diff options
Diffstat (limited to '36456-h/36456-h.htm')
| -rw-r--r-- | 36456-h/36456-h.htm | 5051 |
1 files changed, 5051 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/36456-h/36456-h.htm b/36456-h/36456-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f6dcbb0 --- /dev/null +++ b/36456-h/36456-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5051 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Autobiography of an Electron, by Charles R. (Charles Robert) Gibson</title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +p { + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; +} + +hr { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + clear: both; +} +hr.tb {width: 40%;} +hr.cb {width: 75%;} + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; +} /* page numbers */ + +.blockquot { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} +.bold {font-weight: bold;} +.center {text-align: center;} +span.ralign { /* use absolute positioning to move page# right */ + position: absolute; + right: 0; /* right edge against container's right edge */ + top: auto; /* vertical align to original text baseline */ +} + +/* Images */ +.figcenter { + width: 500px; + margin: auto; + text-align: center; + position: relative; +} + +/* Footnotes */ +.footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +/* Table of Contents */ +ul.TOC { + list-style-type: none; /*list with no symbol */ + position: relative; + margin-top: 0; + margin-bottom: 0; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + width: 50%; +} +li.chapter { + margin-top: 0.5em; + margin-bottom: 0.5em; + text-align: center; +} +li.description { margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 2.5em; } +ul.index { list-style-type: none; } + +a,img { border: none; text-decoration: none; } + +ins {text-decoration:none; border-bottom: thin dotted gray;} + +.tnote { width: 40em; + border: 1px dashed #808080; + background-color: #f6f6f6; + text-align: justify; + padding: 0.5em; + margin: 80px auto 80px auto; +} + + hr.full { width: 100%; + margin-top: 3em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + height: 4px; + border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ + border-style: solid; + border-color: #000000; + clear: both; } + pre {font-size: 85%;} + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Autobiography of an Electron, by Charles R. +(Charles Robert) Gibson</h1> +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: Autobiography of an Electron</p> +<p> Wherein the Scientific Ideas of the Present Time Are Explained in an Interesting and Novel Fashion</p> +<p>Author: Charles R. (Charles Robert) Gibson</p> +<p>Release Date: June 17, 2011 [eBook #36456]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN ELECTRON***</p> +<p> </p> +<h4>E-text prepared by Sharon Joiner, Erica Pfister-Altschul,<br /> + and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> + from page images generously made available by<br /> + Internet Archive/American Libraries<br /> + (<a href="http://www.archive.org/details/americana">http://www.archive.org/details/americana</a>)</h4> +<p> </p> +<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Note: + </td> + <td> + Images of the original pages are available through + Internet Archive/American Libraries. See + <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/autobiographyofe00gibsrich"> + http://www.archive.org/details/autobiographyofe00gibsrich</a> + </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<h1>THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY<br /> +OF AN ELECTRON</h1> + +<div class="figcenter" style="position: relative; width: 500px;"> + <a href="images/figfrontis-800.jpg"> + <img src="images/figfrontis-400.jpg" + width="255" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a> + <p> + <small><i>Photo</i> + <span class="ralign"><i>The Fleet Agency</i></span></small> + </p> + + <p class="smcap bold center">A Well-known Phenomenon Produced by Electrons</p> + + <p>A sudden discharge of electrons from cloud to cloud, or from cloud to + the earth, constitutes what we call "lightning."</p> +</div> + + + +<h1>THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY<br /> +OF AN ELECTRON.</h1> + +<p class="center">WHEREIN THE SCIENTIFIC IDEAS OF THE PRESENT<br /> +TIME ARE EXPLAINED IN AN INTERESTING<br /> +AND NOVEL FASHION</p> + +<h3><small>BY</small><br /> +CHARLES R. GIBSON, F.R.S.E.</h3> + +<p class="center">AUTHOR OF "SCIENTIFIC IDEAS OF TO-DAY," "ELECTRICITY OF TO-DAY"<br /> +"THE ROMANCE OF MODERN ELECTRICITY," <i>&c. &c.</i></p> + +<p class="center">ILLUSTRATED</p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p class="center">PHILADELPHIA<br /> +J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY<br /> +<span class="smcap">LONDON: SEELEY & CO. Limited</span><br /> +1911</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></div> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<p>Although text-books of science may appear +to the general reader to be "very dry" +material, there is no doubt that, when scientific +facts and theories are put into everyday +language, the general reader is genuinely +interested. The reception accorded to the +present author's <i>Scientific Ideas of To-day</i> +bears out this fact. While that volume explains, +in non-technical language, the latest +scientific theories, it aims at giving a fairly +full account, which, of course, necessitates +going into a great deal of detail. That the +book has been appreciated by very varied +classes of readers is evident from the large +numbers of appreciative letters received from +different quarters. But the author believes +that if the story of modern science were told +in a still more popular style, it would serve +a further useful purpose. For there are +readers who do not care to go into details, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span> +and yet would like to take an intelligent interest +in the scientific progress of the present +day. Some of those readers do not wish to +trouble about names and dates, while the +mere mention of rates of vibration and such-like +is a worry to them. They wish a book +which they may read with the same ease as +an interesting novel. Hence the form of +the present volume.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>The author is indebted to Professor James +Muir, M.A., D.Sc., of the Glasgow and West +of Scotland Technical College, and to H. Stanley +Allen, M.A., D.Sc., Senior Lecturer in +Physics at King's College, University of +London, for very kindly reading the proof-sheets. +The author is indebted further to +Professor Muir in connection with some of +the illustrations, and for others to Dixon +and Corbitt and R. S. Newall, Ltd., Glasgow; +Siemens Schuckert Werke, Berlin.</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> + +<ul class="TOC"> + <li><span class="ralign">PAGE</span></li> + + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a><br /> + WHAT THE STORY IS ABOUT</li> + <li class="description">The Scribe introduces the Electron to the reader. He has + something to say also about the mysterious æther + which pervades all space. He emphasises the fact + that the electron is a real existing thing + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></span></li> + + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a><br /> + THE ELECTRON'S PREFACE</li> + <li class="description">The Electron explains the reason why it has written its + autobiography + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></span></li> + + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a><br /> + THE NEW ARRIVAL</li> + <li class="description">The Electron points out who the new arrival is really. It + relates an amusing experience. It tells how man disturbed + electrons before he discovered their existence. + An ancient experiment, and what the wise men of the + East thought about it. How electrons are responsible + for the electrification of any object. Handled by a + new experimenter, they surprise man. Man becomes + of special interest to the electrons + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></span></li> +</ul> + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span></div> + +<ul class="TOC"> + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a><br /> + SOME GOOD SPORT</li> + <li class="description">The Electron explains how man succeeded in crowding + them together, with some rather exciting results from + the overcrowding. One historical incident. Man's + fear of the consequences. How a party of electrons + wrecked a church steeple. An unfortunate accident + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></span></li> + + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a><br /> + MY EARLIEST RECOLLECTIONS</li> + <li class="description">The Electron's story begins at a very far distant period, + before this world had taken shape. The Electron was + present when the atoms of matter were being formed. + The birth of the moon. Something still to be discovered. + The moulding of the planet. Boiling oceans. + The electrons took an active part in making sea-water + salt. The Electron explains why it has been chosen + to write the story of itself and its fellows + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></span></li> + + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a><br /> + MAN PAYS US SOME ATTENTION</li> + <li class="description">The electrons are encouraged by one of the experiments + made by man. They hope it may lead to their discovery, + so that their services may be recognised. The + Electron's experience in a vacuum tube. A disappointment + and a revival of hope. A great declaration by + one individual man. The Electron misjudges man. + Mention of a great discovery. The christening of the + electrons + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></span></li> +</ul> + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></div> + +<ul class="TOC"> + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a><br /> + A STEADY MARCH</li> + <li class="description">The Electron explains how they produce the electric current. + How man discovered means of making the electrons + march. A simple explanation of how a complete + electric circuit is always necessary. How an "earth + circuit" works. How the marching electrons can do + work + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></span></li> + + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a><br /> + A USEFUL DANCE</li> + <li class="description">A perpetual dance. A responsible position. How the + safety of the mariner depends upon the electrons' + dance. How electrons produce a magnet. A convenient + kind of magnet, which gains and loses its + attractive power when desired. How a permanent + magnet is made. The great service of electrons in + modern life + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></span></li> + + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a><br /> + HOW WE CARRY MAN'S NEWS</li> + <li class="description">The method of sending the news. The Electron's personal + experience. A series of forced marches. How man + controls the electrons. How the electrons reproduce + the signals + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></span></li> +</ul> + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></div> + +<ul class="TOC"> + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a><br /> + HOW WE COMMUNICATE WITH DISTANT SHIPS</li> + <li class="description">An entirely different means of communication. A surprise + to man, but not to the electrons. How the electrons + produce waves in the surrounding æther. How these + waves disturb distant electrons. The Electron's personal + experience. Its description of its actions in a + wireless telegraph station + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></span></li> + + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a><br /> + HOW WE REPRODUCE SPEECH</li> + <li class="description">Why it is not correct to speak of the electrons as carriers of + speech. The action of electrons in the working of + telephones. The Electron's own experience in wireless + telephony + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></span></li> + + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a><br /> + OUR HEAVIEST DUTIES</li> + <li class="description">A roving commission. How electrons can move gigantic + cars and trains. The action of electrons in dynamos + and motors. How the electrons transmit the energy. + What makes the motor go + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></span></li> + + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a><br /> + A BOON TO MAN</li> + <li class="description">A simple explanation of how the electrons produce light. + How the Electron provides a connecting link between + matter and the æther. How light reaches the earth</li> +</ul> + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></div> + +<ul class="TOC"> + <li class="description">from the sun. How the electrons produce that beautiful + luminous effect which man calls an "Aurora." + How the earth has become a negatively charged body. + How electrons produce radiant heat. The difference + between light and heat + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></span></li> + + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a><br /> + HOW WE PRODUCE COLOUR</li> + <li class="description">What colour is really. How the different colour sensations + are stimulated by the electrons. The Electron as a + faithful satellite to the atom. How electrons can + produce the different æther waves. How the electrons + respond to the different waves. The production of + artificial light. Co-operation of the electrons. Man's + ridiculously wasteful processes. The electrons' secret + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></span></li> + + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a><br /> + WE SEND MESSAGES FROM THE STARS</li> + <li class="description">The kind of messages referred to. How the electrons + have informed man of what the stars are made. How + man reads the electrons' wireless messages. How it is + other electrons that enable man to read the messages. + The real explanation of reflection of light. How light + is absorbed by some objects. How some substances + are transparent. Why objects appear coloured. What + makes the lines in the spectra of stars. The spectroscope +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></span></li> +</ul> + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span></div> + +<ul class="TOC"> + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a><br /> + HOW MAN PROVED OUR EXISTENCE</li> + <li class="description">How man reasoned out a plan for detecting the electron. + How the electrons altered some lines in the spectrum. + The curious manner in which the Electron informed + man that certain stars are approaching this planet, + while others are receding from it + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></span></li> + + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a><br /> + MY X-RAY EXPERIENCE</li> + <li class="description">X-rays are an old story to some electrons. The Electron's + personal experience. A very sudden stop. How + electrons made a fluorescent screen send out light. + The electrons assist the surgeon. A curious find. + Detecting imitation diamonds. The Electron and the + mummy + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></span></li> + + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</a><br /> + OUR RELATIONSHIP TO THE ATOMS</li> + <li class="description">How the atoms of matter attract one another. What constitutes + the temperature of a body. What the atoms + are made of. An important thing still to discover + about the atom. The elements. How the electrons + produce compound substances. The real explanation + of chemical changes + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></span></li> +</ul> + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span></div> + +<ul class="TOC"> + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX</a><br /> + HOW WE MADE THE WORLD TALK</li> + <li class="description">It was nothing new on the part of the electrons. Exaggerated + rumours. The electrons and radium. Fast-flying + electrons. Atomic explosions + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></span></li> + + <li class="chapter"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX</a><br /> + CONCLUSION</li> + <li class="description">The Electron is made to sum up a few of the wonders which + it has related, in order to emphasise the great services + which electrons render to man + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></span></li> + + <li class="description"><a href="#APPENDIX">APPENDIX</a> + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></span></li> + + <li class="description"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a> + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></span></li> +</ul> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span></div> +<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + +<ul class="TOC"> + <li class="description"> <span class="ralign">PAGE</span></li> + + <li class="description"> + <span class="smcap">A Well-known Phenomenon produced by Electrons</span> + <span class="ralign"><i>Frontispiece</i></span> </li> + + <li class="description"> + <span class="smcap">Damage Done by a Party of Electrons</span> + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></span> </li> + + <li class="description"> + <span class="smcap">A Tobacco Tin defying Gravitation</span> + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></span> </li> + + <li class="description"> + <span class="smcap">A Motor-car with Wireless Telegraph</span> + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></span> </li> + + <li class="description"> + <span class="smcap">A Train Impelled by Moving Electrons</span> + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></span> </li> + + <li class="description"> + <span class="smcap">Protection against a Discharge of Electrons</span> + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></span> </li> + + <li class="description"> + <span class="smcap">The Spectroscope and the Electrons' Wireless Messages</span> + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></span> </li> + + <li class="description"> + <span class="smcap">How Electrons Produce X-ray Images</span> + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></span> </li> +</ul> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h2>WHAT THE STORY IS ABOUT</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<p>The reason for writing this story is given +in the Preface, but the title is so strange +that the reader will wish naturally to know +what the story is about. What is an electron? +Is it an imaginary thing, or is it a +reality?</p> + +<p>One of the reasons for writing this story +in its present form is to help the reader to +realise that electrons are not mythical, but +real existing things, and by far the most +interesting things we know anything about. +The discovery of electrons has shed a new +light upon the meaning of very many things +which have been puzzles until now. They +give us a reasonable explanation of the cause +of light and colour. They provide a new idea +of the constitution of matter. They enable +us to picture an electric current, and they +give us definite, though by no means final, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +answers to the why and wherefore of magnetism, +chemical union, and radio-activity.</p> + +<p>The story is imaginary only in so far that +one of the electrons itself is supposed to tell +the tale. But in the endeavour to make +the story interesting, there has been no +sacrifice of accuracy in the statements of +fact.</p> + +<p>While all names and dates, and many other +details, have been kept out rigidly from the +story, a note of the more important of these +has been added in an Appendix for the sake +of those readers who may wish to refer to +them.</p> + +<p>It will be well to introduce the electron to +the reader before leaving it to speak for +itself. We have definite experimental proof +of the existence of electrons, and yet it is +very difficult to realise their existence, for +two reasons. In the first place, they are so +infinitesimally small. We count a microbe a +small thing; we can see it only with the aid +of a very powerful microscope. Yet that +little speck of matter contains myriads of +particles or <i>atoms</i>. An atom of matter is +therefore an inconceivably little thing, but +even that is a great giant compared to an +elec<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>tron. +Our second difficulty in realising the +existence of an electron is that it is not any +form of what we call <i>matter</i>; it is a particle of +<i>electricity</i>, whatever that may be.</p> + +<p>From the earliest experiments it became +evident that there were two distinct kinds of +electricity. These were described by the +pioneer workers as <i>positive</i> and <i>negative</i> +electricities. To-day we have definite experimental +proof that negative electricity is +composed of separate particles or units. Just +as matter is composed of invisible atoms, so +also is negative electricity of an atomic +nature. These particles of negative electricity +have been christened electrons, <i>electron</i> +being the Greek word for <i>amber</i>, from which +man first obtained electricity. Of course no +one can ever hope to see an electron, but +physicists have been able to determine its +size and <i>mass</i>, its electric charge, and the +speeds at which it moves.</p> + +<p>While it has been known for more than +a century that <i>light</i> is merely waves in the +all-pervading æther of space, set up by incandescent +bodies, it has been a puzzle always +how matter could cause waves in the æther, as +it offers no resistance to the movement of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +matter through it. Here we are on the back +of a great planet, flying through space at +the enormous rate of one thousand miles per +minute, and yet our flimsy atmospheric +blanket is in no way disturbed by the æther +through which we are flying. In the following +story we shall see that these electrons +help us towards a solution of this and many +other problems; they provide the missing link +between matter and the æther.</p> + +<p>But what is this <i>æther</i> of which one hears +so much in these days? The truth is we know +nothing of its nature. We cannot say whether +it is lighter than the lightest gas or denser +than the densest solid. The æther, whatever +it may be, is as real as the air we breathe. It +is the medium which brings us light and heat +from the sun, and which carries our wireless +telegraph and telephone messages. The +whole universe is moving in this great æther +ocean.</p> + +<p>In order to make the electron's story +perfectly intelligible to every reader, I have +added a short explanatory note at the beginning +of each chapter. These notes merely +state the facts about which the electron is +speaking.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +To make the electron's story as realistic as +possible, it has been necessary to give the +imaginary electron perfect freedom of knowledge +concerning itself and its surroundings. +In our schooldays we had to write the +autobiographies of steel pens, and such-like, +but these inanimate things had to be endowed +with powers of thought, feeling, and desire. +It is very important, however, to remember +that an electron is a particle of negative +electricity—<i>a real existing thing</i>.</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h2>THE ELECTRON'S PREFACE</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +While many scientific men now understand +our place in the universe, we electrons are +anxious that every person should know the +very important part which we play in the +workaday world. It was for this reason +that my fellow-electrons urged me to write +my own biography. My difficulty has been +to find a scribe who would put down my +story in the way I desired. The first man +with whom I opened negotiations wished me +to give him dates and names of which I knew +nothing. And he asked such stupid questions +about where I was born and who my parents +were, as if I were flesh and blood.</p> + +<p>I am pleased to say that my relationship +with the scribe who has put down my story +in the following pages has been of the most +friendly description. Apart from a little tiff +which we had at the outset, there has been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +no difference of opinion. He complained that +I related things in too abstract a form. However, +we got over the difficulty by a compromise; +I have allowed him to place what +he calls "The Scribe's Note" at the beginning +of each chapter, but it will be understood +clearly that these are merely convenient +embellishments, and that I am responsible for +the story of my own experiences.</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h2>THE NEW ARRIVAL</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER THREE</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>It will be well to keep clearly in mind +that an electron is a real particle of negative +electricity.</p> + +<p>Electrons have been discovered only within +recent years.</p> + +<p>No matter from what substances we take +them, they are always identical in every respect.</p> + +<p>Some electrons are attached to the atoms +of matter in such a way that they may be +removed easily from one object to another.</p> + +<p>When a surplus of these detachable electrons +is crowded on to any object, we say that +it is charged with negative electricity.</p> + +<p>We speak of the other object, which has +lost these same electrons, as being charged +with positive electricity.</p> + +<p>In this chapter the electron refers to the +old-world experiment in which a piece of +amber when rubbed attracts any light object +to it.</p> + +<p>For many ages man believed this to be a +special property belonging to amber alone.</p> + +<p>One of Queen Elizabeth's physicians discovered +that this property was common to +all substances.</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> +It is most amusing to me and my fellow-electrons +to hear intelligent people speak of +us as though we were new arrivals on this +planet. Dear me! We were here for countless +ages before man put in an appearance. +I wonder if any man can realise that we have +been on the move ever since the foundations +of this world were laid. It is man himself +who is the new arrival.</p> + +<p>It does seem strange to us that men should +be so distinctly different from one another. +We electrons are at a decided disadvantage, +for we are all identical in every respect. I +have no individual name—it would serve no +purpose. Even if you could see me, you +could not distinguish me from any other +electron. I wonder sometimes if men appreciate +the great advantage they have in possessing +individual names. I was impressed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +with this thought one fine summer morning. +While I was riding on the back of a particle +of gas in the atmosphere, I was carried +through the open window of a nursery just +as the under-nurse was putting the room in +order. A little later there was some commotion +in the nursery, for the young mother +and her mother had come to see the twin +daughters being bathed by the nurses. The +grandmother happened to remark how very +much alike the two little infants were. She +said laughingly to the head nurse that she +must be careful not to get the children mixed. +But the big brother, aged five years, remarked +that it would not matter really how much +they were mixed until they got their names. +Sometimes I wish we electrons did differ from +one another, so that we might each possess an +individual name, but no doubt it is necessary +for us all to be exactly alike.</p> + +<p>Long before man had discovered us, he +caused us deliberately to do certain things. +He was mystified by the results of his experiments, +for he was not aware of our presence. +A few of my fellow-electrons have rather +hazy recollections of being disturbed while +clinging to a piece of amber. They had been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +disturbed often before in a similar way, by +being rubbed against a piece of woollen cloth, +and the result had been always that a number +of electrons let go their hold upon the cloth +and crowded on to the amber. The overcrowding +was uncomfortable, but it happened +usually that the surplus electrons found some +means of escape to the earth, where there is +no need of excessive crowding.</p> + +<p>On the occasion to which I refer, it so +happened that the rubbing had been unusually +vigorous and prolonged, so that +the electrons were crowded on to the amber +in great numbers. In their endeavour to +escape they produced a strain or stress in +the surrounding æther, and this caused a +small piece of straw, which was lying within +the disturbed area, to be forced towards +the amber.</p> + +<p>What attracted the attention of the electrons +was that the man who was holding +the piece of amber removed the clinging +straw and replaced it exactly where it had +been lying. In the meantime he had been +handling the amber, and many of the crowded +electrons had managed to make a bolt for +the earth by way of the man's body. They +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +did this so very quietly that the man did +not feel any sensation. However, as soon +as the amber was rubbed again, a similar +crowd provided the same attractive property. +We electrons became impatient to hear what +man would say of our work, for it was +apparent that he had noticed the movements +of the straw. You will hardly believe me +when I tell you to what decision these wise +men of the East came. They declared that, +in rubbing the amber, it had received heat +and life. As if life could be originated in +any such simple manner!</p> + +<p>You can picture our disappointment when +we found that man was going to ignore our +presence. Occasionally we were given opportunities +of displaying our abilities in drawing +light objects towards pieces of rubbed amber. +But the funny thing was that man got hold +of the stupid idea that this attractive property +belonged to the amber instead of to us. If +he had only tried pieces of sulphur, resin, +or glass, he would have found that these +substances would have acted just as well. +You see it was not really the substance, +but we electrons who were the active agents.</p> + +<p>We had given up all hope of being +dis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>covered, +when news came along that a learned +man was on the hunt for us. He was crowding +us on to all sorts of substances. He rubbed +a piece of glass with some silk, and at first +he was surprised greatly to see light objects +jump towards the excited glass. Of course, +we were not surprised in the very least. The +only thing that amused us was to find that +he was making out a list of the different +substances which showed attractive properties +when rubbed. He could not, evidently, get +away from the idea that it was the substances +themselves that became attractive.</p> + +<p>We were sorry that the poor experimenter +wasted so much time and energy in trying +to crowd us on to a piece of metal rod. He +rubbed and he rubbed that metal, but it +would attract nothing, and I shall tell you +the reason. You know that we electrons +hate overcrowding; indeed we always separate +from one another as far as possible when +there is no force pulling us together. We +only crowded on to the amber because we +could not help ourselves; we had no way +of escape, for amber is a substance we cannot +pass through. But we have no difficulty +whatever in making our way along a piece +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +of metal, and as soon as the rubbing began, +some electrons moved off the metal by way +of the man's arm and body to make room +for those being crowded on to the metal from +the rubber. And so there never was any +overcrowding, and consequently no straining +of the æther. But it was not long before +we found that man had succeeded in cutting +off our way of escape. He had attached a glass +handle to the metal rod, and we were compelled +to overcrowd upon the metal as we could +not pass through the glass handle. Neighbouring +light objects were attracted by the +excited or "electrified" metal. Even this +demonstration did not put man upon our +track.</p> + +<p>Perhaps I should explain in passing, that +when a glass rod is rubbed with a silk handkerchief +we crowd on to the silk, and not on to +the glass. This leaves the glass rod short +of electrons, and the æther is strained so that +light objects are attracted. Man did notice +that there was some difference between a +piece of amber and a piece of glass when +these were excited. What the difference was +he could not imagine, but to distinguish the +two different conditions he said that the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +amber was charged with <i>negative</i> electricity +and the glass with <i>positive</i> electricity.</p> + +<p>From that time forward man became of +special interest to us. We felt sure that +sooner or later he was bound to recognise +that we were at work behind the scenes. It +seemed to us, however, that man was desperately +slow in turning his attention towards +us, and we tried to waken him up in a rather +alarming fashion, as I shall relate in the +succeeding chapter.</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h2>SOME GOOD SPORT</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER FOUR</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Men began to make glass plate machines +for producing electrification on a larger scale.</p> + +<p>The electric spark is produced.</p> + +<p>The electron tells the story of the first +attempt to store electricity in a glass jar.</p> + +<p>This is what we do now by means of a +Leyden jar.</p> + +<p>A sudden expulsion of electrons from one +object to another is called a discharge of +electricity.</p> + +<p>Lightning is a discharge of electrons from +a cloud to the earth or from cloud to cloud.</p> + +<p>In repeating Franklin's experiment of drawing +electricity from thunder-clouds, a Russian +professor received a fatal shock.</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +Now I must tell you of a surprise in which +I took an active part. Some man thought +he would separate a great crowd of us from +our friends. Of course, he did not think +really of <i>us</i>, but whatever he may have +supposed he was doing, he succeeded in +accumulating greater crowds of us together +than he had done previously. He managed +this by making simple machines to do the +rubbing for him on a larger scale. The +result was really too much for us; we were +kept crowding on to a sort of brass comb +arrangement from which we could not escape, +as the metal was attached to a glass support. +Talk about overcrowding! I had never experienced +the like before, and I felt sure +some catastrophe would happen. Suddenly +there was a stampede, during which a great +crowd of electrons forced their way across +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> +to a neighbouring object and thence to the +earth. I can assure you it was no joke +getting through the air. We all tried to +leap together, but some of the crowd were +forced back upon us; then bang forward +we went again, back once more, and so on +till we settled down to our normal condition. +Of course all this surging to and fro occupied +far less time than it takes to tell. Indeed, I +could not tell you what a very small fraction +of a second it took.</p> + +<p>I wish you had seen the experimenter's +surprise as we made this jump. We caused +such a bombardment in the air that there +was a bright spark accompanied by a regular +explosion. Some men ran away with the +idea that electricity was a mysterious fire, +which only showed itself when it mixed with +the atmosphere. Nothing delighted us more, +after our own surprise was over, than to +have a chance of repeating these explosions, +to the alarm of the experimenters. But the +best sport of all was to come, and when I +heard of it I was so disappointed that I had +not been one of the sporting party. It came +about in the following way.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="position: relative; width: 500px;"> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"><!--[Pg 45]--></a></span> + <a href="images/figp45-800.jpg"> + <img src="images/figp45-400.jpg" + width="309" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a> + <p> + <small><i>By permission of Dixon and Corbitt and R. S. Newall, Ltd.</i> + <span class="ralign"><i>Glasgow</i></span></small> + </p> + + <p class="smcap bold center">Damage Done by a Party of Electrons</p> + + <p>When a myriad of electrons is discharged suddenly from a cloud to + the earth, it happens sometimes that considerable damage is done. + The above photograph is of a church steeple damaged by lightning + in 1875. No lightning-conductor was provided, so the electrons + had to get to earth by way of the steeple itself, with the + disastrous result as shown.</p> +</div> + +<p>One learned man thought he had hit upon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +a good idea. He tried to crowd a tremendous +number of us into some water contained in a +glass jar. Without condescending to think +of us, he crowded an enormous number of +electrons from one of his rubbing machines +along a piece of chain which led them into +water. The overcrowding was appalling, for +it was impossible to escape through the glass +vessel. Things had reached a terrible state, +when the experimenter stopped the machine +and put forward his hand to lift the chain +out of the water. Now was the chance of +escape, so the whole excited crowd made one +wild rush to earth by way of the experimenter's +body. The rapid surging to and fro +of the crowd racked the man's muscles. I +wish I had been there to see him jump; they +say it was something grand. You can imagine +how the little sinners enjoyed the joke; they +knew they were safe, as man had no idea +of their existence at that time.</p> + +<p>Another man was foolhardy enough to try +a similar experiment, and they say that his +alarm was even greater; indeed, he swore he +would not take another shock even for the +crown of France. We were all eager to get +opportunities of alarming man, not that we +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +wished him any harm, but we thought he +might pay us a little more attention.</p> + +<p>I remember one occasion upon which some +of us were boasting of what we had done +in the way of alarming men, whereupon one +fellow-electron rather belittled our doings. +He maintained that he had jumped all the +way from a cloud to the earth, along with +a crowd of other electrons. In doing so +they had scared the inhabitants of a whole +village, for they alighted upon the steeple +of a church, and in their wild rush they played +such havoc among the atoms composing the +steeple that they did considerable outward +damage to the great structure.</p> + +<p>I may as well confess that we are not free +agents in performing these gigantic jumps; +we are compelled to go with the crowd when +things are in such a state of stress. We +simply cannot hold on to the atoms of matter +upon which we happen to be located. It is +only under very considerable pressure that +we can perform this class of jump, and I +beg to assure you that we are perfectly helpless +in those cases where we have been dashed +upon some poor creature with a message of +death.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +Alas! on one occasion I was one of a party +who killed a very learned man. It was most +distasteful to us; we could not possibly prevent +it. He had erected a long rod which +extended up into the air, and terminated at +the lower end in his laboratory. Some of +us who were in the upper atmosphere were +forced on to this iron rod, and from past +experience we quite expected that we should +be subjected to a sudden expulsion to earth. +Indeed we were waiting for the experimenter +to provide us with a means of escape, when +suddenly he brought his head too near to +the end of the rod, and in a moment we +were dashed to earth through his body. We +learned with deep regret that the poor man +had been robbed of his life.</p> + +<p>To turn to something of a happier nature, +I shall proceed to tell you of some of my +earliest recollections. Remember I shall be +speaking of a time long before man existed—even +before this great planet was a solid ball.</p> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h2>MY EARLIEST RECOLLECTIONS</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER FIVE</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>This great globe upon which we live was +once a glowing mass of flaming gas.</p> + +<p>It is possible that the whole solar system +was once one great mass.</p> + +<p>In any case, we have no doubt that the +moon is simply the result of a part of our +glowing mass having become detached.</p> + +<p>In the hottest stars we find only the lightest +atoms of matter, such as hydrogen gas, the +atoms of heavier substances being found in +stars which have begun to cool down.</p> + +<p>The electrons have been present from the +very beginning, and it is they who go to make +up the atoms of matter.</p> + +<p>We picture an atom of matter as a miniature +solar system of revolving electrons.</p> + +<p>There is doubtless a corresponding amount +of positive electricity, but so far we have no +evidence of its nature.</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +Before giving an account of the everyday +duties which we perform, it may interest +you to hear something of our early history.</p> + +<p>Not only have we been on the move ever +since the beginning of this world, but some +of us have clear recollections of this planet +long before it was a solid body. The whole +world was a great ball of flaming gas. I +have heard some fellow-electrons say that +we were attached to a greater mass of incandescent +gas before the beginning of this +world, but I have no personal recollections +of it. But one thing I do remember is a +great upheaval which caused a large mass +of gas to become detached from our habitation. +Without any warning a great myriad +of our fellow-electrons were carried away +on this smaller mass. At first this detached +mass circled around our greater mass at very +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +close quarters, but we soon found that our +friends were being carried farther and farther +away, until they are now circling around this +solid planet at a comparatively great distance. +Man calls this detached mass <i>the moon</i>, and +when I have heard children say in fun that +they wish they could visit the man in the +moon, I have longed to go and see how it +fares with those fellow-electrons who seem +to be separated from us in such a permanent +manner.</p> + +<p>After this exciting event, which I have +heard described as "the birth of the moon," +our great ball of flaming gas began to cool +gradually. But you will be interested in what +happened before the moon's birth. I saw a +crowd of electrons suddenly congregate together +along with <i>something</i> else which man +has not discovered. Never mind the other +part, but picture a number of electrons forming +a little world of their own. There they +went whirling around in a giddy dance. I +saw these little worlds or "atoms" being +formed all around, and I feel truly thankful +now that I was not caught in the mad whirl, +for these fellow-electrons have been kept +hard at it ever since, imprisoned within a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +single atom. I have met a very few electrons +who have escaped from within an atom, but I +shall tell you about them later on.</p> + +<p>The first thing I noticed was that each of +the atoms had practically the same number +of electrons in it. At that time I thought +only in an abstract way, but since then I have +learned that these were <i>hydrogen</i> atoms; +hydrogen being the lightest substance known +to man. Exactly what happened next I cannot +recollect, but my attention was attracted +later to larger congregations of electrons +forming other little worlds of their own. +These atoms were, of course, heavier than +the hydrogen atoms. I saw quite a variety +of different systems, of which I thought then +in an abstract fashion, but which I know now +to be atoms of <i>oxygen</i>, <i>nitrogen</i>, <i>carbon</i>, <i>iron</i>, +<i>copper</i>, and so on. While man has given the +atoms these distinguishing names, you will +understand that the incidents which I am +relating took place long before there was +any appearance of solidity about our planet; +these substances were all in a gaseous state.</p> + +<p>After this, I recollect that there was a +great envelope of water-vapour condensed +around the planet. Some condensed into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +liquid water upon the surface of the globe, +while part was suspended in the form of +clouds. Some of my fellow-electrons acted +as <i>nuclei</i> or foundations for the formation +of the cloud particles. The water which condensed +upon the earth settled down in the +hollows, which had been produced previously +by the immense pressure of the water-vapour +envelope. We can hardly believe it is the +same world.</p> + +<p>You cannot imagine how strange it was +to see the great oceans boiling and steaming; +of course, they were fresh water then. +I need hardly tell you that they have become +salt only because the rivers have +brought down sodium into them, and when +these sodium atoms unite with chlorine atoms +they form particles of common salt. I know +all about this because we electrons play a +very important part in all such combinations.</p> + +<p>One very memorable recollection is that +of life originating in the oceans. I wish I +could let you into the secret of <i>the origin +of life</i>, but, according to the Creator's plan, +man must find out for himself. Your guesses +are all wide of the mark.</p> + +<p>By the way, perhaps I should explain why +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +I have been selected to write this biography. +The first reason is that I am a free or detachable +electron, and the second point in +my favour is that I have had exceptional +opportunities of seeing about me. I have +heard men say that lookers-on see most of the +game, and as I have witnessed the gradual +evolution of things, you will understand that I +have views of my own. A casual observer +might think that things had deteriorated, +for long ago there were immense monsters +upon this planet, and these would put all +modern creatures in the shade as far as size +and strength are concerned. But one of +the most interesting things to me has been +to watch the evolution of man, and more +especially the gradual development of his +brain. Indeed, sometimes I have wished that +I had happened to be an electron in the brain +of a man; but, on the other hand, my career +would not have been of the varied kind which +it has been.</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h2>MAN PAYS US SOME ATTENTION</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER SIX</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Men found that by exhausting the air from +glass globes or tubes it was possible to pass +electric discharges through them, and in so +doing some very beautiful luminous effects +were produced within the vacuum tubes.</p> + +<p>It was when experimenting with one of +these tubes that a scientist suggested that +radiant particles were being shot across the +tube.</p> + +<p>These particles were really electrons, but +it was thought at that time that they were +atoms of matter.</p> + +<p>Another scientist declared, from certain +mathematical calculations, that there existed +extremely small particles of something around +the atoms of matter, and that it was the +motion of these in the æther which produced +<i>light</i>.</p> + +<p>People were not willing to accept this +theory.</p> + +<p>Some time later another scientist was able +to prove by experiment that these particles +did exist.</p> + +<p>This was done by means of the spectroscope, +as will be related by the electron in a later +chapter.</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +From the little I have told you already of +our experiences, you will see that men had +been making many experiments in which +we electrons took a very active part. It was +disappointing that even although we had +surprised man in so many different ways, he +had never become suspicious of our presence. +One day, however, we did begin to hope for +recognition. I was present, with a great +crowd of electrons, imprisoned within a glass +globe from which the air had been extracted. +We were very pleased to find that the surrounding +space had been cleared of air, +for it was apparent that the experimenter +was going to make us jump across from one +end of the glass tube to the other.</p> + +<p>A crowd of us had collected on the extremity +of a wire, or "electrode," at the one +end of the tube, while another similar crowd +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +was present on the other electrode at the +opposite end of the tube. While I speak of a +crowd, meaning that there were millions of us, +I do not suggest that we were overcrowded, +for we had plenty of elbow-room to move +about on the atoms to which we were attached. +All in a moment the scene was changed. We +felt a crowd of electrons pressing us forward +and forcing us right up to the very end of +the electrode. We found that the crowd was +approaching by a wire leading into the tube. +Soon the crowding had reached such a condition +that we became alarmed; we could +see no way of escape. We were imprisoned +by the glass walls, but we soon discovered +that many of the electrons who had been +stationed on the other electrode had deserted +their posts and fled along a wire leading +out of the tube. If we could only follow +them. It would be a tremendous jump to +get over to the other wire, but the way +was fairly clear of air. When the overcrowding +reached a certain point we were +literally shot across from the one electrode +to the other. This was the first time I had +ever experienced anything of the kind, but +many fellow-electrons had gone through +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +similar performances for years at the hands +of other experimenters.</p> + +<p>However, it was somewhat alarming to be +fired off like a rocket across the tube. What +happened after that I cannot recollect, but +some time later I was present in that or a +similar tube when I heard the experimenter +say to a friend that he believed there were +particles flying across his tube. We sent +news all along the line stating that at last we +had been discovered, and I can assure you +that we felt proud. But our joy was not +long-lived, for it turned out that we were +considered to be particles or atoms of matter; +the experimenter spoke of us as "radiant +matter." This was a real disappointment.</p> + +<p>It took us some time to recover from our +disappointment at being mistaken for clumsy +atoms of matter. We are of a higher order +of things altogether. No atom of matter can +travel at speeds such as we can. We cross +these vacuum tubes with speeds equal to +millions of miles per minute.</p> + +<p>A great many of us were kept busy within +vacuum tubes by other experimenters, but +nothing very exciting happened. Indeed, we +had lost all hope of attracting man's attention +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +to ourselves as long as we were imprisoned +within these tubes. In the meantime our +hopes were revived by news which reached +us from another quarter.</p> + +<p>We heard that a very learned man had +declared boldly that there did exist little +particles which revolved around the atoms +of matter, and that it was the motion of +these tiny particles in the æther which produced +the well-known waves of <i>light</i>. There +was considerable rejoicing among us, for we +were anxious to have our services recognised +by man. This great man was not guessing +merely; he was willing to prove by mathematical +calculations that we did exist in +reality. Of course, we ourselves required +no proof of our existence, but we believed +that man would be convinced. Our high +hopes were soon laid low; news reached us +that people were shaking their heads and +saying that figures could be made to prove +anything.</p> + +<p>After we had settled down to our ordinary +duties, we got word that at last man had +really detected us in a flame of gas. This +seemed quite reasonable, for, as I shall relate +to you in another chapter, we have a very +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +lively time of it in a flame of gas. However, +when we were informed that man had discovered +us by means of a sort of telescope +arrangement, I, for one, began to doubt the +truth of the discovery. Some time before +this I had heard that men were spying at +gas flames in the hope of finding us, and this +seemed most ridiculous, for if man could not +see the large congregations of us called <i>atoms</i>, +how could he expect to see individual electrons? +My ignorance was dispelled when it +was explained that man had not been looking +for us directly, but for the æther waves which +we produce. But I have not had an opportunity +of explaining to you how some of us +produce waves in the æther; I shall have to +wait till a later chapter. In the meantime +I may say that since this important discovery +I have taken some part in an experiment +similar to the historic one wherein we were +detected, but of that too I shall have more to +say again.</p> + +<p>The rejoicing at this discovery was not confined +to us, for men of science were quick to +grasp the importance which was attached to +this new knowledge. We felt that man was +bound to acknowledge our services from that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +day. The next event was our christening, +and this was not all plain sailing. Indeed, +we have been rather annoyed with one name +which some good friends persist in giving us. +I refer to the name <i>corpuscle</i>, which we feel +to be a sort of nickname, although it may +have been suggested in all kindness. It may +be difficult for you to appreciate our dislike +to this name, but it seems to us to savour too +much of material things. It is not dignified; +you must remember we are not matter. We +are delighted with what we prefer to call our +real name—electron—for that speaks of +electricity. As you know, we are units of +particles of negative electricity, and so this +seems a most sensible and suitable name. +But I must hasten to tell of some of our +everyday duties in which we serve man.</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h2>A STEADY MARCH</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER SEVEN</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The steady motion of electrons from atom +to atom along a wire, or other conductor, +constitutes the well-known "electric current."</p> + +<p>The moving electrons disturb the æther +around the wire and produce what we know +as a "magnetic field."</p> + +<p>The electron explains why it is necessary +to have a complete circuit before any electric +current can take place.</p> + +<p>Also how one length of wire may be used +to connect two distant places provided the +two extremities of the wire are buried in +the earth.</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +Personally I knew nothing about marching +until quite recently. Indeed, none of my +fellow-electrons seem to have had definite +ideas of regular marches previous to last +century. That century is prominent in our +history as well as in man's. There is no +doubt that before then we must have made +more or less regular marches through the +crust of the earth and elsewhere; but for +myself I have no such recollection previous +to the following occasion.</p> + +<p>The experience was not a very exciting one. +I found myself passing along from atom to +atom in a copper wire. But what was of +special interest to us was that it became +evident that these enforced marches were +being deliberately controlled by man. Of +course you will understand that man knew +nothing of our existence at that time. All he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +knew was that when he placed a piece of zinc +and a piece of copper in a chemical solution, +there were certain effects produced in some +mysterious fashion. For instance, when he +connected the top of the two metals in this +chemical cell or "battery" by a piece of wire, +he got what he described as an <i>electric +current</i>. Now all that happened really was +this. The chemical action in this battery +which man had devised caused a rearrangement +among the atoms composing the metals +and the solution, with the result that we poor +electrons had to rearrange our domiciles. As +an accumulation of electrons gathered on the +zinc, some of us were forced along the +connecting wire towards the copper. As long +as the chemical action in the battery was +kept up, so long were we kept on the march +from the zinc to the copper by way of the +wire.</p> + +<p>Man tried increasing the length of this wire +bridge across which we had to pass, but we +had no difficulty in making our way along. +But you must not run away with the idea +that we rush along the wire with lightning +speed. Although we can fly through the +æther at a prodigious speed, our progress +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +from atom to atom in a wire is more like a +snail-pace. As a matter of fact, our rate of +march is much less than the walking pace of +a man; indeed it may be stated conveniently +as so many yards per hour.</p> + +<p>Some people may find it difficult to believe +that our rate of march is so very slow. Their +front door is a good many yards away from +their electric bell, but it does not take us an +hour, or any appreciable part of a minute, +to summon the maid. The secret is that there +is a whole regiment of us along the wire, and +before one of us moves on to a neighbouring +atom, another electron must move off that +atom and on to its neighbour, and so on. In +this way the electrons at the far end of the +wire commence to move at practically the +same moment as those near the battery.</p> + +<p>It has been a source of amusement to me +to see people perfectly mystified by the fact +that they can get no electric current unless +they have a complete circuit. What else could +they expect? How could man march if he +had no road to march on? You see, the reason +for our march is that we wish to escape from +the overcrowding on the zinc, and we are +forced towards the copper. The atoms +com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>posing +the wire are our stepping-stones, and +if there is not a complete chain of atoms we +are helpless. You have already heard how +we can jump an air-space under very great +pressure, but that condition does not exist +in the present case. When we are disturbed +by the chemical action of the battery, we +should prefer to have a short-cut from the +zinc to the copper, but if the only path man +gives us is by way of a long wire, then we +must be content to travel that road, in order +to reach the copper. It is a matter of little +moment to us what arrangement man makes +as long as he gives us a complete path. For +instance, he may lead us out from the zinc +to a distant telegraph instrument, and then, +instead of providing a second wire to take +us back to the battery, he may conduct us +by a short wire to the earth. We are quite +content to lose ourselves in this great reservoir, +provided man places another short +wire from the earth to the copper of the +battery at the other end of the line. Then +as we slip off at the one end of the line, an +equal number of electrons can climb up at +the other end, and thus enable all our friends +in the long wire to keep up a steady march.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +This march of ours is not merely a means +of transporting ourselves from one place to +another; it is to enable us to do work. It +is only when we are in motion that we can +do useful work, for we must move before +we can disturb the æther, and it is by means +of the æther that we transmit energy.</p> + +<p>If you place a magnetic needle or mariner's +compass near a wire along which we are +making a steady march, you will find that +we can affect our fellow-electrons who are +stationed within the magnetic needle. We +cause the needle to swing round and take up +a position at right angles to our line of +march. We succeed in doing this because +these electrons in the magnetic needle are +on the move also. But this reminds me that +I have never told you how we produce that +æther disturbance which you call <i>magnetism</i>.</p> + +<p>When, as children, you played with toy +magnets in the nursery, little did you think +that there was a host of tiny electrons amusing +you. And yet we electrons are responsible +entirely for all magnetic effects, as I shall +proceed to explain.</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h2>A USEFUL DANCE</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER EIGHT</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>We believe magnetism to be due to electrons +revolving around atoms of iron and other magnetic +substances, as related by the electron in +this chapter.</p> + +<p>We have seen that the steady motion of +electrons along a wire produces a magnetic +field around the wire.</p> + +<p>Therefore if we have electrons revolving +round and round the atoms in a piece of iron, +there will be a miniature magnetic field around +each atom.</p> + +<p>The electron explains why a piece of iron +does not show the magnetic power locked +up within it until it is "magnetised."</p> + +<p>The electron refers to electro-magnets; an +electro-magnet is simply a piece of soft iron +with a coil of insulated wire wound around it.</p> + +<p>The iron only shows its magnetic power as +long as a current of electricity is kept passing +through the surrounding coil of wire, for +reasons which the electron explains.</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +I may tell you quite frankly that I have +never taken part in the perpetual dance of +which I am about to tell you. I am of a +free and roaming disposition, but I have often +watched some of my fellow-electrons at this +work. Of course, it is pleasant work, as all +our duties are, now that man acknowledges +our services.</p> + +<p>We are responsible for the behaviour of +the mariner's compass needle. It is we who +cause it to point continually in one definite +direction. If we ceased to dance around the +iron atoms in the compass needle aboard a +ship, the man at the helm could not tell in +what direction he was going, and sooner +or later he would be almost certain to +wreck his vessel. For this service alone +man ought to be grateful to us, but before I +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +have finished my story, you will find that +even this important duty is but a small affair +when compared with many of our other +tasks.</p> + +<p>There is one matter I should like to make +quite clear to you. Although we electrons +are all identical, we have different stations +to fill. You have doubtless become familiar +with my roving disposition, and you probably +think of me as a detachable electron. Then +there are our friends who are locked up within +the atoms of matter—part and parcel of the +atom. And now I am introducing you to +those electrons who act as satellites to the +atoms, revolving around them at a comparatively +great distance, just as the moon revolves +around the earth. These are the electrons +which give rise to the magnetism in a piece +of iron. There are other electrons which +perform very rapid revolutions around all +classes of atoms, but I shall introduce these +friends later on.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="position: relative; width: 500px;"> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"><!--[Pg 79]--></a></span> + <a href="images/figp79-800.jpg"> + <img src="images/figp79-400.jpg" + width="324" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a> + <p class="smcap bold center">A Tobacco-Tin Defying Gravitation</p> + + <p>That phenomenon known as "magnetism" is due to the steady + locomotion of electrons, as explained in the text. Here we see a + large magnet attracting a tinned iron box which is tethered to + the table by two cords. The result is that the box is supported + in the air. The spiral wires are connected to the electro-magnet, + an explanation of which is given in + <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">Chapter VIII</a>.</p> +</div> + +<p>I need hardly remark that a piece of ordinary +iron does not behave like a magnet. Indeed, +it is fortunate that it does not. If it did, +man could not get along with his work very +well. The hammer would stick to the head +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +of the nail it had struck, the fire-irons +would stick to the fender, while the cook's +pots and pans would hold on to the kitchen +range. That would be a very stupid arrangement, +but we electrons have really no say +in the matter of arrangement. We are +always on the move, performing a perpetual +dance around the iron atoms, but the atoms +arrange themselves in a higgledy-piggledy +fashion, so that the electrons on one atom +pull the æther in one direction while others +pull the æther in an opposite direction. In +this way the outward effect is not perceptible. +When, however, man places a coil of wire +around the iron, and makes a crowd of +electrons march along the wire, these marching +electrons affect the æther, which in turn +influences the satellite electrons which are +revolving around the atoms of iron. You +may be somewhat surprised when I tell you +that, owing to this æther disturbance, these +satellite electrons are able to produce a rearrangement +among the atoms. If you doubt +my word, you may easily prove the truth +of the statement. If you magnetise a +long bar of iron you will find that its +length is actually altered. This is due to our +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +having disturbed the arrangement of the +atoms.</p> + +<p>Perhaps I should explain that when we +force the atoms into their new condition, we +can do so only under the æther stress set +up by our fellow-electrons who are marching +in the neighbouring wire. Whenever their +march ceases the æther stress is withdrawn, +and the atoms are able to fall back into +their old higgledy-piggledy condition. In +this way man is able to make a piece of +iron a magnet and to unmake it as often +as he cares by simply switching on and off +the electric current from the wire surrounding +the iron.</p> + +<p>If a piece of hard steel is used in place of +soft iron, then we find that the atoms are not +so easily disturbed, but when they are once +brought into line with one another, they will +remain in their new condition after the æther +disturbance has been withdrawn. It may +seem strange to you that quite a small percentage +of carbon atoms added to the pure +soft iron should cause such a marked difference, +but the matter seems plain enough +to us. Man was so impressed with the +manner in which the atoms were evidently +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +fixed in their new condition that he spoke +of <i>permanent magnets</i>. It is especially fortunate +for man that these pieces of steel do +retain their magnetism, and give us a reliable +mariner's compass. But I shall tell you how +you may disturb even these sedate atoms. +If you hammer the metal very vigorously, +or if you heat it to redness, you will find +that the atoms have been freed from what +appeared to be their permanent position, +and they are back to their old higgledy-piggledy +condition, so that we electrons are +all opposing one another. Remember we +are hard at work all the time although we +may be giving no outward sign of our +activity.</p> + +<p>While we render an important aid to man +by providing this permanent magnet for his +compass, you will find that a very great deal +of our assistance to man in his everyday +life depends upon our behaviour in soft iron +electro-magnets. It is in these that man +can control our behaviour at will. It is +through this simple piece of apparatus—the +electro-magnet—that man has been able to +accomplish so much in signalling to his friends +at a distance. It is also by means of these +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +electro-magnets that man can get us to turn +an electric motor, and so on. But I must +tell you, first of all, how we enable man to +signal to a distance, or, in other words, how +we carry man's news.</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h2>HOW WE CARRY MAN'S NEWS</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER NINE</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The electron explains wherein its method +differs from all other methods.</p> + +<p>It is well known that within recent years +the old iron telegraph wires have been +replaced by much lighter copper wires; the +electron explains the reason for this change.</p> + +<p>It describes how the electrons manage to +work the most widely used form of telegraph +instrument, which is called the "Morse," after +its inventor.</p> + +<p>Here we find one of the practical applications +of the electro-magnet described in the +preceding chapter.</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +It is we electrons who have so very far outdistanced +all material carriers of news. You +must acknowledge that the best runner, the +swiftest horse, the fastest express train, and +the prize carrier pigeon, are all nowhere when +compared with us electrons.</p> + +<p>But I do not wish to mislead you in any way, +and I can speak from personal experience in +this case. We do not race off with man's +messages in the same sense as these other +messengers do. Our swiftness of communication +depends upon the simple fact that man +provides a whole connecting regiment of us +between the two distant places. And when +the order to march is given we all move off at +practically the same moment. In this way +the electrons at the far end of the connecting +wire are able to cause signals there immediately. +This is the secret of man's success in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +being able to hold immediate communication +with his distant friends. His success is due +entirely to the co-operation of us electrons.</p> + +<p>My personal experience has been in connection +with a very simple telegraphic +arrangement. Indeed, the most of our duties +in transmitting messages are performed with +this particular kind of instrument, known as +a "Morse sounder."</p> + +<p>At the time of which I speak, I had become +attached to an atom of iron in the end of a +long telegraph wire. From this you will +probably guess that my experience was gained +some time ago, for man does not use iron +wires nowadays in fitting up telegraph lines. +He used iron at first, and some of these lines +still exist, but when he discovered that a very +much lighter copper wire would serve the +same purpose, he discarded the heavy iron +wires. Man explained the matter by saying +that the copper offered less resistance to the +electric current, and the majority of people +were quite satisfied with this kind of explanation. +Of course these are merely convenient +phrases which give man no real +reason for the difference. The real reason is +that we electrons are able to move about +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +from one copper atom to another with very +much greater ease than we can among the +iron atoms. That is the reason why man +made the change from iron to copper wires, +although he had no idea of the reason at the +time.</p> + +<p>To return to my experience in connection +with a telegraph instrument, I found that +we were being subjected to a series of forced +marches. The whole regiment of electrons +along the line made a forward move. The +line of march ended in a short length of fine +wire wound around a piece of soft iron to +form an electro-magnet. The end of the wire +dipped into the earth, as I have explained +in an earlier chapter.</p> + +<p>Now all that we electrons had to do was +to make a forward move, halt, forward again, +another halt, and so on. Sometimes the +signal to halt was longer in being given than +at other times, but we found that this was +intentional, and that there were two definite +lengths of march. I have explained already +how we marching electrons cause an electro-magnet +to attract a piece of iron and let it +go again as soon as we cease marching. +It only remains for me to give you a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +general statement of how we work the Morse +telegraph.</p> + +<p>Man has arranged a little lever with an +iron end-piece immediately above the electro-magnet, +so that the magnet may attract it. +Of course you are aware that it is the electrons +within the soft-iron core of the electro-magnet +who produce the magnetic effect. +Every time we electrons in the surrounding +wire make a forward move, the electro-magnet +pulls down the end of the little lever referred +to. As long as we keep marching, so long +will the end of the lever remain down, but +the moment we halt, the lever is free to be +pulled up by a spring attached to it. The +movements of the lever indicate the length +of our long and short marches, and it is by +means of these that man sends signals. All +that he does is to control our march, by means +of an electric push and a battery at one end +of the wire, and it is we who produce the +signals at the distant end of the wire. Each +time man presses the push we move the +distant lever. When we pull the lever down +it is so arranged that it makes a sound like +"click," and when we let it spring up against +a stop it makes another sound not unlike +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +"clack." Our long and short marches are +therefore converted into long and short "click-clacks." +Man has made a simple code of +signals representing his alphabet, and right +merrily do we rap out the signals for which +we receive orders at the distant end of the +wire, while some one at the other end listens +to the sounds we cause to be made.</p> + +<p>I have told you enough of our duties to +let you see how we are able to carry man's +news from one part of the earth to any other +part. By far the greatest part of our signalling +work is done with this simple Morse +sounder.</p> + +<p>It may interest you to note that we can +produce those signals far faster than man +can read them. When man found this out +he took advantage of our powers. He made +an automatic transmitter which could manipulate +the make-and-break of the battery current +far more rapidly than any human fingers +could do. Then as we rapped off the signals +with lightning speed at the distant end, he +attached a little ink-wheel to the end of +the moving lever, so that it could mark short +and long strokes on a ribbon of paper passing +close to it. Although man could not +dis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>tinguish +the signals by his ear he was able +to read the record of those we caused to +be left upon the paper ribbon.</p> + +<p>We have been made to work many other +forms of telegraph instruments. In some of +these we control type-letters, while in others +we imitate handwriting, but all these are +merely adaptations of our powers of marching. +We are proud of our achievements in rapid +signalling, which all right-thinking people +have not been slow to acknowledge.</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<h2>HOW WE COMMUNICATE WITH DISTANT SHIPS</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER TEN</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>In this chapter the electron deals with +that modern marvel—<i>Wireless Telegraphy</i>.</p> + +<p>Here the æther of space plays a very +prominent part.</p> + +<p>The author has given some particulars +about the æther in the first chapter (<i>What +the Story is about</i>).</p> + +<p>In conjunction with that, the electron may +be left to tell its own story.</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +Our duties in this case are totally different +from those of which I have been telling +you. While we electrons can do many wonderful +things, we cannot march through space. +We may be fired off like bullets from the +sun to the earth, but that is quite another +matter. I shall have something to say about +that fact later on. You have seen already +that man can make us jump only a very short +distance, even when he has cleared our path +of the obstructing air, as he does in a vacuum +tube.</p> + +<p>If men were to provide us with a complete +path of metal atoms from the shore to the +ship, we could set to work upon the simple +plan which I have described in the preceding +chapter. But, needless to say, man has more +sense than to attempt to keep up metallic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +connection with a ship going away out to +sea.</p> + +<p>Even the wisest men were surprised when +they heard that we electrons could signal +through space to great distances without any +connecting wires. We ourselves were not +surprised. Had we not been doing this very +thing from the foundation of the world? Our +fellow-electrons in the sun have never ceased +to communicate with those of us upon the +earth. Of course I am referring at present +to those æther waves which man calls <i>heat</i> +and <i>light</i>. But the waves which we make +to carry man's messages through space are +of the very same nature, the only difference +being that they are much longer, or, in other +words, much farther apart. They do not +follow each other so closely, and they do +not affect the eye or the sense of touch. +However, these long waves are able to bestir +some of us electrons who are situated at a +great distance from the sending electrons.</p> + +<p>Our method of producing such waves in +the æther is by surging to and fro from +atom to atom in an upright wire. When +we make a rapid to-and-fro motion we +send out great waves in the æther. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +original plan adopted by man was to make +us jump across a spark-gap, but in this case +also it was our rapid oscillation to and fro +that produced the waves. If we wish the +waves to carry to a great distance, we must +club together in considerable force to supply +the necessary energy. The energy which we +can get from a battery and induction coil is +not sufficient for any very long distances. In +such cases we require the aid of a <i>dynamo</i>, +a machine about which I shall have some +experience to relate in another chapter.</p> + +<p>In communicating through space, our position +is very similar to that of two men shouting +to one another over a distance. The one +man disturbs the air, thus sending air-waves +(sound) over to his friend, and these waves produce +certain sensations which he can interpret. +I should like you to understand that we +electrons are upon a higher plane than atoms +of matter. We cause waves in the all-pervading +æther, not among clumsy particles of +air. After these æther waves have travelled +enormous distances they retain sufficient +energy to disturb electrons situated at the +distant place.</p> + +<p>I shall tell you of the first experience I +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +had in this connection. I found myself +attached to an atom of <i>nickel</i>, a kind of atom +which looks to us electrons very much like +an iron atom, because it has nearly the same +number of electrons composing it, only they +are arranged differently. But I was telling +you that I found myself on this nickel atom +sealed up in a small glass tube. Of course +there were myriads of similar atoms all +around me, but I did not feel very happy. +I was being urged forward, and yet I could +not get across from some atoms to others, +for the nickel was in the form of loose +filings. From past experience I knew that +there was a battery along the line somewhere; +I could feel the strain. All of a +sudden I was startled to find that I could +move forward. Exactly what happened, I +am not at liberty to tell, but this much I +may say, that it was the arrival of some +æther waves which altered the condition of +things among the filings in the tube.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="position: relative; width: 500px;"> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"><!--[Pg 99]--></a></span> + <a href="images/figp99-800.jpg"> + <img src="images/figp99-400.jpg" + width="310" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a> + <p class="smcap bold center">A Motor-Car with Wireless Telegraph</p> + + <p>It has become quite a fashion in America to have motor-cars + fitted up for wireless telegraphy. That the electrons play an + important part in telegraphing through space is explained fully + in <a href="#CHAPTER_X">Chapter X</a>.</p> +</div> + +<p>We had just started out on our march +forward when we received such a shaking +that we found ourselves in the same isolated +positions as at first; we could not get across +from one particle to another. More æther +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +waves arrived, we made a fresh start, then +came another rude shaking, and so on we +went starting and stopping. Indeed, it was +the regularity of these long and short marches +that gave me the first idea that we were +being controlled by some telegraph operator. +We were amused to find that the rude +shaking, of which I have been telling you, +was caused by the action of some of our +fellow-electrons. Some of them in their +march around an electro-magnet in the receiving +instrument caused a little lever to +knock against our tube and give us a sudden +jolt.</p> + +<p>I should like you to notice that the energy +with which we moved the telegraph instrument +did not come from the distant station. +It was a local battery which worked the receiving +instrument, but this battery was controlled +by the incoming æther waves affecting +the tube of filings. There is really no mystery +about the matter, but I am anxious not to +take credit for anything more wonderful +than we have actually accomplished.</p> + +<p>We electrons have rendered a very great +service to man by enabling him to communicate +with his friends who are far out +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +on the ocean, and cut off from all possible +chance of material communication. We are +willing to serve man on land also, though +we very much prefer the ordinary marching +arrangement if he will provide a connecting +wire. The fact is that we find it very much +more difficult to send æther waves over land +than we do over water.</p> + +<p>I have heard some men ask how many +different telegraph instruments may be worked +at one place simultaneously without confusion. +That is a question for man himself to +answer. We electrons are able to produce +any variety of waves of different frequency +or length; it remains only for man to construct +apparatus that will respond only to a +definite rate of waves. I hear that man has +made considerable progress in tuning the +wireless instruments.</p> + +<p>Some men are eager to get us to carry +messages through space across the great +oceans from shore to shore. We shall not +refuse, provided man supplies sufficient energy, +but I must admit that we electrons prefer the +submarine cable. Of course man may put this +down to our laziness; we certainly prefer as +little severe straining as possible.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +I have been telling you of my earliest and +only personal experience in connection with +space telegraphy. I understand that greatly +improved methods have been adopted since +that time, but I have never happened to +drift in their direction.</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<h2>HOW WE REPRODUCE SPEECH</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER ELEVEN</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>In the first part of this chapter the electron +explains the part it plays in ordinary +telephony.</p> + +<p>The reader will picture the transmitting +instrument at the one end of the line influencing +the receiving instrument at the +distant end.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the chapter the electron +turns its attention to the newer subject +of <i>wireless telephony</i>, which has been accomplished +now over a distance of several hundred +miles.</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> +My scribe suggested a rather clumsy title +for this chapter—"Electrons <i>versus</i> atoms +as carriers of speech." I expect he made +this suggestion without much thought, for +there are two serious objections to such a +title.</p> + +<p>In the first place, we are not carriers of +speech. We are controlled by speech at one +end of the telephone line, and we make a reproduction +of the speech at the distant end +of the line. No sound passes between the +two places; there is only a movement of +electrons along the connecting line.</p> + +<p>My second objection to the hurriedly suggested +title is that it is hardly fair to make +any comparison between the achievements +of atoms of matter and those of ourselves. +We are not in the same category as atoms. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> +Besides, we electrons are dependent entirely +upon the material atoms for making our +work useful to man. For instance, we might +keep on making waves in the æther for all +time, and yet if the atoms of matter were +to pay no heed to those imperceptible waves, +man would never be aware of their presence. +Indeed we electrons act solely as go-betweens. +On the other hand, it is only fair to ourselves +to point out that a group of atoms in one +town could never communicate with a group +of atoms in a distant town unless we electrons +came to their aid. It is true that over +a very short distance the atoms may communicate +directly. For instance, if a heavy +blow is given to a large gong, the atoms of +metal may vibrate so energetically that they +succeed in disturbing the atoms of gas of the +surrounding atmosphere for some considerable +distance. But in the case of speech, +the speaker cannot supply any great energy, +so that he can disturb the atmosphere only +to a very limited distance. We electrons, +however, can do yeoman service in this +respect. We have enabled men to speak +to one another over immense distances.</p> + +<p>The whole affair is very simple. Man +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +speaks and causes the atmospheric atoms +to vibrate and impinge upon a light disc +or diaphragm in a simple instrument which +man has named the <i>telephone</i>. This vibrating +disc presses upon a myriad of carbon particles +contained in a small case or box, the disc +forming one side of the box. When these +carbon particles are pressed together we +electrons can get across more easily from +atom to atom. There is a battery urging +us forward, but our motion is dependent +entirely upon the manner in which the +vibrating disc presses upon the carbon particles. +I cannot describe our movement in +the line-wire as a march; it is in reality a +surging to and fro.</p> + +<p>You will understand that this to-and-fro +motion of the electrons in the line-wire +varies according to the vibrations of the sending +disc, which is controlled by the speaker's +voice. At the distant end of the line we +electrons bring our magnetic powers into +action. We keep varying the attractive +powers of an electro-magnet, according to +the motion of the electrons in the wire. +This ever-changing magnet produces vibrations +in an iron disc which is fixed close to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> +the magnet. This disc is set vibrating in +exact sympathy with the sending disc. When +the listener places this receiving disc close to +his ear, the vibrations are carried by the +atmospheric atoms to his hearing apparatus. +All that we electrons have done is to cause +one disc to vibrate in exact synchrony with +another distant disc. But that is all that +is required, for the receiving disc will reproduce +similar air-vibrations to those set +up by the man's voice at the distant place. +I have pointed out already that we do not +attempt to carry the sound. It is true that +the atoms of matter do the hard work, but +it is we electrons who enable a group of +atoms in one town to communicate with a +group of atoms in a distant town.</p> + +<p>It was natural that as soon as man found +that he could work his telegraph instruments +without the aid of connecting wires, he should +try to do the same with his telephone instruments. +We were sorry when we found men +trying to use the original spark-telegraphy +methods for telephones. While we had no +difficulty in operating a telegraph instrument +by means of æther waves and the tube of filings, +it was quite impossible for us to produce +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> +telephone vibrations on the same principle. +This spark method was a too rough-and-ready +plan. The waves we produced +were like sudden splashes in the æther +ocean, whereas we knew that we must produce +regular trains of continuous waves in +order to reproduce telephone vibrations. +However, you may be aware that we have +succeeded by a different arrangement of +apparatus. Indeed it may interest you to +know that one of my most recent experiences +has been in connection with some +wireless-telephone experiments.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately I was not in a very favourable +position to learn all that was going on, +but it was quite exciting work. I happened +to be attached to an atom of copper in a +length of wire which had been run up into +the air on a sort of flag-pole arrangement. +I need hardly say that I was not alone, for +by this time you will have become accustomed +to picture myriads of electrons occupying +a very small space.</p> + +<p>We were set vibrating to and fro with +tremendous energy, but what bothered me +most was the great variation in our movements. +It was the nature of these variations +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +which gave me the clue that we were being +controlled by the vibrations of a telephone +disc. I can tell you we did make a complex +series of waves in the surrounding æther! +These waves went out through space and +influenced some electrons stationed at a great +distance. When these electrons at the receiving +station were set in motion they +controlled the electric current from a local +battery which set a second telephone disc +vibrating in synchrony with the one at the +sending station.</p> + +<p>On questioning some of my fellow-electrons +who happened to have been nearer the transmitting +part of the instrument than I had +been, I got some interesting information. +They tell me that there was a dynamo and +an arc lamp in our circuit, while the telephone +instrument was in a neighbouring +circuit. The electrons surging to and fro in +the telephone circuit influenced those energetic +electrons in the arc-lamp circuit to which the +ærial wire was attached. You see that my +position in the ærial wire was not a very +advantageous one for observing what was +taking place.</p> + +<p>This was truly a great achievement—to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> +enable one man to speak to another distant +hundreds of miles, and without the aid of +any connecting wire. I think you will agree +with me that we have excelled all past records +in the world of wonders.</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<h2>OUR HEAVIEST DUTIES</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER TWELVE</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Here the electron explains its behaviour +in a dynamo at work.</p> + +<p>The principle of the dynamo was discovered +by Faraday in the thirties of last century.</p> + +<p>He found that when a coil of wire was +moved through a magnetic field, there was a +current of electricity induced in the moving +coil.</p> + +<p>Experimental machines were constructed, +and after a while a practical dynamo was +evolved.</p> + +<p>Wires are attached to a dynamo and the +electric current is led out.</p> + +<p>This current may be conducted to a distant +tramway car, and, by sending the current +through an electric motor, mechanical motion +is produced and the car propelled along.</p> + +<p>An electric motor is practically the same +as a dynamo, but instead of turning its coil +round in order to produce an electric current, +we pass a current into the coil and it moves +round. It will be sufficient to leave the +electron to tell its own story.</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> +This is another of those roving commissions +in which I have been privileged to take part +on more than one occasion.</p> + +<p>If you think of the giant size of an electric +tramway car or a railway train, and try to +compare one of these with an electron, such +as your humble servant, it will seem quite +ridiculous that I should suggest that it is +we electrons who move those huge vehicles. +Yet such is the actual case.</p> + +<p>Of course we require the application of +very considerable power to urge us to so +heavy a task. All the energy which we can +get from a few electric batteries might enable +us to drive a toy car, but when it comes to +turning the wheels of a real car or train, we +require a correspondingly greater amount of +energy.</p> + +<p>I may as well tell you quite frankly that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> +we electrons are only the intermediaries or +go-betweens. Indeed, you must have noticed +that in every case we act merely as a connecting +link between matter and the æther, and +between the æther and matter.</p> + +<p>But what I want to tell you of, is the part +we play in moving an electric car or railway +train. It is really all very simple if you could +only see it from our standpoint. Picture a +host of us attached to copper atoms in a coil +of wire which is being moved through that +disturbed æther called a <i>magnetic field</i>. We +are set in motion immediately. It is true +that when we are moved forward into the +field we march off in one direction, only to +be arrested and made to move off in the +opposite direction as we leave the field, but +it really makes no difference in our working +capabilities as long as we are kept on the +move. This is what is actually taking place +in the armature of a dynamo as it revolves +between the poles of the electro-magnet. +There is no peace for us so long as the coil +is kept revolving; we are kept in a constant +state of rapid to-and-fro motion.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="position: relative; width: 500px;"> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"><!--[Pg 119]--></a></span> + <a href="images/figp119-800.jpg"> + <img src="images/figp119-400.jpg" + width="306" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a> + <p> + <small><i>By permission of Siemens Schuckert Werke</i> + <span class="ralign"><i>Berlin</i></span></small> + </p> + + <p class="smcap bold center">A Train Impelled by Moving Electrons</p> + + <p>It is remarkable that the motion of electrons in an electric + conductor can result in the movement of heavy vehicles. How this + comes about is explained in <a href="#CHAPTER_XII">Chapter XII</a>.</p> +</div> + +<p>This is all we electrons do in a dynamo, +but when the ends of the outer circuit or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +mains are brought into contact with the +ends of our revolving coil, we set the electrons +in the mains surging to and fro in step with +ourselves. Man describes this motion of the +electrons in the mains as an <i>alternating electric +current</i>, but by a simple commutator on the +dynamo he may arrange that we set the +electrons marching in one direction in the +mains. This he describes as a <i>direct electric +current</i>.</p> + +<p>It is a matter of indifference to us whether +man drives our coil round by means of a +steam-engine, a water-wheel, or a wind-mill; +all that we electrons want is to be kept +surging or vibrating to and fro. Now you +will be able to appreciate how we electrons +get up sufficient motion to enable us to perform +what I have described as <i>our heaviest +duties</i>.</p> + +<p>Perhaps you will find it difficult to believe +me when I tell you that as we march along +the connecting wire to a distant tramway +car we transmit the energy through the +surrounding æther, and not through the +wire. This is our mode of working in every +case, whether it be an electric bell, a telegraph, +or telephone. That is to say, while +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +we electrons move from atom to atom in +the connecting wire, it is the disturbed +æther surrounding us which transmits the +energy. You must have realised by this +time how very intimate is the relationship +between ourselves and the æther.</p> + +<p>To return to the tale of our tramway work, +you will picture my fellow-electrons aboard +the car being energised by the incoming +current. Those electrons present in the +armature coil of the motor are set into +motion, as also are those in the wire of the +neighbouring electro-magnet. The result is +that these two sets of electrons so disturb +the æther and affect one another that the +coil is moved round into a different position. +You will remember the experiment of which +I told you, in which a magnetic needle would +insist always in taking up a position at right +angles to a wire in which an electric current +is passing. Well, when the motor coil has +turned into its new position, we electrons +receive an impulse from our friends in the +line-wire which causes us to retrace our steps +in the coil. This action of ours causes the +coil to make a further movement in the +same direction as at first. Again we change +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +our direction of march, and again the coil +changes its position towards the electro-magnet. +The sole duty of these electrons in +the armature coil is to keep surging to and +fro, while those electrons in the electro-magnet +keep up a steady march in one direction. +This arrangement necessitates the +armature coil to keep changing its position +continually, and when we have the armature +coil spinning round at a steady pace, it is +easy for man to connect the armature to +the axles of the tramway car and cause us +to drive the wheels round.</p> + +<p>I need hardly say that it makes no difference +to us whether we are asked to drive a tramway +car, a railway train, or a host of machines +in a factory or workshop. All that we +electrons in the motor require is to have +sufficient energy passed along to us from our +fellows in the distant dynamo. Again I +admit frankly that the atoms of matter play +a very important part in these our heaviest +duties, but you will see that without our +active assistance they could not transmit the +necessary energy to a distant car or train.</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2> + +<h2>A BOON TO MAN</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER THIRTEEN</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>While it has been known for a long time +that <i>light</i> and <i>radiant heat</i> are merely waves +in the æther, it was not known until recently +how these waves were produced.</p> + +<p>The discovery of electrons has given us a +reasonable solution of our difficulty.</p> + +<p>The electron explains the actions of its +fellows in this great work of producing light +and heat.</p> + +<p>Incidentally the electron explains how they +produce an aurora in the heavens, and how +it is that the earth has become a negatively +electrified body.</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +Every living thing is dependent upon our +activities. It is we electrons who send out +heat and light from the sun, and it is we +who receive these on their arrival upon this +planet. Our action in the matter is really +very simple, but until man discovered our +existence, he was mystified considerably.</p> + +<p>We were amused to hear man say that +the atoms of incandescent matter in the +sun produced waves in the æther, and that +when these æther waves fell upon other +atoms on this planet, these were set into a +state of vibration, thus producing heat and +light. Now if man had only stopped to think, +he would have seen how ridiculous it was +to speak of atoms of matter producing waves +in the æther. He ought to have known that +atoms of matter cannot affect the æther, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +for it offers no resistance to matter moving +through it.</p> + +<p>Man might have pictured himself riding +on the back of this great planet, flying through +space at a speed very similar to that of a +rifle bullet, and yet even the flimsy blanket +of air surrounding the planet is not disturbed +by the æther through which it is +rushing.</p> + +<p>It is true that the atoms of matter play an +important part in the origin of heat, but the +atoms in the sun could no more affect the +atoms on the earth than could a man on the +earth push the moon about. It is the very +intimate connection between us electrons and +the all-pervading æther which enables our +fellows in the sun to communicate with those +of us upon this planet. Where would man be +without us?</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="position: relative; width: 500px;"> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"><!--[Pg 129]--></a></span> + <a href="images/figp129-800.jpg"> + <img src="images/figp129-400.jpg" + width="275" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a> + <p> + <small><i>By permission of Siemens Schuckert Werke</i> + <span class="ralign"><i>Berlin</i></span></small> + </p> + + <p class="smcap bold center">Protection Against a Discharge of Electrons</p> + + <p>When a man is encased completely in an over-all made of flexible + metallic gauze he is proof against shock due to a discharge of + high-tension electricity. The part played by electrons in the + case of electric shock is explained in <a href="#CHAPTER_IV">Chapter + IV</a>.</p> +</div> + +<p>I cannot understand wherein man should +find any mystery in connection with this very +simple action of ours. You will picture our +distant fellow-electrons making very rapid +revolutions around the atoms of matter to +which they are attached as satellites. Just +as the moon circles around the earth, so do +we circle around our atoms, but at an +enor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>mously +greater speed. Of course the whole +length of our orbit is inconceivably small, and +the speed of our revolutions is inconceivably +great. It is our rapid motion through the +æther which produces those waves known to +man as radiant heat and light. Some one +may ask how it is that we electrons can +disturb the æther while the giant atoms +cannot. The obvious answer is that we are +not matter, but electricity; we are not in the +same category as atoms of matter.</p> + +<p>To complete the picture which I was drawing, +you have only to think of the æther +waves arriving upon this planet and disturbing +sympathetic electrons, causing them +to revolve around their atoms in similar +fashion to our distant fellows who are producing +the æther waves.</p> + +<p>It may be that some people get confused +between this action and that of those electrons +who are shot off bodily from the sun towards +the earth. Believe me, there is no connection +between the two things. The stream +of electrons shot off from the sun is deflected +towards the magnetic poles of the earth, and +as the electrons enter the upper layers of +the atmosphere they produce that beautiful +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +luminous effect which man describes as an +<i>Aurora</i>.</p> + +<p>I have never taken part in one of these +great displays, for, as far as my recollection +goes, I have never been in the sun, although +some fellow-electrons declare that at one time +we were all in the same great glowing mass +of which the sun, and every member of the +solar system, formed a part. However that +may be, I certainly have no experience of +auroræ, but I have assisted in producing the +very same effect upon a small scale within a +vacuum tube. The air remaining in these +so-called vacuum tubes is just as rarified as +the air in the upper layers of the atmosphere, +and when we are shot across the tube we +act in the same way as those electrons +arriving upon this planet from the sun.</p> + +<p>You will observe that as a surplus of electrons +arrives upon the earth from the sun, +the earth is naturally a negatively electrified +body, but I need hardly say that the earth +does not keep all the electrons which arrive +upon it.</p> + +<p>My scribe points out that I am wandering +from the story which I set out to tell in +this chapter, so I shall try and please him.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +The direct cause of light, whether it be +natural or artificial, is the rapid motion of +electrons around atoms of matter. If they +revolve at a comparatively slow speed they +produce those æther waves which man calls +<i>radiant heat</i>. If these satellite electrons, however, +desire to affect the eye of man, they +have to move around at a very much greater +speed. If we travel at too fast a speed, then +we cease to cause the sensation of light. But, +believe me, all the waves we make are of +the same nature, no matter what names man +has given them. The only difference we can +make in the waves is the rate at which they +follow one another. Of course we can also +make them larger or smaller in height, or, in +other words, of greater or less amplitude, but +that does not affect their properties.</p> + +<p>In the following chapter I shall tell you +of some remarkable phenomena which our +different æther waves produce in the brain +of man.</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2> + +<h2>HOW WE PRODUCE COLOUR</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER FOURTEEN</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Colour is merely a sensation in the brain.</p> + +<p>What the electrons really produce are +æther waves, and these give rise to the sensations +of colour.</p> + +<p>However, the electrons may claim to produce +colour in the same sense as we savages +produce pain in fellow-men by firing rifle-bullets +at them.</p> + +<p>The electron explains how some objects +appear white, while others are red, and so +forth.</p> + +<p>It explains also how electrons produce +artificial light.</p> + +<p>The electron twits man upon his ridiculously +wasteful processes of obtaining artificial +light.</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +In the preceding chapter I have been telling +you how we electrons produce waves in the +æther ocean. I pointed out that if we make +the waves follow each other at too slow or too +fast a rate they fail to affect man's eyes.</p> + +<p>It may seem strange to you that only a +very small range of our æther waves should +affect man's visionary apparatus. Of course +this limitation lies beyond our province; we +can produce endless variety of æther waves—it +is man's organs which fail to appreciate the +bulk of these. However, there is plenty of +variety in the sensations which we can produce +in man. If we make the waves follow +each other at a certain speed, man says he +has the sensation of <i>red</i>. If we move faster, +he speaks of <i>orange-colour</i>, and as we increase +our speed he names his further sensations as +<i>yellow</i>, <i>green</i>, <i>blue</i>, and <i>violet</i>. Then if we +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> +combine all these waves—that is, if we produce +them all at one time—he says he has the +sensation of <i>white</i>. If we produce none of +these waves, he calls the result <i>black</i>.</p> + +<p>While we electrons are very versatile, our +actions are dependent in a great measure +upon circumstances. For instance, if an electron +is acting as a satellite to one particular +kind of atom, its rate of revolution around +that atom may be very different from that of +an electron similarly attached to another kind +of atom. We electrons are all identical, but +the speed of revolution is determined by the +kind of atom. The reason is very simple; +electrons revolve around some atoms at a +much greater distance than they would +around other atoms. Those making only the +smaller orbits not only get around their +atoms in less time, but they are also travelling +at a greater pace. It is this fact which +enables the electrons to produce the various +wave-lengths which stimulate the different +colour sensations in the brain of man.</p> + +<p>I think you will have no difficulty in seeing +how it is that we come to produce such a +variety of wave-lengths—in other words, +how we are able to make the waves follow +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +each other more or less rapidly. You will +understand that we do not produce colours; +we merely make various waves in the æther, +and these waves excite the colour sensations +in man. I mention this simple fact, because +I hear many people speaking of our æther +waves as "coloured rays," which, of course, is +quite a ridiculous description.</p> + +<p>Suppose some of those waves which give +rise to the red sensation happen to fall upon +a lump of matter which contains only electrons +capable of producing waves that affect the +green sensation. What will happen? There +will be no response, and the object, although +viewed by "red light," will appear black.</p> + +<p>If an object, such as the white paper upon +which my scribe is recording my story, contains +a variety of atoms with electrons capable of +revolving at all the different rates which +produce colour sensations, then when "white +light" falls upon the object it appears white +(all the colour sensations combined). If, on +the other hand, a "red light" only falls upon +it, then only the electrons capable of responding +to that rate of wave will be set in motion, +and the object will appear red, and so on +with the other rates of æther waves.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> +So far I have been telling you what happens +when different waves of light fall upon us. +Now I shall endeavour to explain how man +has caused us to produce artificial light. At +present all man's methods in this direction +are dependent upon making some substance +so hot that it becomes incandescent. Even +his most modern methods seem to us to be +ridiculously wasteful and most roundabout. I +shall speak only of the electric glow lamp, as +I have had some experience in connection +with this.</p> + +<p>On one occasion I had been taking part +in a regular forward march from copper atom +to copper atom in a conducting wire. I had +no idea of the purpose of our march till I +suddenly found myself handed over to some +carbon atoms, who were in a very lively state +of vibration. We had much more difficulty +in making our way through this substance, +and it was the passive resistance offered to the +advance of the electrons who had preceded +me that had driven the carbon atoms into +this state of great excitement. In our march +through the copper conductor we had been +offered very little resistance, so that we had +left the copper atoms in peace—at least man +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> +could not detect easily any excitement (heat). +But so long as our forced march was maintained +among the carbon atoms, so long did +the high temperature exist.</p> + +<p>You will understand I and the other marching +electrons did not produce the waves of +light sent out by the glow lamp. What we +did was to set the atoms of carbon into +a rapid vibratory state, and they in turn +caused their satellite electrons to hasten their +pace. Some electrons produced one rate of +waves, and some another rate, but by the +time the carbon was incandescent there were +electrons sending out all the variety of wave-lengths, +the combination of which produces +the sensation of white.</p> + +<p>I have accused man of adopting very wasteful +processes, so I had better explain the +matter. In the preceding description of what +is occurring in an electric glow lamp, I have +spoken only of those æther waves which +constitute light. But there are myriads of +electrons in the carbon of the glow lamp +that never attain the requisite speed to produce +those waves; they revolve around their +atoms at too slow a rate. They certainly +disturb the æther, but the crests of the waves +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +are so far apart that they do not affect the +eyes of man. The business of these waves +is to set up heat in the bodies upon which +they fall. You may be surprised to know +that in this contrivance of man, called an +electric glow lamp, and, indeed, in all his +other artificial light-producers, he causes far +more electrons to produce radiant heat than +the desired light waves. A most wasteful +process!</p> + +<p>Man has a long way to travel yet before +he succeeds in producing artificial light by +a reasonable process. Indeed I doubt if any +of you can realise, as we do, how exceedingly +stupid the existing methods are. Think for +a moment of the glow-worm, in which we +electrons produce light without setting up +any wasteful heat waves. There is a strong +contrast between this peaceful plan and that +of the excited carbon atoms. When will man +succeed in discovering this secret of ours?</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2> + +<h2>WE SEND MESSAGES FROM THE STARS</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER FIFTEEN</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>It is remarkable that man has been able to +discover what the distant stars are made of.</p> + +<p>Our knowledge concerning the chemistry +of the stars has been obtained by means of +the spectroscope, in which a beam of light +from the star is passed through a glass +prism.</p> + +<p>The result is the well-known image of the +coloured spectrum, in which certain well-defined +lines appear, according to the distant +elements originating the æther waves.</p> + +<p>The electron explains the whole subject +from its own point of view.</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +It is only within recent times that man has +observed that we send messages from the distant +stars to this planet. But there is nothing +new to us in this proceeding; we have +been busy sending these messages ever since +the solar system was formed. Through all +those ages we have kept on sending these +messages, knowing that in time man must +come to take notice of them.</p> + +<p>If the subject should happen to be new to +you, you will be anxious to know to what +kind of messages I refer. Needless to say, +they are wireless messages—waves in the +great æther ocean. The waves, to which I +refer specially, fall within that small range +of which I told you something in the preceding +chapter. In other words, they are +those waves to which man has given the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +name <i>light</i>. But what special information do +these waves, coming from the stars, convey +to man? They tell him of what materials +these distant stars are made. Needless to +say, it is we electrons who produce those +informative waves.</p> + +<p>You are familiar with our method of producing +waves. You know that we whirl +around the atoms of matter at prodigious +speeds, and that according to the number of +revolutions we make per second, we produce +waves of corresponding frequencies.</p> + +<p>In an earlier chapter I have hinted that the +speed of the revolving electron is determined +by the kind of atom to which it acts as a +satellite. For instance, when electrons revolve +around iron atoms they produce certain +wave-lengths, while those moving around +hydrogen atoms produce an entirely different +series of waves. But how is man to recognise +these?</p> + +<p>It is quite evident that man may gaze at a +distant star and be little the wiser concerning +the different lengths of the waves which +impinge upon his eyes. He may observe +that the sensation is inclined to red, from +which he may infer that the waves are long +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +ones—that they are farther apart than some +of the waves produced by a white-hot body. +But had man been content to try and decipher +our wireless messages in this rough-and-ready +manner, he would never have +gained the interesting information which we +have now placed in his hands. How, then, did +we enable man to read our messages?</p> + +<p>Our plan may seem to be somewhat mysterious, +but I assure you that it is really very +simple. When these æther waves of light +fall upon a triangular prism of glass, the +waves are bent out of their normally straight +path. But the point that may seem strange +to you, is that those waves which produce the +sensation of red are not bent so much as the +others. The more rapidly the waves follow +one another, the greater is the bending of +such a ray from its original direction. In +this way the various wave-lengths are all +spread out, so that they form an image like +a coloured ribbon, red at one end, being followed +by orange, yellow, green, blue, and +violet. Every man must be familiar with +this coloured spectrum. When some of my +fellows are enclosed in drops of water in the +air they produce a great rainbow spectrum +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> +across the heavens. But I must tell you how +we electrons succeed in bending these rays of +light.</p> + +<p>I have told you already how we either +absorb or reflect the æther waves which +happen to fall upon us. In most substances +it is only those electrons very near the surface +that are disturbed. They succeed in stopping +the waves. They may do this in either of two +different ways. If the satellite electrons are +attracted strongly by their atoms, the electrons +will spin around the atoms keeping time +to the movements of the incoming waves, and +in this way the electrons take up the energy +of the waves. In doing this, the electrons +send out fresh waves in the æther. This is +the real explanation of what man calls <i>reflection</i> +of light.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="position: relative; width: 500px;"> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149"><!--[Pg 149]--></a></span> + <a href="images/figp149-800.jpg"> + <img src="images/figp149-400.jpg" + width="351" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a> + <p class="smcap bold center">The Spectroscope and the Electrons' Wireless Messages</p> + + <p>The spectroscope is seen in the extreme left of No. 1 photograph. + The instrument is explained at <a href="#Page_207">page 207</a>.</p> + + <p>The operator is passing an electric current through a glass tube + containing a rarefied gas, causing the gas to become luminous. + When he examines its light through the spectroscope he sees + bright lines as shown in photograph No. 2, and from the position + of these lines he can tell what substance is producing the light. + No. 2 is the spectrum of mercury vapour. No. 3 is part of the + spectrum of the sun. Note the dark lines, as explained in the + text.</p> +</div> + +<p>In the second case, the electrons are not so +firmly attached to their atoms, so that the +incoming waves dislodge them, and they are +knocked about from atom to atom, and in +this way the energy of the waves is frittered +away. Man speaks of the light having been +<i>absorbed</i> by the substance upon which it fell. +In both cases the only electrons which take +part in these actions are those electrons who +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> +can move in sympathy with the incoming +waves.</p> + +<p>It will be clear to you that only those of us +who are near the surface of a substance know +anything about these incoming waves. The +electrons attached to atoms in the interior of +the substance are left in peace, owing to the +defensive actions of our fellows on the outside. +But this is not the case with all substances. +There are some congregations of +atoms through which the æther waves can +make their way. Man calls such materials +<i>transparent</i>; for example, glass and water +are transparent substances. The fact of the +matter is that in such substances none of us +are able to respond to the incoming waves, and +so we cannot stop them. I should say almost +none of us, for there are always a few electrons +present who happen to be in sympathy with +the incoming waves. That is why no substance +is perfectly transparent.</p> + +<p>The point concerning which I wish to speak +in particular is this. Although we allow the +æther waves to pass through such substances, +we do offer some slight resistance to the passage +of the waves; the faster the to-and-fro +motion of the waves, the more resistance do +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +we offer. That is why the waves of highest +frequency are bent farthest from the straight +line when passed through a glass prism. +We actually force the æther waves to travel +slower through a piece of glass than through +the air.</p> + +<p>Now there should be no mystery concerning +our action in a triangular piece of glass. +Whatever combination of æther waves falls +upon it, the different trains of waves are +sorted out according to their frequencies. +Suppose, for instance, that æther waves +emitted from some incandescent sodium are +passed through a glass prism. The bulk of +the electrons attached to the sodium atoms +are capable of revolving at speeds which produce +waves causing the sensation of yellow. +Hence there will appear a very distinct line of +yellow light in the spectrum. But why +should the light be in the form of a line? +Simply because our æther waves are passed +through a narrow slit in a shutter. But I +need not trouble you with further details of +our actions, which, although very simple to +us, may seem somewhat strange to you.</p> + +<p>You will understand, however, that we +form bright lines in different parts of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +spectrum, according to the kinds of atoms to +which we are attached. It was this fact +which attracted man's attention to our wireless +messages. He soon discovered the meaning +of these lines, for he commenced to take +exact notes of the different positions in which +we placed these lines. He saw that when we +were attached to hydrogen atoms we always +produced three prominent lines; a very distinct +line in the red section, another in the +blue part, and a third one somewhat fainter +and farther along in the blue. On the other +hand, when attached to sodium atoms, we +produced two very distinct lines in the yellow. +When attached to iron atoms we produced a +great variety of lines in the spectrum. Of +course these substances have to be incandescent +to enable us to produce the æther +waves.</p> + +<p>Now it will be clear to you how we send +wireless messages from the distant stars. +These stars are great masses of flaming gases, +so that the satellite electrons are kept busy +dancing attendance to excited atoms. The +electrons are constantly sending out æther +waves, which reach this planet. We sort out +these waves when man passes them through a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> +glass prism, mounted in a telescope arrangement +which he calls a <i>spectroscope</i>. He then +examines the positions of the lines we produce +in the resulting spectrum, and from these he +knows what kinds of atoms are present in the +distant star. It is we who have informed +man that there are forty different materials +in the sun, the most common of which are +hydrogen, sodium, iron, copper, nickel, and +zinc. Of course these all exist in a gaseous +form.</p> + +<p>There is one point about which I need +hardly trouble you, although it is worth +mentioning in passing. While we produce +bright lines in the spectrum of any incandescent +substance on this planet, our messages +from the stars appear as dark lines. The +reason for this is that there are cooler masses +of the gases surrounding the incandescent +masses forming the stars, and these cooler +gases completely absorb the waves we produce. +So completely are these waves absorbed +that blank spaces are left in the +spectrum, and these are the dark lines to +which I refer. As they are in the same positions +that the bright lines would have occupied +had the waves reached the earth, it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +makes no difference to the reading of our +messages.</p> + +<p>Curiously enough, some of our actions in +forming lines in the spectrum led to our +actual discovery by man; but I shall tell you +of this in the following chapter.</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2> + +<h2>HOW MAN PROVED OUR EXISTENCE</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER SIXTEEN</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Several men of note declared that "little +particles" revolved around the atoms of +matter, and that it was the motion of these +particles which produced the well-known +æther waves of light.</p> + +<p>This idea was suggested by the result of +certain mathematical calculations.</p> + +<p>It was some time before real experimental +proof was obtained.</p> + +<p>The electron tells its own tale of this +great discovery.</p> + +<p>When the electron speaks of a spectrum +line being shifted up or down the scale, it +means towards the violet or the red end +respectively.</p> + +<p>We may picture the spectrum as analogous +to the keyboard of a piano.</p> + +<p>In the second part of this chapter, the +electron explains how it has enabled man +to discover that certain stars are approaching +the earth, while others are receding from it.</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +We electrons had waited long ages for man +to acknowledge our services, but we did not +despise the acknowledgment which a few +men accorded us upon the basis of their +mathematical calculations. It was natural, +however, that we should want something +more definite than this.</p> + +<p>You can imagine our joy when real experimental +proof of our existence was established. +Perhaps you think that we should +have been satisfied with this. But even this did +not bring acknowledgment from many outside +scientific circles, and not even from all +within those circles. As our services to man +are universal, we feel that all men should +become acquainted with our doings. Indeed +that was the chief argument used by my +fellow-electrons, who urged me to write this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +autobiography. The story of our actual discovery +by man is an interesting one.</p> + +<p>It all came about in a very simple manner, +but in quite a different way from what most +electrons expected. Man reasoned within +himself that if we electrons really did revolve +around atoms and thus produce waves in the +æther, as had been suggested, he ought to +be able to affect our movements by disturbing +the æther in which we were revolving. Of +course man cannot disturb the æther directly; +he must employ some of us to do this for +him. He caused us to produce a very powerful +magnetic field, which, as you know, is a +disturbance of the æther. Man did not bother +thinking about <i>us</i> in this connection; he +simply sent an electric current around an +electro-magnet, but I have explained to you +the very active part we play in electric and +magnetic actions.</p> + +<p>From my story in the preceding chapter, +you are aware that man had observed the +meaning of the bright lines in the spectrum +of any incandescent body. When he examined +the æther waves we send out from sodium +atoms, he found two very distinct lines in +the yellow. Because of the brightness of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> +these lines, man selected a sodium flame to +experiment with in the present case.</p> + +<p>You will picture a great host of my fellow-electrons +revolving around the atoms in a +sodium flame. The flame was placed between +the poles of a very powerful electro-magnet, +and a beam of æther waves (light) produced +by us was directed into the spectroscope. +The experimenter focussed all his attention +upon one of the bright yellow lines. He +noted very carefully the exact position in +which we placed it. He then produced the +magnetic field around the flame, in which +my fellow-electrons were revolving at a steady +pace, and, behold, the line which he was +watching split up into two lines, one taking +up a position a little higher up the spectrum +scale, and the other going a little lower down +towards the red end. What could this +mean?</p> + +<p>Man had no difficulty in knowing the cause +of this alteration; indeed, it was exactly what +he had hoped would take place. Of the two +new lines, one represented waves a little +shorter, while the other line indicated waves +a little longer or farther apart, than the +original waves forming the single line. This +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +could only come about by some of the electrons +having had their rate of revolution increased, +while that of others had been reduced. These +alterations were due to the æther disturbance +(the magnetic field). Those electrons whose +orbits happened to lie in one position had +their rate of revolution increased, while those +whose orbits lay in another position had their +speed reduced. Man was convinced at last +that we "particles" were real existing things.</p> + +<p>Whenever man withdrew the æther disturbance, +the electrons fell back into their +natural rate of revolution, and the original +single line appeared in the spectrum.</p> + +<p>I took no part in the original experiment +which gave absolute proof of our existence, +but since then I have been present in a +laboratory when the same experiment has +been repeated.</p> + + +<p>This is not the only case in which we +alter the positions of definite lines in the +spectrum. Indeed, we have given man some +interesting information about the motions of +distant stars—information which he could +not have obtained in any other way. We +have sent wireless messages from distant +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +stars, indicating that they were approaching +the earth, while electrons aboard other stars +have signalled that they are receding from +the earth. All this may seem mysterious to +you, and yet our actions in the matter are +very simple. Indeed, we do nothing but what +I have told you of in the preceding chapters. +We send out definite wave-lengths in the +manner described already. But if we are +on board a star which is travelling towards +the earth, our waves will naturally follow +a little closer at each other's heels. On the +other hand, if the star is receding from the +earth, the waves must be a little farther +apart than they would be if the star were +at rest.</p> + +<p>You will understand that the electrons are +revolving at the same speeds in both cases, +but the forward movement of the star crowds +the waves together, while a receding star +stretches them out a little farther apart. +The result at the receiving end is that the +crowded waves are just as though they had +come from electrons revolving at a greater +speed than is actually the case. Hence the +line appears farther along the spectrum, up +the scale of frequencies, than would have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> +been the case had the star not been moving +forward in the line of sight. Thus if the +hydrogen lines, of which I have spoken elsewhere, +should appear higher up the spectrum +than usual, then man knows that the star +from which these waves are coming is approaching +the earth.</p> + +<p>It will be evident that when known lines +in the spectrum are shifted down the scale +(towards the red end of the spectrum), then +the rate of the waves has been decreased, +and man knows that the star carrying these +stimulating electrons is receding from him.</p> + +<p>You will observe that we electrons perform +no new duty in connection with this matter; +it is entirely the motion of the body carrying +us that alters the positions of the lines. But +I must hasten on to tell you of some personal +experiences.</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2> + +<h2>MY X-RAY EXPERIENCES</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER SEVENTEEN</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The present generation were all very much +interested in the discovery of X-rays.</p> + +<p>With the aid of a battery and an induction +coil, man causes an energetic electrical discharge +to pass through a vacuum tube.</p> + +<p>When the flying electrons strike upon a +little metal target placed in their path, they +produce the well-known Roentgen rays.</p> + +<p>We have all become familiar with the great +penetrating powers of these rays.</p> + +<p>The electron may be left to tell its own +story.</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> +It was no surprise to us that we could produce +what man calls X-rays, but we were +very much surprised at the use to which +man put these splashes which we made in +the æther. A limited number of us had been +producing X-rays on our own account for +many ages, but I shall tell you of that in +a later chapter, when you will hear how we +made the world talk.</p> + +<p>I must tell you of my own experiences in +connection with these X-rays, which I hear +some men describe also as <i>Roentgen rays</i>. +I found myself once more within a large +vacuum tube, and as soon as I felt a crowd +of my fellows pushing me forward, I was +quite prepared to be shot across the tube, +as on previous occasions. Personally, I was +not prepared for what was to come. Just +as we reached the centre of the tube we +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> +collided with a metal plate or target. It +was no joke to be pulled up so suddenly +when travelling at a terrific speed. I noticed +at the time that our very sudden stoppage +had a peculiar effect upon the æther. Of +course we never bothered about a name for +this disturbance; it is man who requires to +have names for everything. He was quite +right to call this æther disturbance "X-rays," +for even now he does not know the real +nature of these. I have heard him describe +them as thin pulses in the æther, but there is +something more.</p> + +<p>I may as well confess that although we +observed this æther disturbance arising from +our sudden stoppage, we paid little attention +to it, until it became apparent that man +was continuing to produce these rays for +some special purpose. He had discovered that +we could shoot these rays right through many +solid substances which were not transparent +to light. But I have not told you how man +came to know that we could produce these +penetrating rays.</p> + +<p>On one occasion we were sending out these +rays, which, by the way, do not cause any +sensation in man's visionary apparatus. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> +room was in darkness. Some of the invisible +rays fell upon a collection of small +chemical crystals which were fixed on the +surface of a screen. Our fellow-electrons, +who were attached to the atoms of the +crystals, were bestirred into action. They +could not reflect the X-rays, but they set +up regular trains of waves in the æther, some +of which came within the range that affects +man's vision. Man knew that this chemical +screen could not produce light on its own +account, and it became apparent that the +vacuum tube must be sending some æther +waves towards the chemical screen.</p> + +<p>As the electrons on the screen produced +an æther disturbance different from that +which fell upon it, man called this a <i>fluorescent +screen</i>.</p> + +<p>At first we took merely a passing interest +in the experiments which man made with +these X-rays of ours, for it seemed to us as +though man thought them only good enough +for amusing his friends. Indeed, we paid +little heed to what he was doing, until we +observed that the rays were being used by +surgeons. We were interested at once, for +here we could serve man.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +My first experience in this connection was +quite interesting. A young girl had got a +needle into her hand while she was playing +about, and the surgeons were at a loss to +know where the needle had lodged. We lost +no time in producing X-rays which could +penetrate the flesh of the hand, and reach +the fluorescent screen on the other side. The +bones of the hand blocked the way of our +rays, but not so completely as the needle did. +Hence we produced upon the screen a faint +shadow of the flesh of the hand, a much +deeper image of the bones, and a black shadow +of the needle. This enabled the surgeon to +see where the needle was hiding.</p> + +<p>Sometimes we were called upon to produce +rays for detecting bullets in the flesh, +or for showing the nature of a fractured bone. +We were never surprised to find that our call +was to detect a coin in the throat of a child, +but in this connection a big surprise awaited +some of us. I was not one of the party, but +I have the information from some fellow-electrons.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="position: relative; width: 500px;"> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"><!--[Pg 171]--></a></span> + <a href="images/figp171-800.jpg"> + <img src="images/figp171-400.jpg" + width="320" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a> + <p class="smcap bold center">How Electrons Produce X-Ray Images</p> + + <p>The upper photograph shows the X-ray apparatus in use. The + operator is examining the bones of the lady's hand, which she + places between the X-ray tube and the fluorescent screen. The + rays pass through the flesh, but are obstructed by the bones, the + rings, and the bangle, so that a shadowgraph or image is formed + upon the screen, which becomes luminous where the rays succeed in + reaching it. The actual examination is made in a dark room. Owing + to the way X-ray photos are taken (by contact) the image is + reversed in a photograph, so that a left looks like a right + hand.</p> +</div> + +<p>A party of electrons were present within +an X-ray tube at a large hospital, when +they were called upon to produce rays for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +examining the throat of a little girl. They +had become so used to this call that they +did not doubt there would be a coin in the +child's throat. However, they lost no time +in producing the penetrating rays, and you +can imagine their surprise when they produced +the image of a toy bicycle upon the +screen. It seemed ridiculous that such a toy +could have entered a child's throat.</p> + +<p>When we had shown the surgeons exactly +where the toy was, they set to work to +remove it. The electrons heard later that +the operation was successful in every way. +Every one was interested, and we were +proud. I do not wish to appear boastful, but +I wonder how many operations owe their +success to these rays which we produce for +man.</p> + +<p>It was natural that man should try if these +searching rays could affect the chemicals upon +a photographic plate, and we soon proved +that they could. It made no difference to us +whether man kept the plate sealed up in its +light-proof envelope, or whether he placed +the plate within a wooden box. These protecting +covers offered no barrier to our rays. +We produced shadowgraphs of any objects +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +placed between our tube and the photographic +plate.</p> + +<p>Two of my early experiences may be of +interest to you. The first of these seemed +to me a rather tame affair. Our X-ray tube +appeared to be arranged for the amusement +of fashionable folk. One grand lady placed +her hand behind the fluorescent screen, whereupon +we produced an image of the bones of +her hand and very dark images of all the +many rings upon her fingers. Several of the +rings had enormous diamonds, but it was +after she had gone away that I overheard +two gentlemen speaking about the rings. +One asked the other if he had observed the +beautiful diamonds, whereupon the other +roared with laughter. It seems that we +proved them to be imitation diamonds, for +our rays could not penetrate them, whereas +they have no difficulty in passing through +real diamonds. We therefore produced black +shadows of the imitation diamonds. Little +did the grand lady know how we had exposed +her sham jewels.</p> + +<p>My second experience was a very curious +one. I learned that our tube was being +carried to some distance. After a while we +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +were placed beside a peculiar-looking object, +which the men referred to as the "mummy." +One of the men suggested that they should +photograph its feet, but before doing so +they darkened the room and set us to work +upon the fluorescent screen. The owner of +the mummy got rather nervous as to what +we might disclose, and as the force urging +us into action was somewhat erratic at first, +we produced only a very indistinct image. +We were greatly amused at the nervous excitement +of the owner; he seemed to think +our verdict was that there were no bones. +However, the man with the apparatus soon +got things into better condition, and this +enabled us to produce X-rays satisfactorily. +The result was that they secured some excellent +photographs of the hidden bones of the +mummy.</p> + +<p>Before telling you how we made the world +talk, I should like to give you a clear idea of +our relationship to the atoms of matter.</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2> + +<h2>OUR RELATIONSHIP TO THE ATOMS</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER EIGHTEEN</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>We have no doubt that an atom of matter +is a miniature solar system of revolving +electrons.</p> + +<p>These electrons, being negative particles of +electricity, would repel each other just as any +two similarly electrified bodies do.</p> + +<p>There must therefore be some equivalent of +positive electricity, but whether this exists +in the form of a sphere or in separate particles +we have no definite knowledge.</p> + +<p>One atom differs from another in the +number of electrons which go to make up the +atom.</p> + +<p>The electron explains how the atoms of +matter are united to one another, how +different compound substances are formed, +and how chemical changes take place.</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +I am sorry that this part of my story must +remain incomplete for the present. I am not +free to tell you all I know; you must try and +get behind the scenes on your own account.</p> + +<p>One thing I am at liberty to tell you is that +my fellow-electrons who are locked up within +the atoms are not without hope that they +may gain their freedom once more at some +future time. I know this first-hand, for I +have met some fellow-electrons who have +escaped from within an atom, but I shall +delay telling you about these fellows till the +succeeding chapter. My object in mentioning +this fact now is to give you confidence in what +I am about to say regarding the nature of the +atom.</p> + +<p>On one occasion I overheard a conversation +between two men who were discussing the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +construction of matter. One remarked that +the atoms were the bricks of the universe, +whereupon the other asked how the little +bricks were cemented together. I wish that +man could have seen a lump of matter as we +see it. He would have been surprised to learn +that the atoms never really touch each other. +They are always surging to and fro, or +<i>vibrating</i>, and it is this motion which constitutes +the <i>temperature</i> of the body which +they compose.</p> + +<p>It must be clear, however, that in a solid +body one atom attracts another atom across +the intervening atomic spaces. This is another +duty devolving upon us; what we do, really, +is to upset the electric balance between the +different atoms, and thus produce electrical +attraction.</p> + +<p>First of all, perhaps, I should explain that +the different kinds of atoms are simply congregations +of different numbers of electrons. +Of course there is the other part, of which +I am forbidden to speak—the part which man +vaguely describes as <i>positive electricity</i>. However, +you may take it from me that while it is +true that the main difference between an atom +of gold and an atom of iron, or of oxygen, is in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +the number of electrons it contains, there is a +very important difference in the arrangement +of the electrons. You know that they form +rings outside one another, all of which revolve +at enormous speeds. The number of electrons +in the different rings varies according to the +kind of atom.</p> + +<p>It is quite correct for man to speak of the +atoms containing certain definite numbers of +electrons, but I should like you to understand +clearly that the exact number of electrons is +not permanently fixed; one or more electrons +can slip off one atom and become attached to +a neighbouring atom which happens to be +capable of accepting it or them. It is the +interchange of these few detachable electrons +that causes one atom to attract another. In +other words, it is the differently charged atoms +which attract each other, just as man crowds +a surplus of electrons on to one object and +finds it attracted bodily towards another object +having a deficiency of electrons.</p> + +<p>It is this electrical attraction between the +atoms which enables us to build up the particles, +or <i>molecules</i>, of matter in such a variety +of forms. First of all, we play the most important +part within the atoms. We have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> +formed only a limited number of such atoms. +I am not free to tell you exactly how many, +for man has discovered only about eighty of +these different congregations of electrons, +each kind of which he calls an <i>element</i>. The +way in which we have coupled these different +elementary atoms together must appear remarkable +to all thinking men; there seems to +be no end to the possible variety of combinations.</p> + +<p>In one case we unite an atom of <i>chlorine</i> to +an atom of <i>sodium</i> and thereby produce a +molecule of common salt. In another case +we unite an atom of <i>oxygen</i> to two atoms of +<i>hydrogen</i>, and the resulting combination is +an invisible molecule of ordinary water.</p> + +<p>It has always seemed to me very strange +how some men have difficulty in regard to +these combinations. I have heard a man ask +how two different gases, hydrogen and oxygen, +when united, should form a liquid, and +not a gas. I wish you could see things as +we see them. The atoms are neither gaseous, +liquid, nor solid; they are little worlds of +revolving electrons.</p> + +<p>I have spoken of the attraction between +atoms, and again between molecules, in form +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>ing +a solid body. It will be clear that there +is less of this <i>cohesive force</i> in the case of a +liquid, whereas it is absent entirely in the +case of a gas. In this case the molecules have +become so far separated from one another +that they cease to attract each other, and if +left free they will soon part company, and +spread themselves broadcast over the face of +the earth.</p> + +<p>Whether a substance passes into a solid, a +liquid, or a gaseous state, the atoms remain +constant, but their vibratory motion is +altered very considerably. However, I was +about to tell you that we electrons can make +some very interesting combinations of atoms. +Those I have mentioned so far are of a very +simple nature, but we have built up individual +molecules containing hundreds of atoms. We +link about a hundred atoms together and +produce a molecule of what man calls <i>alum</i>, +and we require to unite about a thousand +atoms together to make one molecule of +<i>albumen</i> (the white of an egg).</p> + + +<p>When man speaks of a chemical change +having taken place in a substance, it is simply +the electrons who have made a friendly +inter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>change +of detachable electrons, thereby causing +a different assemblage of the same atoms. +During these changes we never alter the +nature of the atom. That little world of revolving +electrons known as an atom of gold, +remains always an atom of gold. But you +must not run away with the idea that the +atoms will never change. Indeed, man has +discovered that the atoms are not eternal, as +I shall explain in the following chapter.</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX</h2> + +<h2>HOW WE MADE THE WORLD TALK</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER NINETEEN</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The discovery of radium is within the +memory of all.</p> + +<p>Many exaggerated statements went abroad +at the outset, but the real facts are full of +interest, and they have shed much new light +on many subjects.</p> + +<p>Three different kinds of radiation were +found to be emitted by radium.</p> + +<p>At first man could not tell what these were, +so he named them after the first three letters +of the Greek alphabet—Alpha, Beta, and +Gamma, rays.</p> + +<p>The electron tells the interesting story of +these rays, and relates the experiences of +some fellow-electrons who escaped from +within a radium atom.</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> +We electrons were amused at the stir which we +unconsciously caused throughout the civilised +world. We had done nothing different from +what we had been doing for ages, but a few +men had been taking note of what we were +about, and when the phenomena to which +I refer became known to the world, many +wild rumours were circulated.</p> + +<p>One of these rumours was to the effect +that steam-engines and their expensive furnaces +were to disappear very quickly. If +the two last words had been omitted—I +should not say that the prophecy is untrue, +but man has a long way to travel yet before +reaching that goal. My fellows within +the atoms have sufficient energy to supply +all mankind with power if he could but unlock +even a small fraction of it.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> +Another statement was that this newly +discovered substance, <i>radium</i>, could cure some +diseases which man had believed to be incurable. +All I shall say about this is that the +statement was an exaggerated one.</p> + +<p>Then it was said that radium disproved +much of man's scientific knowledge, but +instead of that being so, we electrons have +greatly extended man's knowledge by our +radio-active actions. If any man believed +the atoms of matter to be eternal, we certainly +disproved that. Here, in radium, man +could see atoms going to pieces.</p> + +<p>I have questioned a fellow-electron who +escaped from a radium atom as to what +upset their equilibrium, but I find that he +does not know, or he pretends not to know. +All he has told me is that he was flung off +suddenly from within the atom with great +energy, for he had been revolving at a +tremendous speed. In his sudden flight he +passed some newly formed <i>helium</i> atoms, +which contained many of those electrons +who had been his co-partners in the former +radium atom. Being an electron, he was +travelling at a far greater speed than these +flying atoms of matter, but he assures me +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> +that these helium atoms were going faster +than atoms can travel under any other circumstances.</p> + +<p>Another thing that this escaped electron +told me was that when he and his fellow-electrons +made a sudden start on leaving +the atom of radium they caused a proper +splash in the surrounding æther, just such +as we electrons produce when we are suddenly +stopped in an X-ray tube. Man observed +these rays proceeding from radium, but, not +knowing the cause of them, he called them +<i>gamma rays</i>. We can, of course, produce +radiographs when these rays fall upon +photographic plates. Indeed, some of my +fellow-electrons, when escaping from radium, +have produced rays sufficient to penetrate +a six-inch boulder and affect a photographic +plate lying beneath the boulder. In time +man recognised these rays as X-rays.</p> + +<p>Man did not find only these rays—he discovered +that electrons were escaping, but +before he had recognised what we were, he +had named us <i>beta rays</i>. These fast-flying +electrons have had experiences which never +fall to electrons except when escaping from +an atom. Their velocity is so great that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> +they can be shot right through a sheet of +aluminium foil. If these escaped electrons +are allowed to settle on any object, they will +necessarily cause an overcrowding, or, in +other words, the object will become negatively +electrified.</p> + +<p>The one thing that puzzled man most was +to find out what the helium atoms were. He +had named them <i>alpha</i> rays, but as he found +he could not get them to penetrate even a +thin sheet of paper, he was confident that +they must be atoms of matter. It was only +when he had gathered sufficient to examine +the spectrum that he found these to be +helium atoms.</p> + +<p>I think what really made the world talk +was the fact that electrons were escaping +from what had been supposed to be an eternal +habitation. In other words, this material +radium was actually going to pieces. That +is to say, <i>gradually</i>, as far as man is concerned, +for, looking at it from our point of +view, the word <i>gradual</i> seems out of place +entirely. The breaking up of an atom is +really of the nature of an explosion. It is +a continual bombardment that is proceeding +in radium. Why man is apt to think of it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +as a gradual effect is that there is such an +enormous number of atoms in a tiny speck +of radium, that even the incessant series of +explosions will take a very long time to +break down the whole of the small particle.</p> + +<p>Electrons differ in their opinions as to +whether man will succeed in drawing upon +this internal energy of the atom. My own +difficulty is that, having been a roaming +electron at all times, I have no idea regarding +the cause of the atomic explosions. I +have remarked already that the electrons +locked up within the atoms possess more +energy than man could ever use. If all +these electrons were deprived of their energy, +the atoms of matter would cease to exist, +and man, where would he be?</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX</h2> + +<h2>CONCLUSION</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON CHAPTER TWENTY</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Not many of us have realised the true importance +of electrons in the Creator's plans.</p> + +<p>In the following short chapter the electron +is made to sum up a few of the wonders +which it has related, in order to focus our +attention upon the grand place which the +electrons occupy in the universe.</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> +From what I have told you of myself and my +fellow-electrons, it must be apparent that +we are of tremendous importance to man. +I have told you something of the part we +played in building up this world—how we +not only form the atoms of matter, but also +hold these bricks of the universe together. +I have given you a rough sketch of the composition +of these bricks.</p> + +<p>You must have realised also that without +us the whole universe would be in darkness. +There would be no light, no heat, and consequently +no life. Indeed, there could be no +material existence without us.</p> + +<p>Where would man be if we failed to perform +our mission? He could not exist if we +even neglected a few of our duties. Not only +do we form the atoms of which his body +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +is composed, also holding these together, but +we produce all those chemical changes within +his body which are absolutely necessary to +maintain life. His very thoughts are dependent +upon our activities.</p> + +<p>I have told you how we send man's messages +across the earth, and how we transmit power +from place to place. Also how we have enabled +man to gain knowledge of the distant +stars, and to examine the bones of his living +body.</p> + + +<p>If man could cross-examine me or any of +my fellows, I expect the first question would +be—What are you electrons made of? But +man must find this out for himself. The +Creator has placed man in a world full of +activity, and it is of intense interest to man +to discover the meaning of all that lies around +him. That is why I have been bound over +by my fellows to tell you only so much of +our history as man has discovered. But I +am disclosing no secret when I admit that +our very existence as electrons is dependent +upon the æther.</p> + + +<p>If I can find another scribe to write a +re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>vised +biography for me a few hundred years +hence, I shall have a much more interesting +tale to tell, for many of our doings, of which +man knows nothing at present, will be secrets +no longer by that time.</p> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="APPENDIX" id="APPENDIX"></a>APPENDIX</h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span></div> +<h3><i>THE SCRIBE'S NOTE ON APPENDIX</i></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>As explained by the author in +<a href="#CHAPTER_I">Chapter I.</a>, +this appendix has been added for the sake of +those readers who may wish further details +than have been given in the electron's story.</p> + +<p>It is only necessary to give a brief notice of +the more important particulars, as the author +has written recently upon this subject in a +popular form.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p> +<a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"> +<span class="label">[1]</span></a> "Scientific Ideas of To-day." +By Chas. R. Gibson, F.R.S.E. (London: Seeley & Co., Ltd. Five +shillings net.)</p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> +It was known two thousand years ago that +when a piece of amber was rubbed with a +woollen cloth, the amber would attract light +objects towards it. Amber was considered to +be unique in this respect.</p> + + +<p>About the year 1600, one of Queen Elizabeth's +physicians, Dr. William Gilbert, inquired +into this attractive property of amber. +He found that many other substances possessed +the same property. Indeed it is +common to all substances in some degree. +We say the amber or other object is "electrified."</p> + + +<p>It was observed by the early experimenters +that there were two kinds of electrification. +To one of these they gave the name <i>positive +electricity</i>, and to the other <i>negative electricity</i>.</p> + + +<p>Every electrified object will attract an +ob<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>ject +which is not electrified, and two objects +which are oppositely electrified will attract +one another also. But two objects which are +similarly electrified will repel each other.</p> + + +<p>Man got tired of rubbing objects by hand, +so he fitted up simple machines in which glass +cylinders or plates were rubbed against +leather cushions. The electricity was then +collected by little metal points supported on +an insulated metal sphere.</p> + + +<p>The experiment of attempting to store +electricity in a glass vessel filled with water +was made at the University of Leyden +(Netherlands). The water was replaced later +by a coating of tin-foil on the inner surface, +while a similar metallic coating on the outside +took the place of the experimenter's hand. +These jars are called <i>Leyden jars</i>, after the +place in which the discovery was made.</p> + + +<p>About 1790, Professor Galvani, of Italy, +observed that the legs of a freshly killed frog +twitched at each discharge of an electrical +machine. Later he found that the same +twitching occurred when he connected certain +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> +parts with a piece of copper and zinc. He +believed this to be due to "animal electricity" +secreted within the frog.</p> + + +<p>Professor Volta, also of Italy, proved that +Galvani's idea was wrong, and that the electricity +resided in the metals rather than in the +frog. He showed that when two pieces of +dissimilar metal were put in contact with one +another, there was a slight transference of +electricity between them. He constructed a +pile of copper and zinc discs, with a moist +cloth between each pair or couple, and by +connecting wires from the top copper disc to +the lowest zinc disc he was able to show that +an appreciable current of electricity was produced. +Later he placed a piece of copper and +a piece of zinc in a vessel containing acidulated +water, whereupon he found that a steady +current of electricity was obtained. This was +the invention of electric batteries.</p> + + +<p>The phenomena of <i>magnetism</i> were known +to the ancients, but it was not until the nineteenth +century that we found any real +connection between electricity and magnetism. +In 1819, a Danish philosopher, Hans +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> +Christian Oersted, discovered that an electric +current passing in a wire affected a magnet in +its neighbourhood. If the magnet was supported +on a pivot, after the manner of a +compass needle, it would turn round and take +up a position at right angles to the wire +carrying the electric current.</p> + + +<p>The molecular theory of magnetism presumes +that every molecule of iron is a tiny +magnet, having a north and south pole. In +a piece of unmagnetised iron, these tiny +magnets are all lying so that they neutralise +one another. When they are turned round +so that their north poles are all lying in one +direction, then the iron is said to be magnetised.</p> + + +<p>The electron theory of magnetism does not +do away with the older molecular theory just +referred to. The electron theory goes a step +farther, and tells us that these molecules are +magnets because of a steady motion of electrons +around the atoms of iron.</p> + + +<p>It was discovered in 1825 that when an +electric current was sent through an insulated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> +wire wound around a piece of soft iron, the +iron became a magnet; when the current was +stopped the magnetism disappeared. Such +magnets are called <i>electro-magnets</i>. If a piece +of hard steel is treated in the same way it +becomes a <i>permanent magnet</i>. It was this +intimate connection between electricity and +magnetism, or, in other words, the invention +of these electro-magnets, which brought us +electric bells, telegraphs, telephones, dynamos, +and electric motors.</p> + + +<p>It should be noted that while iron is +attracted by either pole of a magnet, there +is such a thing as magnetic repulsion. This, +however, takes place only between two magnets, +and then only between like poles.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>Some German physicists made a number of +electrical experiments with vacuum tubes. +When Sir William Crookes (England) was +experimenting with similar vacuum tubes he +suggested that matter was in a "radiant" +state during the electric discharge within the +tubes.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> +In 1880, H. A. Lorentz, of Amsterdam, +declared that light was due to the motion +of small particles revolving around the atoms +of matter.</p> + + +<p>Professor Zeeman, of Holland, produced +experimental proof of Lorentz's theory. He +showed that the revolving "particles" were +influenced by a powerful magnetic field, in the +manner explained in the electron's story. +This discovery was made in 1896, or sixteen +years after Lorentz's declaration. It was +Dr. Johnstone Stoney, of Dublin University +(Ireland), who christened these particles +"electrons."</p> + + +<p>The X-rays were observed for the first time +by Professor Roentgen, of Germany, in 1895. +The screens used for viewing the luminous +effects produced by the X-rays are coated +with very fine crystals of <i>barium platinocyanide</i>. +These screens were in use for +another purpose previous to the discovery +of X-rays.</p> + + +<p>We know now that <i>chemical affinity</i> is +merely electrical attraction between the atoms +of matter.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> +The spectroscope consists of a glass prism, +or series of prisms, mounted between two +metal tubes. One tube is provided at one +end with a vertical slit, through which the +light that is to be examined is passed. At +the other end of the tube is a lens, so that +the beam of light from the slit emerges +through the lens as a pencil of parallel rays. +The pencil of light then falls upon the glass +prism, striking it at an angle. In passing +through the prism, the light is bent round +so that it enters the second tube, which is +simply a small telescope. The prism separates +the æther waves according to their wave-lengths, +and produces the well-known coloured +spectrum, which is magnified by the telescope. +The reason for the bending of the different +waves is explained in the electron's story.</p> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></div> +<ul class="index"> +<li>Absorption of light, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> +<li>Æther, the, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>Æther waves, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> +<li>Alpha rays from radium, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> +<li>Alternating electric current, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li>Amber electrified, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> to <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> +<li>Artificial light, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> +<li>Atoms breaking up, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> +<li>Atoms co-operating with electrons, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> +<li>Atom's internal energy, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> +<li>Atoms of matter, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> +<li>Attraction between atoms, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> +<li>Attraction, electrical, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> +<li>Attraction, magnetic, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> +<li>Aurora, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> +<li>Automatic telegraph transmitter, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Battery, electric, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> +<li>Beginning of the world, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li>Beta rays from radium, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> +<li>Birth of the moon, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li>Bricks of the universe, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Chemical affinity, <a href="#Page_206">206</a> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span></li> +<li>Chemical combinations, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> +<li>Chemistry of the stars, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> +<li>Chlorine atoms, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> +<li>Cloud formation, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> +<li>Circuit, earth, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li>Coherer, tube, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li>Cohesive force, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +<li>Colour, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> +<li>Compass needle, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li>Complete electric circuit, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li>Conductors, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> +<li>Connecting link between æther and matter, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> +<li>Corpuscles, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li>Crookes, Sir William, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> +<li>Current of electricity, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Dark lines in spectrum, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> +<li>Detachable electrons, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> +<li>Detecting imitation diamonds, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> +<li>Direct electric current, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li>Discharge of electricity, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +<li>Discharge through a vacuum, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li>Discovery of electrons, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> +<li>Discovery of X-rays, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> +<li>Dynamo, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Earth circuit, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li>Electrical discharge, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +<li>Electricity, positive, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> +<li>Electricity, negative, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> +<li>Electric battery, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>Electric current, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></li> +<li>Electric motor, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> +<li>Electric shock, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li>Electrified objects, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> +<li>Electro-magnets, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> +<li>Electrodes, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li>Electrocution, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li>Electron as a go-between, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li>Electron, derivation of the word, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li>Electron, discovery of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> +<li>Electrons, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> +<li>Energy transmission through the æther, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li>Energy within the atom, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Field, magnetic, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li>Fluorescent screen, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Galvani's discovery, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> +<li>Gamma rays from radium, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> +<li>Gilbert's discovery, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> +<li>Glass, electrified, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li>Glass prism, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> +<li>Glow-lamp, electric, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> +<li>Glow-worm, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Heat, radiant, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> +<li>Helium atoms, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> +<li>Hydrogen atoms, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Insulators (non-conductors), <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li>Iron atoms, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li>Iron wires discarded, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Lamp, electric, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span></li> +<li>Leyden jar, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> +<li>Light, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> +<li>Light absorbed, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> +<li>Light, artificial, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> +<li>Light, reflected, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> +<li>Lightning, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Lines in the spectrum, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Lorentz's declaration, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Magnetic attraction, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> +<li>Magnetic field, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li>Magnetic repulsion, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> +<li>Magnetism, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> +<li>Magnetism and electricity, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li>Magnets, electro-, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> +<li>Magnets, permanent, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li>Mariner's compass, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li>Matter, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li>Metal electrified, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li>Molecules of matter, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +<li>Moon's birth, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li>Morse telegraph, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> +<li>Motion in line of sight, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Motor, electric, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Negative electricity, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Oersted's discovery, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> +<li>Oxygen atoms, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Permanent magnets, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li>Positive electricity, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></li> +<li>Prism of glass, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Radiant heat, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> +<li>Radiant matter, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> +<li>Radium, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li>Rainbow, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> +<li>Rays from radium, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> +<li>Reflection of light, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> +<li>Repulsion, electrical, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> +<li>Repulsion, magnetic, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> +<li>Roentgen rays, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> +<li>Roentgen's discovery, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Sea, cause of saltness, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> +<li>Shock, electric, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li>Silk, electrified, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li>Sodium atoms, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> +<li>Spark, electric, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> +<li>Spectroscope, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> +<li>Spectrum, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> +<li>Speed of electrons in conductor, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>Stars approaching the earth, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Stars, constituents of the, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> +<li>Stoney, Dr. Johnstone, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> +<li>Sun, constituents of the, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> +<li>Sun's heat, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Telegraph signals, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> +<li>Telegraphy, wireless, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> +<li>Telephone, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li>Telephony, wireless, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> +<li>Temperature, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> +<li>Tramway, electric, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></li> +<li>Transparent substances, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Vacuum tubes, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> +<li>Velocity of electrons, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>Volta's discovery, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Waves in the æther, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> +<li>Wireless messages from the stars, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Wireless telegraphy, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> +<li>Wireless telephony, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>X-rays, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> +<li>X-rays from radium, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> +<li>X-ray photography, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> + +<li> </li> +<li>Zeeman proves existence of electrons, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> +</ul> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<p class="center"> +Printed by <span class="smcap">Ballantyne, Hanson & Co.</span><br /> +Edinburgh & London<br /> +</p> + +<div class="tnote"><h3>Transcriber's Note</h3> + +<p>The following changes have been made to the original text:</p> + +<ul> + <li><a href="#Page_xi">Page xi</a>: "always necessary, How" changed to "always necessary. How"</li> + <li><a href="#Page_205">Page 205</a>: "vacuum tubes, When" changed to "vacuum tubes. When"</li> + <li><a href="#Page_214">Page 214</a>: "Negative electricity, 23, 32, 9" changed to "Negative electricity, 23, 32, 39"</li> +</ul> + +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN ELECTRON***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 36456-h.txt or 36456-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/6/4/5/36456">http://www.gutenberg.org/3/6/4/5/36456</a></p> +<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution.</p> + + + +<pre> +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license">http://www.gutenberg.org/license)</a>. + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS,' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://www.gutenberg.org/about/contact + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Each eBook is in a subdirectory of the same number as the eBook's +eBook number, often in several formats including plain vanilla ASCII, +compressed (zipped), HTML and others. + +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks replace the old file and take over +the old filename and etext number. The replaced older file is renamed. +VERSIONS based on separate sources are treated as new eBooks receiving +new filenames and etext numbers. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org">http://www.gutenberg.org</a> + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + +EBooks posted prior to November 2003, with eBook numbers BELOW #10000, +are filed in directories based on their release date. If you want to +download any of these eBooks directly, rather than using the regular +search system you may utilize the following addresses and just +download by the etext year. + +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext06/">http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext06/</a> + + (Or /etext 05, 04, 03, 02, 01, 00, 99, + 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 92, 91 or 90) + +EBooks posted since November 2003, with etext numbers OVER #10000, are +filed in a different way. The year of a release date is no longer part +of the directory path. The path is based on the etext number (which is +identical to the filename). The path to the file is made up of single +digits corresponding to all but the last digit in the filename. For +example an eBook of filename 10234 would be found at: + +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/0/2/3/10234 + +or filename 24689 would be found at: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/6/8/24689 + +An alternative method of locating eBooks: +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/GUTINDEX.ALL">http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/GUTINDEX.ALL</a> + +*** END: FULL LICENSE *** +</pre> +</body> +</html> |