected to the electro-magnet,
+  an explanation of which is given in
+  <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">Chapter VIII</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>I need hardly remark that a piece of ordinary
+iron does not behave like a magnet. Indeed,
+it is fortunate that it does not. If it did,
+man could not get along with his work very
+well. The hammer would stick to the head
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+of the nail it had struck, the fire-irons
+would stick to the fender, while the cook's
+pots and pans would hold on to the kitchen
+range. That would be a very stupid arrangement,
+but we electrons have really no say
+in the matter of arrangement. We are
+always on the move, performing a perpetual
+dance around the iron atoms, but the atoms
+arrange themselves in a higgledy-piggledy
+fashion, so that the electrons on one atom
+pull the &aelig;ther in one direction while others
+pull the &aelig;ther in an opposite direction. In
+this way the outward effect is not perceptible.
+When, however, man places a coil of wire
+around the iron, and makes a crowd of
+electrons march along the wire, these marching
+electrons affect the &aelig;ther, which in turn
+influences the satellite electrons which are
+revolving around the atoms of iron. You
+may be somewhat surprised when I tell you
+that, owing to this &aelig;ther disturbance, these
+satellite electrons are able to produce a rearrangement
+among the atoms. If you doubt
+my word, you may easily prove the truth
+of the statement. If you magnetise a
+long bar of iron you will find that its
+length is actually altered. This is due to our
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+having disturbed the arrangement of the
+atoms.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps I should explain that when we
+force the atoms into their new condition, we
+can do so only under the &aelig;ther stress set
+up by our fellow-electrons who are marching
+in the neighbouring wire. Whenever their
+march ceases the &aelig;ther stress is withdrawn,
+and the atoms are able to fall back into
+their old higgledy-piggledy condition. In
+this way man is able to make a piece of
+iron a magnet and to unmake it as often
+as he cares by simply switching on and off
+the electric current from the wire surrounding
+the iron.</p>
+
+<p>If a piece of hard steel is used in place of
+soft iron, then we find that the atoms are not
+so easily disturbed, but when they are once
+brought into line with one another, they will
+remain in their new condition after the &aelig;ther
+disturbance has been withdrawn. It may
+seem strange to you that quite a small percentage
+of carbon atoms added to the pure
+soft iron should cause such a marked difference,
+but the matter seems plain enough
+to us. Man was so impressed with the
+manner in which the atoms were evidently
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+fixed in their new condition that he spoke
+of <i>permanent magnets</i>. It is especially fortunate
+for man that these pieces of steel do
+retain their magnetism, and give us a reliable
+mariner's compass. But I shall tell you how
+you may disturb even these sedate atoms.
+If you hammer the metal very vigorously,
+or if you heat it to redness, you will find
+that the atoms have been freed from what
+appeared to be their permanent position,
+and they are back to their old higgledy-piggledy
+condition, so that we electrons are
+all opposing one another. Remember we
+are hard at work all the time although we
+may be giving no outward sign of our
+activity.</p>
+
+<p>While we render an important aid to man
+by providing this permanent magnet for his
+compass, you will find that a very great deal
+of our assistance to man in his everyday
+life depends upon our behaviour in soft iron
+electro-magnets. It is in these that man
+can control our behaviour at will. It is
+through this simple piece of apparatus&mdash;the
+electro-magnet&mdash;that man has been able to
+accomplish so much in signalling to his friends
+at a distance. It is also by means of these
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+electro-magnets that man can get us to turn
+an electric motor, and so on. But I must
+tell you, first of all, how we enable man to
+signal to a distance, or, in other words, how
+we carry man's news.</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h2>HOW WE CARRY MAN'S NEWS</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER NINE</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The electron explains wherein its method
+differs from all other methods.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known that within recent years
+the old iron telegraph wires have been
+replaced by much lighter copper wires; the
+electron explains the reason for this change.</p>
+
+<p>It describes how the electrons manage to
+work the most widely used form of telegraph
+instrument, which is called the "Morse," after
+its inventor.</p>
+
+<p>Here we find one of the practical applications
+of the electro-magnet described in the
+preceding chapter.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+It is we electrons who have so very far outdistanced
+all material carriers of news. You
+must acknowledge that the best runner, the
+swiftest horse, the fastest express train, and
+the prize carrier pigeon, are all nowhere when
+compared with us electrons.</p>
+
+<p>But I do not wish to mislead you in any way,
+and I can speak from personal experience in
+this case. We do not race off with man's
+messages in the same sense as these other
+messengers do. Our swiftness of communication
+depends upon the simple fact that man
+provides a whole connecting regiment of us
+between the two distant places. And when
+the order to march is given we all move off at
+practically the same moment. In this way
+the electrons at the far end of the connecting
+wire are able to cause signals there immediately.
+This is the secret of man's success in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+being able to hold immediate communication
+with his distant friends. His success is due
+entirely to the co-operation of us electrons.</p>
+
+<p>My personal experience has been in connection
+with a very simple telegraphic
+arrangement. Indeed, the most of our duties
+in transmitting messages are performed with
+this particular kind of instrument, known as
+a "Morse sounder."</p>
+
+<p>At the time of which I speak, I had become
+attached to an atom of iron in the end of a
+long telegraph wire. From this you will
+probably guess that my experience was gained
+some time ago, for man does not use iron
+wires nowadays in fitting up telegraph lines.
+He used iron at first, and some of these lines
+still exist, but when he discovered that a very
+much lighter copper wire would serve the
+same purpose, he discarded the heavy iron
+wires. Man explained the matter by saying
+that the copper offered less resistance to the
+electric current, and the majority of people
+were quite satisfied with this kind of explanation.
+Of course these are merely convenient
+phrases which give man no real
+reason for the difference. The real reason is
+that we electrons are able to move about
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+from one copper atom to another with very
+much greater ease than we can among the
+iron atoms. That is the reason why man
+made the change from iron to copper wires,
+although he had no idea of the reason at the
+time.</p>
+
+<p>To return to my experience in connection
+with a telegraph instrument, I found that
+we were being subjected to a series of forced
+marches. The whole regiment of electrons
+along the line made a forward move. The
+line of march ended in a short length of fine
+wire wound around a piece of soft iron to
+form an electro-magnet. The end of the wire
+dipped into the earth, as I have explained
+in an earlier chapter.</p>
+
+<p>Now all that we electrons had to do was
+to make a forward move, halt, forward again,
+another halt, and so on. Sometimes the
+signal to halt was longer in being given than
+at other times, but we found that this was
+intentional, and that there were two definite
+lengths of march. I have explained already
+how we marching electrons cause an electro-magnet
+to attract a piece of iron and let it
+go again as soon as we cease marching.
+It only remains for me to give you a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+general statement of how we work the Morse
+telegraph.</p>
+
+<p>Man has arranged a little lever with an
+iron end-piece immediately above the electro-magnet,
+so that the magnet may attract it.
+Of course you are aware that it is the electrons
+within the soft-iron core of the electro-magnet
+who produce the magnetic effect.
+Every time we electrons in the surrounding
+wire make a forward move, the electro-magnet
+pulls down the end of the little lever referred
+to. As long as we keep marching, so long
+will the end of the lever remain down, but
+the moment we halt, the lever is free to be
+pulled up by a spring attached to it. The
+movements of the lever indicate the length
+of our long and short marches, and it is by
+means of these that man sends signals. All
+that he does is to control our march, by means
+of an electric push and a battery at one end
+of the wire, and it is we who produce the
+signals at the distant end of the wire. Each
+time man presses the push we move the
+distant lever. When we pull the lever down
+it is so arranged that it makes a sound like
+"click," and when we let it spring up against
+a stop it makes another sound not unlike
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+"clack." Our long and short marches are
+therefore converted into long and short "click-clacks."
+Man has made a simple code of
+signals representing his alphabet, and right
+merrily do we rap out the signals for which
+we receive orders at the distant end of the
+wire, while some one at the other end listens
+to the sounds we cause to be made.</p>
+
+<p>I have told you enough of our duties to
+let you see how we are able to carry man's
+news from one part of the earth to any other
+part. By far the greatest part of our signalling
+work is done with this simple Morse
+sounder.</p>
+
+<p>It may interest you to note that we can
+produce those signals far faster than man
+can read them. When man found this out
+he took advantage of our powers. He made
+an automatic transmitter which could manipulate
+the make-and-break of the battery current
+far more rapidly than any human fingers
+could do. Then as we rapped off the signals
+with lightning speed at the distant end, he
+attached a little ink-wheel to the end of
+the moving lever, so that it could mark short
+and long strokes on a ribbon of paper passing
+close to it. Although man could not
+dis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>tinguish
+the signals by his ear he was able
+to read the record of those we caused to
+be left upon the paper ribbon.</p>
+
+<p>We have been made to work many other
+forms of telegraph instruments. In some of
+these we control type-letters, while in others
+we imitate handwriting, but all these are
+merely adaptations of our powers of marching.
+We are proud of our achievements in rapid
+signalling, which all right-thinking people
+have not been slow to acknowledge.</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h2>HOW WE COMMUNICATE WITH DISTANT SHIPS</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER TEN</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In this chapter the electron deals with
+that modern marvel&mdash;<i>Wireless Telegraphy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Here the &aelig;ther of space plays a very
+prominent part.</p>
+
+<p>The author has given some particulars
+about the &aelig;ther in the first chapter (<i>What
+the Story is about</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In conjunction with that, the electron may
+be left to tell its own story.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+Our duties in this case are totally different
+from those of which I have been telling
+you. While we electrons can do many wonderful
+things, we cannot march through space.
+We may be fired off like bullets from the
+sun to the earth, but that is quite another
+matter. I shall have something to say about
+that fact later on. You have seen already
+that man can make us jump only a very short
+distance, even when he has cleared our path
+of the obstructing air, as he does in a vacuum
+tube.</p>
+
+<p>If men were to provide us with a complete
+path of metal atoms from the shore to the
+ship, we could set to work upon the simple
+plan which I have described in the preceding
+chapter. But, needless to say, man has more
+sense than to attempt to keep up metallic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+connection with a ship going away out to
+sea.</p>
+
+<p>Even the wisest men were surprised when
+they heard that we electrons could signal
+through space to great distances without any
+connecting wires. We ourselves were not
+surprised. Had we not been doing this very
+thing from the foundation of the world? Our
+fellow-electrons in the sun have never ceased
+to communicate with those of us upon the
+earth. Of course I am referring at present
+to those &aelig;ther waves which man calls <i>heat</i>
+and <i>light</i>. But the waves which we make
+to carry man's messages through space are
+of the very same nature, the only difference
+being that they are much longer, or, in other
+words, much farther apart. They do not
+follow each other so closely, and they do
+not affect the eye or the sense of touch.
+However, these long waves are able to bestir
+some of us electrons who are situated at a
+great distance from the sending electrons.</p>
+
+<p>Our method of producing such waves in
+the &aelig;ther is by surging to and fro from
+atom to atom in an upright wire. When
+we make a rapid to-and-fro motion we
+send out great waves in the &aelig;ther. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+original plan adopted by man was to make
+us jump across a spark-gap, but in this case
+also it was our rapid oscillation to and fro
+that produced the waves. If we wish the
+waves to carry to a great distance, we must
+club together in considerable force to supply
+the necessary energy. The energy which we
+can get from a battery and induction coil is
+not sufficient for any very long distances. In
+such cases we require the aid of a <i>dynamo</i>,
+a machine about which I shall have some
+experience to relate in another chapter.</p>
+
+<p>In communicating through space, our position
+is very similar to that of two men shouting
+to one another over a distance. The one
+man disturbs the air, thus sending air-waves
+(sound) over to his friend, and these waves produce
+certain sensations which he can interpret.
+I should like you to understand that we
+electrons are upon a higher plane than atoms
+of matter. We cause waves in the all-pervading
+&aelig;ther, not among clumsy particles of
+air. After these &aelig;ther waves have travelled
+enormous distances they retain sufficient
+energy to disturb electrons situated at the
+distant place.</p>
+
+<p>I shall tell you of the first experience I
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+had in this connection. I found myself
+attached to an atom of <i>nickel</i>, a kind of atom
+which looks to us electrons very much like
+an iron atom, because it has nearly the same
+number of electrons composing it, only they
+are arranged differently. But I was telling
+you that I found myself on this nickel atom
+sealed up in a small glass tube. Of course
+there were myriads of similar atoms all
+around me, but I did not feel very happy.
+I was being urged forward, and yet I could
+not get across from some atoms to others,
+for the nickel was in the form of loose
+filings. From past experience I knew that
+there was a battery along the line somewhere;
+I could feel the strain. All of a
+sudden I was startled to find that I could
+move forward. Exactly what happened, I
+am not at liberty to tell, but this much I
+may say, that it was the arrival of some
+&aelig;ther waves which altered the condition of
+things among the filings in the tube.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="position: relative; width: 500px;">
+  <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"><!--[Pg 99]--></a></span>
+  <a href="images/figp99-800.jpg">
+    <img src="images/figp99-400.jpg"
+    width="310" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a>
+  <p class="smcap bold center">A Motor-Car with Wireless Telegraph</p>
+
+  <p>It has become quite a fashion in America to have motor-cars
+  fitted up for wireless telegraphy. That the electrons play an
+  important part in telegraphing through space is explained fully
+  in <a href="#CHAPTER_X">Chapter X</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We had just started out on our march
+forward when we received such a shaking
+that we found ourselves in the same isolated
+positions as at first; we could not get across
+from one particle to another. More &aelig;ther
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+waves arrived, we made a fresh start, then
+came another rude shaking, and so on we
+went starting and stopping. Indeed, it was
+the regularity of these long and short marches
+that gave me the first idea that we were
+being controlled by some telegraph operator.
+We were amused to find that the rude
+shaking, of which I have been telling you,
+was caused by the action of some of our
+fellow-electrons. Some of them in their
+march around an electro-magnet in the receiving
+instrument caused a little lever to
+knock against our tube and give us a sudden
+jolt.</p>
+
+<p>I should like you to notice that the energy
+with which we moved the telegraph instrument
+did not come from the distant station.
+It was a local battery which worked the receiving
+instrument, but this battery was controlled
+by the incoming &aelig;ther waves affecting
+the tube of filings. There is really no mystery
+about the matter, but I am anxious not to
+take credit for anything more wonderful
+than we have actually accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>We electrons have rendered a very great
+service to man by enabling him to communicate
+with his friends who are far out
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
+on the ocean, and cut off from all possible
+chance of material communication. We are
+willing to serve man on land also, though
+we very much prefer the ordinary marching
+arrangement if he will provide a connecting
+wire. The fact is that we find it very much
+more difficult to send &aelig;ther waves over land
+than we do over water.</p>
+
+<p>I have heard some men ask how many
+different telegraph instruments may be worked
+at one place simultaneously without confusion.
+That is a question for man himself to
+answer. We electrons are able to produce
+any variety of waves of different frequency
+or length; it remains only for man to construct
+apparatus that will respond only to a
+definite rate of waves. I hear that man has
+made considerable progress in tuning the
+wireless instruments.</p>
+
+<p>Some men are eager to get us to carry
+messages through space across the great
+oceans from shore to shore. We shall not
+refuse, provided man supplies sufficient energy,
+but I must admit that we electrons prefer the
+submarine cable. Of course man may put this
+down to our laziness; we certainly prefer as
+little severe straining as possible.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+I have been telling you of my earliest and
+only personal experience in connection with
+space telegraphy. I understand that greatly
+improved methods have been adopted since
+that time, but I have never happened to
+drift in their direction.</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h2>HOW WE REPRODUCE SPEECH</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER ELEVEN</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In the first part of this chapter the electron
+explains the part it plays in ordinary
+telephony.</p>
+
+<p>The reader will picture the transmitting
+instrument at the one end of the line influencing
+the receiving instrument at the
+distant end.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of the chapter the electron
+turns its attention to the newer subject
+of <i>wireless telephony</i>, which has been accomplished
+now over a distance of several hundred
+miles.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
+My scribe suggested a rather clumsy title
+for this chapter&mdash;"Electrons <i>versus</i> atoms
+as carriers of speech." I expect he made
+this suggestion without much thought, for
+there are two serious objections to such a
+title.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, we are not carriers of
+speech. We are controlled by speech at one
+end of the telephone line, and we make a reproduction
+of the speech at the distant end
+of the line. No sound passes between the
+two places; there is only a movement of
+electrons along the connecting line.</p>
+
+<p>My second objection to the hurriedly suggested
+title is that it is hardly fair to make
+any comparison between the achievements
+of atoms of matter and those of ourselves.
+We are not in the same category as atoms.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+Besides, we electrons are dependent entirely
+upon the material atoms for making our
+work useful to man. For instance, we might
+keep on making waves in the &aelig;ther for all
+time, and yet if the atoms of matter were
+to pay no heed to those imperceptible waves,
+man would never be aware of their presence.
+Indeed we electrons act solely as go-betweens.
+On the other hand, it is only fair to ourselves
+to point out that a group of atoms in one
+town could never communicate with a group
+of atoms in a distant town unless we electrons
+came to their aid. It is true that over
+a very short distance the atoms may communicate
+directly. For instance, if a heavy
+blow is given to a large gong, the atoms of
+metal may vibrate so energetically that they
+succeed in disturbing the atoms of gas of the
+surrounding atmosphere for some considerable
+distance. But in the case of speech,
+the speaker cannot supply any great energy,
+so that he can disturb the atmosphere only
+to a very limited distance. We electrons,
+however, can do yeoman service in this
+respect. We have enabled men to speak
+to one another over immense distances.</p>
+
+<p>The whole affair is very simple. Man
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+speaks and causes the atmospheric atoms
+to vibrate and impinge upon a light disc
+or diaphragm in a simple instrument which
+man has named the <i>telephone</i>. This vibrating
+disc presses upon a myriad of carbon particles
+contained in a small case or box, the disc
+forming one side of the box. When these
+carbon particles are pressed together we
+electrons can get across more easily from
+atom to atom. There is a battery urging
+us forward, but our motion is dependent
+entirely upon the manner in which the
+vibrating disc presses upon the carbon particles.
+I cannot describe our movement in
+the line-wire as a march; it is in reality a
+surging to and fro.</p>
+
+<p>You will understand that this to-and-fro
+motion of the electrons in the line-wire
+varies according to the vibrations of the sending
+disc, which is controlled by the speaker's
+voice. At the distant end of the line we
+electrons bring our magnetic powers into
+action. We keep varying the attractive
+powers of an electro-magnet, according to
+the motion of the electrons in the wire.
+This ever-changing magnet produces vibrations
+in an iron disc which is fixed close to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+the magnet. This disc is set vibrating in
+exact sympathy with the sending disc. When
+the listener places this receiving disc close to
+his ear, the vibrations are carried by the
+atmospheric atoms to his hearing apparatus.
+All that we electrons have done is to cause
+one disc to vibrate in exact synchrony with
+another distant disc. But that is all that
+is required, for the receiving disc will reproduce
+similar air-vibrations to those set
+up by the man's voice at the distant place.
+I have pointed out already that we do not
+attempt to carry the sound. It is true that
+the atoms of matter do the hard work, but
+it is we electrons who enable a group of
+atoms in one town to communicate with a
+group of atoms in a distant town.</p>
+
+<p>It was natural that as soon as man found
+that he could work his telegraph instruments
+without the aid of connecting wires, he should
+try to do the same with his telephone instruments.
+We were sorry when we found men
+trying to use the original spark-telegraphy
+methods for telephones. While we had no
+difficulty in operating a telegraph instrument
+by means of &aelig;ther waves and the tube of filings,
+it was quite impossible for us to produce
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+telephone vibrations on the same principle.
+This spark method was a too rough-and-ready
+plan. The waves we produced
+were like sudden splashes in the &aelig;ther
+ocean, whereas we knew that we must produce
+regular trains of continuous waves in
+order to reproduce telephone vibrations.
+However, you may be aware that we have
+succeeded by a different arrangement of
+apparatus. Indeed it may interest you to
+know that one of my most recent experiences
+has been in connection with some
+wireless-telephone experiments.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately I was not in a very favourable
+position to learn all that was going on,
+but it was quite exciting work. I happened
+to be attached to an atom of copper in a
+length of wire which had been run up into
+the air on a sort of flag-pole arrangement.
+I need hardly say that I was not alone, for
+by this time you will have become accustomed
+to picture myriads of electrons occupying
+a very small space.</p>
+
+<p>We were set vibrating to and fro with
+tremendous energy, but what bothered me
+most was the great variation in our movements.
+It was the nature of these variations
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
+which gave me the clue that we were being
+controlled by the vibrations of a telephone
+disc. I can tell you we did make a complex
+series of waves in the surrounding &aelig;ther!
+These waves went out through space and
+influenced some electrons stationed at a great
+distance. When these electrons at the receiving
+station were set in motion they
+controlled the electric current from a local
+battery which set a second telephone disc
+vibrating in synchrony with the one at the
+sending station.</p>
+
+<p>On questioning some of my fellow-electrons
+who happened to have been nearer the transmitting
+part of the instrument than I had
+been, I got some interesting information.
+They tell me that there was a dynamo and
+an arc lamp in our circuit, while the telephone
+instrument was in a neighbouring
+circuit. The electrons surging to and fro in
+the telephone circuit influenced those energetic
+electrons in the arc-lamp circuit to which the
+&aelig;rial wire was attached. You see that my
+position in the &aelig;rial wire was not a very
+advantageous one for observing what was
+taking place.</p>
+
+<p>This was truly a great achievement&mdash;to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
+enable one man to speak to another distant
+hundreds of miles, and without the aid of
+any connecting wire. I think you will agree
+with me that we have excelled all past records
+in the world of wonders.</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<h2>OUR HEAVIEST DUTIES</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER TWELVE</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Here the electron explains its behaviour
+in a dynamo at work.</p>
+
+<p>The principle of the dynamo was discovered
+by Faraday in the thirties of last century.</p>
+
+<p>He found that when a coil of wire was
+moved through a magnetic field, there was a
+current of electricity induced in the moving
+coil.</p>
+
+<p>Experimental machines were constructed,
+and after a while a practical dynamo was
+evolved.</p>
+
+<p>Wires are attached to a dynamo and the
+electric current is led out.</p>
+
+<p>This current may be conducted to a distant
+tramway car, and, by sending the current
+through an electric motor, mechanical motion
+is produced and the car propelled along.</p>
+
+<p>An electric motor is practically the same
+as a dynamo, but instead of turning its coil
+round in order to produce an electric current,
+we pass a current into the coil and it moves
+round. It will be sufficient to leave the
+electron to tell its own story.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
+This is another of those roving commissions
+in which I have been privileged to take part
+on more than one occasion.</p>
+
+<p>If you think of the giant size of an electric
+tramway car or a railway train, and try to
+compare one of these with an electron, such
+as your humble servant, it will seem quite
+ridiculous that I should suggest that it is
+we electrons who move those huge vehicles.
+Yet such is the actual case.</p>
+
+<p>Of course we require the application of
+very considerable power to urge us to so
+heavy a task. All the energy which we can
+get from a few electric batteries might enable
+us to drive a toy car, but when it comes to
+turning the wheels of a real car or train, we
+require a correspondingly greater amount of
+energy.</p>
+
+<p>I may as well tell you quite frankly that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+we electrons are only the intermediaries or
+go-betweens. Indeed, you must have noticed
+that in every case we act merely as a connecting
+link between matter and the &aelig;ther, and
+between the &aelig;ther and matter.</p>
+
+<p>But what I want to tell you of, is the part
+we play in moving an electric car or railway
+train. It is really all very simple if you could
+only see it from our standpoint. Picture a
+host of us attached to copper atoms in a coil
+of wire which is being moved through that
+disturbed &aelig;ther called a <i>magnetic field</i>. We
+are set in motion immediately. It is true
+that when we are moved forward into the
+field we march off in one direction, only to
+be arrested and made to move off in the
+opposite direction as we leave the field, but
+it really makes no difference in our working
+capabilities as long as we are kept on the
+move. This is what is actually taking place
+in the armature of a dynamo as it revolves
+between the poles of the electro-magnet.
+There is no peace for us so long as the coil
+is kept revolving; we are kept in a constant
+state of rapid to-and-fro motion.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="position: relative; width: 500px;">
+  <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"><!--[Pg 119]--></a></span>
+  <a href="images/figp119-800.jpg">
+    <img src="images/figp119-400.jpg"
+    width="306" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a>
+  <p>
+  <small><i>By permission of Siemens Schuckert Werke</i>
+  <span class="ralign"><i>Berlin</i></span></small>
+  </p>
+
+  <p class="smcap bold center">A Train Impelled by Moving Electrons</p>
+
+  <p>It is remarkable that the motion of electrons in an electric
+  conductor can result in the movement of heavy vehicles. How this
+  comes about is explained in <a href="#CHAPTER_XII">Chapter XII</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is all we electrons do in a dynamo,
+but when the ends of the outer circuit or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+mains are brought into contact with the
+ends of our revolving coil, we set the electrons
+in the mains surging to and fro in step with
+ourselves. Man describes this motion of the
+electrons in the mains as an <i>alternating electric
+current</i>, but by a simple commutator on the
+dynamo he may arrange that we set the
+electrons marching in one direction in the
+mains. This he describes as a <i>direct electric
+current</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is a matter of indifference to us whether
+man drives our coil round by means of a
+steam-engine, a water-wheel, or a wind-mill;
+all that we electrons want is to be kept
+surging or vibrating to and fro. Now you
+will be able to appreciate how we electrons
+get up sufficient motion to enable us to perform
+what I have described as <i>our heaviest
+duties</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps you will find it difficult to believe
+me when I tell you that as we march along
+the connecting wire to a distant tramway
+car we transmit the energy through the
+surrounding &aelig;ther, and not through the
+wire. This is our mode of working in every
+case, whether it be an electric bell, a telegraph,
+or telephone. That is to say, while
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+we electrons move from atom to atom in
+the connecting wire, it is the disturbed
+&aelig;ther surrounding us which transmits the
+energy. You must have realised by this
+time how very intimate is the relationship
+between ourselves and the &aelig;ther.</p>
+
+<p>To return to the tale of our tramway work,
+you will picture my fellow-electrons aboard
+the car being energised by the incoming
+current. Those electrons present in the
+armature coil of the motor are set into
+motion, as also are those in the wire of the
+neighbouring electro-magnet. The result is
+that these two sets of electrons so disturb
+the &aelig;ther and affect one another that the
+coil is moved round into a different position.
+You will remember the experiment of which
+I told you, in which a magnetic needle would
+insist always in taking up a position at right
+angles to a wire in which an electric current
+is passing. Well, when the motor coil has
+turned into its new position, we electrons
+receive an impulse from our friends in the
+line-wire which causes us to retrace our steps
+in the coil. This action of ours causes the
+coil to make a further movement in the
+same direction as at first. Again we change
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+our direction of march, and again the coil
+changes its position towards the electro-magnet.
+The sole duty of these electrons in
+the armature coil is to keep surging to and
+fro, while those electrons in the electro-magnet
+keep up a steady march in one direction.
+This arrangement necessitates the
+armature coil to keep changing its position
+continually, and when we have the armature
+coil spinning round at a steady pace, it is
+easy for man to connect the armature to
+the axles of the tramway car and cause us
+to drive the wheels round.</p>
+
+<p>I need hardly say that it makes no difference
+to us whether we are asked to drive a tramway
+car, a railway train, or a host of machines
+in a factory or workshop. All that we
+electrons in the motor require is to have
+sufficient energy passed along to us from our
+fellows in the distant dynamo. Again I
+admit frankly that the atoms of matter play
+a very important part in these our heaviest
+duties, but you will see that without our
+active assistance they could not transmit the
+necessary energy to a distant car or train.</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+
+<h2>A BOON TO MAN</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER THIRTEEN</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>While it has been known for a long time
+that <i>light</i> and <i>radiant heat</i> are merely waves
+in the &aelig;ther, it was not known until recently
+how these waves were produced.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery of electrons has given us a
+reasonable solution of our difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>The electron explains the actions of its
+fellows in this great work of producing light
+and heat.</p>
+
+<p>Incidentally the electron explains how they
+produce an aurora in the heavens, and how
+it is that the earth has become a negatively
+electrified body.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
+Every living thing is dependent upon our
+activities. It is we electrons who send out
+heat and light from the sun, and it is we
+who receive these on their arrival upon this
+planet. Our action in the matter is really
+very simple, but until man discovered our
+existence, he was mystified considerably.</p>
+
+<p>We were amused to hear man say that
+the atoms of incandescent matter in the
+sun produced waves in the &aelig;ther, and that
+when these &aelig;ther waves fell upon other
+atoms on this planet, these were set into a
+state of vibration, thus producing heat and
+light. Now if man had only stopped to think,
+he would have seen how ridiculous it was
+to speak of atoms of matter producing waves
+in the &aelig;ther. He ought to have known that
+atoms of matter cannot affect the &aelig;ther,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+for it offers no resistance to matter moving
+through it.</p>
+
+<p>Man might have pictured himself riding
+on the back of this great planet, flying through
+space at a speed very similar to that of a
+rifle bullet, and yet even the flimsy blanket
+of air surrounding the planet is not disturbed
+by the &aelig;ther through which it is
+rushing.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that the atoms of matter play an
+important part in the origin of heat, but the
+atoms in the sun could no more affect the
+atoms on the earth than could a man on the
+earth push the moon about. It is the very
+intimate connection between us electrons and
+the all-pervading &aelig;ther which enables our
+fellows in the sun to communicate with those
+of us upon this planet. Where would man be
+without us?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="position: relative; width: 500px;">
+  <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"><!--[Pg 129]--></a></span>
+  <a href="images/figp129-800.jpg">
+    <img src="images/figp129-400.jpg"
+    width="275" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a>
+  <p>
+  <small><i>By permission of Siemens Schuckert Werke</i>
+  <span class="ralign"><i>Berlin</i></span></small>
+  </p>
+
+  <p class="smcap bold center">Protection Against a Discharge of Electrons</p>
+
+  <p>When a man is encased completely in an over-all made of flexible
+  metallic gauze he is proof against shock due to a discharge of
+  high-tension electricity. The part played by electrons in the
+  case of electric shock is explained in <a href="#CHAPTER_IV">Chapter
+  IV</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>I cannot understand wherein man should
+find any mystery in connection with this very
+simple action of ours. You will picture our
+distant fellow-electrons making very rapid
+revolutions around the atoms of matter to
+which they are attached as satellites. Just
+as the moon circles around the earth, so do
+we circle around our atoms, but at an
+enor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>mously
+greater speed. Of course the whole
+length of our orbit is inconceivably small, and
+the speed of our revolutions is inconceivably
+great. It is our rapid motion through the
+&aelig;ther which produces those waves known to
+man as radiant heat and light. Some one
+may ask how it is that we electrons can
+disturb the &aelig;ther while the giant atoms
+cannot. The obvious answer is that we are
+not matter, but electricity; we are not in the
+same category as atoms of matter.</p>
+
+<p>To complete the picture which I was drawing,
+you have only to think of the &aelig;ther
+waves arriving upon this planet and disturbing
+sympathetic electrons, causing them
+to revolve around their atoms in similar
+fashion to our distant fellows who are producing
+the &aelig;ther waves.</p>
+
+<p>It may be that some people get confused
+between this action and that of those electrons
+who are shot off bodily from the sun towards
+the earth. Believe me, there is no connection
+between the two things. The stream
+of electrons shot off from the sun is deflected
+towards the magnetic poles of the earth, and
+as the electrons enter the upper layers of
+the atmosphere they produce that beautiful
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
+luminous effect which man describes as an
+<i>Aurora</i>.</p>
+
+<p>I have never taken part in one of these
+great displays, for, as far as my recollection
+goes, I have never been in the sun, although
+some fellow-electrons declare that at one time
+we were all in the same great glowing mass
+of which the sun, and every member of the
+solar system, formed a part. However that
+may be, I certainly have no experience of
+auror&aelig;, but I have assisted in producing the
+very same effect upon a small scale within a
+vacuum tube. The air remaining in these
+so-called vacuum tubes is just as rarified as
+the air in the upper layers of the atmosphere,
+and when we are shot across the tube we
+act in the same way as those electrons
+arriving upon this planet from the sun.</p>
+
+<p>You will observe that as a surplus of electrons
+arrives upon the earth from the sun,
+the earth is naturally a negatively electrified
+body, but I need hardly say that the earth
+does not keep all the electrons which arrive
+upon it.</p>
+
+<p>My scribe points out that I am wandering
+from the story which I set out to tell in
+this chapter, so I shall try and please him.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
+The direct cause of light, whether it be
+natural or artificial, is the rapid motion of
+electrons around atoms of matter. If they
+revolve at a comparatively slow speed they
+produce those &aelig;ther waves which man calls
+<i>radiant heat</i>. If these satellite electrons, however,
+desire to affect the eye of man, they
+have to move around at a very much greater
+speed. If we travel at too fast a speed, then
+we cease to cause the sensation of light. But,
+believe me, all the waves we make are of
+the same nature, no matter what names man
+has given them. The only difference we can
+make in the waves is the rate at which they
+follow one another. Of course we can also
+make them larger or smaller in height, or, in
+other words, of greater or less amplitude, but
+that does not affect their properties.</p>
+
+<p>In the following chapter I shall tell you
+of some remarkable phenomena which our
+different &aelig;ther waves produce in the brain
+of man.</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+
+<h2>HOW WE PRODUCE COLOUR</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER FOURTEEN</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Colour is merely a sensation in the brain.</p>
+
+<p>What the electrons really produce are
+&aelig;ther waves, and these give rise to the sensations
+of colour.</p>
+
+<p>However, the electrons may claim to produce
+colour in the same sense as we savages
+produce pain in fellow-men by firing rifle-bullets
+at them.</p>
+
+<p>The electron explains how some objects
+appear white, while others are red, and so
+forth.</p>
+
+<p>It explains also how electrons produce
+artificial light.</p>
+
+<p>The electron twits man upon his ridiculously
+wasteful processes of obtaining artificial
+light.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+In the preceding chapter I have been telling
+you how we electrons produce waves in the
+&aelig;ther ocean. I pointed out that if we make
+the waves follow each other at too slow or too
+fast a rate they fail to affect man's eyes.</p>
+
+<p>It may seem strange to you that only a
+very small range of our &aelig;ther waves should
+affect man's visionary apparatus. Of course
+this limitation lies beyond our province; we
+can produce endless variety of &aelig;ther waves&mdash;it
+is man's organs which fail to appreciate the
+bulk of these. However, there is plenty of
+variety in the sensations which we can produce
+in man. If we make the waves follow
+each other at a certain speed, man says he
+has the sensation of <i>red</i>. If we move faster,
+he speaks of <i>orange-colour</i>, and as we increase
+our speed he names his further sensations as
+<i>yellow</i>, <i>green</i>, <i>blue</i>, and <i>violet</i>. Then if we
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
+combine all these waves&mdash;that is, if we produce
+them all at one time&mdash;he says he has the
+sensation of <i>white</i>. If we produce none of
+these waves, he calls the result <i>black</i>.</p>
+
+<p>While we electrons are very versatile, our
+actions are dependent in a great measure
+upon circumstances. For instance, if an electron
+is acting as a satellite to one particular
+kind of atom, its rate of revolution around
+that atom may be very different from that of
+an electron similarly attached to another kind
+of atom. We electrons are all identical, but
+the speed of revolution is determined by the
+kind of atom. The reason is very simple;
+electrons revolve around some atoms at a
+much greater distance than they would
+around other atoms. Those making only the
+smaller orbits not only get around their
+atoms in less time, but they are also travelling
+at a greater pace. It is this fact which
+enables the electrons to produce the various
+wave-lengths which stimulate the different
+colour sensations in the brain of man.</p>
+
+<p>I think you will have no difficulty in seeing
+how it is that we come to produce such a
+variety of wave-lengths&mdash;in other words,
+how we are able to make the waves follow
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
+each other more or less rapidly. You will
+understand that we do not produce colours;
+we merely make various waves in the &aelig;ther,
+and these waves excite the colour sensations
+in man. I mention this simple fact, because
+I hear many people speaking of our &aelig;ther
+waves as "coloured rays," which, of course, is
+quite a ridiculous description.</p>
+
+<p>Suppose some of those waves which give
+rise to the red sensation happen to fall upon
+a lump of matter which contains only electrons
+capable of producing waves that affect the
+green sensation. What will happen? There
+will be no response, and the object, although
+viewed by "red light," will appear black.</p>
+
+<p>If an object, such as the white paper upon
+which my scribe is recording my story, contains
+a variety of atoms with electrons capable of
+revolving at all the different rates which
+produce colour sensations, then when "white
+light" falls upon the object it appears white
+(all the colour sensations combined). If, on
+the other hand, a "red light" only falls upon
+it, then only the electrons capable of responding
+to that rate of wave will be set in motion,
+and the object will appear red, and so on
+with the other rates of &aelig;ther waves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
+So far I have been telling you what happens
+when different waves of light fall upon us.
+Now I shall endeavour to explain how man
+has caused us to produce artificial light. At
+present all man's methods in this direction
+are dependent upon making some substance
+so hot that it becomes incandescent. Even
+his most modern methods seem to us to be
+ridiculously wasteful and most roundabout. I
+shall speak only of the electric glow lamp, as
+I have had some experience in connection
+with this.</p>
+
+<p>On one occasion I had been taking part
+in a regular forward march from copper atom
+to copper atom in a conducting wire. I had
+no idea of the purpose of our march till I
+suddenly found myself handed over to some
+carbon atoms, who were in a very lively state
+of vibration. We had much more difficulty
+in making our way through this substance,
+and it was the passive resistance offered to the
+advance of the electrons who had preceded
+me that had driven the carbon atoms into
+this state of great excitement. In our march
+through the copper conductor we had been
+offered very little resistance, so that we had
+left the copper atoms in peace&mdash;at least man
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
+could not detect easily any excitement (heat).
+But so long as our forced march was maintained
+among the carbon atoms, so long did
+the high temperature exist.</p>
+
+<p>You will understand I and the other marching
+electrons did not produce the waves of
+light sent out by the glow lamp. What we
+did was to set the atoms of carbon into
+a rapid vibratory state, and they in turn
+caused their satellite electrons to hasten their
+pace. Some electrons produced one rate of
+waves, and some another rate, but by the
+time the carbon was incandescent there were
+electrons sending out all the variety of wave-lengths,
+the combination of which produces
+the sensation of white.</p>
+
+<p>I have accused man of adopting very wasteful
+processes, so I had better explain the
+matter. In the preceding description of what
+is occurring in an electric glow lamp, I have
+spoken only of those &aelig;ther waves which
+constitute light. But there are myriads of
+electrons in the carbon of the glow lamp
+that never attain the requisite speed to produce
+those waves; they revolve around their
+atoms at too slow a rate. They certainly
+disturb the &aelig;ther, but the crests of the waves
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
+are so far apart that they do not affect the
+eyes of man. The business of these waves
+is to set up heat in the bodies upon which
+they fall. You may be surprised to know
+that in this contrivance of man, called an
+electric glow lamp, and, indeed, in all his
+other artificial light-producers, he causes far
+more electrons to produce radiant heat than
+the desired light waves. A most wasteful
+process!</p>
+
+<p>Man has a long way to travel yet before
+he succeeds in producing artificial light by
+a reasonable process. Indeed I doubt if any
+of you can realise, as we do, how exceedingly
+stupid the existing methods are. Think for
+a moment of the glow-worm, in which we
+electrons produce light without setting up
+any wasteful heat waves. There is a strong
+contrast between this peaceful plan and that
+of the excited carbon atoms. When will man
+succeed in discovering this secret of ours?</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+
+<h2>WE SEND MESSAGES FROM THE STARS</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER FIFTEEN</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It is remarkable that man has been able to
+discover what the distant stars are made of.</p>
+
+<p>Our knowledge concerning the chemistry
+of the stars has been obtained by means of
+the spectroscope, in which a beam of light
+from the star is passed through a glass
+prism.</p>
+
+<p>The result is the well-known image of the
+coloured spectrum, in which certain well-defined
+lines appear, according to the distant
+elements originating the &aelig;ther waves.</p>
+
+<p>The electron explains the whole subject
+from its own point of view.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
+It is only within recent times that man has
+observed that we send messages from the distant
+stars to this planet. But there is nothing
+new to us in this proceeding; we have
+been busy sending these messages ever since
+the solar system was formed. Through all
+those ages we have kept on sending these
+messages, knowing that in time man must
+come to take notice of them.</p>
+
+<p>If the subject should happen to be new to
+you, you will be anxious to know to what
+kind of messages I refer. Needless to say,
+they are wireless messages&mdash;waves in the
+great &aelig;ther ocean. The waves, to which I
+refer specially, fall within that small range
+of which I told you something in the preceding
+chapter. In other words, they are
+those waves to which man has given the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+name <i>light</i>. But what special information do
+these waves, coming from the stars, convey
+to man? They tell him of what materials
+these distant stars are made. Needless to
+say, it is we electrons who produce those
+informative waves.</p>
+
+<p>You are familiar with our method of producing
+waves. You know that we whirl
+around the atoms of matter at prodigious
+speeds, and that according to the number of
+revolutions we make per second, we produce
+waves of corresponding frequencies.</p>
+
+<p>In an earlier chapter I have hinted that the
+speed of the revolving electron is determined
+by the kind of atom to which it acts as a
+satellite. For instance, when electrons revolve
+around iron atoms they produce certain
+wave-lengths, while those moving around
+hydrogen atoms produce an entirely different
+series of waves. But how is man to recognise
+these?</p>
+
+<p>It is quite evident that man may gaze at a
+distant star and be little the wiser concerning
+the different lengths of the waves which
+impinge upon his eyes. He may observe
+that the sensation is inclined to red, from
+which he may infer that the waves are long
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
+ones&mdash;that they are farther apart than some
+of the waves produced by a white-hot body.
+But had man been content to try and decipher
+our wireless messages in this rough-and-ready
+manner, he would never have
+gained the interesting information which we
+have now placed in his hands. How, then, did
+we enable man to read our messages?</p>
+
+<p>Our plan may seem to be somewhat mysterious,
+but I assure you that it is really very
+simple. When these &aelig;ther waves of light
+fall upon a triangular prism of glass, the
+waves are bent out of their normally straight
+path. But the point that may seem strange
+to you, is that those waves which produce the
+sensation of red are not bent so much as the
+others. The more rapidly the waves follow
+one another, the greater is the bending of
+such a ray from its original direction. In
+this way the various wave-lengths are all
+spread out, so that they form an image like
+a coloured ribbon, red at one end, being followed
+by orange, yellow, green, blue, and
+violet. Every man must be familiar with
+this coloured spectrum. When some of my
+fellows are enclosed in drops of water in the
+air they produce a great rainbow spectrum
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+across the heavens. But I must tell you how
+we electrons succeed in bending these rays of
+light.</p>
+
+<p>I have told you already how we either
+absorb or reflect the &aelig;ther waves which
+happen to fall upon us. In most substances
+it is only those electrons very near the surface
+that are disturbed. They succeed in stopping
+the waves. They may do this in either of two
+different ways. If the satellite electrons are
+attracted strongly by their atoms, the electrons
+will spin around the atoms keeping time
+to the movements of the incoming waves, and
+in this way the electrons take up the energy
+of the waves. In doing this, the electrons
+send out fresh waves in the &aelig;ther. This is
+the real explanation of what man calls <i>reflection</i>
+of light.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="position: relative; width: 500px;">
+  <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149"><!--[Pg 149]--></a></span>
+  <a href="images/figp149-800.jpg">
+    <img src="images/figp149-400.jpg"
+    width="351" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a>
+  <p class="smcap bold center">The Spectroscope and the Electrons' Wireless Messages</p>
+
+  <p>The spectroscope is seen in the extreme left of No. 1 photograph.
+  The instrument is explained at <a href="#Page_207">page 207</a>.</p>
+
+  <p>The operator is passing an electric current through a glass tube
+  containing a rarefied gas, causing the gas to become luminous.
+  When he examines its light through the spectroscope he sees
+  bright lines as shown in photograph No. 2, and from the position
+  of these lines he can tell what substance is producing the light.
+  No. 2 is the spectrum of mercury vapour. No. 3 is part of the
+  spectrum of the sun. Note the dark lines, as explained in the
+  text.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the second case, the electrons are not so
+firmly attached to their atoms, so that the
+incoming waves dislodge them, and they are
+knocked about from atom to atom, and in
+this way the energy of the waves is frittered
+away. Man speaks of the light having been
+<i>absorbed</i> by the substance upon which it fell.
+In both cases the only electrons which take
+part in these actions are those electrons who
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
+can move in sympathy with the incoming
+waves.</p>
+
+<p>It will be clear to you that only those of us
+who are near the surface of a substance know
+anything about these incoming waves. The
+electrons attached to atoms in the interior of
+the substance are left in peace, owing to the
+defensive actions of our fellows on the outside.
+But this is not the case with all substances.
+There are some congregations of
+atoms through which the &aelig;ther waves can
+make their way. Man calls such materials
+<i>transparent</i>; for example, glass and water
+are transparent substances. The fact of the
+matter is that in such substances none of us
+are able to respond to the incoming waves, and
+so we cannot stop them. I should say almost
+none of us, for there are always a few electrons
+present who happen to be in sympathy with
+the incoming waves. That is why no substance
+is perfectly transparent.</p>
+
+<p>The point concerning which I wish to speak
+in particular is this. Although we allow the
+&aelig;ther waves to pass through such substances,
+we do offer some slight resistance to the passage
+of the waves; the faster the to-and-fro
+motion of the waves, the more resistance do
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
+we offer. That is why the waves of highest
+frequency are bent farthest from the straight
+line when passed through a glass prism.
+We actually force the &aelig;ther waves to travel
+slower through a piece of glass than through
+the air.</p>
+
+<p>Now there should be no mystery concerning
+our action in a triangular piece of glass.
+Whatever combination of &aelig;ther waves falls
+upon it, the different trains of waves are
+sorted out according to their frequencies.
+Suppose, for instance, that &aelig;ther waves
+emitted from some incandescent sodium are
+passed through a glass prism. The bulk of
+the electrons attached to the sodium atoms
+are capable of revolving at speeds which produce
+waves causing the sensation of yellow.
+Hence there will appear a very distinct line of
+yellow light in the spectrum. But why
+should the light be in the form of a line?
+Simply because our &aelig;ther waves are passed
+through a narrow slit in a shutter. But I
+need not trouble you with further details of
+our actions, which, although very simple to
+us, may seem somewhat strange to you.</p>
+
+<p>You will understand, however, that we
+form bright lines in different parts of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
+spectrum, according to the kinds of atoms to
+which we are attached. It was this fact
+which attracted man's attention to our wireless
+messages. He soon discovered the meaning
+of these lines, for he commenced to take
+exact notes of the different positions in which
+we placed these lines. He saw that when we
+were attached to hydrogen atoms we always
+produced three prominent lines; a very distinct
+line in the red section, another in the
+blue part, and a third one somewhat fainter
+and farther along in the blue. On the other
+hand, when attached to sodium atoms, we
+produced two very distinct lines in the yellow.
+When attached to iron atoms we produced a
+great variety of lines in the spectrum. Of
+course these substances have to be incandescent
+to enable us to produce the &aelig;ther
+waves.</p>
+
+<p>Now it will be clear to you how we send
+wireless messages from the distant stars.
+These stars are great masses of flaming gases,
+so that the satellite electrons are kept busy
+dancing attendance to excited atoms. The
+electrons are constantly sending out &aelig;ther
+waves, which reach this planet. We sort out
+these waves when man passes them through a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
+glass prism, mounted in a telescope arrangement
+which he calls a <i>spectroscope</i>. He then
+examines the positions of the lines we produce
+in the resulting spectrum, and from these he
+knows what kinds of atoms are present in the
+distant star. It is we who have informed
+man that there are forty different materials
+in the sun, the most common of which are
+hydrogen, sodium, iron, copper, nickel, and
+zinc. Of course these all exist in a gaseous
+form.</p>
+
+<p>There is one point about which I need
+hardly trouble you, although it is worth
+mentioning in passing. While we produce
+bright lines in the spectrum of any incandescent
+substance on this planet, our messages
+from the stars appear as dark lines. The
+reason for this is that there are cooler masses
+of the gases surrounding the incandescent
+masses forming the stars, and these cooler
+gases completely absorb the waves we produce.
+So completely are these waves absorbed
+that blank spaces are left in the
+spectrum, and these are the dark lines to
+which I refer. As they are in the same positions
+that the bright lines would have occupied
+had the waves reached the earth, it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
+makes no difference to the reading of our
+messages.</p>
+
+<p>Curiously enough, some of our actions in
+forming lines in the spectrum led to our
+actual discovery by man; but I shall tell you
+of this in the following chapter.</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+
+<h2>HOW MAN PROVED OUR EXISTENCE</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER SIXTEEN</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Several men of note declared that "little
+particles" revolved around the atoms of
+matter, and that it was the motion of these
+particles which produced the well-known
+&aelig;ther waves of light.</p>
+
+<p>This idea was suggested by the result of
+certain mathematical calculations.</p>
+
+<p>It was some time before real experimental
+proof was obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The electron tells its own tale of this
+great discovery.</p>
+
+<p>When the electron speaks of a spectrum
+line being shifted up or down the scale, it
+means towards the violet or the red end
+respectively.</p>
+
+<p>We may picture the spectrum as analogous
+to the keyboard of a piano.</p>
+
+<p>In the second part of this chapter, the
+electron explains how it has enabled man
+to discover that certain stars are approaching
+the earth, while others are receding from it.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
+We electrons had waited long ages for man
+to acknowledge our services, but we did not
+despise the acknowledgment which a few
+men accorded us upon the basis of their
+mathematical calculations. It was natural,
+however, that we should want something
+more definite than this.</p>
+
+<p>You can imagine our joy when real experimental
+proof of our existence was established.
+Perhaps you think that we should
+have been satisfied with this. But even this did
+not bring acknowledgment from many outside
+scientific circles, and not even from all
+within those circles. As our services to man
+are universal, we feel that all men should
+become acquainted with our doings. Indeed
+that was the chief argument used by my
+fellow-electrons, who urged me to write this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
+autobiography. The story of our actual discovery
+by man is an interesting one.</p>
+
+<p>It all came about in a very simple manner,
+but in quite a different way from what most
+electrons expected. Man reasoned within
+himself that if we electrons really did revolve
+around atoms and thus produce waves in the
+&aelig;ther, as had been suggested, he ought to
+be able to affect our movements by disturbing
+the &aelig;ther in which we were revolving. Of
+course man cannot disturb the &aelig;ther directly;
+he must employ some of us to do this for
+him. He caused us to produce a very powerful
+magnetic field, which, as you know, is a
+disturbance of the &aelig;ther. Man did not bother
+thinking about <i>us</i> in this connection; he
+simply sent an electric current around an
+electro-magnet, but I have explained to you
+the very active part we play in electric and
+magnetic actions.</p>
+
+<p>From my story in the preceding chapter,
+you are aware that man had observed the
+meaning of the bright lines in the spectrum
+of any incandescent body. When he examined
+the &aelig;ther waves we send out from sodium
+atoms, he found two very distinct lines in
+the yellow. Because of the brightness of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>
+these lines, man selected a sodium flame to
+experiment with in the present case.</p>
+
+<p>You will picture a great host of my fellow-electrons
+revolving around the atoms in a
+sodium flame. The flame was placed between
+the poles of a very powerful electro-magnet,
+and a beam of &aelig;ther waves (light) produced
+by us was directed into the spectroscope.
+The experimenter focussed all his attention
+upon one of the bright yellow lines. He
+noted very carefully the exact position in
+which we placed it. He then produced the
+magnetic field around the flame, in which
+my fellow-electrons were revolving at a steady
+pace, and, behold, the line which he was
+watching split up into two lines, one taking
+up a position a little higher up the spectrum
+scale, and the other going a little lower down
+towards the red end. What could this
+mean?</p>
+
+<p>Man had no difficulty in knowing the cause
+of this alteration; indeed, it was exactly what
+he had hoped would take place. Of the two
+new lines, one represented waves a little
+shorter, while the other line indicated waves
+a little longer or farther apart, than the
+original waves forming the single line. This
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
+could only come about by some of the electrons
+having had their rate of revolution increased,
+while that of others had been reduced. These
+alterations were due to the &aelig;ther disturbance
+(the magnetic field). Those electrons whose
+orbits happened to lie in one position had
+their rate of revolution increased, while those
+whose orbits lay in another position had their
+speed reduced. Man was convinced at last
+that we "particles" were real existing things.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever man withdrew the &aelig;ther disturbance,
+the electrons fell back into their
+natural rate of revolution, and the original
+single line appeared in the spectrum.</p>
+
+<p>I took no part in the original experiment
+which gave absolute proof of our existence,
+but since then I have been present in a
+laboratory when the same experiment has
+been repeated.</p>
+
+
+<p>This is not the only case in which we
+alter the positions of definite lines in the
+spectrum. Indeed, we have given man some
+interesting information about the motions of
+distant stars&mdash;information which he could
+not have obtained in any other way. We
+have sent wireless messages from distant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
+stars, indicating that they were approaching
+the earth, while electrons aboard other stars
+have signalled that they are receding from
+the earth. All this may seem mysterious to
+you, and yet our actions in the matter are
+very simple. Indeed, we do nothing but what
+I have told you of in the preceding chapters.
+We send out definite wave-lengths in the
+manner described already. But if we are
+on board a star which is travelling towards
+the earth, our waves will naturally follow
+a little closer at each other's heels. On the
+other hand, if the star is receding from the
+earth, the waves must be a little farther
+apart than they would be if the star were
+at rest.</p>
+
+<p>You will understand that the electrons are
+revolving at the same speeds in both cases,
+but the forward movement of the star crowds
+the waves together, while a receding star
+stretches them out a little farther apart.
+The result at the receiving end is that the
+crowded waves are just as though they had
+come from electrons revolving at a greater
+speed than is actually the case. Hence the
+line appears farther along the spectrum, up
+the scale of frequencies, than would have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>
+been the case had the star not been moving
+forward in the line of sight. Thus if the
+hydrogen lines, of which I have spoken elsewhere,
+should appear higher up the spectrum
+than usual, then man knows that the star
+from which these waves are coming is approaching
+the earth.</p>
+
+<p>It will be evident that when known lines
+in the spectrum are shifted down the scale
+(towards the red end of the spectrum), then
+the rate of the waves has been decreased,
+and man knows that the star carrying these
+stimulating electrons is receding from him.</p>
+
+<p>You will observe that we electrons perform
+no new duty in connection with this matter;
+it is entirely the motion of the body carrying
+us that alters the positions of the lines. But
+I must hasten on to tell you of some personal
+experiences.</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+
+<h2>MY X-RAY EXPERIENCES</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER SEVENTEEN</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The present generation were all very much
+interested in the discovery of X-rays.</p>
+
+<p>With the aid of a battery and an induction
+coil, man causes an energetic electrical discharge
+to pass through a vacuum tube.</p>
+
+<p>When the flying electrons strike upon a
+little metal target placed in their path, they
+produce the well-known Roentgen rays.</p>
+
+<p>We have all become familiar with the great
+penetrating powers of these rays.</p>
+
+<p>The electron may be left to tell its own
+story.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
+It was no surprise to us that we could produce
+what man calls X-rays, but we were
+very much surprised at the use to which
+man put these splashes which we made in
+the &aelig;ther. A limited number of us had been
+producing X-rays on our own account for
+many ages, but I shall tell you of that in
+a later chapter, when you will hear how we
+made the world talk.</p>
+
+<p>I must tell you of my own experiences in
+connection with these X-rays, which I hear
+some men describe also as <i>Roentgen rays</i>.
+I found myself once more within a large
+vacuum tube, and as soon as I felt a crowd
+of my fellows pushing me forward, I was
+quite prepared to be shot across the tube,
+as on previous occasions. Personally, I was
+not prepared for what was to come. Just
+as we reached the centre of the tube we
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
+collided with a metal plate or target. It
+was no joke to be pulled up so suddenly
+when travelling at a terrific speed. I noticed
+at the time that our very sudden stoppage
+had a peculiar effect upon the &aelig;ther. Of
+course we never bothered about a name for
+this disturbance; it is man who requires to
+have names for everything. He was quite
+right to call this &aelig;ther disturbance "X-rays,"
+for even now he does not know the real
+nature of these. I have heard him describe
+them as thin pulses in the &aelig;ther, but there is
+something more.</p>
+
+<p>I may as well confess that although we
+observed this &aelig;ther disturbance arising from
+our sudden stoppage, we paid little attention
+to it, until it became apparent that man
+was continuing to produce these rays for
+some special purpose. He had discovered that
+we could shoot these rays right through many
+solid substances which were not transparent
+to light. But I have not told you how man
+came to know that we could produce these
+penetrating rays.</p>
+
+<p>On one occasion we were sending out these
+rays, which, by the way, do not cause any
+sensation in man's visionary apparatus. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>
+room was in darkness. Some of the invisible
+rays fell upon a collection of small
+chemical crystals which were fixed on the
+surface of a screen. Our fellow-electrons,
+who were attached to the atoms of the
+crystals, were bestirred into action. They
+could not reflect the X-rays, but they set
+up regular trains of waves in the &aelig;ther, some
+of which came within the range that affects
+man's vision. Man knew that this chemical
+screen could not produce light on its own
+account, and it became apparent that the
+vacuum tube must be sending some &aelig;ther
+waves towards the chemical screen.</p>
+
+<p>As the electrons on the screen produced
+an &aelig;ther disturbance different from that
+which fell upon it, man called this a <i>fluorescent
+screen</i>.</p>
+
+<p>At first we took merely a passing interest
+in the experiments which man made with
+these X-rays of ours, for it seemed to us as
+though man thought them only good enough
+for amusing his friends. Indeed, we paid
+little heed to what he was doing, until we
+observed that the rays were being used by
+surgeons. We were interested at once, for
+here we could serve man.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>
+My first experience in this connection was
+quite interesting. A young girl had got a
+needle into her hand while she was playing
+about, and the surgeons were at a loss to
+know where the needle had lodged. We lost
+no time in producing X-rays which could
+penetrate the flesh of the hand, and reach
+the fluorescent screen on the other side. The
+bones of the hand blocked the way of our
+rays, but not so completely as the needle did.
+Hence we produced upon the screen a faint
+shadow of the flesh of the hand, a much
+deeper image of the bones, and a black shadow
+of the needle. This enabled the surgeon to
+see where the needle was hiding.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes we were called upon to produce
+rays for detecting bullets in the flesh,
+or for showing the nature of a fractured bone.
+We were never surprised to find that our call
+was to detect a coin in the throat of a child,
+but in this connection a big surprise awaited
+some of us. I was not one of the party, but
+I have the information from some fellow-electrons.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="position: relative; width: 500px;">
+  <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"><!--[Pg 171]--></a></span>
+  <a href="images/figp171-800.jpg">
+    <img src="images/figp171-400.jpg"
+    width="320" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a>
+  <p class="smcap bold center">How Electrons Produce X-Ray Images</p>
+
+  <p>The upper photograph shows the X-ray apparatus in use. The
+  operator is examining the bones of the lady's hand, which she
+  places between the X-ray tube and the fluorescent screen. The
+  rays pass through the flesh, but are obstructed by the bones, the
+  rings, and the bangle, so that a shadowgraph or image is formed
+  upon the screen, which becomes luminous where the rays succeed in
+  reaching it. The actual examination is made in a dark room. Owing
+  to the way X-ray photos are taken (by contact) the image is
+  reversed in a photograph, so that a left looks like a right
+  hand.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A party of electrons were present within
+an X-ray tube at a large hospital, when
+they were called upon to produce rays for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
+examining the throat of a little girl. They
+had become so used to this call that they
+did not doubt there would be a coin in the
+child's throat. However, they lost no time
+in producing the penetrating rays, and you
+can imagine their surprise when they produced
+the image of a toy bicycle upon the
+screen. It seemed ridiculous that such a toy
+could have entered a child's throat.</p>
+
+<p>When we had shown the surgeons exactly
+where the toy was, they set to work to
+remove it. The electrons heard later that
+the operation was successful in every way.
+Every one was interested, and we were
+proud. I do not wish to appear boastful, but
+I wonder how many operations owe their
+success to these rays which we produce for
+man.</p>
+
+<p>It was natural that man should try if these
+searching rays could affect the chemicals upon
+a photographic plate, and we soon proved
+that they could. It made no difference to us
+whether man kept the plate sealed up in its
+light-proof envelope, or whether he placed
+the plate within a wooden box. These protecting
+covers offered no barrier to our rays.
+We produced shadowgraphs of any objects
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>
+placed between our tube and the photographic
+plate.</p>
+
+<p>Two of my early experiences may be of
+interest to you. The first of these seemed
+to me a rather tame affair. Our X-ray tube
+appeared to be arranged for the amusement
+of fashionable folk. One grand lady placed
+her hand behind the fluorescent screen, whereupon
+we produced an image of the bones of
+her hand and very dark images of all the
+many rings upon her fingers. Several of the
+rings had enormous diamonds, but it was
+after she had gone away that I overheard
+two gentlemen speaking about the rings.
+One asked the other if he had observed the
+beautiful diamonds, whereupon the other
+roared with laughter. It seems that we
+proved them to be imitation diamonds, for
+our rays could not penetrate them, whereas
+they have no difficulty in passing through
+real diamonds. We therefore produced black
+shadows of the imitation diamonds. Little
+did the grand lady know how we had exposed
+her sham jewels.</p>
+
+<p>My second experience was a very curious
+one. I learned that our tube was being
+carried to some distance. After a while we
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>
+were placed beside a peculiar-looking object,
+which the men referred to as the "mummy."
+One of the men suggested that they should
+photograph its feet, but before doing so
+they darkened the room and set us to work
+upon the fluorescent screen. The owner of
+the mummy got rather nervous as to what
+we might disclose, and as the force urging
+us into action was somewhat erratic at first,
+we produced only a very indistinct image.
+We were greatly amused at the nervous excitement
+of the owner; he seemed to think
+our verdict was that there were no bones.
+However, the man with the apparatus soon
+got things into better condition, and this
+enabled us to produce X-rays satisfactorily.
+The result was that they secured some excellent
+photographs of the hidden bones of the
+mummy.</p>
+
+<p>Before telling you how we made the world
+talk, I should like to give you a clear idea of
+our relationship to the atoms of matter.</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2>
+
+<h2>OUR RELATIONSHIP TO THE ATOMS</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER EIGHTEEN</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>We have no doubt that an atom of matter
+is a miniature solar system of revolving
+electrons.</p>
+
+<p>These electrons, being negative particles of
+electricity, would repel each other just as any
+two similarly electrified bodies do.</p>
+
+<p>There must therefore be some equivalent of
+positive electricity, but whether this exists
+in the form of a sphere or in separate particles
+we have no definite knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>One atom differs from another in the
+number of electrons which go to make up the
+atom.</p>
+
+<p>The electron explains how the atoms of
+matter are united to one another, how
+different compound substances are formed,
+and how chemical changes take place.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>
+I am sorry that this part of my story must
+remain incomplete for the present. I am not
+free to tell you all I know; you must try and
+get behind the scenes on your own account.</p>
+
+<p>One thing I am at liberty to tell you is that
+my fellow-electrons who are locked up within
+the atoms are not without hope that they
+may gain their freedom once more at some
+future time. I know this first-hand, for I
+have met some fellow-electrons who have
+escaped from within an atom, but I shall
+delay telling you about these fellows till the
+succeeding chapter. My object in mentioning
+this fact now is to give you confidence in what
+I am about to say regarding the nature of the
+atom.</p>
+
+<p>On one occasion I overheard a conversation
+between two men who were discussing the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>
+construction of matter. One remarked that
+the atoms were the bricks of the universe,
+whereupon the other asked how the little
+bricks were cemented together. I wish that
+man could have seen a lump of matter as we
+see it. He would have been surprised to learn
+that the atoms never really touch each other.
+They are always surging to and fro, or
+<i>vibrating</i>, and it is this motion which constitutes
+the <i>temperature</i> of the body which
+they compose.</p>
+
+<p>It must be clear, however, that in a solid
+body one atom attracts another atom across
+the intervening atomic spaces. This is another
+duty devolving upon us; what we do, really,
+is to upset the electric balance between the
+different atoms, and thus produce electrical
+attraction.</p>
+
+<p>First of all, perhaps, I should explain that
+the different kinds of atoms are simply congregations
+of different numbers of electrons.
+Of course there is the other part, of which
+I am forbidden to speak&mdash;the part which man
+vaguely describes as <i>positive electricity</i>. However,
+you may take it from me that while it is
+true that the main difference between an atom
+of gold and an atom of iron, or of oxygen, is in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>
+the number of electrons it contains, there is a
+very important difference in the arrangement
+of the electrons. You know that they form
+rings outside one another, all of which revolve
+at enormous speeds. The number of electrons
+in the different rings varies according to the
+kind of atom.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite correct for man to speak of the
+atoms containing certain definite numbers of
+electrons, but I should like you to understand
+clearly that the exact number of electrons is
+not permanently fixed; one or more electrons
+can slip off one atom and become attached to
+a neighbouring atom which happens to be
+capable of accepting it or them. It is the
+interchange of these few detachable electrons
+that causes one atom to attract another. In
+other words, it is the differently charged atoms
+which attract each other, just as man crowds
+a surplus of electrons on to one object and
+finds it attracted bodily towards another object
+having a deficiency of electrons.</p>
+
+<p>It is this electrical attraction between the
+atoms which enables us to build up the particles,
+or <i>molecules</i>, of matter in such a variety
+of forms. First of all, we play the most important
+part within the atoms. We have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>
+formed only a limited number of such atoms.
+I am not free to tell you exactly how many,
+for man has discovered only about eighty of
+these different congregations of electrons,
+each kind of which he calls an <i>element</i>. The
+way in which we have coupled these different
+elementary atoms together must appear remarkable
+to all thinking men; there seems to
+be no end to the possible variety of combinations.</p>
+
+<p>In one case we unite an atom of <i>chlorine</i> to
+an atom of <i>sodium</i> and thereby produce a
+molecule of common salt. In another case
+we unite an atom of <i>oxygen</i> to two atoms of
+<i>hydrogen</i>, and the resulting combination is
+an invisible molecule of ordinary water.</p>
+
+<p>It has always seemed to me very strange
+how some men have difficulty in regard to
+these combinations. I have heard a man ask
+how two different gases, hydrogen and oxygen,
+when united, should form a liquid, and
+not a gas. I wish you could see things as
+we see them. The atoms are neither gaseous,
+liquid, nor solid; they are little worlds of
+revolving electrons.</p>
+
+<p>I have spoken of the attraction between
+atoms, and again between molecules, in form
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>ing
+a solid body. It will be clear that there
+is less of this <i>cohesive force</i> in the case of a
+liquid, whereas it is absent entirely in the
+case of a gas. In this case the molecules have
+become so far separated from one another
+that they cease to attract each other, and if
+left free they will soon part company, and
+spread themselves broadcast over the face of
+the earth.</p>
+
+<p>Whether a substance passes into a solid, a
+liquid, or a gaseous state, the atoms remain
+constant, but their vibratory motion is
+altered very considerably. However, I was
+about to tell you that we electrons can make
+some very interesting combinations of atoms.
+Those I have mentioned so far are of a very
+simple nature, but we have built up individual
+molecules containing hundreds of atoms. We
+link about a hundred atoms together and
+produce a molecule of what man calls <i>alum</i>,
+and we require to unite about a thousand
+atoms together to make one molecule of
+<i>albumen</i> (the white of an egg).</p>
+
+
+<p>When man speaks of a chemical change
+having taken place in a substance, it is simply
+the electrons who have made a friendly
+inter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>change
+of detachable electrons, thereby causing
+a different assemblage of the same atoms.
+During these changes we never alter the
+nature of the atom. That little world of revolving
+electrons known as an atom of gold,
+remains always an atom of gold. But you
+must not run away with the idea that the
+atoms will never change. Indeed, man has
+discovered that the atoms are not eternal, as
+I shall explain in the following chapter.</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX</h2>
+
+<h2>HOW WE MADE THE WORLD TALK</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER NINETEEN</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The discovery of radium is within the
+memory of all.</p>
+
+<p>Many exaggerated statements went abroad
+at the outset, but the real facts are full of
+interest, and they have shed much new light
+on many subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Three different kinds of radiation were
+found to be emitted by radium.</p>
+
+<p>At first man could not tell what these were,
+so he named them after the first three letters
+of the Greek alphabet&mdash;Alpha, Beta, and
+Gamma, rays.</p>
+
+<p>The electron tells the interesting story of
+these rays, and relates the experiences of
+some fellow-electrons who escaped from
+within a radium atom.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>
+We electrons were amused at the stir which we
+unconsciously caused throughout the civilised
+world. We had done nothing different from
+what we had been doing for ages, but a few
+men had been taking note of what we were
+about, and when the phenomena to which
+I refer became known to the world, many
+wild rumours were circulated.</p>
+
+<p>One of these rumours was to the effect
+that steam-engines and their expensive furnaces
+were to disappear very quickly. If
+the two last words had been omitted&mdash;I
+should not say that the prophecy is untrue,
+but man has a long way to travel yet before
+reaching that goal. My fellows within
+the atoms have sufficient energy to supply
+all mankind with power if he could but unlock
+even a small fraction of it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
+Another statement was that this newly
+discovered substance, <i>radium</i>, could cure some
+diseases which man had believed to be incurable.
+All I shall say about this is that the
+statement was an exaggerated one.</p>
+
+<p>Then it was said that radium disproved
+much of man's scientific knowledge, but
+instead of that being so, we electrons have
+greatly extended man's knowledge by our
+radio-active actions. If any man believed
+the atoms of matter to be eternal, we certainly
+disproved that. Here, in radium, man
+could see atoms going to pieces.</p>
+
+<p>I have questioned a fellow-electron who
+escaped from a radium atom as to what
+upset their equilibrium, but I find that he
+does not know, or he pretends not to know.
+All he has told me is that he was flung off
+suddenly from within the atom with great
+energy, for he had been revolving at a
+tremendous speed. In his sudden flight he
+passed some newly formed <i>helium</i> atoms,
+which contained many of those electrons
+who had been his co-partners in the former
+radium atom. Being an electron, he was
+travelling at a far greater speed than these
+flying atoms of matter, but he assures me
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
+that these helium atoms were going faster
+than atoms can travel under any other circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>Another thing that this escaped electron
+told me was that when he and his fellow-electrons
+made a sudden start on leaving
+the atom of radium they caused a proper
+splash in the surrounding &aelig;ther, just such
+as we electrons produce when we are suddenly
+stopped in an X-ray tube. Man observed
+these rays proceeding from radium, but, not
+knowing the cause of them, he called them
+<i>gamma rays</i>. We can, of course, produce
+radiographs when these rays fall upon
+photographic plates. Indeed, some of my
+fellow-electrons, when escaping from radium,
+have produced rays sufficient to penetrate
+a six-inch boulder and affect a photographic
+plate lying beneath the boulder. In time
+man recognised these rays as X-rays.</p>
+
+<p>Man did not find only these rays&mdash;he discovered
+that electrons were escaping, but
+before he had recognised what we were, he
+had named us <i>beta rays</i>. These fast-flying
+electrons have had experiences which never
+fall to electrons except when escaping from
+an atom. Their velocity is so great that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+they can be shot right through a sheet of
+aluminium foil. If these escaped electrons
+are allowed to settle on any object, they will
+necessarily cause an overcrowding, or, in
+other words, the object will become negatively
+electrified.</p>
+
+<p>The one thing that puzzled man most was
+to find out what the helium atoms were. He
+had named them <i>alpha</i> rays, but as he found
+he could not get them to penetrate even a
+thin sheet of paper, he was confident that
+they must be atoms of matter. It was only
+when he had gathered sufficient to examine
+the spectrum that he found these to be
+helium atoms.</p>
+
+<p>I think what really made the world talk
+was the fact that electrons were escaping
+from what had been supposed to be an eternal
+habitation. In other words, this material
+radium was actually going to pieces. That
+is to say, <i>gradually</i>, as far as man is concerned,
+for, looking at it from our point of
+view, the word <i>gradual</i> seems out of place
+entirely. The breaking up of an atom is
+really of the nature of an explosion. It is
+a continual bombardment that is proceeding
+in radium. Why man is apt to think of it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
+as a gradual effect is that there is such an
+enormous number of atoms in a tiny speck
+of radium, that even the incessant series of
+explosions will take a very long time to
+break down the whole of the small particle.</p>
+
+<p>Electrons differ in their opinions as to
+whether man will succeed in drawing upon
+this internal energy of the atom. My own
+difficulty is that, having been a roaming
+electron at all times, I have no idea regarding
+the cause of the atomic explosions. I
+have remarked already that the electrons
+locked up within the atoms possess more
+energy than man could ever use. If all
+these electrons were deprived of their energy,
+the atoms of matter would cease to exist,
+and man, where would he be?</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX</h2>
+
+<h2>CONCLUSION</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER TWENTY</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Not many of us have realised the true importance
+of electrons in the Creator's plans.</p>
+
+<p>In the following short chapter the electron
+is made to sum up a few of the wonders
+which it has related, in order to focus our
+attention upon the grand place which the
+electrons occupy in the universe.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
+From what I have told you of myself and my
+fellow-electrons, it must be apparent that
+we are of tremendous importance to man.
+I have told you something of the part we
+played in building up this world&mdash;how we
+not only form the atoms of matter, but also
+hold these bricks of the universe together.
+I have given you a rough sketch of the composition
+of these bricks.</p>
+
+<p>You must have realised also that without
+us the whole universe would be in darkness.
+There would be no light, no heat, and consequently
+no life. Indeed, there could be no
+material existence without us.</p>
+
+<p>Where would man be if we failed to perform
+our mission? He could not exist if we
+even neglected a few of our duties. Not only
+do we form the atoms of which his body
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
+is composed, also holding these together, but
+we produce all those chemical changes within
+his body which are absolutely necessary to
+maintain life. His very thoughts are dependent
+upon our activities.</p>
+
+<p>I have told you how we send man's messages
+across the earth, and how we transmit power
+from place to place. Also how we have enabled
+man to gain knowledge of the distant
+stars, and to examine the bones of his living
+body.</p>
+
+
+<p>If man could cross-examine me or any of
+my fellows, I expect the first question would
+be&mdash;What are you electrons made of? But
+man must find this out for himself. The
+Creator has placed man in a world full of
+activity, and it is of intense interest to man
+to discover the meaning of all that lies around
+him. That is why I have been bound over
+by my fellows to tell you only so much of
+our history as man has discovered. But I
+am disclosing no secret when I admit that
+our very existence as electrons is dependent
+upon the &aelig;ther.</p>
+
+
+<p>If I can find another scribe to write a
+re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>vised
+biography for me a few hundred years
+hence, I shall have a much more interesting
+tale to tell, for many of our doings, of which
+man knows nothing at present, will be secrets
+no longer by that time.</p>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX" id="APPENDIX"></a>APPENDIX</h2>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span></div>
+<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON APPENDIX</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>As explained by the author in
+<a href="#CHAPTER_I">Chapter I.</a>,
+this appendix has been added for the sake of
+those readers who may wish further details
+than have been given in the electron's story.</p>
+
+<p>It is only necessary to give a brief notice of
+the more important particulars, as the author
+has written recently upon this subject in a
+popular form.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p>
+<a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">
+<span class="label">[1]</span></a> "Scientific Ideas of To-day."
+By Chas. R. Gibson, F.R.S.E. (London: Seeley &amp; Co., Ltd. Five
+shillings net.)</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>
+It was known two thousand years ago that
+when a piece of amber was rubbed with a
+woollen cloth, the amber would attract light
+objects towards it. Amber was considered to
+be unique in this respect.</p>
+
+
+<p>About the year 1600, one of Queen Elizabeth's
+physicians, Dr. William Gilbert, inquired
+into this attractive property of amber.
+He found that many other substances possessed
+the same property. Indeed it is
+common to all substances in some degree.
+We say the amber or other object is "electrified."</p>
+
+
+<p>It was observed by the early experimenters
+that there were two kinds of electrification.
+To one of these they gave the name <i>positive
+electricity</i>, and to the other <i>negative electricity</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Every electrified object will attract an
+ob<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>ject
+which is not electrified, and two objects
+which are oppositely electrified will attract
+one another also. But two objects which are
+similarly electrified will repel each other.</p>
+
+
+<p>Man got tired of rubbing objects by hand,
+so he fitted up simple machines in which glass
+cylinders or plates were rubbed against
+leather cushions. The electricity was then
+collected by little metal points supported on
+an insulated metal sphere.</p>
+
+
+<p>The experiment of attempting to store
+electricity in a glass vessel filled with water
+was made at the University of Leyden
+(Netherlands). The water was replaced later
+by a coating of tin-foil on the inner surface,
+while a similar metallic coating on the outside
+took the place of the experimenter's hand.
+These jars are called <i>Leyden jars</i>, after the
+place in which the discovery was made.</p>
+
+
+<p>About 1790, Professor Galvani, of Italy,
+observed that the legs of a freshly killed frog
+twitched at each discharge of an electrical
+machine. Later he found that the same
+twitching occurred when he connected certain
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>
+parts with a piece of copper and zinc. He
+believed this to be due to "animal electricity"
+secreted within the frog.</p>
+
+
+<p>Professor Volta, also of Italy, proved that
+Galvani's idea was wrong, and that the electricity
+resided in the metals rather than in the
+frog. He showed that when two pieces of
+dissimilar metal were put in contact with one
+another, there was a slight transference of
+electricity between them. He constructed a
+pile of copper and zinc discs, with a moist
+cloth between each pair or couple, and by
+connecting wires from the top copper disc to
+the lowest zinc disc he was able to show that
+an appreciable current of electricity was produced.
+Later he placed a piece of copper and
+a piece of zinc in a vessel containing acidulated
+water, whereupon he found that a steady
+current of electricity was obtained. This was
+the invention of electric batteries.</p>
+
+
+<p>The phenomena of <i>magnetism</i> were known
+to the ancients, but it was not until the nineteenth
+century that we found any real
+connection between electricity and magnetism.
+In 1819, a Danish philosopher, Hans
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>
+Christian Oersted, discovered that an electric
+current passing in a wire affected a magnet in
+its neighbourhood. If the magnet was supported
+on a pivot, after the manner of a
+compass needle, it would turn round and take
+up a position at right angles to the wire
+carrying the electric current.</p>
+
+
+<p>The molecular theory of magnetism presumes
+that every molecule of iron is a tiny
+magnet, having a north and south pole. In
+a piece of unmagnetised iron, these tiny
+magnets are all lying so that they neutralise
+one another. When they are turned round
+so that their north poles are all lying in one
+direction, then the iron is said to be magnetised.</p>
+
+
+<p>The electron theory of magnetism does not
+do away with the older molecular theory just
+referred to. The electron theory goes a step
+farther, and tells us that these molecules are
+magnets because of a steady motion of electrons
+around the atoms of iron.</p>
+
+
+<p>It was discovered in 1825 that when an
+electric current was sent through an insulated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>
+wire wound around a piece of soft iron, the
+iron became a magnet; when the current was
+stopped the magnetism disappeared. Such
+magnets are called <i>electro-magnets</i>. If a piece
+of hard steel is treated in the same way it
+becomes a <i>permanent magnet</i>. It was this
+intimate connection between electricity and
+magnetism, or, in other words, the invention
+of these electro-magnets, which brought us
+electric bells, telegraphs, telephones, dynamos,
+and electric motors.</p>
+
+
+<p>It should be noted that while iron is
+attracted by either pole of a magnet, there
+is such a thing as magnetic repulsion. This,
+however, takes place only between two magnets,
+and then only between like poles.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Some German physicists made a number of
+electrical experiments with vacuum tubes.
+When Sir William Crookes (England) was
+experimenting with similar vacuum tubes he
+suggested that matter was in a "radiant"
+state during the electric discharge within the
+tubes.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>
+In 1880, H. A. Lorentz, of Amsterdam,
+declared that light was due to the motion
+of small particles revolving around the atoms
+of matter.</p>
+
+
+<p>Professor Zeeman, of Holland, produced
+experimental proof of Lorentz's theory. He
+showed that the revolving "particles" were
+influenced by a powerful magnetic field, in the
+manner explained in the electron's story.
+This discovery was made in 1896, or sixteen
+years after Lorentz's declaration. It was
+Dr. Johnstone Stoney, of Dublin University
+(Ireland), who christened these particles
+"electrons."</p>
+
+
+<p>The X-rays were observed for the first time
+by Professor Roentgen, of Germany, in 1895.
+The screens used for viewing the luminous
+effects produced by the X-rays are coated
+with very fine crystals of <i>barium platinocyanide</i>.
+These screens were in use for
+another purpose previous to the discovery
+of X-rays.</p>
+
+
+<p>We know now that <i>chemical affinity</i> is
+merely electrical attraction between the atoms
+of matter.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>
+The spectroscope consists of a glass prism,
+or series of prisms, mounted between two
+metal tubes. One tube is provided at one
+end with a vertical slit, through which the
+light that is to be examined is passed. At
+the other end of the tube is a lens, so that
+the beam of light from the slit emerges
+through the lens as a pencil of parallel rays.
+The pencil of light then falls upon the glass
+prism, striking it at an angle. In passing
+through the prism, the light is bent round
+so that it enters the second tube, which is
+simply a small telescope. The prism separates
+the &aelig;ther waves according to their wave-lengths,
+and produces the well-known coloured
+spectrum, which is magnified by the telescope.
+The reason for the bending of the different
+waves is explained in the electron's story.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></div>
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></div>
+<ul class="index">
+<li>Absorption of light, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+<li>&AElig;ther, the, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+<li>&AElig;ther waves, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+<li>Alpha rays from radium, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+<li>Alternating electric current, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li>Amber electrified, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> to <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li>Artificial light, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+<li>Atoms breaking up, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+<li>Atoms co-operating with electrons, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+<li>Atom's internal energy, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+<li>Atoms of matter, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+<li>Attraction between atoms, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+<li>Attraction, electrical, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+<li>Attraction, magnetic, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li>Aurora, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+<li>Automatic telegraph transmitter, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Battery, electric, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+<li>Beginning of the world, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+<li>Beta rays from radium, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li>Birth of the moon, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+<li>Bricks of the universe, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chemical affinity, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span></li>
+<li>Chemical combinations, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+<li>Chemistry of the stars, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+<li>Chlorine atoms, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+<li>Cloud formation, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+<li>Circuit, earth, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+<li>Coherer, tube, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+<li>Cohesive force, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+<li>Colour, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+<li>Compass needle, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+<li>Complete electric circuit, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+<li>Conductors, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+<li>Connecting link between &aelig;ther and matter, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+<li>Corpuscles, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+<li>Crookes, Sir William, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li>Current of electricity, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Dark lines in spectrum, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+<li>Detachable electrons, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+<li>Detecting imitation diamonds, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+<li>Direct electric current, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li>Discharge of electricity, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+<li>Discharge through a vacuum, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+<li>Discovery of electrons, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li>Discovery of X-rays, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li>Dynamo, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Earth circuit, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+<li>Electrical discharge, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+<li>Electricity, positive, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+<li>Electricity, negative, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+<li>Electric battery, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+<li>Electric current, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></li>
+<li>Electric motor, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+<li>Electric shock, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+<li>Electrified objects, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li>Electro-magnets, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li>Electrodes, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+<li>Electrocution, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+<li>Electron as a go-between, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li>Electron, derivation of the word, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+<li>Electron, discovery of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li>Electrons, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+<li>Energy transmission through the &aelig;ther, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li>Energy within the atom, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Field, magnetic, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li>Fluorescent screen, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Galvani's discovery, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+<li>Gamma rays from radium, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li>Gilbert's discovery, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li>Glass, electrified, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+<li>Glass prism, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+<li>Glow-lamp, electric, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+<li>Glow-worm, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Heat, radiant, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+<li>Helium atoms, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+<li>Hydrogen atoms, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Insulators (non-conductors), <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+<li>Iron atoms, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+<li>Iron wires discarded, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Lamp, electric, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span></li>
+<li>Leyden jar, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+<li>Light, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+<li>Light absorbed, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+<li>Light, artificial, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+<li>Light, reflected, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+<li>Lightning, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+<li>Lines in the spectrum, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+<li>Lorentz's declaration, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Magnetic attraction, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li>Magnetic field, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li>Magnetic repulsion, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li>Magnetism, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+<li>Magnetism and electricity, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+<li>Magnets, electro-, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li>Magnets, permanent, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+<li>Mariner's compass, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+<li>Matter, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+<li>Metal electrified, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+<li>Molecules of matter, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+<li>Moon's birth, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+<li>Morse telegraph, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+<li>Motion in line of sight, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+<li>Motor, electric, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Negative electricity, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Oersted's discovery, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+<li>Oxygen atoms, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Permanent magnets, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+<li>Positive electricity, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></li>
+<li>Prism of glass, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Radiant heat, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+<li>Radiant matter, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li>Radium, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li>Rainbow, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+<li>Rays from radium, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+<li>Reflection of light, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+<li>Repulsion, electrical, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+<li>Repulsion, magnetic, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li>Roentgen rays, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+<li>Roentgen's discovery, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Sea, cause of saltness, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+<li>Shock, electric, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+<li>Silk, electrified, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+<li>Sodium atoms, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+<li>Spark, electric, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+<li>Spectroscope, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+<li>Spectrum, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+<li>Speed of electrons in conductor, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+<li>Stars approaching the earth, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+<li>Stars, constituents of the, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+<li>Stoney, Dr. Johnstone, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li>Sun, constituents of the, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+<li>Sun's heat, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Telegraph signals, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+<li>Telegraphy, wireless, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+<li>Telephone, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+<li>Telephony, wireless, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+<li>Temperature, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+<li>Tramway, electric, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></li>
+<li>Transparent substances, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Vacuum tubes, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li>Velocity of electrons, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+<li>Volta's discovery, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Waves in the &aelig;ther, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+<li>Wireless messages from the stars, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+<li>Wireless telegraphy, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+<li>Wireless telephony, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>X-rays, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li>X-rays from radium, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li>X-ray photography, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Zeeman proves existence of electrons, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr class="cb" />
+<p class="center">
+Printed by <span class="smcap">Ballantyne, Hanson &amp; Co.</span><br />
+Edinburgh &amp; London<br />
+</p>
+
+<div class="tnote"><h3>Transcriber's Note</h3>
+
+<p>The following changes have been made to the original text:</p>
+
+<ul>
+  <li><a href="#Page_xi">Page xi</a>: "always necessary, How" changed to "always necessary. How"</li>
+  <li><a href="#Page_205">Page 205</a>: "vacuum tubes, When" changed to "vacuum tubes. When"</li>
+  <li><a href="#Page_214">Page 214</a>: "Negative electricity, 23, 32, 9" changed to "Negative electricity, 23, 32, 39"</li>
+</ul>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN ELECTRON***</p>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Autobiography of an Electron, by Charles R.
+(Charles Robert) Gibson
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Autobiography of an Electron
+       Wherein the Scientific Ideas of the Present Time Are Explained in an Interesting and Novel Fashion
+
+
+Author: Charles R. (Charles Robert) Gibson
+
+
+
+Release Date: June 17, 2011  [eBook #36456]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN ELECTRON***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Sharon Joiner, Erica Pfister-Altschul, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images
+generously made available by Internet Archive/American Libraries
+(http://www.archive.org/details/americana)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 36456-h.htm or 36456-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/36456/36456-h/36456-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/36456/36456-h.zip)
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/American Libraries. See
+      http://www.archive.org/details/autobiographyofe00gibsrich
+
+
+
+
+
+THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN ELECTRON
+
+
+[Illustration: A WELL-KNOWN PHENOMENON PRODUCED BY ELECTRONS
+
+_Photo_
+
+_The Fleet Agency_
+
+A sudden discharge of electrons from cloud to cloud, or from cloud to
+the earth, constitutes what we call "lightning."]
+
+
+THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN ELECTRON.
+
+Wherein the Scientific Ideas of the Present
+Time Are Explained in an Interesting
+and Novel Fashion
+
+by
+
+CHARLES R. GIBSON, F.R.S.E.
+
+Author of "Scientific Ideas of To-Day," "Electricity of To-Day"
+"The Romance of Modern Electricity," _&c. &c._
+
+Illustrated
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Philadelphia
+J. B. Lippincott Company
+London: Seeley & Co. Limited
+1911
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Although text-books of science may appear to the general reader to be
+"very dry" material, there is no doubt that, when scientific facts and
+theories are put into everyday language, the general reader is genuinely
+interested. The reception accorded to the present author's _Scientific
+Ideas of To-day_ bears out this fact. While that volume explains, in
+non-technical language, the latest scientific theories, it aims at
+giving a fairly full account, which, of course, necessitates going into
+a great deal of detail. That the book has been appreciated by very
+varied classes of readers is evident from the large numbers of
+appreciative letters received from different quarters. But the author
+believes that if the story of modern science were told in a still more
+popular style, it would serve a further useful purpose. For there are
+readers who do not care to go into details, and yet would like to take
+an intelligent interest in the scientific progress of the present day.
+Some of those readers do not wish to trouble about names and dates,
+while the mere mention of rates of vibration and such-like is a worry to
+them. They wish a book which they may read with the same ease as an
+interesting novel. Hence the form of the present volume.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The author is indebted to Professor James Muir, M.A., D.Sc., of the
+Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, and to H. Stanley Allen,
+M.A., D.Sc., Senior Lecturer in Physics at King's College, University of
+London, for very kindly reading the proof-sheets. The author is indebted
+further to Professor Muir in connection with some of the illustrations,
+and for others to Dixon and Corbitt and R. S. Newall, Ltd., Glasgow;
+Siemens Schuckert Werke, Berlin.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+WHAT THE STORY IS ABOUT
+
+The Scribe introduces the Electron to the reader. He has something
+    to say also about the mysterious aether which pervades all
+    space. He emphasises the fact that the electron is a real
+    existing thing                                                    21
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE ELECTRON'S PREFACE
+
+The Electron explains the reason why it has written its
+    autobiography                                                     29
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE NEW ARRIVAL
+
+The Electron points out who the new arrival is really. It relates
+    an amusing experience. It tells how man disturbed electrons
+    before he discovered their existence. An ancient experiment,
+    and what the wise men of the East thought about it. How
+    electrons are responsible for the electrification of any
+    object. Handled by a new experimenter, they surprise man. Man
+    becomes of special interest to the electrons                      32
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+SOME GOOD SPORT
+
+The Electron explains how man succeeded in crowding them together,
+    with some rather exciting results from the overcrowding. One
+    historical incident. Man's fear of the consequences. How a
+    party of electrons wrecked a church steeple. An unfortunate
+    accident                                                          42
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+MY EARLIEST RECOLLECTIONS
+
+The Electron's story begins at a very far distant period, before
+    this world had taken shape. The Electron was present when the
+    atoms of matter were being formed. The birth of the moon.
+    Something still to be discovered. The moulding of the planet.
+    Boiling oceans. The electrons took an active part in making
+    sea-water salt. The Electron explains why it has been chosen to
+    write the story of itself and its fellows                         52
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+MAN PAYS US SOME ATTENTION
+
+The electrons are encouraged by one of the experiments made by man.
+    They hope it may lead to their discovery, so that their
+    services may be recognised. The Electron's experience in a
+    vacuum tube. A disappointment and a revival of hope. A great
+    declaration by one individual man. The Electron misjudges man.
+    Mention of a great discovery. The christening of the electrons    60
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+A STEADY MARCH
+
+The Electron explains how they produce the electric current. How
+    man discovered means of making the electrons march. A simple
+    explanation of how a complete electric circuit is always
+    necessary. How an "earth circuit" works. How the marching
+    electrons can do work                                             68
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+A USEFUL DANCE
+
+A perpetual dance. A responsible position. How the safety of the
+    mariner depends upon the electrons' dance. How electrons
+    produce a magnet. A convenient kind of magnet, which gains and
+    loses its attractive power when desired. How a permanent magnet
+    is made. The great service of electrons in modern life            76
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+HOW WE CARRY MAN'S NEWS
+
+The method of sending the news. The Electron's personal experience.
+    A series of forced marches. How man controls the electrons. How
+    the electrons reproduce the signals                               86
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+HOW WE COMMUNICATE WITH DISTANT SHIPS
+
+An entirely different means of communication. A surprise to man,
+    but not to the electrons. How the electrons produce waves in
+    the surrounding aether. How these waves disturb distant
+    electrons. The Electron's personal experience. Its description
+    of its actions in a wireless telegraph station                    94
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+HOW WE REPRODUCE SPEECH
+
+Why it is not correct to speak of the electrons as carriers of
+    speech. The action of electrons in the working of telephones.
+    The Electron's own experience in wireless telephony              106
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+OUR HEAVIEST DUTIES
+
+A roving commission. How electrons can move gigantic cars and
+    trains. The action of electrons in dynamos and motors. How the
+    electrons transmit the energy. What makes the motor go           116
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+A BOON TO MAN
+
+A simple explanation of how the electrons produce light. How the
+    Electron provides a connecting link between matter and the
+    aether. How light reaches the earth from the sun. How the
+    electrons produce that beautiful luminous effect which man
+    calls an "Aurora." How the earth has become a negatively
+    charged body. How electrons produce radiant heat. The
+    difference between light and heat                                126
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+HOW WE PRODUCE COLOUR
+
+What colour is really. How the different colour sensations are
+    stimulated by the electrons. The Electron as a faithful
+    satellite to the atom. How electrons can produce the different
+    aether waves. How the electrons respond to the different waves.
+    The production of artificial light. Co-operation of the
+    electrons. Man's ridiculously wasteful processes. The
+    electrons' secret                                                136
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+WE SEND MESSAGES FROM THE STARS
+
+The kind of messages referred to. How the electrons have informed
+    man of what the stars are made. How man reads the electrons'
+    wireless messages. How it is other electrons that enable man to
+    read the messages. The real explanation of reflection of light.
+    How light is absorbed by some objects. How some substances are
+    transparent. Why objects appear coloured. What makes the lines
+    in the spectra of stars. The spectroscope                        144
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+HOW MAN PROVED OUR EXISTENCE
+
+How man reasoned out a plan for detecting the electron. How the
+    electrons altered some lines in the spectrum. The curious
+    manner in which the Electron informed man that certain stars
+    are approaching this planet, while others are receding from it   158
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+MY X-RAY EXPERIENCE
+
+X-rays are an old story to some electrons. The Electron's personal
+    experience. A very sudden stop. How electrons made a
+    fluorescent screen send out light. The electrons assist the
+    surgeon. A curious find. Detecting imitation diamonds. The
+    Electron and the mummy                                           166
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+OUR RELATIONSHIP TO THE ATOMS
+
+How the atoms of matter attract one another. What constitutes the
+    temperature of a body. What the atoms are made of. An important
+    thing still to discover about the atom. The elements. How the
+    electrons produce compound substances. The real explanation of
+    chemical changes                                                 178
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+HOW WE MADE THE WORLD TALK
+
+It was nothing new on the part of the electrons. Exaggerated
+    rumours. The electrons and radium. Fast-flying electrons.
+    Atomic explosions                                                186
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+The Electron is made to sum up a few of the wonders which it has
+    related, in order to emphasise the great services which
+    electrons render to man                                          194
+
+APPENDIX                                                             200
+
+INDEX                                                                211
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+A WELL-KNOWN PHENOMENON PRODUCED BY ELECTRONS             _Frontispiece_
+
+DAMAGE DONE BY A PARTY OF ELECTRONS                                   45
+
+A TOBACCO TIN DEFYING GRAVITATION                                     79
+
+A MOTOR-CAR WITH WIRELESS TELEGRAPH                                   99
+
+A TRAIN IMPELLED BY MOVING ELECTRONS                                 119
+
+PROTECTION AGAINST A DISCHARGE OF ELECTRONS                          129
+
+THE SPECTROSCOPE AND THE ELECTRONS' WIRELESS MESSAGES                149
+
+HOW ELECTRONS PRODUCE X-RAY IMAGES                                   171
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+WHAT THE STORY IS ABOUT
+
+
+The reason for writing this story is given in the Preface, but the title
+is so strange that the reader will wish naturally to know what the story
+is about. What is an electron? Is it an imaginary thing, or is it a
+reality?
+
+One of the reasons for writing this story in its present form is to help
+the reader to realise that electrons are not mythical, but real existing
+things, and by far the most interesting things we know anything about.
+The discovery of electrons has shed a new light upon the meaning of very
+many things which have been puzzles until now. They give us a reasonable
+explanation of the cause of light and colour. They provide a new idea of
+the constitution of matter. They enable us to picture an electric
+current, and they give us definite, though by no means final, answers
+to the why and wherefore of magnetism, chemical union, and
+radio-activity.
+
+The story is imaginary only in so far that one of the electrons itself
+is supposed to tell the tale. But in the endeavour to make the story
+interesting, there has been no sacrifice of accuracy in the statements
+of fact.
+
+While all names and dates, and many other details, have been kept out
+rigidly from the story, a note of the more important of these has been
+added in an Appendix for the sake of those readers who may wish to refer
+to them.
+
+It will be well to introduce the electron to the reader before leaving
+it to speak for itself. We have definite experimental proof of the
+existence of electrons, and yet it is very difficult to realise their
+existence, for two reasons. In the first place, they are so
+infinitesimally small. We count a microbe a small thing; we can see it
+only with the aid of a very powerful microscope. Yet that little speck
+of matter contains myriads of particles or _atoms_. An atom of matter is
+therefore an inconceivably little thing, but even that is a great giant
+compared to an electron. Our second difficulty in realising the
+existence of an electron is that it is not any form of what we call
+_matter_; it is a particle of _electricity_, whatever that may be.
+
+From the earliest experiments it became evident that there were two
+distinct kinds of electricity. These were described by the pioneer
+workers as _positive_ and _negative_ electricities. To-day we have
+definite experimental proof that negative electricity is composed of
+separate particles or units. Just as matter is composed of invisible
+atoms, so also is negative electricity of an atomic nature. These
+particles of negative electricity have been christened electrons,
+_electron_ being the Greek word for _amber_, from which man first
+obtained electricity. Of course no one can ever hope to see an electron,
+but physicists have been able to determine its size and _mass_, its
+electric charge, and the speeds at which it moves.
+
+While it has been known for more than a century that _light_ is merely
+waves in the all-pervading aether of space, set up by incandescent
+bodies, it has been a puzzle always how matter could cause waves in the
+aether, as it offers no resistance to the movement of matter through it.
+Here we are on the back of a great planet, flying through space at the
+enormous rate of one thousand miles per minute, and yet our flimsy
+atmospheric blanket is in no way disturbed by the aether through which we
+are flying. In the following story we shall see that these electrons
+help us towards a solution of this and many other problems; they provide
+the missing link between matter and the aether.
+
+But what is this _aether_ of which one hears so much in these days? The
+truth is we know nothing of its nature. We cannot say whether it is
+lighter than the lightest gas or denser than the densest solid. The
+aether, whatever it may be, is as real as the air we breathe. It is the
+medium which brings us light and heat from the sun, and which carries
+our wireless telegraph and telephone messages. The whole universe is
+moving in this great aether ocean.
+
+In order to make the electron's story perfectly intelligible to every
+reader, I have added a short explanatory note at the beginning of each
+chapter. These notes merely state the facts about which the electron is
+speaking.
+
+To make the electron's story as realistic as possible, it has been
+necessary to give the imaginary electron perfect freedom of knowledge
+concerning itself and its surroundings. In our schooldays we had to
+write the autobiographies of steel pens, and such-like, but these
+inanimate things had to be endowed with powers of thought, feeling, and
+desire. It is very important, however, to remember that an electron is a
+particle of negative electricity--_a real existing thing_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE ELECTRON'S PREFACE
+
+
+While many scientific men now understand our place in the universe, we
+electrons are anxious that every person should know the very important
+part which we play in the workaday world. It was for this reason that my
+fellow-electrons urged me to write my own biography. My difficulty has
+been to find a scribe who would put down my story in the way I desired.
+The first man with whom I opened negotiations wished me to give him
+dates and names of which I knew nothing. And he asked such stupid
+questions about where I was born and who my parents were, as if I were
+flesh and blood.
+
+I am pleased to say that my relationship with the scribe who has put
+down my story in the following pages has been of the most friendly
+description. Apart from a little tiff which we had at the outset, there
+has been no difference of opinion. He complained that I related things
+in too abstract a form. However, we got over the difficulty by a
+compromise; I have allowed him to place what he calls "The Scribe's
+Note" at the beginning of each chapter, but it will be understood
+clearly that these are merely convenient embellishments, and that I am
+responsible for the story of my own experiences.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE NEW ARRIVAL
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER THREE_
+
+    It will be well to keep clearly in mind that an electron is a
+    real particle of negative electricity.
+
+    Electrons have been discovered only within recent years.
+
+    No matter from what substances we take them, they are always
+    identical in every respect.
+
+    Some electrons are attached to the atoms of matter in such a way
+    that they may be removed easily from one object to another.
+
+    When a surplus of these detachable electrons is crowded on to
+    any object, we say that it is charged with negative electricity.
+
+    We speak of the other object, which has lost these same
+    electrons, as being charged with positive electricity.
+
+    In this chapter the electron refers to the old-world experiment
+    in which a piece of amber when rubbed attracts any light object
+    to it.
+
+    For many ages man believed this to be a special property
+    belonging to amber alone.
+
+    One of Queen Elizabeth's physicians discovered that this
+    property was common to all substances.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE NEW ARRIVAL
+
+
+It is most amusing to me and my fellow-electrons to hear intelligent
+people speak of us as though we were new arrivals on this planet. Dear
+me! We were here for countless ages before man put in an appearance. I
+wonder if any man can realise that we have been on the move ever since
+the foundations of this world were laid. It is man himself who is the
+new arrival.
+
+It does seem strange to us that men should be so distinctly different
+from one another. We electrons are at a decided disadvantage, for we are
+all identical in every respect. I have no individual name--it would
+serve no purpose. Even if you could see me, you could not distinguish me
+from any other electron. I wonder sometimes if men appreciate the great
+advantage they have in possessing individual names. I was impressed
+with this thought one fine summer morning. While I was riding on the
+back of a particle of gas in the atmosphere, I was carried through the
+open window of a nursery just as the under-nurse was putting the room in
+order. A little later there was some commotion in the nursery, for the
+young mother and her mother had come to see the twin daughters being
+bathed by the nurses. The grandmother happened to remark how very much
+alike the two little infants were. She said laughingly to the head nurse
+that she must be careful not to get the children mixed. But the big
+brother, aged five years, remarked that it would not matter really how
+much they were mixed until they got their names. Sometimes I wish we
+electrons did differ from one another, so that we might each possess an
+individual name, but no doubt it is necessary for us all to be exactly
+alike.
+
+Long before man had discovered us, he caused us deliberately to do
+certain things. He was mystified by the results of his experiments, for
+he was not aware of our presence. A few of my fellow-electrons have
+rather hazy recollections of being disturbed while clinging to a piece
+of amber. They had been disturbed often before in a similar way, by
+being rubbed against a piece of woollen cloth, and the result had been
+always that a number of electrons let go their hold upon the cloth and
+crowded on to the amber. The overcrowding was uncomfortable, but it
+happened usually that the surplus electrons found some means of escape
+to the earth, where there is no need of excessive crowding.
+
+On the occasion to which I refer, it so happened that the rubbing had
+been unusually vigorous and prolonged, so that the electrons were
+crowded on to the amber in great numbers. In their endeavour to escape
+they produced a strain or stress in the surrounding aether, and this
+caused a small piece of straw, which was lying within the disturbed
+area, to be forced towards the amber.
+
+What attracted the attention of the electrons was that the man who was
+holding the piece of amber removed the clinging straw and replaced it
+exactly where it had been lying. In the meantime he had been handling
+the amber, and many of the crowded electrons had managed to make a bolt
+for the earth by way of the man's body. They did this so very quietly
+that the man did not feel any sensation. However, as soon as the amber
+was rubbed again, a similar crowd provided the same attractive property.
+We electrons became impatient to hear what man would say of our work,
+for it was apparent that he had noticed the movements of the straw. You
+will hardly believe me when I tell you to what decision these wise men
+of the East came. They declared that, in rubbing the amber, it had
+received heat and life. As if life could be originated in any such
+simple manner!
+
+You can picture our disappointment when we found that man was going to
+ignore our presence. Occasionally we were given opportunities of
+displaying our abilities in drawing light objects towards pieces of
+rubbed amber. But the funny thing was that man got hold of the stupid
+idea that this attractive property belonged to the amber instead of to
+us. If he had only tried pieces of sulphur, resin, or glass, he would
+have found that these substances would have acted just as well. You see
+it was not really the substance, but we electrons who were the active
+agents.
+
+We had given up all hope of being discovered, when news came along that
+a learned man was on the hunt for us. He was crowding us on to all sorts
+of substances. He rubbed a piece of glass with some silk, and at first
+he was surprised greatly to see light objects jump towards the excited
+glass. Of course, we were not surprised in the very least. The only
+thing that amused us was to find that he was making out a list of the
+different substances which showed attractive properties when rubbed. He
+could not, evidently, get away from the idea that it was the substances
+themselves that became attractive.
+
+We were sorry that the poor experimenter wasted so much time and energy
+in trying to crowd us on to a piece of metal rod. He rubbed and he
+rubbed that metal, but it would attract nothing, and I shall tell you
+the reason. You know that we electrons hate overcrowding; indeed we
+always separate from one another as far as possible when there is no
+force pulling us together. We only crowded on to the amber because we
+could not help ourselves; we had no way of escape, for amber is a
+substance we cannot pass through. But we have no difficulty whatever in
+making our way along a piece of metal, and as soon as the rubbing
+began, some electrons moved off the metal by way of the man's arm and
+body to make room for those being crowded on to the metal from the
+rubber. And so there never was any overcrowding, and consequently no
+straining of the aether. But it was not long before we found that man had
+succeeded in cutting off our way of escape. He had attached a glass
+handle to the metal rod, and we were compelled to overcrowd upon the
+metal as we could not pass through the glass handle. Neighbouring light
+objects were attracted by the excited or "electrified" metal. Even this
+demonstration did not put man upon our track.
+
+Perhaps I should explain in passing, that when a glass rod is rubbed
+with a silk handkerchief we crowd on to the silk, and not on to the
+glass. This leaves the glass rod short of electrons, and the aether is
+strained so that light objects are attracted. Man did notice that there
+was some difference between a piece of amber and a piece of glass when
+these were excited. What the difference was he could not imagine, but to
+distinguish the two different conditions he said that the amber was
+charged with _negative_ electricity and the glass with _positive_
+electricity.
+
+From that time forward man became of special interest to us. We felt
+sure that sooner or later he was bound to recognise that we were at work
+behind the scenes. It seemed to us, however, that man was desperately
+slow in turning his attention towards us, and we tried to waken him up
+in a rather alarming fashion, as I shall relate in the succeeding
+chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+SOME GOOD SPORT
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER FOUR_
+
+    Men began to make glass plate machines for producing
+    electrification on a larger scale.
+
+    The electric spark is produced.
+
+    The electron tells the story of the first attempt to store
+    electricity in a glass jar.
+
+    This is what we do now by means of a Leyden jar.
+
+    A sudden expulsion of electrons from one object to another is
+    called a discharge of electricity.
+
+    Lightning is a discharge of electrons from a cloud to the earth
+    or from cloud to cloud.
+
+    In repeating Franklin's experiment of drawing electricity from
+    thunder-clouds, a Russian professor received a fatal shock.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+SOME GOOD SPORT
+
+
+Now I must tell you of a surprise in which I took an active part. Some
+man thought he would separate a great crowd of us from our friends. Of
+course, he did not think really of _us_, but whatever he may have
+supposed he was doing, he succeeded in accumulating greater crowds of us
+together than he had done previously. He managed this by making simple
+machines to do the rubbing for him on a larger scale. The result was
+really too much for us; we were kept crowding on to a sort of brass comb
+arrangement from which we could not escape, as the metal was attached to
+a glass support. Talk about overcrowding! I had never experienced the
+like before, and I felt sure some catastrophe would happen. Suddenly
+there was a stampede, during which a great crowd of electrons forced
+their way across to a neighbouring object and thence to the earth. I
+can assure you it was no joke getting through the air. We all tried to
+leap together, but some of the crowd were forced back upon us; then bang
+forward we went again, back once more, and so on till we settled down to
+our normal condition. Of course all this surging to and fro occupied far
+less time than it takes to tell. Indeed, I could not tell you what a
+very small fraction of a second it took.
+
+I wish you had seen the experimenter's surprise as we made this jump. We
+caused such a bombardment in the air that there was a bright spark
+accompanied by a regular explosion. Some men ran away with the idea that
+electricity was a mysterious fire, which only showed itself when it
+mixed with the atmosphere. Nothing delighted us more, after our own
+surprise was over, than to have a chance of repeating these explosions,
+to the alarm of the experimenters. But the best sport of all was to
+come, and when I heard of it I was so disappointed that I had not been
+one of the sporting party. It came about in the following way.
+
+[Illustration: DAMAGE DONE BY A PARTY OF ELECTRONS
+
+_By permission of Dixon and Corbitt and R. S. Newall, Ltd._
+
+_Glasgow_
+
+When a myriad of electrons is discharged suddenly from a cloud to the
+earth, it happens sometimes that considerable damage is done. The above
+photograph is of a church steeple damaged by lightning in 1875. No
+lightning-conductor was provided, so the electrons had to get to earth
+by way of the steeple itself, with the disastrous result as shown.]
+
+One learned man thought he had hit upon a good idea. He tried to
+crowd a tremendous number of us into some water contained in a glass
+jar. Without condescending to think of us, he crowded an enormous number
+of electrons from one of his rubbing machines along a piece of chain
+which led them into water. The overcrowding was appalling, for it was
+impossible to escape through the glass vessel. Things had reached a
+terrible state, when the experimenter stopped the machine and put
+forward his hand to lift the chain out of the water. Now was the chance
+of escape, so the whole excited crowd made one wild rush to earth by way
+of the experimenter's body. The rapid surging to and fro of the crowd
+racked the man's muscles. I wish I had been there to see him jump; they
+say it was something grand. You can imagine how the little sinners
+enjoyed the joke; they knew they were safe, as man had no idea of their
+existence at that time.
+
+Another man was foolhardy enough to try a similar experiment, and they
+say that his alarm was even greater; indeed, he swore he would not take
+another shock even for the crown of France. We were all eager to get
+opportunities of alarming man, not that we wished him any harm, but we
+thought he might pay us a little more attention.
+
+I remember one occasion upon which some of us were boasting of what we
+had done in the way of alarming men, whereupon one fellow-electron
+rather belittled our doings. He maintained that he had jumped all the
+way from a cloud to the earth, along with a crowd of other electrons. In
+doing so they had scared the inhabitants of a whole village, for they
+alighted upon the steeple of a church, and in their wild rush they
+played such havoc among the atoms composing the steeple that they did
+considerable outward damage to the great structure.
+
+I may as well confess that we are not free agents in performing these
+gigantic jumps; we are compelled to go with the crowd when things are in
+such a state of stress. We simply cannot hold on to the atoms of matter
+upon which we happen to be located. It is only under very considerable
+pressure that we can perform this class of jump, and I beg to assure you
+that we are perfectly helpless in those cases where we have been dashed
+upon some poor creature with a message of death.
+
+Alas! on one occasion I was one of a party who killed a very learned
+man. It was most distasteful to us; we could not possibly prevent it. He
+had erected a long rod which extended up into the air, and terminated at
+the lower end in his laboratory. Some of us who were in the upper
+atmosphere were forced on to this iron rod, and from past experience we
+quite expected that we should be subjected to a sudden expulsion to
+earth. Indeed we were waiting for the experimenter to provide us with a
+means of escape, when suddenly he brought his head too near to the end
+of the rod, and in a moment we were dashed to earth through his body. We
+learned with deep regret that the poor man had been robbed of his life.
+
+To turn to something of a happier nature, I shall proceed to tell you of
+some of my earliest recollections. Remember I shall be speaking of a
+time long before man existed--even before this great planet was a solid
+ball.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+MY EARLIEST RECOLLECTIONS
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER FIVE_
+
+    This great globe upon which we live was once a glowing mass of
+    flaming gas.
+
+    It is possible that the whole solar system was once one great
+    mass.
+
+    In any case, we have no doubt that the moon is simply the result
+    of a part of our glowing mass having become detached.
+
+    In the hottest stars we find only the lightest atoms of matter,
+    such as hydrogen gas, the atoms of heavier substances being
+    found in stars which have begun to cool down.
+
+    The electrons have been present from the very beginning, and it
+    is they who go to make up the atoms of matter.
+
+    We picture an atom of matter as a miniature solar system of
+    revolving electrons.
+
+    There is doubtless a corresponding amount of positive
+    electricity, but so far we have no evidence of its nature.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+MY EARLIEST RECOLLECTIONS
+
+
+Before giving an account of the everyday duties which we perform, it may
+interest you to hear something of our early history.
+
+Not only have we been on the move ever since the beginning of this
+world, but some of us have clear recollections of this planet long
+before it was a solid body. The whole world was a great ball of flaming
+gas. I have heard some fellow-electrons say that we were attached to a
+greater mass of incandescent gas before the beginning of this world, but
+I have no personal recollections of it. But one thing I do remember is a
+great upheaval which caused a large mass of gas to become detached from
+our habitation. Without any warning a great myriad of our
+fellow-electrons were carried away on this smaller mass. At first this
+detached mass circled around our greater mass at very close quarters,
+but we soon found that our friends were being carried farther and
+farther away, until they are now circling around this solid planet at a
+comparatively great distance. Man calls this detached mass _the moon_,
+and when I have heard children say in fun that they wish they could
+visit the man in the moon, I have longed to go and see how it fares with
+those fellow-electrons who seem to be separated from us in such a
+permanent manner.
+
+After this exciting event, which I have heard described as "the birth of
+the moon," our great ball of flaming gas began to cool gradually. But
+you will be interested in what happened before the moon's birth. I saw a
+crowd of electrons suddenly congregate together along with _something_
+else which man has not discovered. Never mind the other part, but
+picture a number of electrons forming a little world of their own. There
+they went whirling around in a giddy dance. I saw these little worlds or
+"atoms" being formed all around, and I feel truly thankful now that I
+was not caught in the mad whirl, for these fellow-electrons have been
+kept hard at it ever since, imprisoned within a single atom. I have met
+a very few electrons who have escaped from within an atom, but I shall
+tell you about them later on.
+
+The first thing I noticed was that each of the atoms had practically the
+same number of electrons in it. At that time I thought only in an
+abstract way, but since then I have learned that these were _hydrogen_
+atoms; hydrogen being the lightest substance known to man. Exactly what
+happened next I cannot recollect, but my attention was attracted later
+to larger congregations of electrons forming other little worlds of
+their own. These atoms were, of course, heavier than the hydrogen atoms.
+I saw quite a variety of different systems, of which I thought then in
+an abstract fashion, but which I know now to be atoms of _oxygen_,
+_nitrogen_, _carbon_, _iron_, _copper_, and so on. While man has given
+the atoms these distinguishing names, you will understand that the
+incidents which I am relating took place long before there was any
+appearance of solidity about our planet; these substances were all in a
+gaseous state.
+
+After this, I recollect that there was a great envelope of water-vapour
+condensed around the planet. Some condensed into liquid water upon the
+surface of the globe, while part was suspended in the form of clouds.
+Some of my fellow-electrons acted as _nuclei_ or foundations for the
+formation of the cloud particles. The water which condensed upon the
+earth settled down in the hollows, which had been produced previously by
+the immense pressure of the water-vapour envelope. We can hardly believe
+it is the same world.
+
+You cannot imagine how strange it was to see the great oceans boiling
+and steaming; of course, they were fresh water then. I need hardly tell
+you that they have become salt only because the rivers have brought down
+sodium into them, and when these sodium atoms unite with chlorine atoms
+they form particles of common salt. I know all about this because we
+electrons play a very important part in all such combinations.
+
+One very memorable recollection is that of life originating in the
+oceans. I wish I could let you into the secret of _the origin of life_,
+but, according to the Creator's plan, man must find out for himself.
+Your guesses are all wide of the mark.
+
+By the way, perhaps I should explain why I have been selected to write
+this biography. The first reason is that I am a free or detachable
+electron, and the second point in my favour is that I have had
+exceptional opportunities of seeing about me. I have heard men say that
+lookers-on see most of the game, and as I have witnessed the gradual
+evolution of things, you will understand that I have views of my own. A
+casual observer might think that things had deteriorated, for long ago
+there were immense monsters upon this planet, and these would put all
+modern creatures in the shade as far as size and strength are concerned.
+But one of the most interesting things to me has been to watch the
+evolution of man, and more especially the gradual development of his
+brain. Indeed, sometimes I have wished that I had happened to be an
+electron in the brain of a man; but, on the other hand, my career would
+not have been of the varied kind which it has been.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+MAN PAYS US SOME ATTENTION
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER SIX_
+
+    Men found that by exhausting the air from glass globes or tubes
+    it was possible to pass electric discharges through them, and in
+    so doing some very beautiful luminous effects were produced
+    within the vacuum tubes.
+
+    It was when experimenting with one of these tubes that a
+    scientist suggested that radiant particles were being shot
+    across the tube.
+
+    These particles were really electrons, but it was thought at
+    that time that they were atoms of matter.
+
+    Another scientist declared, from certain mathematical
+    calculations, that there existed extremely small particles of
+    something around the atoms of matter, and that it was the motion
+    of these in the aether which produced _light_.
+
+    People were not willing to accept this theory.
+
+    Some time later another scientist was able to prove by
+    experiment that these particles did exist.
+
+    This was done by means of the spectroscope, as will be related
+    by the electron in a later chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+MAN PAYS US SOME ATTENTION
+
+
+From the little I have told you already of our experiences, you will see
+that men had been making many experiments in which we electrons took a
+very active part. It was disappointing that even although we had
+surprised man in so many different ways, he had never become suspicious
+of our presence. One day, however, we did begin to hope for recognition.
+I was present, with a great crowd of electrons, imprisoned within a
+glass globe from which the air had been extracted. We were very pleased
+to find that the surrounding space had been cleared of air, for it was
+apparent that the experimenter was going to make us jump across from one
+end of the glass tube to the other.
+
+A crowd of us had collected on the extremity of a wire, or "electrode,"
+at the one end of the tube, while another similar crowd was present on
+the other electrode at the opposite end of the tube. While I speak of a
+crowd, meaning that there were millions of us, I do not suggest that we
+were overcrowded, for we had plenty of elbow-room to move about on the
+atoms to which we were attached. All in a moment the scene was changed.
+We felt a crowd of electrons pressing us forward and forcing us right up
+to the very end of the electrode. We found that the crowd was
+approaching by a wire leading into the tube. Soon the crowding had
+reached such a condition that we became alarmed; we could see no way of
+escape. We were imprisoned by the glass walls, but we soon discovered
+that many of the electrons who had been stationed on the other electrode
+had deserted their posts and fled along a wire leading out of the tube.
+If we could only follow them. It would be a tremendous jump to get over
+to the other wire, but the way was fairly clear of air. When the
+overcrowding reached a certain point we were literally shot across from
+the one electrode to the other. This was the first time I had ever
+experienced anything of the kind, but many fellow-electrons had gone
+through similar performances for years at the hands of other
+experimenters.
+
+However, it was somewhat alarming to be fired off like a rocket across
+the tube. What happened after that I cannot recollect, but some time
+later I was present in that or a similar tube when I heard the
+experimenter say to a friend that he believed there were particles
+flying across his tube. We sent news all along the line stating that at
+last we had been discovered, and I can assure you that we felt proud.
+But our joy was not long-lived, for it turned out that we were
+considered to be particles or atoms of matter; the experimenter spoke of
+us as "radiant matter." This was a real disappointment.
+
+It took us some time to recover from our disappointment at being
+mistaken for clumsy atoms of matter. We are of a higher order of things
+altogether. No atom of matter can travel at speeds such as we can. We
+cross these vacuum tubes with speeds equal to millions of miles per
+minute.
+
+A great many of us were kept busy within vacuum tubes by other
+experimenters, but nothing very exciting happened. Indeed, we had lost
+all hope of attracting man's attention to ourselves as long as we were
+imprisoned within these tubes. In the meantime our hopes were revived by
+news which reached us from another quarter.
+
+We heard that a very learned man had declared boldly that there did
+exist little particles which revolved around the atoms of matter, and
+that it was the motion of these tiny particles in the aether which
+produced the well-known waves of _light_. There was considerable
+rejoicing among us, for we were anxious to have our services recognised
+by man. This great man was not guessing merely; he was willing to prove
+by mathematical calculations that we did exist in reality. Of course, we
+ourselves required no proof of our existence, but we believed that man
+would be convinced. Our high hopes were soon laid low; news reached us
+that people were shaking their heads and saying that figures could be
+made to prove anything.
+
+After we had settled down to our ordinary duties, we got word that at
+last man had really detected us in a flame of gas. This seemed quite
+reasonable, for, as I shall relate to you in another chapter, we have a
+very lively time of it in a flame of gas. However, when we were
+informed that man had discovered us by means of a sort of telescope
+arrangement, I, for one, began to doubt the truth of the discovery. Some
+time before this I had heard that men were spying at gas flames in the
+hope of finding us, and this seemed most ridiculous, for if man could
+not see the large congregations of us called _atoms_, how could he
+expect to see individual electrons? My ignorance was dispelled when it
+was explained that man had not been looking for us directly, but for the
+aether waves which we produce. But I have not had an opportunity of
+explaining to you how some of us produce waves in the aether; I shall
+have to wait till a later chapter. In the meantime I may say that since
+this important discovery I have taken some part in an experiment similar
+to the historic one wherein we were detected, but of that too I shall
+have more to say again.
+
+The rejoicing at this discovery was not confined to us, for men of
+science were quick to grasp the importance which was attached to this
+new knowledge. We felt that man was bound to acknowledge our services
+from that day. The next event was our christening, and this was not all
+plain sailing. Indeed, we have been rather annoyed with one name which
+some good friends persist in giving us. I refer to the name _corpuscle_,
+which we feel to be a sort of nickname, although it may have been
+suggested in all kindness. It may be difficult for you to appreciate our
+dislike to this name, but it seems to us to savour too much of material
+things. It is not dignified; you must remember we are not matter. We are
+delighted with what we prefer to call our real name--electron--for that
+speaks of electricity. As you know, we are units of particles of
+negative electricity, and so this seems a most sensible and suitable
+name. But I must hasten to tell of some of our everyday duties in which
+we serve man.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+A STEADY MARCH
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER SEVEN_
+
+    The steady motion of electrons from atom to atom along a wire,
+    or other conductor, constitutes the well-known "electric
+    current."
+
+    The moving electrons disturb the aether around the wire and
+    produce what we know as a "magnetic field."
+
+    The electron explains why it is necessary to have a complete
+    circuit before any electric current can take place.
+
+    Also how one length of wire may be used to connect two distant
+    places provided the two extremities of the wire are buried in
+    the earth.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+A STEADY MARCH
+
+
+Personally I knew nothing about marching until quite recently. Indeed,
+none of my fellow-electrons seem to have had definite ideas of regular
+marches previous to last century. That century is prominent in our
+history as well as in man's. There is no doubt that before then we must
+have made more or less regular marches through the crust of the earth
+and elsewhere; but for myself I have no such recollection previous to
+the following occasion.
+
+The experience was not a very exciting one. I found myself passing along
+from atom to atom in a copper wire. But what was of special interest to
+us was that it became evident that these enforced marches were being
+deliberately controlled by man. Of course you will understand that man
+knew nothing of our existence at that time. All he knew was that when
+he placed a piece of zinc and a piece of copper in a chemical solution,
+there were certain effects produced in some mysterious fashion. For
+instance, when he connected the top of the two metals in this chemical
+cell or "battery" by a piece of wire, he got what he described as an
+_electric current_. Now all that happened really was this. The chemical
+action in this battery which man had devised caused a rearrangement
+among the atoms composing the metals and the solution, with the result
+that we poor electrons had to rearrange our domiciles. As an
+accumulation of electrons gathered on the zinc, some of us were forced
+along the connecting wire towards the copper. As long as the chemical
+action in the battery was kept up, so long were we kept on the march
+from the zinc to the copper by way of the wire.
+
+Man tried increasing the length of this wire bridge across which we had
+to pass, but we had no difficulty in making our way along. But you must
+not run away with the idea that we rush along the wire with lightning
+speed. Although we can fly through the aether at a prodigious speed, our
+progress from atom to atom in a wire is more like a snail-pace. As a
+matter of fact, our rate of march is much less than the walking pace of
+a man; indeed it may be stated conveniently as so many yards per hour.
+
+Some people may find it difficult to believe that our rate of march is
+so very slow. Their front door is a good many yards away from their
+electric bell, but it does not take us an hour, or any appreciable part
+of a minute, to summon the maid. The secret is that there is a whole
+regiment of us along the wire, and before one of us moves on to a
+neighbouring atom, another electron must move off that atom and on to
+its neighbour, and so on. In this way the electrons at the far end of
+the wire commence to move at practically the same moment as those near
+the battery.
+
+It has been a source of amusement to me to see people perfectly
+mystified by the fact that they can get no electric current unless they
+have a complete circuit. What else could they expect? How could man
+march if he had no road to march on? You see, the reason for our march
+is that we wish to escape from the overcrowding on the zinc, and we are
+forced towards the copper. The atoms composing the wire are our
+stepping-stones, and if there is not a complete chain of atoms we are
+helpless. You have already heard how we can jump an air-space under very
+great pressure, but that condition does not exist in the present case.
+When we are disturbed by the chemical action of the battery, we should
+prefer to have a short-cut from the zinc to the copper, but if the only
+path man gives us is by way of a long wire, then we must be content to
+travel that road, in order to reach the copper. It is a matter of little
+moment to us what arrangement man makes as long as he gives us a
+complete path. For instance, he may lead us out from the zinc to a
+distant telegraph instrument, and then, instead of providing a second
+wire to take us back to the battery, he may conduct us by a short wire
+to the earth. We are quite content to lose ourselves in this great
+reservoir, provided man places another short wire from the earth to the
+copper of the battery at the other end of the line. Then as we slip off
+at the one end of the line, an equal number of electrons can climb up at
+the other end, and thus enable all our friends in the long wire to keep
+up a steady march.
+
+This march of ours is not merely a means of transporting ourselves from
+one place to another; it is to enable us to do work. It is only when we
+are in motion that we can do useful work, for we must move before we can
+disturb the aether, and it is by means of the aether that we transmit
+energy.
+
+If you place a magnetic needle or mariner's compass near a wire along
+which we are making a steady march, you will find that we can affect our
+fellow-electrons who are stationed within the magnetic needle. We cause
+the needle to swing round and take up a position at right angles to our
+line of march. We succeed in doing this because these electrons in the
+magnetic needle are on the move also. But this reminds me that I have
+never told you how we produce that aether disturbance which you call
+_magnetism_.
+
+When, as children, you played with toy magnets in the nursery, little
+did you think that there was a host of tiny electrons amusing you. And
+yet we electrons are responsible entirely for all magnetic effects, as I
+shall proceed to explain.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+A USEFUL DANCE
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER EIGHT_
+
+    We believe magnetism to be due to electrons revolving around
+    atoms of iron and other magnetic substances, as related by the
+    electron in this chapter.
+
+    We have seen that the steady motion of electrons along a wire
+    produces a magnetic field around the wire.
+
+    Therefore if we have electrons revolving round and round the
+    atoms in a piece of iron, there will be a miniature magnetic
+    field around each atom.
+
+    The electron explains why a piece of iron does not show the
+    magnetic power locked up within it until it is "magnetised."
+
+    The electron refers to electro-magnets; an electro-magnet is
+    simply a piece of soft iron with a coil of insulated wire wound
+    around it.
+
+    The iron only shows its magnetic power as long as a current of
+    electricity is kept passing through the surrounding coil of
+    wire, for reasons which the electron explains.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+A USEFUL DANCE
+
+
+I may tell you quite frankly that I have never taken part in the
+perpetual dance of which I am about to tell you. I am of a free
+and roaming disposition, but I have often watched some of my
+fellow-electrons at this work. Of course, it is pleasant work, as all
+our duties are, now that man acknowledges our services.
+
+We are responsible for the behaviour of the mariner's compass needle. It
+is we who cause it to point continually in one definite direction. If we
+ceased to dance around the iron atoms in the compass needle aboard a
+ship, the man at the helm could not tell in what direction he was going,
+and sooner or later he would be almost certain to wreck his vessel. For
+this service alone man ought to be grateful to us, but before I have
+finished my story, you will find that even this important duty is but a
+small affair when compared with many of our other tasks.
+
+There is one matter I should like to make quite clear to you. Although
+we electrons are all identical, we have different stations to fill. You
+have doubtless become familiar with my roving disposition, and you
+probably think of me as a detachable electron. Then there are our
+friends who are locked up within the atoms of matter--part and parcel of
+the atom. And now I am introducing you to those electrons who act as
+satellites to the atoms, revolving around them at a comparatively great
+distance, just as the moon revolves around the earth. These are the
+electrons which give rise to the magnetism in a piece of iron. There are
+other electrons which perform very rapid revolutions around all classes
+of atoms, but I shall introduce these friends later on.
+
+[Illustration: A TOBACCO-TIN DEFYING GRAVITATION
+
+That phenomenon known as "magnetism" is due to the steady locomotion of
+electrons, as explained in the text. Here we see a large magnet
+attracting a tinned iron box which is tethered to the table by two
+cords. The result is that the box is supported in the air. The spiral
+wires are connected to the electro-magnet, an explanation of which is
+given in Chapter VIII.]
+
+I need hardly remark that a piece of ordinary iron does not behave like
+a magnet. Indeed, it is fortunate that it does not. If it did, man could
+not get along with his work very well. The hammer would stick to the
+head of the nail it had struck, the fire-irons would stick to the
+fender, while the cook's pots and pans would hold on to the kitchen
+range. That would be a very stupid arrangement, but we electrons have
+really no say in the matter of arrangement. We are always on the move,
+performing a perpetual dance around the iron atoms, but the atoms
+arrange themselves in a higgledy-piggledy fashion, so that the electrons
+on one atom pull the aether in one direction while others pull the aether
+in an opposite direction. In this way the outward effect is not
+perceptible. When, however, man places a coil of wire around the iron,
+and makes a crowd of electrons march along the wire, these marching
+electrons affect the aether, which in turn influences the satellite
+electrons which are revolving around the atoms of iron. You may be
+somewhat surprised when I tell you that, owing to this aether
+disturbance, these satellite electrons are able to produce a
+rearrangement among the atoms. If you doubt my word, you may easily
+prove the truth of the statement. If you magnetise a long bar of iron
+you will find that its length is actually altered. This is due to our
+having disturbed the arrangement of the atoms.
+
+Perhaps I should explain that when we force the atoms into their new
+condition, we can do so only under the aether stress set up by our
+fellow-electrons who are marching in the neighbouring wire. Whenever
+their march ceases the aether stress is withdrawn, and the atoms are able
+to fall back into their old higgledy-piggledy condition. In this way man
+is able to make a piece of iron a magnet and to unmake it as often as he
+cares by simply switching on and off the electric current from the wire
+surrounding the iron.
+
+If a piece of hard steel is used in place of soft iron, then we find
+that the atoms are not so easily disturbed, but when they are once
+brought into line with one another, they will remain in their new
+condition after the aether disturbance has been withdrawn. It may seem
+strange to you that quite a small percentage of carbon atoms added to
+the pure soft iron should cause such a marked difference, but the matter
+seems plain enough to us. Man was so impressed with the manner in which
+the atoms were evidently fixed in their new condition that he spoke of
+_permanent magnets_. It is especially fortunate for man that these
+pieces of steel do retain their magnetism, and give us a reliable
+mariner's compass. But I shall tell you how you may disturb even these
+sedate atoms. If you hammer the metal very vigorously, or if you heat it
+to redness, you will find that the atoms have been freed from what
+appeared to be their permanent position, and they are back to their old
+higgledy-piggledy condition, so that we electrons are all opposing one
+another. Remember we are hard at work all the time although we may be
+giving no outward sign of our activity.
+
+While we render an important aid to man by providing this permanent
+magnet for his compass, you will find that a very great deal of our
+assistance to man in his everyday life depends upon our behaviour in
+soft iron electro-magnets. It is in these that man can control our
+behaviour at will. It is through this simple piece of apparatus--the
+electro-magnet--that man has been able to accomplish so much in
+signalling to his friends at a distance. It is also by means of these
+electro-magnets that man can get us to turn an electric motor, and so
+on. But I must tell you, first of all, how we enable man to signal to a
+distance, or, in other words, how we carry man's news.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+HOW WE CARRY MAN'S NEWS
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER NINE_
+
+    The electron explains wherein its method differs from all other
+    methods.
+
+    It is well known that within recent years the old iron telegraph
+    wires have been replaced by much lighter copper wires; the
+    electron explains the reason for this change.
+
+    It describes how the electrons manage to work the most widely
+    used form of telegraph instrument, which is called the "Morse,"
+    after its inventor.
+
+    Here we find one of the practical applications of the
+    electro-magnet described in the preceding chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+HOW WE CARRY MAN'S NEWS
+
+
+It is we electrons who have so very far outdistanced all material
+carriers of news. You must acknowledge that the best runner, the
+swiftest horse, the fastest express train, and the prize carrier pigeon,
+are all nowhere when compared with us electrons.
+
+But I do not wish to mislead you in any way, and I can speak from
+personal experience in this case. We do not race off with man's messages
+in the same sense as these other messengers do. Our swiftness of
+communication depends upon the simple fact that man provides a whole
+connecting regiment of us between the two distant places. And when the
+order to march is given we all move off at practically the same moment.
+In this way the electrons at the far end of the connecting wire are able
+to cause signals there immediately. This is the secret of man's success
+in being able to hold immediate communication with his distant friends.
+His success is due entirely to the co-operation of us electrons.
+
+My personal experience has been in connection with a very simple
+telegraphic arrangement. Indeed, the most of our duties in transmitting
+messages are performed with this particular kind of instrument, known as
+a "Morse sounder."
+
+At the time of which I speak, I had become attached to an atom of iron
+in the end of a long telegraph wire. From this you will probably guess
+that my experience was gained some time ago, for man does not use iron
+wires nowadays in fitting up telegraph lines. He used iron at first, and
+some of these lines still exist, but when he discovered that a very much
+lighter copper wire would serve the same purpose, he discarded the heavy
+iron wires. Man explained the matter by saying that the copper offered
+less resistance to the electric current, and the majority of people were
+quite satisfied with this kind of explanation. Of course these are
+merely convenient phrases which give man no real reason for the
+difference. The real reason is that we electrons are able to move about
+from one copper atom to another with very much greater ease than we can
+among the iron atoms. That is the reason why man made the change from
+iron to copper wires, although he had no idea of the reason at the time.
+
+To return to my experience in connection with a telegraph instrument, I
+found that we were being subjected to a series of forced marches. The
+whole regiment of electrons along the line made a forward move. The line
+of march ended in a short length of fine wire wound around a piece of
+soft iron to form an electro-magnet. The end of the wire dipped into the
+earth, as I have explained in an earlier chapter.
+
+Now all that we electrons had to do was to make a forward move, halt,
+forward again, another halt, and so on. Sometimes the signal to halt was
+longer in being given than at other times, but we found that this was
+intentional, and that there were two definite lengths of march. I have
+explained already how we marching electrons cause an electro-magnet to
+attract a piece of iron and let it go again as soon as we cease
+marching. It only remains for me to give you a general statement of how
+we work the Morse telegraph.
+
+Man has arranged a little lever with an iron end-piece immediately above
+the electro-magnet, so that the magnet may attract it. Of course you are
+aware that it is the electrons within the soft-iron core of the
+electro-magnet who produce the magnetic effect. Every time we electrons
+in the surrounding wire make a forward move, the electro-magnet pulls
+down the end of the little lever referred to. As long as we keep
+marching, so long will the end of the lever remain down, but the moment
+we halt, the lever is free to be pulled up by a spring attached to it.
+The movements of the lever indicate the length of our long and short
+marches, and it is by means of these that man sends signals. All that he
+does is to control our march, by means of an electric push and a battery
+at one end of the wire, and it is we who produce the signals at the
+distant end of the wire. Each time man presses the push we move the
+distant lever. When we pull the lever down it is so arranged that it
+makes a sound like "click," and when we let it spring up against a stop
+it makes another sound not unlike "clack." Our long and short marches
+are therefore converted into long and short "click-clacks." Man has made
+a simple code of signals representing his alphabet, and right merrily do
+we rap out the signals for which we receive orders at the distant end of
+the wire, while some one at the other end listens to the sounds we cause
+to be made.
+
+I have told you enough of our duties to let you see how we are able to
+carry man's news from one part of the earth to any other part. By far
+the greatest part of our signalling work is done with this simple Morse
+sounder.
+
+It may interest you to note that we can produce those signals far faster
+than man can read them. When man found this out he took advantage of our
+powers. He made an automatic transmitter which could manipulate the
+make-and-break of the battery current far more rapidly than any human
+fingers could do. Then as we rapped off the signals with lightning speed
+at the distant end, he attached a little ink-wheel to the end of the
+moving lever, so that it could mark short and long strokes on a ribbon
+of paper passing close to it. Although man could not distinguish the
+signals by his ear he was able to read the record of those we caused to
+be left upon the paper ribbon.
+
+We have been made to work many other forms of telegraph instruments. In
+some of these we control type-letters, while in others we imitate
+handwriting, but all these are merely adaptations of our powers of
+marching. We are proud of our achievements in rapid signalling, which
+all right-thinking people have not been slow to acknowledge.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+HOW WE COMMUNICATE WITH DISTANT SHIPS
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER TEN_
+
+    In this chapter the electron deals with that modern
+    marvel--_Wireless Telegraphy_.
+
+    Here the aether of space plays a very prominent part.
+
+    The author has given some particulars about the aether in the
+    first chapter (_What the Story is about_).
+
+    In conjunction with that, the electron may be left to tell its
+    own story.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+HOW WE COMMUNICATE WITH DISTANT SHIPS
+
+
+Our duties in this case are totally different from those of which I have
+been telling you. While we electrons can do many wonderful things, we
+cannot march through space. We may be fired off like bullets from the
+sun to the earth, but that is quite another matter. I shall have
+something to say about that fact later on. You have seen already that
+man can make us jump only a very short distance, even when he has
+cleared our path of the obstructing air, as he does in a vacuum tube.
+
+If men were to provide us with a complete path of metal atoms from the
+shore to the ship, we could set to work upon the simple plan which I
+have described in the preceding chapter. But, needless to say, man has
+more sense than to attempt to keep up metallic connection with a ship
+going away out to sea.
+
+Even the wisest men were surprised when they heard that we electrons
+could signal through space to great distances without any connecting
+wires. We ourselves were not surprised. Had we not been doing this very
+thing from the foundation of the world? Our fellow-electrons in the sun
+have never ceased to communicate with those of us upon the earth. Of
+course I am referring at present to those aether waves which man calls
+_heat_ and _light_. But the waves which we make to carry man's messages
+through space are of the very same nature, the only difference being
+that they are much longer, or, in other words, much farther apart. They
+do not follow each other so closely, and they do not affect the eye or
+the sense of touch. However, these long waves are able to bestir some of
+us electrons who are situated at a great distance from the sending
+electrons.
+
+Our method of producing such waves in the aether is by surging to and fro
+from atom to atom in an upright wire. When we make a rapid to-and-fro
+motion we send out great waves in the aether. The original plan adopted
+by man was to make us jump across a spark-gap, but in this case also it
+was our rapid oscillation to and fro that produced the waves. If we wish
+the waves to carry to a great distance, we must club together in
+considerable force to supply the necessary energy. The energy which we
+can get from a battery and induction coil is not sufficient for any very
+long distances. In such cases we require the aid of a _dynamo_, a
+machine about which I shall have some experience to relate in another
+chapter.
+
+In communicating through space, our position is very similar to that of
+two men shouting to one another over a distance. The one man disturbs
+the air, thus sending air-waves (sound) over to his friend, and these
+waves produce certain sensations which he can interpret. I should like
+you to understand that we electrons are upon a higher plane than atoms
+of matter. We cause waves in the all-pervading aether, not among clumsy
+particles of air. After these aether waves have travelled enormous
+distances they retain sufficient energy to disturb electrons situated at
+the distant place.
+
+I shall tell you of the first experience I had in this connection. I
+found myself attached to an atom of _nickel_, a kind of atom which looks
+to us electrons very much like an iron atom, because it has nearly the
+same number of electrons composing it, only they are arranged
+differently. But I was telling you that I found myself on this nickel
+atom sealed up in a small glass tube. Of course there were myriads of
+similar atoms all around me, but I did not feel very happy. I was being
+urged forward, and yet I could not get across from some atoms to others,
+for the nickel was in the form of loose filings. From past experience I
+knew that there was a battery along the line somewhere; I could feel the
+strain. All of a sudden I was startled to find that I could move
+forward. Exactly what happened, I am not at liberty to tell, but this
+much I may say, that it was the arrival of some aether waves which
+altered the condition of things among the filings in the tube.
+
+[Illustration: A MOTOR-CAR WITH WIRELESS TELEGRAPH
+
+It has become quite a fashion in America to have motor-cars fitted up
+for wireless telegraphy. That the electrons play an important part in
+telegraphing through space is explained fully in Chapter X.]
+
+We had just started out on our march forward when we received such a
+shaking that we found ourselves in the same isolated positions as at
+first; we could not get across from one particle to another. More
+aether waves arrived, we made a fresh start, then came another rude
+shaking, and so on we went starting and stopping. Indeed, it was the
+regularity of these long and short marches that gave me the first idea
+that we were being controlled by some telegraph operator. We were amused
+to find that the rude shaking, of which I have been telling you, was
+caused by the action of some of our fellow-electrons. Some of them in
+their march around an electro-magnet in the receiving instrument caused
+a little lever to knock against our tube and give us a sudden jolt.
+
+I should like you to notice that the energy with which we moved the
+telegraph instrument did not come from the distant station. It was a
+local battery which worked the receiving instrument, but this battery
+was controlled by the incoming aether waves affecting the tube of
+filings. There is really no mystery about the matter, but I am anxious
+not to take credit for anything more wonderful than we have actually
+accomplished.
+
+We electrons have rendered a very great service to man by enabling him
+to communicate with his friends who are far out on the ocean, and cut
+off from all possible chance of material communication. We are willing
+to serve man on land also, though we very much prefer the ordinary
+marching arrangement if he will provide a connecting wire. The fact is
+that we find it very much more difficult to send aether waves over land
+than we do over water.
+
+I have heard some men ask how many different telegraph instruments may
+be worked at one place simultaneously without confusion. That is a
+question for man himself to answer. We electrons are able to produce any
+variety of waves of different frequency or length; it remains only for
+man to construct apparatus that will respond only to a definite rate of
+waves. I hear that man has made considerable progress in tuning the
+wireless instruments.
+
+Some men are eager to get us to carry messages through space across the
+great oceans from shore to shore. We shall not refuse, provided man
+supplies sufficient energy, but I must admit that we electrons prefer
+the submarine cable. Of course man may put this down to our laziness; we
+certainly prefer as little severe straining as possible.
+
+I have been telling you of my earliest and only personal experience in
+connection with space telegraphy. I understand that greatly improved
+methods have been adopted since that time, but I have never happened to
+drift in their direction.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+HOW WE REPRODUCE SPEECH
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER ELEVEN_
+
+    In the first part of this chapter the electron explains the part
+    it plays in ordinary telephony.
+
+    The reader will picture the transmitting instrument at the one
+    end of the line influencing the receiving instrument at the
+    distant end.
+
+    Towards the end of the chapter the electron turns its attention
+    to the newer subject of _wireless telephony_, which has been
+    accomplished now over a distance of several hundred miles.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+HOW WE REPRODUCE SPEECH
+
+
+My scribe suggested a rather clumsy title for this chapter--"Electrons
+_versus_ atoms as carriers of speech." I expect he made this suggestion
+without much thought, for there are two serious objections to such a
+title.
+
+In the first place, we are not carriers of speech. We are controlled by
+speech at one end of the telephone line, and we make a reproduction of
+the speech at the distant end of the line. No sound passes between the
+two places; there is only a movement of electrons along the connecting
+line.
+
+My second objection to the hurriedly suggested title is that it is
+hardly fair to make any comparison between the achievements of atoms of
+matter and those of ourselves. We are not in the same category as
+atoms. Besides, we electrons are dependent entirely upon the material
+atoms for making our work useful to man. For instance, we might keep on
+making waves in the aether for all time, and yet if the atoms of matter
+were to pay no heed to those imperceptible waves, man would never be
+aware of their presence. Indeed we electrons act solely as go-betweens.
+On the other hand, it is only fair to ourselves to point out that a
+group of atoms in one town could never communicate with a group of atoms
+in a distant town unless we electrons came to their aid. It is true that
+over a very short distance the atoms may communicate directly. For
+instance, if a heavy blow is given to a large gong, the atoms of metal
+may vibrate so energetically that they succeed in disturbing the atoms
+of gas of the surrounding atmosphere for some considerable distance. But
+in the case of speech, the speaker cannot supply any great energy, so
+that he can disturb the atmosphere only to a very limited distance. We
+electrons, however, can do yeoman service in this respect. We have
+enabled men to speak to one another over immense distances.
+
+The whole affair is very simple. Man speaks and causes the atmospheric
+atoms to vibrate and impinge upon a light disc or diaphragm in a simple
+instrument which man has named the _telephone_. This vibrating disc
+presses upon a myriad of carbon particles contained in a small case or
+box, the disc forming one side of the box. When these carbon particles
+are pressed together we electrons can get across more easily from atom
+to atom. There is a battery urging us forward, but our motion is
+dependent entirely upon the manner in which the vibrating disc presses
+upon the carbon particles. I cannot describe our movement in the
+line-wire as a march; it is in reality a surging to and fro.
+
+You will understand that this to-and-fro motion of the electrons in the
+line-wire varies according to the vibrations of the sending disc, which
+is controlled by the speaker's voice. At the distant end of the line we
+electrons bring our magnetic powers into action. We keep varying the
+attractive powers of an electro-magnet, according to the motion of the
+electrons in the wire. This ever-changing magnet produces vibrations in
+an iron disc which is fixed close to the magnet. This disc is set
+vibrating in exact sympathy with the sending disc. When the listener
+places this receiving disc close to his ear, the vibrations are carried
+by the atmospheric atoms to his hearing apparatus. All that we electrons
+have done is to cause one disc to vibrate in exact synchrony with
+another distant disc. But that is all that is required, for the
+receiving disc will reproduce similar air-vibrations to those set up by
+the man's voice at the distant place. I have pointed out already that we
+do not attempt to carry the sound. It is true that the atoms of matter
+do the hard work, but it is we electrons who enable a group of atoms in
+one town to communicate with a group of atoms in a distant town.
+
+It was natural that as soon as man found that he could work his
+telegraph instruments without the aid of connecting wires, he should try
+to do the same with his telephone instruments. We were sorry when we
+found men trying to use the original spark-telegraphy methods for
+telephones. While we had no difficulty in operating a telegraph
+instrument by means of aether waves and the tube of filings, it was quite
+impossible for us to produce telephone vibrations on the same
+principle. This spark method was a too rough-and-ready plan. The waves
+we produced were like sudden splashes in the aether ocean, whereas we
+knew that we must produce regular trains of continuous waves in order to
+reproduce telephone vibrations. However, you may be aware that we have
+succeeded by a different arrangement of apparatus. Indeed it may
+interest you to know that one of my most recent experiences has been in
+connection with some wireless-telephone experiments.
+
+Unfortunately I was not in a very favourable position to learn all that
+was going on, but it was quite exciting work. I happened to be attached
+to an atom of copper in a length of wire which had been run up into the
+air on a sort of flag-pole arrangement. I need hardly say that I was not
+alone, for by this time you will have become accustomed to picture
+myriads of electrons occupying a very small space.
+
+We were set vibrating to and fro with tremendous energy, but what
+bothered me most was the great variation in our movements. It was the
+nature of these variations which gave me the clue that we were being
+controlled by the vibrations of a telephone disc. I can tell you we did
+make a complex series of waves in the surrounding aether! These waves
+went out through space and influenced some electrons stationed at a
+great distance. When these electrons at the receiving station were set
+in motion they controlled the electric current from a local battery
+which set a second telephone disc vibrating in synchrony with the one at
+the sending station.
+
+On questioning some of my fellow-electrons who happened to have been
+nearer the transmitting part of the instrument than I had been, I got
+some interesting information. They tell me that there was a dynamo and
+an arc lamp in our circuit, while the telephone instrument was in a
+neighbouring circuit. The electrons surging to and fro in the telephone
+circuit influenced those energetic electrons in the arc-lamp circuit to
+which the aerial wire was attached. You see that my position in the aerial
+wire was not a very advantageous one for observing what was taking
+place.
+
+This was truly a great achievement--to enable one man to speak to
+another distant hundreds of miles, and without the aid of any connecting
+wire. I think you will agree with me that we have excelled all past
+records in the world of wonders.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+OUR HEAVIEST DUTIES
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER TWELVE_
+
+    Here the electron explains its behaviour in a dynamo at work.
+
+    The principle of the dynamo was discovered by Faraday in the
+    thirties of last century.
+
+    He found that when a coil of wire was moved through a magnetic
+    field, there was a current of electricity induced in the moving
+    coil.
+
+    Experimental machines were constructed, and after a while a
+    practical dynamo was evolved.
+
+    Wires are attached to a dynamo and the electric current is led
+    out.
+
+    This current may be conducted to a distant tramway car, and, by
+    sending the current through an electric motor, mechanical motion
+    is produced and the car propelled along.
+
+    An electric motor is practically the same as a dynamo, but
+    instead of turning its coil round in order to produce an
+    electric current, we pass a current into the coil and it moves
+    round. It will be sufficient to leave the electron to tell its
+    own story.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+OUR HEAVIEST DUTIES
+
+
+This is another of those roving commissions in which I have been
+privileged to take part on more than one occasion.
+
+If you think of the giant size of an electric tramway car or a railway
+train, and try to compare one of these with an electron, such as your
+humble servant, it will seem quite ridiculous that I should suggest that
+it is we electrons who move those huge vehicles. Yet such is the actual
+case.
+
+Of course we require the application of very considerable power to urge
+us to so heavy a task. All the energy which we can get from a few
+electric batteries might enable us to drive a toy car, but when it comes
+to turning the wheels of a real car or train, we require a
+correspondingly greater amount of energy.
+
+I may as well tell you quite frankly that we electrons are only the
+intermediaries or go-betweens. Indeed, you must have noticed that in
+every case we act merely as a connecting link between matter and the
+aether, and between the aether and matter.
+
+But what I want to tell you of, is the part we play in moving an
+electric car or railway train. It is really all very simple if you could
+only see it from our standpoint. Picture a host of us attached to copper
+atoms in a coil of wire which is being moved through that disturbed
+aether called a _magnetic field_. We are set in motion immediately. It is
+true that when we are moved forward into the field we march off in one
+direction, only to be arrested and made to move off in the opposite
+direction as we leave the field, but it really makes no difference in
+our working capabilities as long as we are kept on the move. This is
+what is actually taking place in the armature of a dynamo as it revolves
+between the poles of the electro-magnet. There is no peace for us so
+long as the coil is kept revolving; we are kept in a constant state of
+rapid to-and-fro motion.
+
+[Illustration: A TRAIN IMPELLED BY MOVING ELECTRONS
+
+_By permission of Siemens Schuckert Werke_
+
+_Berlin_
+
+It is remarkable that the motion of electrons in an electric conductor
+can result in the movement of heavy vehicles. How this comes about is
+explained in Chapter XII.]
+
+This is all we electrons do in a dynamo, but when the ends of the outer
+circuit or mains are brought into contact with the ends of our
+revolving coil, we set the electrons in the mains surging to and fro in
+step with ourselves. Man describes this motion of the electrons in the
+mains as an _alternating electric current_, but by a simple commutator
+on the dynamo he may arrange that we set the electrons marching in one
+direction in the mains. This he describes as a _direct electric
+current_.
+
+It is a matter of indifference to us whether man drives our coil round
+by means of a steam-engine, a water-wheel, or a wind-mill; all that we
+electrons want is to be kept surging or vibrating to and fro. Now you
+will be able to appreciate how we electrons get up sufficient motion to
+enable us to perform what I have described as _our heaviest duties_.
+
+Perhaps you will find it difficult to believe me when I tell you that as
+we march along the connecting wire to a distant tramway car we transmit
+the energy through the surrounding aether, and not through the wire. This
+is our mode of working in every case, whether it be an electric bell, a
+telegraph, or telephone. That is to say, while we electrons move from
+atom to atom in the connecting wire, it is the disturbed aether
+surrounding us which transmits the energy. You must have realised by
+this time how very intimate is the relationship between ourselves and
+the aether.
+
+To return to the tale of our tramway work, you will picture my
+fellow-electrons aboard the car being energised by the incoming current.
+Those electrons present in the armature coil of the motor are set into
+motion, as also are those in the wire of the neighbouring
+electro-magnet. The result is that these two sets of electrons so
+disturb the aether and affect one another that the coil is moved round
+into a different position. You will remember the experiment of which I
+told you, in which a magnetic needle would insist always in taking up a
+position at right angles to a wire in which an electric current is
+passing. Well, when the motor coil has turned into its new position, we
+electrons receive an impulse from our friends in the line-wire which
+causes us to retrace our steps in the coil. This action of ours causes
+the coil to make a further movement in the same direction as at first.
+Again we change our direction of march, and again the coil changes its
+position towards the electro-magnet. The sole duty of these electrons in
+the armature coil is to keep surging to and fro, while those electrons
+in the electro-magnet keep up a steady march in one direction. This
+arrangement necessitates the armature coil to keep changing its position
+continually, and when we have the armature coil spinning round at a
+steady pace, it is easy for man to connect the armature to the axles of
+the tramway car and cause us to drive the wheels round.
+
+I need hardly say that it makes no difference to us whether we are asked
+to drive a tramway car, a railway train, or a host of machines in a
+factory or workshop. All that we electrons in the motor require is to
+have sufficient energy passed along to us from our fellows in the
+distant dynamo. Again I admit frankly that the atoms of matter play a
+very important part in these our heaviest duties, but you will see that
+without our active assistance they could not transmit the necessary
+energy to a distant car or train.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+A BOON TO MAN
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER THIRTEEN_
+
+    While it has been known for a long time that _light_ and
+    _radiant heat_ are merely waves in the aether, it was not known
+    until recently how these waves were produced.
+
+    The discovery of electrons has given us a reasonable solution of
+    our difficulty.
+
+    The electron explains the actions of its fellows in this great
+    work of producing light and heat.
+
+    Incidentally the electron explains how they produce an aurora in
+    the heavens, and how it is that the earth has become a
+    negatively electrified body.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+A BOON TO MAN
+
+
+Every living thing is dependent upon our activities. It is we electrons
+who send out heat and light from the sun, and it is we who receive these
+on their arrival upon this planet. Our action in the matter is really
+very simple, but until man discovered our existence, he was mystified
+considerably.
+
+We were amused to hear man say that the atoms of incandescent matter in
+the sun produced waves in the aether, and that when these aether waves
+fell upon other atoms on this planet, these were set into a state of
+vibration, thus producing heat and light. Now if man had only stopped to
+think, he would have seen how ridiculous it was to speak of atoms of
+matter producing waves in the aether. He ought to have known that atoms
+of matter cannot affect the aether, for it offers no resistance to
+matter moving through it.
+
+Man might have pictured himself riding on the back of this great planet,
+flying through space at a speed very similar to that of a rifle bullet,
+and yet even the flimsy blanket of air surrounding the planet is not
+disturbed by the aether through which it is rushing.
+
+It is true that the atoms of matter play an important part in the origin
+of heat, but the atoms in the sun could no more affect the atoms on the
+earth than could a man on the earth push the moon about. It is the very
+intimate connection between us electrons and the all-pervading aether
+which enables our fellows in the sun to communicate with those of us
+upon this planet. Where would man be without us?
+
+[Illustration: PROTECTION AGAINST A DISCHARGE OF ELECTRONS
+
+_By permission of Siemens Schuckert Werke_
+
+_Berlin_
+
+When a man is encased completely in an over-all made of flexible
+metallic gauze he is proof against shock due to a discharge of
+high-tension electricity. The part played by electrons in the case of
+electric shock is explained in Chapter IV.]
+
+I cannot understand wherein man should find any mystery in connection
+with this very simple action of ours. You will picture our distant
+fellow-electrons making very rapid revolutions around the atoms of
+matter to which they are attached as satellites. Just as the moon
+circles around the earth, so do we circle around our atoms, but at an
+enormously greater speed. Of course the whole length of our orbit is
+inconceivably small, and the speed of our revolutions is inconceivably
+great. It is our rapid motion through the aether which produces those
+waves known to man as radiant heat and light. Some one may ask how it is
+that we electrons can disturb the aether while the giant atoms cannot.
+The obvious answer is that we are not matter, but electricity; we are
+not in the same category as atoms of matter.
+
+To complete the picture which I was drawing, you have only to think of
+the aether waves arriving upon this planet and disturbing sympathetic
+electrons, causing them to revolve around their atoms in similar fashion
+to our distant fellows who are producing the aether waves.
+
+It may be that some people get confused between this action and that of
+those electrons who are shot off bodily from the sun towards the earth.
+Believe me, there is no connection between the two things. The stream of
+electrons shot off from the sun is deflected towards the magnetic poles
+of the earth, and as the electrons enter the upper layers of the
+atmosphere they produce that beautiful luminous effect which man
+describes as an _Aurora_.
+
+I have never taken part in one of these great displays, for, as far as
+my recollection goes, I have never been in the sun, although some
+fellow-electrons declare that at one time we were all in the same great
+glowing mass of which the sun, and every member of the solar system,
+formed a part. However that may be, I certainly have no experience of
+aurorae, but I have assisted in producing the very same effect upon a
+small scale within a vacuum tube. The air remaining in these so-called
+vacuum tubes is just as rarified as the air in the upper layers of the
+atmosphere, and when we are shot across the tube we act in the same way
+as those electrons arriving upon this planet from the sun.
+
+You will observe that as a surplus of electrons arrives upon the earth
+from the sun, the earth is naturally a negatively electrified body, but
+I need hardly say that the earth does not keep all the electrons which
+arrive upon it.
+
+My scribe points out that I am wandering from the story which I set out
+to tell in this chapter, so I shall try and please him.
+
+The direct cause of light, whether it be natural or artificial, is the
+rapid motion of electrons around atoms of matter. If they revolve at a
+comparatively slow speed they produce those aether waves which man calls
+_radiant heat_. If these satellite electrons, however, desire to affect
+the eye of man, they have to move around at a very much greater speed.
+If we travel at too fast a speed, then we cease to cause the sensation
+of light. But, believe me, all the waves we make are of the same nature,
+no matter what names man has given them. The only difference we can make
+in the waves is the rate at which they follow one another. Of course we
+can also make them larger or smaller in height, or, in other words, of
+greater or less amplitude, but that does not affect their properties.
+
+In the following chapter I shall tell you of some remarkable phenomena
+which our different aether waves produce in the brain of man.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+HOW WE PRODUCE COLOUR
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER FOURTEEN_
+
+    Colour is merely a sensation in the brain.
+
+    What the electrons really produce are aether waves, and these
+    give rise to the sensations of colour.
+
+    However, the electrons may claim to produce colour in the same
+    sense as we savages produce pain in fellow-men by firing
+    rifle-bullets at them.
+
+    The electron explains how some objects appear white, while
+    others are red, and so forth.
+
+    It explains also how electrons produce artificial light.
+
+    The electron twits man upon his ridiculously wasteful processes
+    of obtaining artificial light.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+HOW WE PRODUCE COLOUR
+
+
+In the preceding chapter I have been telling you how we electrons
+produce waves in the aether ocean. I pointed out that if we make the
+waves follow each other at too slow or too fast a rate they fail to
+affect man's eyes.
+
+It may seem strange to you that only a very small range of our aether
+waves should affect man's visionary apparatus. Of course this limitation
+lies beyond our province; we can produce endless variety of aether
+waves--it is man's organs which fail to appreciate the bulk of these.
+However, there is plenty of variety in the sensations which we can
+produce in man. If we make the waves follow each other at a certain
+speed, man says he has the sensation of _red_. If we move faster, he
+speaks of _orange-colour_, and as we increase our speed he names his
+further sensations as _yellow_, _green_, _blue_, and _violet_. Then if
+we combine all these waves--that is, if we produce them all at one
+time--he says he has the sensation of _white_. If we produce none of
+these waves, he calls the result _black_.
+
+While we electrons are very versatile, our actions are dependent in a
+great measure upon circumstances. For instance, if an electron is acting
+as a satellite to one particular kind of atom, its rate of revolution
+around that atom may be very different from that of an electron
+similarly attached to another kind of atom. We electrons are all
+identical, but the speed of revolution is determined by the kind of
+atom. The reason is very simple; electrons revolve around some atoms at
+a much greater distance than they would around other atoms. Those making
+only the smaller orbits not only get around their atoms in less time,
+but they are also travelling at a greater pace. It is this fact which
+enables the electrons to produce the various wave-lengths which
+stimulate the different colour sensations in the brain of man.
+
+I think you will have no difficulty in seeing how it is that we come to
+produce such a variety of wave-lengths--in other words, how we are able
+to make the waves follow each other more or less rapidly. You will
+understand that we do not produce colours; we merely make various waves
+in the aether, and these waves excite the colour sensations in man. I
+mention this simple fact, because I hear many people speaking of our
+aether waves as "coloured rays," which, of course, is quite a ridiculous
+description.
+
+Suppose some of those waves which give rise to the red sensation happen
+to fall upon a lump of matter which contains only electrons capable of
+producing waves that affect the green sensation. What will happen? There
+will be no response, and the object, although viewed by "red light,"
+will appear black.
+
+If an object, such as the white paper upon which my scribe is recording
+my story, contains a variety of atoms with electrons capable of
+revolving at all the different rates which produce colour sensations,
+then when "white light" falls upon the object it appears white (all the
+colour sensations combined). If, on the other hand, a "red light" only
+falls upon it, then only the electrons capable of responding to that
+rate of wave will be set in motion, and the object will appear red, and
+so on with the other rates of aether waves.
+
+So far I have been telling you what happens when different waves of
+light fall upon us. Now I shall endeavour to explain how man has caused
+us to produce artificial light. At present all man's methods in this
+direction are dependent upon making some substance so hot that it
+becomes incandescent. Even his most modern methods seem to us to be
+ridiculously wasteful and most roundabout. I shall speak only of the
+electric glow lamp, as I have had some experience in connection with
+this.
+
+On one occasion I had been taking part in a regular forward march from
+copper atom to copper atom in a conducting wire. I had no idea of the
+purpose of our march till I suddenly found myself handed over to some
+carbon atoms, who were in a very lively state of vibration. We had much
+more difficulty in making our way through this substance, and it was the
+passive resistance offered to the advance of the electrons who had
+preceded me that had driven the carbon atoms into this state of great
+excitement. In our march through the copper conductor we had been
+offered very little resistance, so that we had left the copper atoms in
+peace--at least man could not detect easily any excitement (heat). But
+so long as our forced march was maintained among the carbon atoms, so
+long did the high temperature exist.
+
+You will understand I and the other marching electrons did not produce
+the waves of light sent out by the glow lamp. What we did was to set the
+atoms of carbon into a rapid vibratory state, and they in turn caused
+their satellite electrons to hasten their pace. Some electrons produced
+one rate of waves, and some another rate, but by the time the carbon was
+incandescent there were electrons sending out all the variety of
+wave-lengths, the combination of which produces the sensation of white.
+
+I have accused man of adopting very wasteful processes, so I had better
+explain the matter. In the preceding description of what is occurring in
+an electric glow lamp, I have spoken only of those aether waves which
+constitute light. But there are myriads of electrons in the carbon of
+the glow lamp that never attain the requisite speed to produce those
+waves; they revolve around their atoms at too slow a rate. They
+certainly disturb the aether, but the crests of the waves are so far
+apart that they do not affect the eyes of man. The business of these
+waves is to set up heat in the bodies upon which they fall. You may be
+surprised to know that in this contrivance of man, called an electric
+glow lamp, and, indeed, in all his other artificial light-producers, he
+causes far more electrons to produce radiant heat than the desired light
+waves. A most wasteful process!
+
+Man has a long way to travel yet before he succeeds in producing
+artificial light by a reasonable process. Indeed I doubt if any of you
+can realise, as we do, how exceedingly stupid the existing methods are.
+Think for a moment of the glow-worm, in which we electrons produce light
+without setting up any wasteful heat waves. There is a strong contrast
+between this peaceful plan and that of the excited carbon atoms. When
+will man succeed in discovering this secret of ours?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+WE SEND MESSAGES FROM THE STARS
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER FIFTEEN_
+
+    It is remarkable that man has been able to discover what the
+    distant stars are made of.
+
+    Our knowledge concerning the chemistry of the stars has been
+    obtained by means of the spectroscope, in which a beam of light
+    from the star is passed through a glass prism.
+
+    The result is the well-known image of the coloured spectrum, in
+    which certain well-defined lines appear, according to the
+    distant elements originating the aether waves.
+
+    The electron explains the whole subject from its own point of
+    view.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+WE SEND MESSAGES FROM THE STARS
+
+
+It is only within recent times that man has observed that we send
+messages from the distant stars to this planet. But there is nothing new
+to us in this proceeding; we have been busy sending these messages ever
+since the solar system was formed. Through all those ages we have kept
+on sending these messages, knowing that in time man must come to take
+notice of them.
+
+If the subject should happen to be new to you, you will be anxious to
+know to what kind of messages I refer. Needless to say, they are
+wireless messages--waves in the great aether ocean. The waves, to which I
+refer specially, fall within that small range of which I told you
+something in the preceding chapter. In other words, they are those waves
+to which man has given the name _light_. But what special information
+do these waves, coming from the stars, convey to man? They tell him of
+what materials these distant stars are made. Needless to say, it is we
+electrons who produce those informative waves.
+
+You are familiar with our method of producing waves. You know that we
+whirl around the atoms of matter at prodigious speeds, and that
+according to the number of revolutions we make per second, we produce
+waves of corresponding frequencies.
+
+In an earlier chapter I have hinted that the speed of the revolving
+electron is determined by the kind of atom to which it acts as a
+satellite. For instance, when electrons revolve around iron atoms they
+produce certain wave-lengths, while those moving around hydrogen atoms
+produce an entirely different series of waves. But how is man to
+recognise these?
+
+It is quite evident that man may gaze at a distant star and be little
+the wiser concerning the different lengths of the waves which impinge
+upon his eyes. He may observe that the sensation is inclined to red,
+from which he may infer that the waves are long ones--that they are
+farther apart than some of the waves produced by a white-hot body. But
+had man been content to try and decipher our wireless messages in this
+rough-and-ready manner, he would never have gained the interesting
+information which we have now placed in his hands. How, then, did we
+enable man to read our messages?
+
+Our plan may seem to be somewhat mysterious, but I assure you that it is
+really very simple. When these aether waves of light fall upon a
+triangular prism of glass, the waves are bent out of their normally
+straight path. But the point that may seem strange to you, is that those
+waves which produce the sensation of red are not bent so much as the
+others. The more rapidly the waves follow one another, the greater is
+the bending of such a ray from its original direction. In this way the
+various wave-lengths are all spread out, so that they form an image like
+a coloured ribbon, red at one end, being followed by orange, yellow,
+green, blue, and violet. Every man must be familiar with this coloured
+spectrum. When some of my fellows are enclosed in drops of water in the
+air they produce a great rainbow spectrum across the heavens. But I
+must tell you how we electrons succeed in bending these rays of light.
+
+I have told you already how we either absorb or reflect the aether waves
+which happen to fall upon us. In most substances it is only those
+electrons very near the surface that are disturbed. They succeed in
+stopping the waves. They may do this in either of two different ways. If
+the satellite electrons are attracted strongly by their atoms, the
+electrons will spin around the atoms keeping time to the movements of
+the incoming waves, and in this way the electrons take up the energy of
+the waves. In doing this, the electrons send out fresh waves in the
+aether. This is the real explanation of what man calls _reflection_ of
+light.
+
+[Illustration: THE SPECTROSCOPE AND THE ELECTRONS' WIRELESS MESSAGES
+
+The spectroscope is seen in the extreme left of No. 1 photograph. The
+instrument is explained at page 207.
+
+The operator is passing an electric current through a glass tube
+containing a rarefied gas, causing the gas to become luminous. When he
+examines its light through the spectroscope he sees bright lines as
+shown in photograph No. 2, and from the position of these lines he can
+tell what substance is producing the light. No. 2 is the spectrum of
+mercury vapour. No. 3 is part of the spectrum of the sun. Note the dark
+lines, as explained in the text.]
+
+In the second case, the electrons are not so firmly attached to their
+atoms, so that the incoming waves dislodge them, and they are knocked
+about from atom to atom, and in this way the energy of the waves is
+frittered away. Man speaks of the light having been _absorbed_ by the
+substance upon which it fell. In both cases the only electrons which
+take part in these actions are those electrons who can move in
+sympathy with the incoming waves.
+
+It will be clear to you that only those of us who are near the surface
+of a substance know anything about these incoming waves. The electrons
+attached to atoms in the interior of the substance are left in peace,
+owing to the defensive actions of our fellows on the outside. But this
+is not the case with all substances. There are some congregations of
+atoms through which the aether waves can make their way. Man calls such
+materials _transparent_; for example, glass and water are transparent
+substances. The fact of the matter is that in such substances none of us
+are able to respond to the incoming waves, and so we cannot stop them. I
+should say almost none of us, for there are always a few electrons
+present who happen to be in sympathy with the incoming waves. That is
+why no substance is perfectly transparent.
+
+The point concerning which I wish to speak in particular is this.
+Although we allow the aether waves to pass through such substances, we do
+offer some slight resistance to the passage of the waves; the faster the
+to-and-fro motion of the waves, the more resistance do we offer. That
+is why the waves of highest frequency are bent farthest from the
+straight line when passed through a glass prism. We actually force the
+aether waves to travel slower through a piece of glass than through the
+air.
+
+Now there should be no mystery concerning our action in a triangular
+piece of glass. Whatever combination of aether waves falls upon it, the
+different trains of waves are sorted out according to their frequencies.
+Suppose, for instance, that aether waves emitted from some incandescent
+sodium are passed through a glass prism. The bulk of the electrons
+attached to the sodium atoms are capable of revolving at speeds which
+produce waves causing the sensation of yellow. Hence there will appear a
+very distinct line of yellow light in the spectrum. But why should the
+light be in the form of a line? Simply because our aether waves are
+passed through a narrow slit in a shutter. But I need not trouble you
+with further details of our actions, which, although very simple to us,
+may seem somewhat strange to you.
+
+You will understand, however, that we form bright lines in different
+parts of the spectrum, according to the kinds of atoms to which we are
+attached. It was this fact which attracted man's attention to our
+wireless messages. He soon discovered the meaning of these lines, for he
+commenced to take exact notes of the different positions in which we
+placed these lines. He saw that when we were attached to hydrogen atoms
+we always produced three prominent lines; a very distinct line in the
+red section, another in the blue part, and a third one somewhat fainter
+and farther along in the blue. On the other hand, when attached to
+sodium atoms, we produced two very distinct lines in the yellow. When
+attached to iron atoms we produced a great variety of lines in the
+spectrum. Of course these substances have to be incandescent to enable
+us to produce the aether waves.
+
+Now it will be clear to you how we send wireless messages from the
+distant stars. These stars are great masses of flaming gases, so that
+the satellite electrons are kept busy dancing attendance to excited
+atoms. The electrons are constantly sending out aether waves, which reach
+this planet. We sort out these waves when man passes them through a
+glass prism, mounted in a telescope arrangement which he calls a
+_spectroscope_. He then examines the positions of the lines we produce
+in the resulting spectrum, and from these he knows what kinds of atoms
+are present in the distant star. It is we who have informed man that
+there are forty different materials in the sun, the most common of which
+are hydrogen, sodium, iron, copper, nickel, and zinc. Of course these
+all exist in a gaseous form.
+
+There is one point about which I need hardly trouble you, although it is
+worth mentioning in passing. While we produce bright lines in the
+spectrum of any incandescent substance on this planet, our messages from
+the stars appear as dark lines. The reason for this is that there are
+cooler masses of the gases surrounding the incandescent masses forming
+the stars, and these cooler gases completely absorb the waves we
+produce. So completely are these waves absorbed that blank spaces are
+left in the spectrum, and these are the dark lines to which I refer. As
+they are in the same positions that the bright lines would have occupied
+had the waves reached the earth, it makes no difference to the reading
+of our messages.
+
+Curiously enough, some of our actions in forming lines in the spectrum
+led to our actual discovery by man; but I shall tell you of this in the
+following chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+HOW MAN PROVED OUR EXISTENCE
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER SIXTEEN_
+
+    Several men of note declared that "little particles" revolved
+    around the atoms of matter, and that it was the motion of these
+    particles which produced the well-known aether waves of light.
+
+    This idea was suggested by the result of certain mathematical
+    calculations.
+
+    It was some time before real experimental proof was obtained.
+
+    The electron tells its own tale of this great discovery.
+
+    When the electron speaks of a spectrum line being shifted up or
+    down the scale, it means towards the violet or the red end
+    respectively.
+
+    We may picture the spectrum as analogous to the keyboard of a
+    piano.
+
+    In the second part of this chapter, the electron explains how it
+    has enabled man to discover that certain stars are approaching
+    the earth, while others are receding from it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+HOW MAN PROVED OUR EXISTENCE
+
+
+We electrons had waited long ages for man to acknowledge our services,
+but we did not despise the acknowledgment which a few men accorded us
+upon the basis of their mathematical calculations. It was natural,
+however, that we should want something more definite than this.
+
+You can imagine our joy when real experimental proof of our existence
+was established. Perhaps you think that we should have been satisfied
+with this. But even this did not bring acknowledgment from many outside
+scientific circles, and not even from all within those circles. As our
+services to man are universal, we feel that all men should become
+acquainted with our doings. Indeed that was the chief argument used by
+my fellow-electrons, who urged me to write this autobiography. The
+story of our actual discovery by man is an interesting one.
+
+It all came about in a very simple manner, but in quite a different way
+from what most electrons expected. Man reasoned within himself that if
+we electrons really did revolve around atoms and thus produce waves in
+the aether, as had been suggested, he ought to be able to affect our
+movements by disturbing the aether in which we were revolving. Of course
+man cannot disturb the aether directly; he must employ some of us to do
+this for him. He caused us to produce a very powerful magnetic field,
+which, as you know, is a disturbance of the aether. Man did not bother
+thinking about _us_ in this connection; he simply sent an electric
+current around an electro-magnet, but I have explained to you the very
+active part we play in electric and magnetic actions.
+
+From my story in the preceding chapter, you are aware that man had
+observed the meaning of the bright lines in the spectrum of any
+incandescent body. When he examined the aether waves we send out from
+sodium atoms, he found two very distinct lines in the yellow. Because of
+the brightness of these lines, man selected a sodium flame to
+experiment with in the present case.
+
+You will picture a great host of my fellow-electrons revolving around
+the atoms in a sodium flame. The flame was placed between the poles of a
+very powerful electro-magnet, and a beam of aether waves (light) produced
+by us was directed into the spectroscope. The experimenter focussed all
+his attention upon one of the bright yellow lines. He noted very
+carefully the exact position in which we placed it. He then produced the
+magnetic field around the flame, in which my fellow-electrons were
+revolving at a steady pace, and, behold, the line which he was watching
+split up into two lines, one taking up a position a little higher up the
+spectrum scale, and the other going a little lower down towards the red
+end. What could this mean?
+
+Man had no difficulty in knowing the cause of this alteration; indeed,
+it was exactly what he had hoped would take place. Of the two new lines,
+one represented waves a little shorter, while the other line indicated
+waves a little longer or farther apart, than the original waves forming
+the single line. This could only come about by some of the electrons
+having had their rate of revolution increased, while that of others had
+been reduced. These alterations were due to the aether disturbance (the
+magnetic field). Those electrons whose orbits happened to lie in one
+position had their rate of revolution increased, while those whose
+orbits lay in another position had their speed reduced. Man was
+convinced at last that we "particles" were real existing things.
+
+Whenever man withdrew the aether disturbance, the electrons fell back
+into their natural rate of revolution, and the original single line
+appeared in the spectrum.
+
+I took no part in the original experiment which gave absolute proof of
+our existence, but since then I have been present in a laboratory when
+the same experiment has been repeated.
+
+
+This is not the only case in which we alter the positions of definite
+lines in the spectrum. Indeed, we have given man some interesting
+information about the motions of distant stars--information which he
+could not have obtained in any other way. We have sent wireless messages
+from distant stars, indicating that they were approaching the earth,
+while electrons aboard other stars have signalled that they are receding
+from the earth. All this may seem mysterious to you, and yet our actions
+in the matter are very simple. Indeed, we do nothing but what I have
+told you of in the preceding chapters. We send out definite wave-lengths
+in the manner described already. But if we are on board a star which is
+travelling towards the earth, our waves will naturally follow a little
+closer at each other's heels. On the other hand, if the star is receding
+from the earth, the waves must be a little farther apart than they would
+be if the star were at rest.
+
+You will understand that the electrons are revolving at the same speeds
+in both cases, but the forward movement of the star crowds the waves
+together, while a receding star stretches them out a little farther
+apart. The result at the receiving end is that the crowded waves are
+just as though they had come from electrons revolving at a greater speed
+than is actually the case. Hence the line appears farther along the
+spectrum, up the scale of frequencies, than would have been the case
+had the star not been moving forward in the line of sight. Thus if the
+hydrogen lines, of which I have spoken elsewhere, should appear higher
+up the spectrum than usual, then man knows that the star from which
+these waves are coming is approaching the earth.
+
+It will be evident that when known lines in the spectrum are shifted
+down the scale (towards the red end of the spectrum), then the rate of
+the waves has been decreased, and man knows that the star carrying these
+stimulating electrons is receding from him.
+
+You will observe that we electrons perform no new duty in connection
+with this matter; it is entirely the motion of the body carrying us that
+alters the positions of the lines. But I must hasten on to tell you of
+some personal experiences.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+MY X-RAY EXPERIENCES
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER SEVENTEEN_
+
+    The present generation were all very much interested in the
+    discovery of X-rays.
+
+    With the aid of a battery and an induction coil, man causes an
+    energetic electrical discharge to pass through a vacuum tube.
+
+    When the flying electrons strike upon a little metal target
+    placed in their path, they produce the well-known Roentgen rays.
+
+    We have all become familiar with the great penetrating powers of
+    these rays.
+
+    The electron may be left to tell its own story.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+MY X-RAY EXPERIENCES
+
+
+It was no surprise to us that we could produce what man calls X-rays,
+but we were very much surprised at the use to which man put these
+splashes which we made in the aether. A limited number of us had been
+producing X-rays on our own account for many ages, but I shall tell you
+of that in a later chapter, when you will hear how we made the world
+talk.
+
+I must tell you of my own experiences in connection with these X-rays,
+which I hear some men describe also as _Roentgen rays_. I found myself
+once more within a large vacuum tube, and as soon as I felt a crowd of
+my fellows pushing me forward, I was quite prepared to be shot across
+the tube, as on previous occasions. Personally, I was not prepared for
+what was to come. Just as we reached the centre of the tube we collided
+with a metal plate or target. It was no joke to be pulled up so suddenly
+when travelling at a terrific speed. I noticed at the time that our very
+sudden stoppage had a peculiar effect upon the aether. Of course we never
+bothered about a name for this disturbance; it is man who requires to
+have names for everything. He was quite right to call this aether
+disturbance "X-rays," for even now he does not know the real nature of
+these. I have heard him describe them as thin pulses in the aether, but
+there is something more.
+
+I may as well confess that although we observed this aether disturbance
+arising from our sudden stoppage, we paid little attention to it, until
+it became apparent that man was continuing to produce these rays for
+some special purpose. He had discovered that we could shoot these rays
+right through many solid substances which were not transparent to light.
+But I have not told you how man came to know that we could produce these
+penetrating rays.
+
+On one occasion we were sending out these rays, which, by the way, do
+not cause any sensation in man's visionary apparatus. The room was in
+darkness. Some of the invisible rays fell upon a collection of small
+chemical crystals which were fixed on the surface of a screen. Our
+fellow-electrons, who were attached to the atoms of the crystals, were
+bestirred into action. They could not reflect the X-rays, but they set
+up regular trains of waves in the aether, some of which came within the
+range that affects man's vision. Man knew that this chemical screen
+could not produce light on its own account, and it became apparent that
+the vacuum tube must be sending some aether waves towards the chemical
+screen.
+
+As the electrons on the screen produced an aether disturbance different
+from that which fell upon it, man called this a _fluorescent screen_.
+
+At first we took merely a passing interest in the experiments which man
+made with these X-rays of ours, for it seemed to us as though man
+thought them only good enough for amusing his friends. Indeed, we paid
+little heed to what he was doing, until we observed that the rays were
+being used by surgeons. We were interested at once, for here we could
+serve man.
+
+My first experience in this connection was quite interesting. A young
+girl had got a needle into her hand while she was playing about, and the
+surgeons were at a loss to know where the needle had lodged. We lost no
+time in producing X-rays which could penetrate the flesh of the hand,
+and reach the fluorescent screen on the other side. The bones of the
+hand blocked the way of our rays, but not so completely as the needle
+did. Hence we produced upon the screen a faint shadow of the flesh of
+the hand, a much deeper image of the bones, and a black shadow of the
+needle. This enabled the surgeon to see where the needle was hiding.
+
+Sometimes we were called upon to produce rays for detecting bullets in
+the flesh, or for showing the nature of a fractured bone. We were never
+surprised to find that our call was to detect a coin in the throat of a
+child, but in this connection a big surprise awaited some of us. I was
+not one of the party, but I have the information from some
+fellow-electrons.
+
+[Illustration: HOW ELECTRONS PRODUCE X-RAY IMAGES
+
+The upper photograph shows the X-ray apparatus in use. The operator is
+examining the bones of the lady's hand, which she places between the
+X-ray tube and the fluorescent screen. The rays pass through the flesh,
+but are obstructed by the bones, the rings, and the bangle, so that a
+shadowgraph or image is formed upon the screen, which becomes luminous
+where the rays succeed in reaching it. The actual examination is made in
+a dark room. Owing to the way X-ray photos are taken (by contact) the
+image is reversed in a photograph, so that a left looks like a right
+hand.]
+
+A party of electrons were present within an X-ray tube at a large
+hospital, when they were called upon to produce rays for examining
+the throat of a little girl. They had become so used to this call that
+they did not doubt there would be a coin in the child's throat. However,
+they lost no time in producing the penetrating rays, and you can imagine
+their surprise when they produced the image of a toy bicycle upon the
+screen. It seemed ridiculous that such a toy could have entered a
+child's throat.
+
+When we had shown the surgeons exactly where the toy was, they set to
+work to remove it. The electrons heard later that the operation was
+successful in every way. Every one was interested, and we were proud. I
+do not wish to appear boastful, but I wonder how many operations owe
+their success to these rays which we produce for man.
+
+It was natural that man should try if these searching rays could affect
+the chemicals upon a photographic plate, and we soon proved that they
+could. It made no difference to us whether man kept the plate sealed up
+in its light-proof envelope, or whether he placed the plate within a
+wooden box. These protecting covers offered no barrier to our rays. We
+produced shadowgraphs of any objects placed between our tube and the
+photographic plate.
+
+Two of my early experiences may be of interest to you. The first of
+these seemed to me a rather tame affair. Our X-ray tube appeared to be
+arranged for the amusement of fashionable folk. One grand lady placed
+her hand behind the fluorescent screen, whereupon we produced an image
+of the bones of her hand and very dark images of all the many rings upon
+her fingers. Several of the rings had enormous diamonds, but it was
+after she had gone away that I overheard two gentlemen speaking about
+the rings. One asked the other if he had observed the beautiful
+diamonds, whereupon the other roared with laughter. It seems that we
+proved them to be imitation diamonds, for our rays could not penetrate
+them, whereas they have no difficulty in passing through real diamonds.
+We therefore produced black shadows of the imitation diamonds. Little
+did the grand lady know how we had exposed her sham jewels.
+
+My second experience was a very curious one. I learned that our tube was
+being carried to some distance. After a while we were placed beside a
+peculiar-looking object, which the men referred to as the "mummy." One
+of the men suggested that they should photograph its feet, but before
+doing so they darkened the room and set us to work upon the fluorescent
+screen. The owner of the mummy got rather nervous as to what we might
+disclose, and as the force urging us into action was somewhat erratic at
+first, we produced only a very indistinct image. We were greatly amused
+at the nervous excitement of the owner; he seemed to think our verdict
+was that there were no bones. However, the man with the apparatus soon
+got things into better condition, and this enabled us to produce X-rays
+satisfactorily. The result was that they secured some excellent
+photographs of the hidden bones of the mummy.
+
+Before telling you how we made the world talk, I should like to give you
+a clear idea of our relationship to the atoms of matter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+OUR RELATIONSHIP TO THE ATOMS
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER EIGHTEEN_
+
+    We have no doubt that an atom of matter is a miniature solar
+    system of revolving electrons.
+
+    These electrons, being negative particles of electricity, would
+    repel each other just as any two similarly electrified bodies
+    do.
+
+    There must therefore be some equivalent of positive electricity,
+    but whether this exists in the form of a sphere or in separate
+    particles we have no definite knowledge.
+
+    One atom differs from another in the number of electrons which
+    go to make up the atom.
+
+    The electron explains how the atoms of matter are united to one
+    another, how different compound substances are formed, and how
+    chemical changes take place.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+OUR RELATIONSHIP TO THE ATOMS
+
+
+I am sorry that this part of my story must remain incomplete for the
+present. I am not free to tell you all I know; you must try and get
+behind the scenes on your own account.
+
+One thing I am at liberty to tell you is that my fellow-electrons who
+are locked up within the atoms are not without hope that they may gain
+their freedom once more at some future time. I know this first-hand, for
+I have met some fellow-electrons who have escaped from within an atom,
+but I shall delay telling you about these fellows till the succeeding
+chapter. My object in mentioning this fact now is to give you confidence
+in what I am about to say regarding the nature of the atom.
+
+On one occasion I overheard a conversation between two men who were
+discussing the construction of matter. One remarked that the atoms were
+the bricks of the universe, whereupon the other asked how the little
+bricks were cemented together. I wish that man could have seen a lump of
+matter as we see it. He would have been surprised to learn that the
+atoms never really touch each other. They are always surging to and fro,
+or _vibrating_, and it is this motion which constitutes the
+_temperature_ of the body which they compose.
+
+It must be clear, however, that in a solid body one atom attracts
+another atom across the intervening atomic spaces. This is another duty
+devolving upon us; what we do, really, is to upset the electric balance
+between the different atoms, and thus produce electrical attraction.
+
+First of all, perhaps, I should explain that the different kinds of
+atoms are simply congregations of different numbers of electrons. Of
+course there is the other part, of which I am forbidden to speak--the
+part which man vaguely describes as _positive electricity_. However, you
+may take it from me that while it is true that the main difference
+between an atom of gold and an atom of iron, or of oxygen, is in the
+number of electrons it contains, there is a very important difference in
+the arrangement of the electrons. You know that they form rings outside
+one another, all of which revolve at enormous speeds. The number of
+electrons in the different rings varies according to the kind of atom.
+
+It is quite correct for man to speak of the atoms containing certain
+definite numbers of electrons, but I should like you to understand
+clearly that the exact number of electrons is not permanently fixed; one
+or more electrons can slip off one atom and become attached to a
+neighbouring atom which happens to be capable of accepting it or them.
+It is the interchange of these few detachable electrons that causes one
+atom to attract another. In other words, it is the differently charged
+atoms which attract each other, just as man crowds a surplus of
+electrons on to one object and finds it attracted bodily towards another
+object having a deficiency of electrons.
+
+It is this electrical attraction between the atoms which enables us to
+build up the particles, or _molecules_, of matter in such a variety of
+forms. First of all, we play the most important part within the atoms.
+We have formed only a limited number of such atoms. I am not free to
+tell you exactly how many, for man has discovered only about eighty of
+these different congregations of electrons, each kind of which he calls
+an _element_. The way in which we have coupled these different
+elementary atoms together must appear remarkable to all thinking men;
+there seems to be no end to the possible variety of combinations.
+
+In one case we unite an atom of _chlorine_ to an atom of _sodium_ and
+thereby produce a molecule of common salt. In another case we unite an
+atom of _oxygen_ to two atoms of _hydrogen_, and the resulting
+combination is an invisible molecule of ordinary water.
+
+It has always seemed to me very strange how some men have difficulty in
+regard to these combinations. I have heard a man ask how two different
+gases, hydrogen and oxygen, when united, should form a liquid, and not a
+gas. I wish you could see things as we see them. The atoms are neither
+gaseous, liquid, nor solid; they are little worlds of revolving
+electrons.
+
+I have spoken of the attraction between atoms, and again between
+molecules, in forming a solid body. It will be clear that there is less
+of this _cohesive force_ in the case of a liquid, whereas it is absent
+entirely in the case of a gas. In this case the molecules have become so
+far separated from one another that they cease to attract each other,
+and if left free they will soon part company, and spread themselves
+broadcast over the face of the earth.
+
+Whether a substance passes into a solid, a liquid, or a gaseous state,
+the atoms remain constant, but their vibratory motion is altered very
+considerably. However, I was about to tell you that we electrons can
+make some very interesting combinations of atoms. Those I have mentioned
+so far are of a very simple nature, but we have built up individual
+molecules containing hundreds of atoms. We link about a hundred atoms
+together and produce a molecule of what man calls _alum_, and we require
+to unite about a thousand atoms together to make one molecule of
+_albumen_ (the white of an egg).
+
+
+When man speaks of a chemical change having taken place in a substance,
+it is simply the electrons who have made a friendly interchange of
+detachable electrons, thereby causing a different assemblage of the same
+atoms. During these changes we never alter the nature of the atom. That
+little world of revolving electrons known as an atom of gold, remains
+always an atom of gold. But you must not run away with the idea that the
+atoms will never change. Indeed, man has discovered that the atoms are
+not eternal, as I shall explain in the following chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+HOW WE MADE THE WORLD TALK
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER NINETEEN_
+
+    The discovery of radium is within the memory of all.
+
+    Many exaggerated statements went abroad at the outset, but the
+    real facts are full of interest, and they have shed much new
+    light on many subjects.
+
+    Three different kinds of radiation were found to be emitted by
+    radium.
+
+    At first man could not tell what these were, so he named them
+    after the first three letters of the Greek alphabet--Alpha,
+    Beta, and Gamma, rays.
+
+    The electron tells the interesting story of these rays, and
+    relates the experiences of some fellow-electrons who escaped
+    from within a radium atom.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+HOW WE MADE THE WORLD TALK
+
+
+We electrons were amused at the stir which we unconsciously caused
+throughout the civilised world. We had done nothing different from what
+we had been doing for ages, but a few men had been taking note of what
+we were about, and when the phenomena to which I refer became known to
+the world, many wild rumours were circulated.
+
+One of these rumours was to the effect that steam-engines and their
+expensive furnaces were to disappear very quickly. If the two last words
+had been omitted--I should not say that the prophecy is untrue, but man
+has a long way to travel yet before reaching that goal. My fellows
+within the atoms have sufficient energy to supply all mankind with power
+if he could but unlock even a small fraction of it.
+
+Another statement was that this newly discovered substance, _radium_,
+could cure some diseases which man had believed to be incurable. All I
+shall say about this is that the statement was an exaggerated one.
+
+Then it was said that radium disproved much of man's scientific
+knowledge, but instead of that being so, we electrons have greatly
+extended man's knowledge by our radio-active actions. If any man
+believed the atoms of matter to be eternal, we certainly disproved that.
+Here, in radium, man could see atoms going to pieces.
+
+I have questioned a fellow-electron who escaped from a radium atom as to
+what upset their equilibrium, but I find that he does not know, or he
+pretends not to know. All he has told me is that he was flung off
+suddenly from within the atom with great energy, for he had been
+revolving at a tremendous speed. In his sudden flight he passed some
+newly formed _helium_ atoms, which contained many of those electrons who
+had been his co-partners in the former radium atom. Being an electron,
+he was travelling at a far greater speed than these flying atoms of
+matter, but he assures me that these helium atoms were going faster
+than atoms can travel under any other circumstances.
+
+Another thing that this escaped electron told me was that when he and
+his fellow-electrons made a sudden start on leaving the atom of radium
+they caused a proper splash in the surrounding aether, just such as we
+electrons produce when we are suddenly stopped in an X-ray tube. Man
+observed these rays proceeding from radium, but, not knowing the cause
+of them, he called them _gamma rays_. We can, of course, produce
+radiographs when these rays fall upon photographic plates. Indeed, some
+of my fellow-electrons, when escaping from radium, have produced rays
+sufficient to penetrate a six-inch boulder and affect a photographic
+plate lying beneath the boulder. In time man recognised these rays as
+X-rays.
+
+Man did not find only these rays--he discovered that electrons were
+escaping, but before he had recognised what we were, he had named us
+_beta rays_. These fast-flying electrons have had experiences which
+never fall to electrons except when escaping from an atom. Their
+velocity is so great that they can be shot right through a sheet of
+aluminium foil. If these escaped electrons are allowed to settle on any
+object, they will necessarily cause an overcrowding, or, in other words,
+the object will become negatively electrified.
+
+The one thing that puzzled man most was to find out what the helium
+atoms were. He had named them _alpha_ rays, but as he found he could not
+get them to penetrate even a thin sheet of paper, he was confident that
+they must be atoms of matter. It was only when he had gathered
+sufficient to examine the spectrum that he found these to be helium
+atoms.
+
+I think what really made the world talk was the fact that electrons were
+escaping from what had been supposed to be an eternal habitation. In
+other words, this material radium was actually going to pieces. That is
+to say, _gradually_, as far as man is concerned, for, looking at it from
+our point of view, the word _gradual_ seems out of place entirely. The
+breaking up of an atom is really of the nature of an explosion. It is a
+continual bombardment that is proceeding in radium. Why man is apt to
+think of it as a gradual effect is that there is such an enormous
+number of atoms in a tiny speck of radium, that even the incessant
+series of explosions will take a very long time to break down the whole
+of the small particle.
+
+Electrons differ in their opinions as to whether man will succeed in
+drawing upon this internal energy of the atom. My own difficulty is
+that, having been a roaming electron at all times, I have no idea
+regarding the cause of the atomic explosions. I have remarked already
+that the electrons locked up within the atoms possess more energy than
+man could ever use. If all these electrons were deprived of their
+energy, the atoms of matter would cease to exist, and man, where would
+he be?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER TWENTY_
+
+    Not many of us have realised the true importance of electrons in
+    the Creator's plans.
+
+    In the following short chapter the electron is made to sum up a
+    few of the wonders which it has related, in order to focus our
+    attention upon the grand place which the electrons occupy in the
+    universe.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+From what I have told you of myself and my fellow-electrons, it must be
+apparent that we are of tremendous importance to man. I have told you
+something of the part we played in building up this world--how we not
+only form the atoms of matter, but also hold these bricks of the
+universe together. I have given you a rough sketch of the composition of
+these bricks.
+
+You must have realised also that without us the whole universe would be
+in darkness. There would be no light, no heat, and consequently no life.
+Indeed, there could be no material existence without us.
+
+Where would man be if we failed to perform our mission? He could not
+exist if we even neglected a few of our duties. Not only do we form the
+atoms of which his body is composed, also holding these together, but
+we produce all those chemical changes within his body which are
+absolutely necessary to maintain life. His very thoughts are dependent
+upon our activities.
+
+I have told you how we send man's messages across the earth, and how we
+transmit power from place to place. Also how we have enabled man to gain
+knowledge of the distant stars, and to examine the bones of his living
+body.
+
+
+If man could cross-examine me or any of my fellows, I expect the first
+question would be--What are you electrons made of? But man must find
+this out for himself. The Creator has placed man in a world full of
+activity, and it is of intense interest to man to discover the meaning
+of all that lies around him. That is why I have been bound over by my
+fellows to tell you only so much of our history as man has discovered.
+But I am disclosing no secret when I admit that our very existence as
+electrons is dependent upon the aether.
+
+
+If I can find another scribe to write a revised biography for me a few
+hundred years hence, I shall have a much more interesting tale to tell,
+for many of our doings, of which man knows nothing at present, will be
+secrets no longer by that time.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+    _THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON APPENDIX_
+
+    As explained by the author in Chapter I., this appendix has been
+    added for the sake of those readers who may wish further details
+    than have been given in the electron's story.
+
+    It is only necessary to give a brief notice of the more
+    important particulars, as the author has written recently upon
+    this subject in a popular form.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "Scientific Ideas of To-day." By Chas. R. Gibson, F.R.S.E.
+(London: Seeley & Co., Ltd. Five shillings net.)]
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+It was known two thousand years ago that when a piece of amber was
+rubbed with a woollen cloth, the amber would attract light objects
+towards it. Amber was considered to be unique in this respect.
+
+
+About the year 1600, one of Queen Elizabeth's physicians, Dr. William
+Gilbert, inquired into this attractive property of amber. He found that
+many other substances possessed the same property. Indeed it is common
+to all substances in some degree. We say the amber or other object is
+"electrified."
+
+
+It was observed by the early experimenters that there were two kinds of
+electrification. To one of these they gave the name _positive
+electricity_, and to the other _negative electricity_.
+
+
+Every electrified object will attract an object which is not
+electrified, and two objects which are oppositely electrified will
+attract one another also. But two objects which are similarly
+electrified will repel each other.
+
+
+Man got tired of rubbing objects by hand, so he fitted up simple
+machines in which glass cylinders or plates were rubbed against leather
+cushions. The electricity was then collected by little metal points
+supported on an insulated metal sphere.
+
+
+The experiment of attempting to store electricity in a glass vessel
+filled with water was made at the University of Leyden (Netherlands).
+The water was replaced later by a coating of tin-foil on the inner
+surface, while a similar metallic coating on the outside took the place
+of the experimenter's hand. These jars are called _Leyden jars_, after
+the place in which the discovery was made.
+
+
+About 1790, Professor Galvani, of Italy, observed that the legs of a
+freshly killed frog twitched at each discharge of an electrical machine.
+Later he found that the same twitching occurred when he connected
+certain parts with a piece of copper and zinc. He believed this to be
+due to "animal electricity" secreted within the frog.
+
+
+Professor Volta, also of Italy, proved that Galvani's idea was wrong,
+and that the electricity resided in the metals rather than in the frog.
+He showed that when two pieces of dissimilar metal were put in contact
+with one another, there was a slight transference of electricity between
+them. He constructed a pile of copper and zinc discs, with a moist cloth
+between each pair or couple, and by connecting wires from the top copper
+disc to the lowest zinc disc he was able to show that an appreciable
+current of electricity was produced. Later he placed a piece of copper
+and a piece of zinc in a vessel containing acidulated water, whereupon
+he found that a steady current of electricity was obtained. This was the
+invention of electric batteries.
+
+
+The phenomena of _magnetism_ were known to the ancients, but it was not
+until the nineteenth century that we found any real connection between
+electricity and magnetism. In 1819, a Danish philosopher, Hans
+Christian Oersted, discovered that an electric current passing in a wire
+affected a magnet in its neighbourhood. If the magnet was supported on a
+pivot, after the manner of a compass needle, it would turn round and
+take up a position at right angles to the wire carrying the electric
+current.
+
+
+The molecular theory of magnetism presumes that every molecule of iron
+is a tiny magnet, having a north and south pole. In a piece of
+unmagnetised iron, these tiny magnets are all lying so that they
+neutralise one another. When they are turned round so that their north
+poles are all lying in one direction, then the iron is said to be
+magnetised.
+
+
+The electron theory of magnetism does not do away with the older
+molecular theory just referred to. The electron theory goes a step
+farther, and tells us that these molecules are magnets because of a
+steady motion of electrons around the atoms of iron.
+
+
+It was discovered in 1825 that when an electric current was sent through
+an insulated wire wound around a piece of soft iron, the iron became a
+magnet; when the current was stopped the magnetism disappeared. Such
+magnets are called _electro-magnets_. If a piece of hard steel is
+treated in the same way it becomes a _permanent magnet_. It was this
+intimate connection between electricity and magnetism, or, in other
+words, the invention of these electro-magnets, which brought us electric
+bells, telegraphs, telephones, dynamos, and electric motors.
+
+
+It should be noted that while iron is attracted by either pole of a
+magnet, there is such a thing as magnetic repulsion. This, however,
+takes place only between two magnets, and then only between like poles.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Some German physicists made a number of electrical experiments with
+vacuum tubes. When Sir William Crookes (England) was experimenting with
+similar vacuum tubes he suggested that matter was in a "radiant" state
+during the electric discharge within the tubes.
+
+
+In 1880, H. A. Lorentz, of Amsterdam, declared that light was due to the
+motion of small particles revolving around the atoms of matter.
+
+
+Professor Zeeman, of Holland, produced experimental proof of Lorentz's
+theory. He showed that the revolving "particles" were influenced by a
+powerful magnetic field, in the manner explained in the electron's
+story. This discovery was made in 1896, or sixteen years after Lorentz's
+declaration. It was Dr. Johnstone Stoney, of Dublin University
+(Ireland), who christened these particles "electrons."
+
+
+The X-rays were observed for the first time by Professor Roentgen, of
+Germany, in 1895. The screens used for viewing the luminous effects
+produced by the X-rays are coated with very fine crystals of _barium
+platinocyanide_. These screens were in use for another purpose previous
+to the discovery of X-rays.
+
+
+We know now that _chemical affinity_ is merely electrical attraction
+between the atoms of matter.
+
+
+The spectroscope consists of a glass prism, or series of prisms, mounted
+between two metal tubes. One tube is provided at one end with a vertical
+slit, through which the light that is to be examined is passed. At the
+other end of the tube is a lens, so that the beam of light from the slit
+emerges through the lens as a pencil of parallel rays. The pencil of
+light then falls upon the glass prism, striking it at an angle. In
+passing through the prism, the light is bent round so that it enters the
+second tube, which is simply a small telescope. The prism separates the
+aether waves according to their wave-lengths, and produces the well-known
+coloured spectrum, which is magnified by the telescope. The reason for
+the bending of the different waves is explained in the electron's
+story.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Absorption of light, 148
+
+Aether, the, 24
+
+Aether waves, 96, 131, 133, 137, 146, 148, 163
+
+Alpha rays from radium, 190
+
+Alternating electric current, 121
+
+Amber electrified, 32, 34 to 37, 201
+
+Artificial light, 140, 142
+
+Atoms breaking up, 188, 190
+
+Atoms co-operating with electrons, 108, 123
+
+Atom's internal energy, 187, 191
+
+Atoms of matter, 52, 54, 78, 128, 180, 184
+
+Attraction between atoms, 180
+
+Attraction, electrical, 35, 202
+
+Attraction, magnetic, 78, 205
+
+Aurora, 132
+
+Automatic telegraph transmitter, 91
+
+
+Battery, electric, 70, 203
+
+Beginning of the world, 53
+
+Beta rays from radium, 189
+
+Birth of the moon, 52, 54
+
+Bricks of the universe, 180, 195
+
+
+Chemical affinity, 206
+
+Chemical combinations, 56, 182
+
+Chemistry of the stars, 52, 55, 144, 153
+
+Chlorine atoms, 56, 182
+
+Cloud formation, 56
+
+Circuit, earth, 72
+
+Coherer, tube, 98
+
+Cohesive force, 183
+
+Colour, 136
+
+Compass needle, 77
+
+Complete electric circuit, 71
+
+Conductors, 37, 68
+
+Connecting link between aether and matter, 118, 127
+
+Corpuscles, 66
+
+Crookes, Sir William, 205
+
+Current of electricity, 68
+
+
+Dark lines in spectrum, 154
+
+Detachable electrons, 78, 181
+
+Detecting imitation diamonds, 174
+
+Direct electric current, 121
+
+Discharge of electricity, 42
+
+Discharge through a vacuum, 60
+
+Discovery of electrons, 160, 206
+
+Discovery of X-rays, 169
+
+Dynamo, 116, 118
+
+
+Earth circuit, 72
+
+Electrical discharge, 42
+
+Electricity, positive, 23, 32, 39, 52, 180
+
+Electricity, negative, 23, 32, 39
+
+Electric battery, 70
+
+Electric current, 68, 70
+
+Electric motor, 116, 122
+
+Electric shock, 47
+
+Electrified objects, 37, 38, 201
+
+Electro-magnets, 76, 81, 83, 118, 205
+
+Electrodes, 61
+
+Electrocution, 49
+
+Electron as a go-between, 118
+
+Electron, derivation of the word, 23
+
+Electron, discovery of, 160, 206
+
+Electrons, 25, 32, 66, 78, 138, 162, 195
+
+Energy transmission through the aether, 73, 121
+
+Energy within the atom, 187, 191
+
+
+Field, magnetic, 68, 76, 118
+
+Fluorescent screen, 169, 206
+
+
+Galvani's discovery, 202
+
+Gamma rays from radium, 189
+
+Gilbert's discovery, 201
+
+Glass, electrified, 37, 38
+
+Glass prism, 147, 152
+
+Glow-lamp, electric, 140, 141
+
+Glow-worm, 142
+
+
+Heat, radiant, 126, 131, 133, 142
+
+Helium atoms, 188, 190
+
+Hydrogen atoms, 55, 182
+
+
+Insulators (non-conductors), 37, 47
+
+Iron atoms, 77
+
+Iron wires discarded, 88
+
+
+Lamp, electric, 140
+
+Leyden jar, 42, 202
+
+Light, 23, 60, 64, 133
+
+Light absorbed, 148
+
+Light, artificial, 140, 142
+
+Light, reflected, 148
+
+Lightning, 42, 48
+
+Lines in the spectrum, 152, 154, 160, 162
+
+Lorentz's declaration, 206
+
+
+Magnetic attraction, 78, 205
+
+Magnetic field, 68, 76, 118
+
+Magnetic repulsion, 205
+
+Magnetism, 73, 76, 203, 204
+
+Magnetism and electricity, 73
+
+Magnets, electro-, 76, 81, 83, 205
+
+Magnets, permanent, 83
+
+Mariner's compass, 77
+
+Matter, 52, 54
+
+Metal electrified, 37, 38
+
+Molecules of matter, 181, 183
+
+Moon's birth, 52, 54
+
+Morse telegraph, 88
+
+Motion in line of sight, 162
+
+Motor, electric, 116, 122
+
+
+Negative electricity, 23, 32, 39
+
+
+Oersted's discovery, 204
+
+Oxygen atoms, 182
+
+
+Permanent magnets, 82
+
+Positive electricity, 23, 32, 39, 52, 180
+
+Prism of glass, 147, 152
+
+
+Radiant heat, 131, 133, 142
+
+Radiant matter, 63, 205
+
+Radium, 188
+
+Rainbow, 147
+
+Rays from radium, 189, 190
+
+Reflection of light, 148
+
+Repulsion, electrical, 202
+
+Repulsion, magnetic, 205
+
+Roentgen rays, 167
+
+Roentgen's discovery, 168, 206
+
+
+Sea, cause of saltness, 56
+
+Shock, electric, 47
+
+Silk, electrified, 38
+
+Sodium atoms, 56, 182
+
+Spark, electric, 44
+
+Spectroscope, 152, 154, 207
+
+Spectrum, 144, 147, 152, 154
+
+Speed of electrons in conductor, 70
+
+Stars approaching the earth, 162
+
+Stars, constituents of the, 52, 55, 146
+
+Stoney, Dr. Johnstone, 206
+
+Sun, constituents of the, 154
+
+Sun's heat, 128, 131
+
+
+Telegraph signals, 90
+
+Telegraphy, wireless, 95
+
+Telephone, 109
+
+Telephony, wireless, 110
+
+Temperature, 180
+
+Tramway, electric, 117, 118, 122
+
+Transparent substances, 149
+
+
+Vacuum tubes, 60, 61, 132, 205
+
+Velocity of electrons, 70
+
+Volta's discovery, 203
+
+
+Waves in the aether, 96, 133, 137, 146, 148, 163
+
+Wireless messages from the stars, 162
+
+Wireless telegraphy, 95
+
+Wireless telephony, 110
+
+
+X-rays, 166, 206
+
+X-rays from radium, 189
+
+X-ray photography, 173
+
+
+Zeeman proves existence of electrons, 161, 206
+
+
+Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO.
+Edinburgh & London
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+    The following changes have been made to the original text:
+
+    Page xi:  "always necessary, How" changed to "always necessary. How"
+    Page 205: "vacuum tubes, When" changed to "vacuum tubes. When"
+    Page 214: "Negative electricity, 23, 32, 9" changed to "Negative
+	          electricity, 23, 32, 39"
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN ELECTRON***
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