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diff --git a/36092-h/36092-h.htm b/36092-h/36092-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..acd326d --- /dev/null +++ b/36092-h/36092-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2632 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of North Devon Pottery and its Export to America in the 17th Century, by C. Malcolm Watkins. + </title> + + <style type="text/css"> + + p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em;} + + body {margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%;} + + .pagenum {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: right; font-style: normal;} + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {text-align: center; clear: both;} + + hr {width: 33%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + .botbor {border-bottom: solid black 1px;} + .topbor {border-top: solid black 1px;} + .topbotbor {border-top: solid black 1px; border-bottom: solid black 1px;} + .dent {padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 3em;} + + .giant {font-size: 200%} + .large {font-size: 125%} + + .blockquot {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + .note {margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%;} + .title {margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 30%;} + .caption {margin-left: 30%; margin-right: 30%;} + + .right {text-align: right;} + .center {text-align: center;} + + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .smcaplc {text-transform: lowercase; font-variant: small-caps;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + p.dropcap:first-letter{float: left; padding-right: 3px; font-size: 250%; line-height: 83%; width:auto;} + .caps {text-transform:uppercase;} + + a:link {color:#0000ff; text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:#6633cc; text-decoration:none} + + .spacer {padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + + .hang {margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + + .fnanchor {font-size: 75%} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of North Devon Pottery and Its Export to +America in the 17th Century, by C. Malcolm Watkins + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: North Devon Pottery and Its Export to America in the 17th Century + +Author: C. Malcolm Watkins + +Release Date: May 13, 2011 [EBook #36092] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NORTH DEVON POTTERY *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net. + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p> </p><p> </p> + +<div class="title"> +<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Contributions from</span></p> +<p class="right"><span class="smcap">The Museum of History and Technology:</span></p> +<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Paper 13</span></p> +<p> </p><p> </p> +<p class="right"><span class="smcap">North Devon Pottery and Its Export</span></p> +<p class="right"><span class="smcap">To America in the 17th Century</span></p> +<p> </p><p> </p> +<p class="right"><i>C. Malcolm Watkins</i></p></div> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig1.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="note"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 1.</span>—North Devon sgraffito cup, deep dish, and jug +restored from fragments excavated from fill under brick drain at +May-Hartwell site, Jamestown, Virginia. The drain was laid between 1689 +and 1695. Colonial National Historical Park.</p></div> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p> + +<div class="note"><p class="right"><span class="large">By C. Malcolm Watkins</span></p></div> +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><span class="giant">NORTH DEVON POTTERY<br />AND ITS EXPORT TO AMERICA<br />IN THE 17th CENTURY</span></p> + +<div class="note"><p><i>Recent excavations of ceramics at historic sites such as Jamestown +and Plymouth indicate that the seaboard colonists of the 17th century +enjoyed a higher degree of comfort and more esthetic furnishings than +heretofore believed. In addition, these findings have given us much +new information about the interplay of trade and culture between the +colonists and their mother country.</i></p> + +<p><i>This article represents the first work in the author’s long-range +study of ceramics used by the English colonists in America.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Author</span>: <i>C. Malcolm Watkins is curator of cultural history, United +States National Museum, Smithsonian Institution.</i></p></div> + +<p> </p> +<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">Pottery</span> sherds found archeologically in colonial sites serve a multiple +purpose. They help to date the sites; they reflect cultural and economic +levels in the areas of their use; and they throw light on manufacture, +trade, and distribution.</p> + +<p>Satisfying instances of these uses were revealed with the discovery in +1935 of two distinct but unidentified pottery types in the excavations +conducted by the National Park Service at Jamestown, Virginia, and later +elsewhere along the eastern seaboard. One type was an elaborate and +striking yellow sgraffito ware, the other a coarse utilitarian kitchen +ware whose red paste was heavily tempered with a gross water-worn gravel +or “grit.” Included in the latter class were the components of large +earthen baking ovens. Among the literally hundreds of thousands of sherds +uncovered at Jamestown between 1935 and 1956, these types occurred with +relatively high incidence. For a long time no relationship between them +was noted, yet their histories have proved to be of one fabric, reflecting +the activities of a 17th-century English potterymaking center of +unsuspected magnitude.</p> + +<p>The sgraffito pottery is a red earthenware, coated with a white slip +through which designs have been incised. An amber lead glaze imparts a +golden yellow to the slip-covered portions and a brownish amber to the +exposed red paste. The gravel-tempered ware is made of a similar +red-burning clay and is remarkable for its lack of refinement, for the +pebbly texture caused by protruding bits of gravel, and for the crude and +careless manner in which the heavy amber glaze was applied to interior +surfaces. Once seen, it is instantly recognizable and entirely distinct +from other known types of English or continental pottery. A complete oven +(fig. 10), now restored at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> Jamestown, is of similar paste and quality of +temper. It has a roughly oval beehive shape with a trapezoidal framed +opening in which a pottery door fits snugly.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig2.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 2.</span>—Sketch of sherd of sgraffito-ware dish, dating +about 1670, that was found during excavations of C. H. Brannam’s pottery +in Barnstaple. (<i>Sketch by Mrs. Constance Christian, from photo.</i>)</p></div> +<p> </p> + +<p>Following the initial discoveries at Jamestown there was considerable +speculation about these two types. Worth Bailey, then museum technician at +Jamestown, was the first to recognize the source of the sgraffito ware as +“Devonshire.”<a name="fna_1_1" id="fna_1_1"></a><a href="#fn_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Henry Chandlee Forman, asserting that such ware was +“undoubtedly made in England,” felt that it “derives its inspiration from +Majolica ware ... especially that of the early Renaissance period from +Faenza.”<a name="fna_2_2" id="fna_2_2"></a><a href="#fn_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> + +<p>Bailey also noted that the oven and the gravel-tempered utensils were made +of identical clay and temper. However, in an attempt to prove that +earthenware was produced locally, he assumed, perhaps because of their +crudeness, that the utensils were made at Jamestown. This led him to +conjecture that the oven, having similar ceramic qualities, was also a +local product. He felt in support of this that it was doubtful “so fragile +an object could have survived a perilous sea voyage.”<a name="fna_3_3" id="fna_3_3"></a><a href="#fn_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> + +<p>Since these opinions were expressed, much further archeological work in +colonial sites has revealed widespread distribution of the two types. +Bailey himself noted that a pottery oven is intact and in place in the +John Bowne House in Flushing, Long Island. A fragment of another pottery +oven recently has been identified among the artifacts excavated by Sidney +Strickland from the site of the John Howland House, near Plymouth, +Massachusetts; and gravel-tempered utensil sherds have occurred in many +sites. The sgraffito ware has been unearthed in Virginia, Maryland, and +Massachusetts.</p> + +<p>Such a wide distribution of either type implies a productive European +source for each, rather than a local American kiln in a struggling +colonial settlement like Jamestown. Bailey’s attribution of the sgraffito +ware to Devonshire was confirmed in 1950 when J. C. Harrington, +archeologist of the National Park Service, came upon certain evidence at +Barnstaple in North Devon, England. This evidence was found in the form of +sherds exhibited in a display window of C. H. Brannam’s Barnstaple Pottery +that were uncovered during excavation work on the premises. These are +unmistakably related in technique and design to the American examples. A +label under a fragment of a large deep dish (fig. 2) in the display is +inscribed: “Piece of dish found in site of pottery. In sgraffiato. About +1670.” This clue opened the way to the investigation pursued here, the +results of which relate the sgraffito ware, the gravel-tempered ware, and +the ovens to the North Devon towns and to a busy commerce in earthenware +between Barnstaple, Bideford, and the New World.</p> + +<p>This study, conducted at first hand only on the American side of the +Atlantic, is admittedly incomplete. Later, it is planned to consider sherd +collections in England, comparative types of sgraffito wares, and possible +influences and sources of techniques and designs. For the present, it is +felt the immediate evidence is sufficient to warrant the conclusions drawn +here.</p> + + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 3.</span>—Map of the area around Bideford and Barnstaple. +Reproduced from J. B. Gribble, <i>Memorials of Barnstaple</i>, 1830.</p></div> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>The author is under special obligation to J. C. Harrington, chief of +interpretation, Region I, National Park Service, who discovered the North +Devon wares and whose warm encouragement led to this paper. Also, the +author is greatly indebted to the following for their help and +cooperation: E. Stanley Abbott, superintendent, J. Paul Hudson, curator, +and Charles Hatch, chief of interpretation, Colonial National Historical +Park; Worth Bailey, Historic American Buildings Survey; Robert A. Elder, +Jr., assistant curator, division of ethnology, U.S. National Museum; Miss +Margaret Franklin of London; Henry Hornblower II and Charles Strickland of +Plimoth Plantation, Inc.; Ivor Noel Hume, chief archeologist, Colonial +Williamsburg, Inc.; Miss Mildred E. Jenkinson, librarian and curator, +Borough of Bideford Library and Museum; Frederick H. Norton, professor of +ceramics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; and Mrs. Edwin M. Snell +of Washington.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/deco.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p> </p><p> </p> + +<h2>Historical Background</h2> + +<p>Barnstaple and its neighbor Bideford are today quiet market centers and +summer resorts. In the 17th and early 18th centuries, by contrast, they +were deeply involved in trade with America and with the whole West of +England interest in colonial settlement. Bideford was the home of Sir +Richard Grenville, who, with Sir Walter Raleigh, was one of the first +explorers of Virginia. As the leading citizen of Bideford, Grenville +obtained from Queen Elizabeth a modern charter of incorporation for the +town. Consequently, according to the town’s 18th-century chronicler, +“Bideford rose so rapidly as to become a port of importance at the latter +end of Queen Elizabeth’s reign ... when the trade began to open between +England and America in the reign of King James the First, Bideford early +took a part in it.”<a name="fna_4_4" id="fna_4_4"></a><a href="#fn_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Its orientation for a lengthy period was towards +America, and the welfare of its inhabitants was therefore largely +dependent upon commerce with the colonies.</p> + +<p>In common with other West of England ports, Barnstaple and Bideford +engaged heavily in the Newfoundland fishing trade. However, “the principal +part of foreign commerce that Bideford was ever engaged in, was to +Maryland and Virginia for tobacco.... Its connections with New England +were also very considerable.”<a name="fna_5_5" id="fna_5_5"></a><a href="#fn_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> + +<p>During the first half of the 18th century Bideford’s imports of tobacco +were second only to London’s, but the wars with France caused a decline +about the year 1760.<a name="fna_6_6" id="fna_6_6"></a><a href="#fn_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> Barnstaple, situated farther up the River Taw, +followed the pattern of Bideford in the rise and decline as well as the +nature of its trade. Although rivals, both towns functioned in effect as a +single port; Barnstaple and Bideford ships sailed from each other’s +wharves and occasionally the two ports were listed together in the Port +Books. As early as 1620 seven ships, some of Bideford and some of +Barnstaple registry, sailed from Barnstaple for America,<a name="fna_7_7" id="fna_7_7"></a><a href="#fn_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> but the height +of trade between North Devon and the colonies occurred after the +Restoration and lasted until the early part of the 18th century. In 1666, +for example, the <i>Samuel</i> of Bideford and the <i>Philip</i> of Barnstaple +sailed for Virginia, despite the dangers of Dutch warfare.<a name="fna_8_8" id="fna_8_8"></a><a href="#fn_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> The +following year, on August 13, 1667, it was reported that 20 ships of the +Virginia fleet, “bound to Bideford, Barnstaple, and Bristol have passed +into the Severn in order to escape Dutch men-of-war.”<a name="fna_9_9" id="fna_9_9"></a><a href="#fn_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> Later, in 1705, +we find that the <i>Susanna</i> of Barnstaple, as well as the <i>Victory</i>, +<i>Zunt</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> <i>Devonshire</i>, <i>Laurell</i>, <i>Blackstone</i>, and <i>Mary and Hannah</i>, all +of Bideford, were anchored in Hampton Roads off Kecoughtan. They comprised +one-ninth of a fleet of 63 ships from various English ports.<a name="fna_10_10" id="fna_10_10"></a><a href="#fn_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig4.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 4.</span>—Old pottery in Torrington Lane (formerly +Potter’s Lane), East-the-Water section of Bideford. The photo was taken in +1920, just before the buildings were razed. (<i>Courtesy of Miss M. E. Jenkinson.</i>)</p></div> +<p> </p> + +<p>Aside from such indications of a well-established mercantile trade, the +entrenchment of North Devon interests in the colonies is repeatedly shown +in other ways. Before 1645, Thomas Fowle, a Boston merchant, was doing +business with his brother-in-law, Vincent Potter, who lived in +Barnstaple.<a name="fna_11_11" id="fna_11_11"></a><a href="#fn_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> In 1669, John Selden, a Barnstaple merchant, died after +consigning a shipment of goods to William Burke, a merchant of Chuckatuck, +Virginia. John’s widow and administratrix, Sisely Selden, brought suit to +recover these goods, which were “left to the sd. W<sup>m</sup> Burke, &c., for the +use of my late husband.”<a name="fna_12_12" id="fna_12_12"></a><a href="#fn_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> Burke was evidently an agent, or factor, who +acted in Virginia on Selden’s behalf. In Northampton County, alone, there +resided six Bideford factors, remarkable when one considers the isolated +location of this Virginia Eastern Shore county and the sparseness of its +population in the 17th century.<a name="fna_13_13" id="fna_13_13"></a><a href="#fn_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> John Watkins, the Bideford historian, +adds further evidence of mercantile involvement with the colonies, stating +of Bideford that “some of its chief merchants had very extensive +possessions in Virginia and Maryland.”<a name="fna_14_14" id="fna_14_14"></a><a href="#fn_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Both in New England and the +southern colonies, local merchants acted as resident agents for merchants +based in the mother country. Often tied to the latter by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> bonds of family +relationship, the factors arranged the exchange of American raw materials +for the manufactured goods in which their English counterparts +specialized.</p> + +<p>That there was a large and important commerce in North Devon earthenware +to account for many of the relationships between Bideford, Barnstaple, and +the colonies seems to have remained unnoticed. Indeed, the fact that the +two towns comprised an important center of earthenware manufacture and +export in the 17th century has hitherto received little attention from +ceramic historians, and then merely as sources of picturesque folk +pottery. Yet in the excavations of colonial sites and in the British +Public Records Office are indications that the North Devon potters, for a +time at least, rivaled those of Staffordshire.</p> + +<p>The earliest record of North Devon pottery reaching America occurs in the +Port Book entry for Barnstaple in 1635, when the <i>Truelove</i>, Vivian +Limbry, master, sailed on March 4 for New England with “40 doz. +earthenware,” consigned to John Boole, merchant.<a name="fna_15_15" id="fna_15_15"></a><a href="#fn_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> The following year +the same ship sailed for New England with a similar amount. After the +Stuart restoration larger shipments of earthenware are recorded, as +illustrated by sample listings (below) chosen from Port Books in the +British Public Records Office.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Typical Shipments of Earthenware from North Devon</span></p> +<p class="center">(Sample entries from Port Books, verbatim)</p> + +<p class="center">BARNSTAPLE 1665<a name="fna_16_16" id="fna_16_16"></a><a href="#fn_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td class="topbor" align="center">Date</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Ship</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Master</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">For</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">In Cargo</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Subsidy</td></tr> +<tr><td class="topbor" align="center"> </td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor" align="center"> </td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor" align="center"> </td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor" align="center"> </td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor" align="center"> </td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">s d</td></tr> +<tr><td>26 Aug<br />1665</td><td> </td> + <td>Exchange of<br />Biddeford</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">W<sup>m</sup> Titherly</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">New England</td><td> </td> + <td>150 doz. of<br />Earthenware</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top" align="center">7-6</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td>4 Sept<br />1665</td><td> </td> + <td>Philipp of<br />Biddeford</td><td> </td> + <td>Edmond<br />Prickard</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Virginia</td><td> </td> + <td>30 doz. of<br />Earthenware</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top" align="center">1-6</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="botbor">28 Nov<br />1665</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor">Providence of<br />Barnstaple</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor">Nicholas<br />Taylor</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor" valign="top">Virginia</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor">20 doz. of<br />Earthenware</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor" valign="top" align="center">1-0</td></tr></table> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">BARNSTAPLE AND BIDEFORD, 1680<a name="fna_17_17" id="fna_17_17"></a><a href="#fn_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td class="topbor" align="center">Date</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Ship</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Master</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Shipment</td></tr> +<tr><td class="topbor" valign="top">Aug 6<sup>th</sup><br />1680</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor">Forester of<br />Barnstaple,<br />for Maryland</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor" valign="top">Christopher Browning</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor">Twenty dozen of<br />Earthenware<br />Subsidy 1/</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="botbor" valign="top">Sept 6</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor" valign="top">Loyalty of<br />Barnstaple</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor" valign="top">Philip Greenslade</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor">30 dozen of Earthenware<br />Andrew Hopkins, merchant<br />Subsidy 1/6</td></tr></table> + + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p> +<p class="center">BARNSTAPLE, 1681<a name="fna_18_18" id="fna_18_18"></a><a href="#fn_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td class="topbor" align="center">Date</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Ship</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Master</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">To</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Goods & Merchants</td></tr> +<tr><td class="topbor" valign="top">May 30<br />1681</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor" valign="top">Seafare of<br />Bideford</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor" valign="top">Bartholomew<br />Shapton</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor" valign="top">New England</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor">Forty-two hundred [weight]<br />parcells of Earthenware<br />Subsidy 7/</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">28 June</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Hopewell of<br />Bideford</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Peter Prust</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Virginia</td><td> </td> + <td>30 cwt. parcells of<br />Earthenware<br />Peter Luxeron Merchant<br />Subsidy 5/</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="botbor" valign="top">Aug. 12</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor" valign="top">Beginning<br />of Bideford</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor" valign="top">John Limbry</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor" valign="top">Virginia</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor">15 cwt. parcells of<br />Earthenware Subsidy 2/6<br />Richard Corkhill Merchant<a name="fna_19_19" id="fna_19_19"></a><a href="#fn_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></td></tr></table> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">BIDEFORD, 1681<a name="fna_20_20" id="fna_20_20"></a><a href="#fn_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td class="topbor" align="center">Date</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Ship</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Master</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">To</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Goods</td></tr> +<tr><td class="topbor" valign="top">21 June</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor" valign="top">Beginning<br />of Bideford</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor" valign="top">Thomas<br />Phillips</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor" valign="top">Virginia</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor">Thirty hundred<br />pclls of Earthenware<br />Joseph Conor merchant<br />Subsidy 5/</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">19 July</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">John & Mary<br />of Bideford</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Thomas<br />Courtis</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Maryland</td><td> </td> + <td>750 parcells of<br />Earthenware<br />John Barnes, Merchant<br />Subsidy 1/3</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">14 Aug</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Exchange of<br />Bideford</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">George<br />Ewings</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Maryland</td><td> </td> + <td>40 dozen earthenware<br />William Titherly Merchant<br />Subsidy 2/</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">Aug. 22</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Merchants<br />Delight of<br />Bideford</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">William<br />Britten</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Virginia</td><td> </td> + <td>1500 parcells<br />Earthenware<br />Henry Guiness Merchant<br />Subsidy 2/6</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="botbor" valign="top">Aug. 23</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor" valign="top">Hart of<br />Bideford</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor" valign="top">Henry<br />Penryn</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor" valign="top">Virginia</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor">1500 parcells of<br />Earthenware<br />John Lord Merch<sup>t</sup><br />Subsidy 2/6</td></tr></table> + + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p> +<p class="center">1682—BARNSTAPLE<a name="fna_21_21" id="fna_21_21"></a><a href="#fn_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td class="topbor" align="center">Date</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Ship</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Master</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">To</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Cargo, etc.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="topbotbor" valign="top">Michaelmas<br />Quarter</td><td class="topbotbor"> </td> + <td class="topbotbor" valign="top">Robert &<br />William of<br />North<sup>am</sup></td><td class="topbotbor"> </td> + <td class="topbotbor" valign="top">John Esh</td><td class="topbotbor"> </td> + <td class="topbotbor" valign="top">Maryland</td><td class="topbotbor"> </td> + <td class="topbotbor">30 dozen Earthenware<br />Subsidy 1/6<br />William Bishop merchant</td></tr></table> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">BIDEFORD 1682—OUTWARDS<a name="fna_22_22" id="fna_22_22"></a><a href="#fn_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td class="topbor" align="center">Date</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Ship</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Master</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">To</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Cargo, etc.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="topbor" valign="top">May 15</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor" valign="top">Seafare of<br />Bideford</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor" valign="top">John Titherley</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor" valign="top">New England</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor">42 cwt. parcells of<br />Earthenware<br />Barth. Shapton<br />Merchant<br />Subsidy 7/</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">July 9</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">John & Mary<br />of Bideford</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Thomas Courtis</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Maryland</td><td> </td> + <td>9 cwt parcells of<br />Earthenware<br />John Barnes Merchant<br />Subsidy 1/6</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">July 20</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Merchant’s<br />Delight of<br />Bideford</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">William Bruston</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Maryland</td><td> </td> + <td>6 cwt parcells of<br />Earthenware<br />Samuel Donnerd<br />merchant</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="botbor" valign="top">Sept. 11</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor" valign="top">Exchange of<br />Bideford</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor" valign="top">Mark Chappell</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor" valign="top">Maryland</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor">30 cwt. parcells of<br />earthenware Subsidy 5/<br />William Titherly<br />Merchant</td></tr></table> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">BARNSTAPLE/BIDEFORD OUTWARDS 1690<a name="fna_23_23" id="fna_23_23"></a><a href="#fn_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td class="topbor" align="center">Date</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Ship</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Master</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">To</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Cargo, etc.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="topbor" valign="top">Aug. 23</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor" valign="top">Yarmouth<br />of Bideford</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor" valign="top">Roger Jones</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor" valign="top">Maryland</td><td class="topbor"> </td> + <td class="topbor">300 parcells of<br />Earthenware Subsidy 6<sup>d</sup></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">Sept. 11</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Expedition<br />of Bideford</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Humphrey<br />Bryant</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Maryland</td><td> </td> + <td>1,200 parcells of<br />Earthenware Subsidy 2/</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">Sept. 23</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Integrity<br />of Bideford</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">John Tucker</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Maryland</td><td> </td> + <td>300 parcells of<br />Earthenware Subsidy 6<sup>d</sup></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">Sept. 23</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Happy Return<br />of Bideford</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">John Rock</td><td> </td> + <td valign="top">Maryland</td><td> </td> + <td>750 parcells of<br />Earthenware Subsidy 1/3</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="botbor" valign="top">Sept. 23</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor" valign="top">Sea Faire<br />of Bideford</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor" valign="top">Tym. Brutton</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor" valign="top">Maryland</td><td class="botbor"> </td> + <td class="botbor">1800 parcells of<br />Earthenware Subsidy 3/</td></tr></table> + + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p> +<p class="center">BARNSTAPLE & BIDEFORD 1694<a name="fna_24_24" id="fna_24_24"></a><a href="#fn_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td class="topbor" align="center">Date</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Ship</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Master</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">To</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Cargo, etc.</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td class="topbor" align="center">Subsidy</td></tr> +<tr><td class="topbotbor" valign="top">Dec. 6</td><td class="topbotbor"> </td> + <td class="topbotbor" valign="top">Happy Returne</td><td class="topbotbor"> </td> + <td class="topbotbor" valign="top">John Hartwell</td><td class="topbotbor"> </td> + <td class="topbotbor" valign="top">Maryland</td><td class="topbotbor"> </td> + <td class="topbotbor">450 parcels of<br />Earthen ware</td><td class="topbotbor"> </td> + <td class="topbotbor" valign="top" align="center">9d</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />Another source shows that the <i>Eagle</i> of Bideford arrived at Boston from +her home port on October 11, 1688, with a cargo consisting entirely of +9,000 parcels of earthenware, while on July 28, 1689, the <i>Freindship</i> +(sic) of Bideford landed 7,200 parcels of earthenware and one hogshead of +malt. On August 24 of the same year the <i>Delight</i> brought a cargo of +“9,000 parcels of earthenware and 2 fardells of dry goods” from +Bideford.<a name="fna_25_25" id="fna_25_25"></a><a href="#fn_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> + +<p>It will be noted that there was a close relationship between vessel, +shipmaster, and factor, suggesting that there may have been an equally +close connection between all of them and the owners of the potteries. The +<i>Exchange</i>, for instance, seems to have been regularly employed in the +transport of earthenware. In 1665, according to the listings, she sailed +to New England under command of William Titherly. By 1681 Titherly had +become a Maryland factor to whom the Exchange’s earthenware was consigned +then and in 1682. In the same way Bartholomew Shapton in 1681 sailed as +master on the <i>Sea Faire</i> with earthenware to New England, becoming in the +following year the factor for earthenware sent on the same ship under +command of John Titherly.</p> + +<p>The proportion of earthenware cargo to the carrying capacity of the usual +17th-century ocean-going ship, which ranged from about 30 to 50 tons, is +difficult to estimate. A ton and a half of milk pans nested in stacks +would be compact and would occupy only a small amount of space. A similar +weight of ovens might require a much larger space. When earthenware +shipments are recorded in terms of parcels, we are again left in doubt, +since the sizes of the parcels are not indicated. We know, however, that +the <i>Eagle</i>, which was a 50-ton ship, carried 9,000 parcels of +earthenware as her sole cargo in 1688, in contrast to the much smaller +amounts shown in the sample listings where the parcel standard is used. +Yet even a typical shipment of 1,500 parcels, with each parcel containing +an indeterminate number of pots, must have filled the needs of many +kitchens when delivered in Virginia in 1681. Certainly a shipment such as +this suggests a vigorous rate of production and an active trade.</p> + +<p>The export of earthenware from North Devon was not solely to America. As +early as 1601 there were shipped from Barnstaple to “Dublyn—100 dozen +Earthen Pottes of all sorts.” In later years, selected at random, we find +the following shipments to Ireland from Barnstaple listed in the Public +Record Office Port Books: 1617, 290 dozen; 1618, 320 dozen; 1619, 322 +dozen; 1620, 508 dozen; 1632, 260 dozen; 1635, 300 dozen; 1636, 480 dozen; +1639, 660 dozen. Typical of the destinations were Kinsale, Youghal, +Limerick, Cork, Galway, Coleraine, and Waterford. As the century advanced, +this trade increased enormously. In 1694, 17 separate earthenware +shipments totaling 50,400 parcels were made from Barnstaple and Bideford +to Dublin, Wexford, and Waterford.<a name="fna_26_26" id="fna_26_26"></a><a href="#fn_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> It is possible that some of these +cargoes were shipped to America, since it was necessary to list only the +first port of entry. However, the rapid turnaround of many of the ships +shows this was not usually the case.</p> + +<p>Besides Ireland, Bristol and Exeter were destinations in a busy coastwise +trade. In 1681, for example, large quantities of earthenware, tobacco +pipes, and pipe clay were sent to these places.<a name="fna_27_27" id="fna_27_27"></a><a href="#fn_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> Bristol merchants +probably re-exported some of the earthenware to America.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig5.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 5.</span>—Map of Barnstaple. Reproduced from J. B. +Gribble, <i>Memorials of Barnstaple</i>, 1830.</p></div> +<p> </p> + + +<p>The coastwise trade appears to have diminished very little as time passed. +In 1755, <i>The Gentlemen’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> Magazine</i> carried an account of Bideford, +stating:<a name="fna_28_28" id="fna_28_28"></a><a href="#fn_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Great quantities of potters ware are made, and exported to Wales, +Ireland, and Bristol.... In the parish of Fremington are great +quantities of reddish potters’ clay, which are brought and +manufactured at Biddeford, whence the ware is sent to different places +by sea.</p></div> + +<p>John Watkins, in 1792, wrote:<a name="fna_29_29" id="fna_29_29"></a><a href="#fn_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The potters here, for making coarse brown earthenware, are pretty +considerable, and the demand for the articles of their manufacture in +various parts of the kingdom, is constantly great ... The profits to +the manufacturers of this article are very great, which is evidenced +by several persons having risen within a few years, from a state of +the greatest obscurity and poverty, to wealth and consequence of no +small extent.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p> +<p> </p> +<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig6.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td align="center"><img src="images/fig7.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top" align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 6.</span>—Gravel-tempered oven of the 17th or early 18th century, acquired in Bideford. (<i>USNM 394505.</i>)</td><td> </td><td align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 7.</span>—Gravel-tempered oven from 17th-century house on +Bideford Quay. Borough of Bideford Public Library and Museum. (<i>Photo by A. C. Littlejohns.</i>)</td></tr></table> +<p> </p> + +<p>Not only was coastwise trade in earthenware maintained throughout the 18th +century but it was continued, in fact, until the final decline of the +potteries at the turn of the present century.</p> + +<p>Although great antiquity attaches to the origins of North Devon pottery +manufacture—Barnstaple has had its Crock Street for 450 years<a name="fna_30_30" id="fna_30_30"></a><a href="#fn_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>—the +principal evidence of early manufacture falls into the second half of the +17th century. We have seen that a growing America provided an increasing +market for North Devon’s ceramic wares. In 1668 Crocker’s pottery was +established at Bideford, and it is in the period following that Bideford’s +importance as a pottery center becomes noticeable. Crocker’s was operated +until 1896, its dated 17th-century kilns then still intact after producing +wares that varied little during all of the pottery’s 228 years of +existence.<a name="fna_31_31" id="fna_31_31"></a><a href="#fn_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> + +<p>In Barnstaple the oldest pottery to survive until modern times was +situated in the North Walk. When it was dismantled in 1900, sherds dating +from the second half of the 17th century were found in the surroundings, +as was a potter’s guild sign, dated 1675, which now hangs in Brannam’s +pottery in Litchdon Street, Barnstaple. A pair of fire dogs, dated 1655 +and shaped by molds similar to one from the North Walk site, was excavated +near the North Walk pottery.</p> + +<p>Both Bideford and Barnstaple had numerous potteries in addition to +Crocker’s and Brannam’s. One, in Potter’s Lane in the East-the-Water +section of Bideford, was still making “coarse plain ware” in 1906;<a name="fna_32_32" id="fna_32_32"></a><a href="#fn_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> its +buildings were still standing in 1920. We have already observed that the +Litchdon Street works of C. H. Brannam, Ltd., remains in operation in a +modern building on the site of its 17th-century forerunner. Outside the +limits of the two large towns there were “a number of small pot works in +remote districts,” including the parish of Fremington, where Fishley’s +pottery, established in the 18th century, flourished until 1912.<a name="fna_33_33" id="fna_33_33"></a><a href="#fn_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> +Jewitt states that the remains of five old potteries were found in the +location of Fishley’s.<a name="fna_34_34" id="fna_34_34"></a><a href="#fn_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p> + +<p> </p> +<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig8left.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td align="center"><img src="images/fig8right.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 8.</span>—Views of opening of oven in figure 7, +photographed before its removal from house. This illustrates how oven was +built into corner of fireplace and concealed from view. At right, the oven +door is in place. (<i>Photos by A. C. Littlejohns.</i>)</td></tr></table> +<p> </p> + +<p>The clay with which all the potters worked came from three similar deep +clay deposits in a valley <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>running parallel with the River Taw in the +parishes of Tawstock and Fremington between Bideford and Barnstaple. A +geologist in 1864 wrote that the clay is “perfectly homogeneous ... +exceedingly tough, free from slightest grit and soft as butter.”<a name="fna_35_35" id="fna_35_35"></a><a href="#fn_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> When +fired at too high a temperature, he wrote, the clay would become so +vesicular that it would float on water. The kilns were bottle-shaped and, +according to tradition, originally were open at the top, like lime kilns; +the contents were roofed over with old crocks.<a name="fna_36_36" id="fna_36_36"></a><a href="#fn_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p> + +<p>Apparently all the potteries made the same types of wares, “coarse” or +common earthenware having comprised the bulk of their product. The +utilitarian red-ware was indeed coarse, since it was liberally tempered +with Bideford gravel in order to insure hardness and to offset the purity +and softness of the Fremington clay. An anonymous historian wrote in +1755:<a name="fna_37_37" id="fna_37_37"></a><a href="#fn_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p> + +<p>Just above the bridge [over the River Torridge] is a little ridge of +gravel of a peculiar quality, without which the potters could not make +their ware. There are many other ridges of gravel within the bar, but this +only is proper for their use.</p> + +<p>John Watkins wrote that Bideford earthenware “is generally supposed to be +superiour to any other of the kind, and this is accounted for, from the +peculiar excellence of the gravel which this river affords, in binding the +clay.” His claim that “this is the true reason, seems clear, from the fact +that though the potteries at Barnstaple make use of the same sort of clay, +yet their earthenware is not held in such esteem at Bristol, &c. as that +of Bideford”<a name="fna_38_38" id="fna_38_38"></a><a href="#fn_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> is scarcely supportable, since the Barnstaple potters +also used the same Bideford gravel. The fire dogs found in Barnstaple with +the date 1655, referred to above, were tempered with this gravel, as were +“ovens, tiles, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>pipkins, etc.,” in order “to harden the ware,” according +to Charbonnier, who also observed that “The ware generally was very badly +fired.... From the fragments it can be seen that the firing was most +unequal, parts of the body being grey in colour instead of a rich red, as +the well-fired portions are.” He noted that the potters applied “the +galena native sulphide of lead for the glaze, no doubt originally dusted +on to the ware, as with the older potters elsewhere.”<a name="fna_39_39" id="fna_39_39"></a><a href="#fn_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> A sherd of +gravel-tempered ware is displayed in the window of Brannam’s Barnstaple +pottery, while a small pan from Bideford, probably of 19th-century origin, +is in the Smithsonian collections (USNM 394440).</p> + + +<p> </p> +<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig9.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td align="center"><img src="images/fig10.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 9.</span>—Gravel-tempered oven made at Crocker pottery, +Bideford, in the 19th century. Borough of Bideford Public Library and Museum. (<i>Photo by A. C. Littlejohns.</i>)</td><td> </td> + <td align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 10.</span>—Restored gravel-tempered oven from Jamestown. +Colonial National Historical Park. (<i>National Park Service photo.</i>)</td></tr></table> +<p> </p> + +<p>The most remarkable form utilizing gravel-tempered clay is found in the +baking ovens which remained a North Devon specialty for over two +centuries. These ovens vary somewhat in shape, and were made in graduated +sizes. Most commonly they are rectangular with domed superstructures, +having been molded or “draped” in sections, with their parts joined +together, leaving seams with either tooled or thumb-impressed +reenforcements. An oven obtained in Bideford has a flat top, without +visible seams (USNM 394505; fig. 6).</p> + +<p>An early example occurs in Barnstaple, where, in a recently restored inn, +an oven was found installed at the side of a fireplace which is “late +sixteenth century in character.” Pipes and a pair of woman’s shoes, all +dating from the first half of the 18th century, were found in the +fireplace after it had been exposed, thus indicating the period of its +most recent use.<a name="fna_40_40" id="fna_40_40"></a><a href="#fn_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> An oven discovered intact behind a wall during +alteration of a Bideford house is believed to date from between 1650 and +1675.<a name="fna_41_41" id="fna_41_41"></a><a href="#fn_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> That oven (figs. 7, 8) is now exhibited in the Bideford Museum.</p> + +<p>At the other extreme, C. H. Brannam of Barnstaple in 1890 was still making +ovens in the ancient North Walk pottery.<a name="fna_42_42" id="fna_42_42"></a><a href="#fn_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> The following year H. W. +Strong wrote of Fishley’s Fremington pottery that “shiploads of the big +clay ovens in which the Cornishman bakes his bread ... meet with a ready +sale in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> the fishing towns +on the rugged coast of North Cornwall.”<a name="fna_43_43" id="fna_43_43"></a><a href="#fn_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> +Fremington ovens also were shipped to Wales,<a name="fna_44_44" id="fna_44_44"></a><a href="#fn_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> and, according to Jewitt, +those made in the Crocker pottery in Bideford “are, and for generations +have been, in much repute in Devonshire and Cornwall, and in the Welsh +districts, and the bread baked in them is said to have a sweeter and more +wholesome flavour than when baked in ordinary ovens.”<a name="fna_45_45" id="fna_45_45"></a><a href="#fn_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p> + + +<p> </p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig11.1.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td align="center"><img src="images/fig11.2.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig11.3.jpg" alt="" /></td><td> </td> + <td align="center"><img src="images/fig11.4.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig11.5.jpg" alt="" /></td><td> </td> + <td align="center"><img src="images/fig11.6.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig11.7.jpg" alt="" /></td><td> </td> + <td align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 11.</span>—Sgraffito-ware platters from Jamestown.<br />The +platter shown above has a diameter<br />of 15 inches; the others, 12 inches.<br />Colonial National Historical Park.</td></tr></table> +<p> </p> + +<p>Of ovens made at Barnstaple there is much the same kind of evidence. In +1851, Thomas Brannam<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> exhibited an oven at the Crystal Palace, where it +was described as “generally used in Devonshire for baking bread and +meat.”<a name="fna_46_46" id="fna_46_46"></a><a href="#fn_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> In 1786, “Barnstaple ovens” were advertised for sale in Bristol +at M. Ewers’ “Staffordshire, Broseley, and Glass Warehouse.”<a name="fna_47_47" id="fna_47_47"></a><a href="#fn_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> +Thirty-six years earlier, in 1750, Dr. Pococke, who indefatigably entered +every sort of observation in his journal, noted that in Devonshire and +Cornwall “they make great use here of Cloume ovens,<a name="fna_48_48" id="fna_48_48"></a><a href="#fn_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> which are of +earthen ware of several sizes, like an oven, and being heated they stop +’em up and cover ’em over with embers to keep in the heat.”<a name="fna_49_49" id="fna_49_49"></a><a href="#fn_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> Pococke +visited Calstock, “where they have a manufacture of coarse earthenware, +and particularly of earthenware ovens.”<a name="fna_50_50" id="fna_50_50"></a><a href="#fn_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>We have encountered only one +other instance of ovens having been made at any place other than the North +Devon communities around the Fremington clay beds. Calstock lies some 35 +miles below Bideford in the southeast corner of Cornwall, just over the +Devonshire boundary.</p> + +<p>As for evidence concerning the manner in which these ovens were used in +England, we have already seen that they were built into houses. Jewitt +wrote that they “are simply enclosed in raised brickwork, leaving the +mouth open to the front.” They were heated until red hot by sticks or +logs, which were then raked out with long iron tongs.<a name="fna_51_51" id="fna_51_51"></a><a href="#fn_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> A bundle of +gorse, or wood, according to Jewitt,<a name="fna_52_52" id="fna_52_52"></a><a href="#fn_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> was sufficient to “thoroughly +bake three pecks of dough.” Pococke’s remarks to the effect that the ovens +were covered over with embers to keep in the heat suggests that they were +sometimes freestanding. However, this could also have been the practice +when ovens were built into fireplaces.</p> + +<p>From an esthetic point of view, the crowning achievement of the North +Devon potters was their sgraffito ware, examples of which in Brannam’s +window display have already been noted. Further evidence in the form of +17th-century sherds was found by Charbonnier around the site of the North +Walk pottery in Barnstaple. These consisted of “plates and dishes of +various size and section.... Extensive as the demand for these dishes must +have been, judging from the heap of fragments, not a single piece has to +my knowledge been found above ground.”<a name="fna_53_53" id="fna_53_53"></a><a href="#fn_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> The apparently complete +disappearance of the sgraffito table wares suggests that they ceased to be +made about 1700. They were apparently forced from the market by the +refinement of taste that developed in the 18th century and by the +delftware of Bristol and London and Liverpool that was so much more in +keeping with that taste.</p> + +<p>However, certain kinds of sgraffito ware continued to be made without +apparent interruption until early in the present century. Instead of +useful tableware, decorated with symbols and motifs characteristic of +17th-century English folk ornament, we find after 1700 only presentation +pieces, particularly in the form of large harvest jugs. The harvest jugs +were made for annual harvest celebrations, when they were passed around by +the farmers among their field hands in a folk ritual observed at the end +of harvest.<a name="fna_54_54" id="fna_54_54"></a><a href="#fn_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> Unlike the sgraffito tablewares, where style and taste +were deciding factors in their survival, these special jugs were intended +to be used only in annual ceremonies. Thus they were carefully preserved +and passed on from generation to generation, with a higher chance for +survival than that which the sgraffito tablewares enjoyed.</p> + +<p>The style of the harvest jugs is in sharp contrast to that of the +tablewares, the jugs having been decorated in a pagan profusion of +fertility and prosperity symbols, mixed sometimes with pictorial and +inscriptive allusions to the sea, particularly on jugs ascribed to +Bideford. The oldest dated examples embody characteristics of design and +techniques that relate them unmistakably to the tablewares, while later +specimens made throughout the 18th and 19th centuries show an increasing +divergence from the 17th-century style. An especially elaborate piece was +made for display at the Great Exhibition of 1851 in the Crystal +Palace.<a name="fna_55_55" id="fna_55_55"></a><a href="#fn_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p> + +<p>Less complicated pieces, with a minimum of incising, were made for +ordinary use, as were plain pieces whose surfaces were covered with slip +without decoration. The trailing and splashing of slip designs on the body +of the ware, practiced in Staffordshire and many of our colonial +potteries, apparently was not followed in North Devon.<a name="fna_56_56" id="fna_56_56"></a><a href="#fn_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<h2>Sites Yielding North Devon Types</h2> + + +<p>Excepting the Bowne House oven and a 1698 jug (see p. 45), no example of +North Devon pottery used in America is known to have survived above +ground. Archeological evidence, however, provides a sufficient record of +North Devon wares and the tastes and customs they reflected. Following are +descriptions of the principal sites in which these wares were found.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><small>JAMESTOWN, VIRGINIA: MAY-HARTWELL SITE.</small></p> + +<p>The site of Jamestown, first permanent English settlement in North +America, has been excavated at intervals by the National Park Service. The +early excavations were under the supervision of several<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> archeological +technicians directing Civilian Conservation Corps crews. In September +1936, J. C. Harrington became supervising archeologist of the project, and +until World War II he continued the work as funds permitted. Except for +the privately sponsored excavation of the Jamestown glasshouse site by +Harrington in 1947, no extensive archeological work was thereafter +undertaken until 1954, when John L. Cotter was appointed chief +archeologist. Thorough exploration of Jamestown was his responsibility +until 1956.<a name="fna_57_57" id="fna_57_57"></a><a href="#fn_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p> + +<p>One of the most interesting subsites in the Jamestown complex was the two +and one-half acres of lots which belonged successively to William May, +Nicholas Merriweather, William White, and Henry Hartwell. The site was +first explored in 1935. On this occasion there was disclosed a meandering +brick drain that had been built on top of a fill of artifactual refuse, +mostly pottery sherds. The richness of this yield was unparalleled +elsewhere at Jamestown; from it comes our principal evidence about the +North Devon types sent to America.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig12.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 12.</span>—Sgraffito-ware cup and plate from Jamestown. +The cup is 4 inches high; the plate is 7 inches in diameter. Colonial National Historical Park.</p></div> +<p> </p> + +<p>The May-Hartwell site was explored further and in far greater detail in +1938 and 1939 by Harrington, whose unpublished typescript report is on +file with the National Park Service.<a name="fna_58_58" id="fna_58_58"></a><a href="#fn_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> Harrington’s excavation, in the +light of historical documentation, led to the conclusion that the brick +drain had been laid during Henry Hartwell’s occupancy of the site<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> between +1689 and 1695. This was supported by the inclusion in the fill of many +bottle seals bearing Hartwell’s initials, “H. H.” Hartwell married the +widow of William White, who had purchased the property from Nicholas +Merriweather in 1677. That was the year following Bacon’s Rebellion, when +Merriweather’s house presumably was destroyed.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig13.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 13.</span>—Sgraffito-ware jugs, about 8 inches high, from +Jamestown. Colonial National Historical Park.</p></div> +<p> </p> + +<p>There were many hundreds of sherds in the fill under and around the brick +drain, as well as in other ditches in the site. The North Devon types were +found here in association with numerous classes of pottery. The most +readily identifiable were sherds of English delftware of many forms and +styles of decoration related to the second half of the 17th century. There +were occasional earlier 17th-century examples, also, as might be expected. +No 18th-century intrusions were noted in the brick drain area, and only a +scattering in other portions; none was found in association with the North +Devon sherds.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><small>JAMESTOWN, VIRGINIA: OTHER SITES.</small></p> + +<p>North Devon wares occur in the majority of sites at Jamestown, but it is +not always possible to date them from contextual evidence because precise +archeological records were not always kept in the early phases of the +excavations. Nevertheless, narrow dating is easily possible in enough +sites to suggest date horizons for the wares.</p> + +<p>The earliest evidence occurs in material from a well (W-21)—excavated in +1956<a name="fna_59_59" id="fna_59_59"></a><a href="#fn_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a>—that contained an atypical sgraffito sherd described below (p. +43). The sherd lay beneath a foot-deep deposit that included Dutch +majolica, Italian sgraffito ware, and tobacco pipes, all dating in form or +decoration prior to 1650. This sherd is unique among all those found at +Jamestown, but it is essentially characteristic of North Devon work. +Presumably it is a forerunner of the typical varieties found in the +May-Hartwell site and elsewhere.</p> + +<p>No gravel-tempered sherds occur in contexts that can positively be dated +prior to 1675. A sizable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> deposit of gravel-tempered sherds was found +between the depth of one foot and the level of the cellar floor of the +mansion house site (Structure 112) located near the pitch-and-tar swamp. +This house was built before 1650, but burned, probably during Bacon’s +Rebellion in 1676.<a name="fna_60_60" id="fna_60_60"></a><a href="#fn_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> The sherds were doubtless part of the household +equipment of the time. All other ceramic fragments, with one exception, +were associated with objects dating earlier than 1660.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig14.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 14.</span>—Sgraffito-ware jug and cups from Jamestown. +Colonial National Historical Park.</p></div> +<p> </p> + +<p>In sites dating from before about 1670, no North Devon wares are found, +excepting the early sgraffito sherd mentioned above. Such was the case +with a brick kiln (Structure 127) of early 17th-century date and two sites +(Structure 110 and Kiln C) in the vicinity of the pottery kiln. In +Structure 110 all the ceramics date from before 1650.<a name="fna_61_61" id="fna_61_61"></a><a href="#fn_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p> + +<p>The latest occurrence of gravel-tempered wares is in contexts of the early +and middle 18th century. A pit near the Ambler property (Refuse Pit +2)<a name="fna_62_62" id="fna_62_62"></a><a href="#fn_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> yielded a typical early 18th-century deposit with flat-rimmed +gravel-tempered pans of characteristic type. Associated with these were +pieces of blue delft (before 1725), Staffordshire “combed” ware (made +throughout the 18th century, but mostly about 1730-1760), Nottingham +stoneware (throughout the 18th century), gray-white Höhr stoneware (last +quarter, 17th century), Buckley black-glazed ware (mostly 1720-1770), and +Staffordshire white salt-glazed ware (1740-1770).</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><small>HAMPTON, VIRGINIA: KECOUGHTAN SITE.</small></p> + +<p>In 1941, Joseph B. and Alvin W. Brittingham, amateur archeologists of +Hampton, Virginia, excavated several refuse pits on the site of what they +believed to be an early 17th-century trading post located at the original +site of Kecoughtan, an Indian village<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> and colonial outpost settlement +which later became Elizabeth City, Virginia. Rich artifactual evidence, +reflecting on a small scale what was found at Jamestown, indicates a +continuous occupancy from the beginning of settlement in 1610 to about +1760.<a name="fna_63_63" id="fna_63_63"></a><a href="#fn_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> The collection was given to the Smithsonian Institution in 1950.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig15.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td align="center"><img src="images/fig16.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 15.</span>—This sgraffito-ware chamber pot, from +Jamestown, has incised on the rim <i>WR 16 ..</i>, probably in reference to the +king. Height, 5½ inches. Colonial National Historical Park.</td><td> </td> + <td align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 16.</span>—Sgraffito-ware harvest jug made in Bideford, +with the date “1795” inscribed. Borough of Bideford Public Library and Museum. (<i>Photo by A. C. Littlejohns.</i>)</td></tr></table> +<p> </p> + +<p><small>JAMES CITY COUNTY, VIRGINIA: GREEN SPRING PLANTATION.</small></p> + +<p>In 1642 Sir William Berkeley arrived in Virginia to be its governor. Seven +years later he built Green Spring, about five miles north of Jamestown. +The house remained standing until after 1800. Its site was excavated in +1954 by the National Park Service under supervision of Louis R. Caywood, +Park Service archeologist.<a name="fna_64_64" id="fna_64_64"></a><a href="#fn_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> The project, supported jointly by the +Jamestown-Williamsburg-Yorktown Celebration Commission and the Virginia +350th Anniversary Commission, was executed under supervision of Colonial +National Historical Park at Yorktown, Virginia.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><small>WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA: EARLY 18TH-CENTURY DEPOSITS.</small></p> + +<p>A small amount of North Devon gravel-tempered ware was found in sites +excavated in Williamsburg by Colonial Williamsburg, Inc. These excavations +have been carried out as adjuncts to the Williamsburg restoration program +over a 30-year period. Few of the North Devon sherds found can be closely +dated, having occurred primarily in undocumented ditches, pits, and +similar deposits. However, it is unlikely that any of the material dates +earlier than the beginning of the 18th century, since Williamsburg was not +authorized as a town until 1699. It is significant, in the light of this, +that North Devon pan sherds in the Williamsburg collection have +characteristics like those of specimens from other 18th-century sites. +Also <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>significant is the fact that no sgraffito ware occurs here. A +gravel-tempered pan (fig. 23) from the Coke-Garrett House site was found +in a context that can be dated about 1740-1760.</p> + + +<p> </p> + +<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig17left.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td align="center"><img src="images/fig17right.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 17.</span>—Views of North Devon harvest jug used in Sussex +County, Delaware. This jug, 11 inches high and dated 1698, is in the collection of Charles G. Dorman. The inscription reads:</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" class="dent">“Kind S<sup>r</sup>: i com to Gratifiey youre Kindness Love and Courtisy and +Sarve youre table with Strong beare for this intent i was sent heare: +or if you pleas i will supply youre workmen when in harvist dry when +they doe labour hard and swear<sup>e</sup> good drinke is better far then Meat”</td></tr></table> +<p> </p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><small>WESTMORELAND COUNTY, VIRGINIA: SITE OF JOHN WASHINGTON HOUSE.</small></p> + +<p>In 1930 the National Park Service became custodians for “Wakefield,” the +George Washington birthplace site on Pope’s Creek in Westmoreland County. +About a mile to the west of “Wakefield” itself, but within the Park area, +is the site of Bridges Creek Plantation, purchased in 1664 by John +Washington, the earliest member of the family in America. It was occupied +by John at least until his death in 1677, and probably by Lawrence +Washington until a few years later. Much artifactual material was dug from +the plantation house site, including the largest deposits of North Devon +types found outside of Jamestown.<a name="fna_65_65" id="fna_65_65"></a><a href="#fn_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><small>STAFFORD COUNTY, VIRGINIA: MARLBOROUGH SITE.</small></p> + +<p>A short-lived town was built in 1691 at the confluence of Potomac Creek +and the Potomac River on Potomac Neck. The town was abandoned by 1720, but +six years later became the abode of John Mercer, who developed a +plantation there. The site of his house was excavated by the Smithsonian +Institution in 1956. Two small sherds of North Devon gravel-tempered ware +were found there in a predominantly mid-18th-century deposit.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig18top.jpg" alt="" /><br /><img src="images/fig18bot.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 18.</span>—Gravel-tempered pan (top) and cooking pot with +cover, all from Jamestown. The pan has a height of 4½ inches and a +diameter of 15 inches. The pot is 6 inches high and 9½ inches in +diameter; the diameter of its cover is 10 inches. Colonial National Historical Park.</p></div> + + +<p> </p> +<p><small>CALVERT COUNTY, MARYLAND: ANGELICA KNOLL SITE.</small></p> + +<p>Since 1954 Robert A. Elder, Jr., assistant curator of ethnology at the +United States National Museum, has been investigating the site on the +Chesapeake Bay of a plantation or small settlement known as Angelica +Knoll. This investigation has revealed a generous variety of +gravel-tempered utensil forms, including both 17th and 18th century +styles. The range of associated artifacts points to a site dating from the +late 17th century to about 1765.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><small>KENT ISLAND, QUEEN ANNE COUNTY, MARYLAND.</small></p> + +<p>A small collection of late 17th-century and early 18th-century +material—gathered by Richard H. Stearns near the shore of Kent Island, a +quarter-mile south of Kent Island Landing—includes both North Devon +types. The collection was given to the United States National Museum.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><small>LEWES, SUSSEX COUNTY, DELAWARE: TOWNSEND SITE.</small></p> + +<p>The Townsend site was excavated by members of the Sussex County +Archeological Society in 1947. This was primarily an Indian site, but a +pit or well contained European artifacts, including a North Devon +gravel-tempered jar (fig. 25). The village of Lewes, originally the Dutch +settlement of Zwaanandael, was destroyed by the British, who occupied the +area in 1664.<a name="fna_66_66" id="fna_66_66"></a><a href="#fn_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> The European materials from the Townsend site were given +to the United States National Museum.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><small>PLYMOUTH, PLYMOUTH COUNTY, MASSACHUSETTS: “R.M.” SITE.</small></p> + +<p>A site of a house believed to have been Robert Morton’s, located south of +the town of Plymouth, was excavated by Henry Hornblower II. It contained +North Devon gravel-tempered sherds. The collection is now in the +archeological laboratory of Plimoth Plantation, Inc., in Plymouth.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><small>ROCKY NOOK, KINGSTON, PLYMOUTH COUNTY, MASSACHUSETTS: SITES OF JOHN +HOWLAND HOUSE AND JOSEPH HOWLAND HOUSE.</small></p> + +<p>The John Howland house was built between 1628 and 1630; it burned about +1675. The site was excavated between September 1937 and July 1938 under +supervision of the late Sidney T. Strickland.<a name="fna_67_67" id="fna_67_67"></a><a href="#fn_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> Several gravel-tempered +utensil sherds were found here, as well as a piece of an oven (see fig. +26). Artifacts from this and the following site are at the Plimoth +Plantation laboratory.</p> + +<p>The foundations of the Joseph Howland house, adjacent to the John Howland +house site, were excavated in 1959 by James Deetz, archeologist at Plimoth +Plantation. This is the only New England site of which we are aware that +has yielded North Devon sgraffito ware. Two successive houses apparently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +stood on the site. Statistical evidence of pipe-stem-bore measurements +points to 1680-1710 as the first principal period of occupancy.<a name="fna_68_68" id="fna_68_68"></a><a href="#fn_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><small>MARSHFIELD, PLYMOUTH COUNTY, MASSACHUSETTS: WINSLOW SITE.</small></p> + +<p>This site, excavated by Henry Hornblower II and tentatively dated +1635-1699, yielded considerable quantities of gravel-tempered ware. +Cultural material is predominantly from about 1675.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><small>FLUSHING, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK: THE JOHN BOWNE HOUSE.</small></p> + +<p>The John Bowne House is a historic house museum at Bowne Street and Fox +Lane, Flushing, Long Island, maintained by the Bowne House Historical +Society. Bowne was a Quaker from Derbyshire, who built his house in 1661. +A North Devon oven is still in place, with its opening at the back of the +fireplace.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><small>YORKTOWN, VIRGINIA.</small></p> + +<p>The National Park Service has excavated at various locations in Yorktown, +both in the neighboring battlefield sites and the town itself. Yorktown, +like Marlborough, was established by the Act for Ports in 1691. In several +of the areas excavated, occasional sherds of North Devon gravel-tempered +ware were found. In refuse behind the site of the Swan Tavern, opened as +an inn in 1722 but probably occupied earlier, a single large fragment of a +15-inch sgraffito platter was discovered. No other pieces of this type +were found, associated artifacts having been predominantly from the 18th +century.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig19top.jpg" alt="" /><br /><img src="images/fig19bot.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 19.</span>—Gravel-tempered bowl (top) and pipkins from +Jamestown. Colonial National Historical Park.</p></div> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<h2>Descriptions of Types</h2> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">North Devon Sgraffito Ware</span></p> + +<p>Sites: Jamestown, Kecoughtan, Green Spring, John Washington House, Kent +Island, Yorktown, Joseph Howland House.</p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Paste</span></p> + +<p>Manufacture: Wheel-turned, with templates used to shape collars of jugs +and to shape edges and sometimes ridges where plate rims join bezels.</p> + +<p>Temper: Fine, almost microscopic, water-worn sand particles.</p> + +<p>Texture: Fine, smooth, well-mixed, sharp, regular cleavage.</p> + +<p>Color: Dull pinkish red, with gray core usual.</p> + +<p>Firing: Two firings, one before glazing and one after. Usually incomplete +oxidation, shown by gray core. A few specimens have surface breaks or +flakings incurred in the firing and most show warping (suggesting that +“rejects,” unsalable in England, were sent to the colonists, who had no +recourse but to accept them).</p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Surfaces</span></p> + +<p>Treatment: Inner surfaces of plates and bowls and outer surfaces of jugs, +cups, mugs, chamber pots, and other utensils viewed on the exteriors are +coated with white kaolin slip. Designs are scratched through the slip +while wet and into the surface of the paste, exposing the latter. +Undersides of plates and chargers are often scraped to make irregular flat +areas of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>surface. Slip-covered portions are coated with amber glaze by +sifting on powdered galena (lead sulphide). Containers which are slipped +externally are glazed externally and internally. Slip and glaze do not +cover lower portions of jugs, but run down unevenly.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig20.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 20.</span>—Gravel-tempered chafing dish from Jamestown. +Colonial National Historical Park. (<i>Smithsonian photo 43104.</i>)</p></div> +<p> </p> + +<p>Color: Slipped surfaces are white where exposed without glaze. Unglazed +surfaces are a dull terra cotta. The glaze varies in tone from honey color +to a dark greenish amber. When applied over the slip, the glaze ranges +from lemon to a toneless brown-yellow, or, at best, a sparkling butter +color. When applied directly over the paste and over the incised and +abraided designs, the glaze appears as a rich mahogany brown or dark +amber.</p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Forms</span></p> + +<p>Plates, platters, and chargers:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>(a) Diameter 7″-7½″. Upper surface slipped, decorated, and glazed. +(Fig. 12.)</p> + +<p>(b) Diameter 12″; depth 2″-3″. Upper surface slipped, decorated, and +glazed. (Fig. 11.)</p> + +<p>(c) Diameter 14½″-15″; depth 2″-3″. Upper surface slipped, +decorated, and glazed. (Fig. 11.)</p></div> + +<p>All have wide rims, but of varying widths, raised bezels, and heavy, +raised, curved edges.</p> + +<p>Baluster wine cups: Height 3¾″-4″. Slipped and decorated externally; +glazed internally and externally. (Figs. 12, 14.)</p> + +<p>Concave-sided mugs: Height about 4″. Slipped and decorated externally; +glazed internally and externally. (Only complete specimen, at Jamestown, +had incised band around rim.) (Fig. 14.)</p> + +<p>Jugs: Height 6½″ and 8″-8½″. Globose bodies, vertical or slightly +everted collars tooled in a series of ridged bands, with tooled rims at +top. Some have pitcher lips, some do not. Slipped, decorated, and glazed +externally above an incised line encircling the waist; glazed internally. +(Figs. 13, 14.)</p> + +<p>Eating bowls: Diameter, including handle, 9″-10″; depth 3¼″-4″. +Straight, everted sides, flat rims, with slightly raised edges, one small +flat loop handle secured to rim. Slipped, decorated, and glazed internally +and on rim.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig21.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 21.</span>—Gravel-tempered baking pan from Jamestown. +Length, 15 inches; width, about 12 inches. Colonial National Historical Park.</p></div> +<p> </p> + +<p>Chamber pots: Height 5½″. Curving sides, terminating at heavy, raised, +rounded band surmounted by concave, everted rim. Rim 1″ wide and flat. +Slipped, decorated, and glazed externally and internally. (Fig. 15.)</p> + +<p>Candlestick: Unique specimen. Height 6″. Bell-shaped base with flange and +shaft above with socket at top. Handle from bottom of socket to bottom of +shaft. Upper portion slipped, decorated, and glazed.</p> + +<p>Ripple-edged, shallow dish: Unique specimen. Diameter 9¼″. Concave, +rimless dish or plate with edge crimped as for a pie or tart plate. Upper +surface slipped, decorated, and glazed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Decoration</span></p> + +<p>Technique: (1) Incising through wet slip into paste with pointed tool for +linear effects. (2) Excising of small areas to reveal paste and to +strengthen tonal qualities of designs. (3) Incising with multiple-pointed +tools having three to five points, to draw multiple-lined stripes. (4) +Stippling with same tools.</p> + +<p>Motifs: The motifs are varied and never occur in any one combination more +than once. There are two general categories of design, geometric and +floral, although in some cases these are joined in the same specimen.</p> + +<p>In the geometric category, the majority of plate rims are decorated with +hastily drawn spirals and <i>guilloches</i>. The centers may have circles +within squares, circles enclosing compass-drawn petals, circles within a +series of swags embellished with lines. Triple-lined chevrons decorate the +border of one plate. A chamber pot is decorated with diagonal stripes of +multiple lines, between which wavy lines are punctuated by small excised +rectangles. Some cups, jugs, and the candlestick are simply decorated with +vertical stripes, between which are wavy lines, stippling, and excised +blocks.</p> + +<p>The floral category includes elaborate and intricate stylized floral and +vine motifs: tulips, sunflowers, leaves, tendrils, hearts, four-petaled +flowers. One plate (fig. 11) combines the geometric feeling of the first +category with the floral qualities of the second in its swag-and-tassel +rim and swagged band, which encloses a sunflower springing from a stalk +between two leaves.</p> + +<p>The design motifs are unique in comparison with those found on other +English pottery of the 17th century. The geometrical patterns and spiral +ornaments, which also occur in Hispanic majolica, have a Moorish flavor. +Christian symbols—especially tulips, sunflowers, and hearts—are +recurrent, as they are on contemporary West-of-England furniture, pewter, +and embroidery and on the carved chests, and crewel work of Puritan New +England. There is considerable reason to believe that there was a +connection between North Devon sgraffito-ware manufacture and design on +the one hand and the influx of Huguenot and Netherlands Protestant +artisans into southern and southwestern England on the other. Low Country +immigrant potters were responsible for two other ceramic innovations +elsewhere in England—stoneware and majolica.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig22.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 22.</span>—Slip-coated porringers and drinking bowl +(center). Colonial National Historical Park.</p></div> +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig23.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 23.</span>—North Devon gravel-tempered pan with typical +terra cotta paste and characteristic 18th-century flattened rim, slightly +undercut on the interior. This pan, measuring 13¼ inches in diameter +and 4⅜ inches high, was found at the Coke-Garrett house site in +Williamsburg, Virginia, in a context attributed to the period about +1740-1760. Colonial Williamsburg, Inc. (<i>Colonial Williamsburg photo 59-DW-703-44.</i>)</p></div> +<p> </p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Atypical Specimen</span></p> + +<p>Already mentioned is a large fragment of a dish found in a context not +later than 1640 and cruder and simpler in treatment than the remainder of +North Devon sgraffito ware thus far seen. It nevertheless belongs to the +same class. Its paste has the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> characteristics of color and fracture, +while the firing has left the same tell-tale gray core found in a large +proportion of North Devon sherds. Surface treatment techniques match those +reflected in the typical dish sherds—glazed slip over the red paste on +the interior; unglazed, scraped, and abraided surfaces on the underside. +The yellow color is paler and the glazed surface is duller. The rim has a +smaller edge and omits the heavy raised bezel usually occurring on the +typical plates and chargers. The design motifs—crude and primitive in +comparison with those described above—consist of a series of stripes on +the rim, drawn at right angles to the edge with a four-pointed tool, and +crude hook-like ornaments traced with the same tool in the bowl of the +plate. This may be regarded as a forerunner of the developed sgraffito +ware made in the second half of the 17th century.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig24.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 24.</span>—Gravel-tempered pan sherds from Kecoughtan +site, Hampton, Virginia. United States National Museum.</p></div> +<p> </p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Unique Feature</span></p> + +<p>The flat rim of a chamber pot from Jamestown (fig. 15) has “WR 16 ..” +scratched through the slip. It is probable that the initials indicate +“William Rex,” for William III, who became king in 1688. Why the king +should be memorialized in such an undignified fashion could be explained +by the fact that Barnstaple and Bideford were strongly Puritan and also +Huguenot centers. Although William was a popular monarch, he was, +nevertheless, head of the Church of England, and an anti-royalist, +Calvinist potter might well have expressed an earthy contempt in this way. +Later, in the 18th century, George III appears to have been treated with +similar disrespect by Staffordshire potters, who made saltglazed chamber +pots in the style of Rhenish Westerwald drinking jugs, flaunting “GR” +emblems on the sides. Owners’ initials or names do not occur on any of the +North Devon wares found in American sites, nor do the initials of the +potters. Otherwise, it would seem unlikely that the only exception would +appear on the rim of a chamber pot.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Comparative Evidence</span></p> + +<p>Sherds owned by C. H. Brannam, Ltd., and excavated at the site of the +Litchdon Street pottery in Barnstaple.—The largest of these is part of a +deep dish (fig. 2). Its border design seems to be a degenerate form of a +beetle-like device found on Portuguese majolica of the period. From a +crude oval with a stippled line running the length of it, extends a spiral +scroll, terminating in a heavy dot, reminiscent of the tendrils found on +the Portuguese examples. From incised lines near the rim and on the edge +of the bezel are small linear “hooks.” The interior has sunflower petals +flanking a short, stylized palmette, with another stalk and pair of leaves +above, reaching up to what may have been an elaborate floral center, now +missing. This decoration resembles closely the interiors of the +floral-type plates and chargers found at Jamestown. A section of plate rim +is similar to typical rims found in American sites. The surface color is +the butter yellow found on the best Jamestown pieces. Paste color also +matches.</p> + +<p>Sherds from the North Walk pottery in Barnstaple, described by +Charbonnier.—These were found near the site, on the banks of the Yeo and +in a pasture. They include plates and dishes, some finished and others +thrown out in the biscuit state. Charbonnier illustrates a plate with a +zig-zag or chevron border and an incised bird in the center. The chevron +appears on Jamestown specimens but the bird does not.</p> + +<p>Harvest jugs.—18th-century North Devon harvest jugs examined by the +writer display the same characteristics of paste, slip, and glaze as the +Jamestown sherds. However, the jugs differ stylistically to a marked +degree, suggesting that later potters were not affected by the influences +that appear in the earlier work (fig. 16). The earliest harvest jug of +which we are aware is a hitherto unrecorded example, dated 1698, that is +in the collection of Charles G. Dorman. This is the only harvest jug yet +encountered with a history of use in America and the only North Devon +sgraffito piece known to have survived above ground on this continent. It +is a remarkably vigorous pot, having a great rotund body, a high flaring +collar, and a lengthy inscription (see fig. 17). A female figure under a +wreath of pomegranates forms the central motif. The head is turned in left +profile, with hair cascading to the shoulders. The bust is highly stylized +in an oval shape, within which are intersecting curved lines forming areas +decorated with diagonal incising or with rows of short dashes. The +design here is strongly reminiscent of the geometrical decoration on +Jamestown plates and deep dishes. A pair of unicorns flanks the central +figure, and behind each unicorn are a dove and swan, at left and right +respectively. Under these are sunflowers and tulips, while a tulip stands +above rows of leaves on a stem below the handle. Feather-like leaves flank +the lower attachment of the handle. At the junction of the shoulder and +collar is a narrow band of incised tulips. Above this is a heavy ridge +from which springs the flaring collar. Under the spout is a male head, +wearing a wig which is depicted in the same manner as the pomegranates on +the wreath, and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> stylized hat and stock-like collar. One suspects that +the man is a clergyman, although his eyes are cast down in a most worldly +manner upon the lady below. He is flanked by a pair of doves; behind each +dove is a vertical tulip with stem and leaves.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig25.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 25.</span>—Gravel-tempered food-storage jar from Townsend +site, Lewes, Delaware. Height, 12 inches; diameter at base, 9 inches. +(<i>USNM 60.1188; Smithsonian photo 38821.</i>)</p></div> +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig26.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 26.</span>—Gravel-tempered sherds from Plymouth, +Massachusetts: fragment of oven (left) and rim sherd (upper right), from +John Howland house site; and pan-rim sherd from “R. M.” site. Plimoth +Plantation, Inc., Plymouth. (<i>Smithsonian photo 45008-B.</i>)</p></div> +<p> </p> + +<p>Some of the shading is applied with a four-pointed tool, as in many of the +Jamestown pieces, although the tool was smaller. The handle bears the same +characteristics as those on jugs found at Jamestown—the same carelessly +formed ridge, the same spreading, up-thrust reinforcement at the base of +the handle. Unlike the Jamestown jugs, this one is covered completely on +the exterior with slip and glaze. However, since this was a presentation +piece, we could expect more careful treatment than was usual on pots made +for commercial sale.</p> + +<p>The jug descended in a Sussex County, Delaware, family—on the distaff +side, curiously. Family recollection traces its ownership back to the +early 19th century, with an unsubstantiated legend that it was used by +British soldiers during the Revolutionary War. We may conclude at least +that the jug is not a recent import and surmise that it was probably +brought to America as an heirloom by an emigrating Devon family, perhaps +before the Revolution. Sussex County has a stable population, mostly of +old-stock English descent. It was settled during the second half of the +17th and first half of the 18th centuries. There is a strong possibility, +therefore,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> that the jug was introduced into Delaware at a comparatively +early date.</p> + +<p>Many other harvest jugs have been similarly cherished in England. An +almost exact counterpart of the Delaware jug, and obviously by the same +potter, is in the Glaisher collection in Cambridge. This jug, dated +“1703/4,”<a name="fna_69_69" id="fna_69_69"></a><a href="#fn_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> displays such variations as absence of the male head and a +different inscription. Another jug, with a hunting scene but with a +similar neck and collar treatment, seems again to be by the same hand; +it is dated “1703.”<a name="fna_70_70" id="fna_70_70"></a><a href="#fn_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig27.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 27.</span>—Gravel-tempered sherds from Angelica Knoll +site, Calvert County, Maryland. United States National Museum. +(<i>Smithsonian photo 45008-A.</i>)</p></div> +<p> </p> + +<p>From the standpoint of identifying and dating the archeologically +recovered sgraffito ware, these jugs are important in showing certain +traits similar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> to those found in the sherds, while displaying other +characteristics that are distinctly different. They support the +archeological evidence that the Jamestown pieces are earlier than the jugs +and that new design concepts were appearing by the turn of the century in +a novel type of presentation piece.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">North Devon Plain Slip-Coated Ware</span></p> + +<p>This is a plain variant of the sgraffito ware, differing only in the +absence of decoration and in some of the forms.</p> + +<p>Site: Jamestown.</p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Forms</span></p> + +<p>Plates: Diameter 7″-11½″. Profiles as in sgraffito plates. Upper +surface slipped and glazed.</p> + +<p>Eating bowls: Diameter 9″; height 3½″. Profile and handle same as in +sgraffito bowls. Slipped and glazed on interior and over rim.</p> + +<p>Porringers: Diameter 5½″; height 2¾″. Ogee profiles. Horizontal loop +handle applied ¾″ below rim on each. Slipped and glazed on interiors. +(Fig. 22.)</p> + +<p>Drinking bowls: Diameter of rim, including handle, 5″; height 2¾″-3″; +diameter of base 2″. In shape of mazer bowl, these have narrow bases and +straight sides terminating in raised tooled bands at the junctions with +vertical or slightly inverted rims 1″ in height. Each has a horizontal +looped handle attached at bottom of rim. Slipped and glazed on interiors. +(Fig. 22.)</p> + +<p>Wavy-edge pans: Diameter 9″-10″; height 2″. Flat round pans with vertical +rims distorted in wide scallops or waves. Purpose not known. Slipped and +glazed on interiors.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">North Devon Gravel-Tempered Ware</span></p> + +<p>Sites: Jamestown, Kecoughtan, Green Spring, Williamsburg, Marlborough, +John Washington House, Kent Island, Angelica Knoll, Townsend, John Bowne +House, “R. M.,” Winslow, John Howland House.</p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Paste</span></p> + +<p>Manufacture: Wheel-turned, except ovens and rectangular pans, which are +“draped” over molds. (See “Forms,” below.)</p> + +<p>Temper: Very coarse water-worn quartz and feldsparthic gravel up to +one-half inch in length; also occasional sherds. Proportion of temper +15-25 percent, except in ovens, which were about 30 percent.</p> + +<p>Texture: Poorly kneaded, bubbly, and porous, with temper poorly mixed. +Temper particles easily rubbed out of matrix. Very irregular and angular +cleavage because of coarse temper. Hard and resistant to blows, but +crumbles at fracture when broken.</p> + +<p>Color: Dull pinkish red to deep orange-red. Almost invariably gray at +core, except in ovens.</p> + +<p>Firing: Carelessly fired, with incomplete oxidation of paste.</p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Surface</span></p> + +<p>Treatment: Glazed with powdered galena on interiors of containers, never +externally. Glaze very carelessly applied, with much evidence of dripping, +running, and unintentional spilling.</p> + +<p>Texture: Very coarse and irregular, with gravel temper protruding.</p> + +<p>Color: Unglazed surfaces range from bright terra cotta to reddish buff. +Glazed surfaces on well-fired pieces are transparent yellow-green with +frequent orange splotches. Overtired pieces become dark olive-amber, +sometimes approaching black. Rare specimens have slipped interiors +subsequently glazed, with similar butter-yellow color effect as in +sgraffito and plain slip-coated types.</p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Forms</span></p> + +<p>All forms are not completely indicated, there being many rims not +represented by complete or reconstructed pieces. The following are +established forms.</p> + +<p>Round, flat-bottomed pans: Diameter 16″, height 4″; diameter 16″, height +5″; diameter 18″, height 4″; diameter 15″, height 4½″; diameter +13¼″, height 4⅜″. Heavy rounded rims. Glazed internally below rims. +These were probably milk pans, but may also have served for cooking and +washing. Those lined with slip may have functioned as wash basins. (Figs. +18, 23.)</p> + +<p>Round, flat-bottomed pans: Diameter approximately 19″, height unknown. (No +complete specimen.) Heavy rims, reinforced with applied strips of clay +beneath external projection of rim. Reinforcement strips are secured with +thumb impressions or square impressions made by end of flat tool. (Figs. +28, 29.)</p> + +<p>Cooking pots: Diameter 12″, height 6″; diameter 8″, height 5″. Curving +sides, terminating at tooled concave band with flattened, slightly curving +rim above. Glazed inside.</p> + +<p>Bowls: Diameter 8″, height 5″. Sides curved, with flattened-curve rims, +tooled bands below rims. Glazed internally. (Fig. 19.)</p> + + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig28.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 28.</span>—Exteriors (left) and interiors of +gravel-tempered sherds. Top to bottom: bowl; pan; heavy pan with +reinforced rim; and pan with 18th-century-type rim. Colonial National +Historical Park. (<i>From Smithsonian photos 43039-A, 43041-A.</i>)</p></div> +<p> </p> + +<p>Cooking pots: Diameter (including handles) 9½″, height 6″. Profile a +segmented curve, with rim the same diameter as base. Exterior flange to +receive cover. Small horizontal loop handles. Band of three incised lines +around waist. (Fig. 18.)</p> + +<p>Cooking pot covers: Diameters 7″, 10″, 10½″, 11″. Flat covers, with +downward-turned rims. Off-center loop handles, probably designed to +facilitate <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>examination of contents of pot by permitting one to lift up +one edge of cover. Covers are sometimes numbered with incised numerals. +Unglazed. (Fig. 18.)</p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig29.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 29.</span>—Exteriors (left) and interiors of +gravel-tempered sherds. Pan (top) with 18th-century-type rim, and handle +of heavy pan with reinforced rim. Colonial National Historical Park. +(<i>From Smithsonian photos 43039-C, 43039-D.</i>)</p></div> +<p> </p> + +<p>Pipkins: Diameter 7″, height 3″; diameter 8½″, height 3½″; diameter +8¼″, height 4″; diameter 8″, height 5″. Curving sides, terminating at +tooled concave band with flattened, slightly curved rim above. Three +stubby legs. Stub handle crudely shaped and casually applied at an upward +angle. Glazed inside. Used as a saucepan to stand in the coals. (Fig. 19.)</p> + +<p>Rectangular basting or baking pans: Length 15″, width 11¾″ (dimensions +of single restored specimen at Jamestown; many fragments in addition at +Jamestown and Plymouth). Drape-molded. Reinforced scalloped rim. Heavy +horizontal loop handles are sometimes on sides, sometimes on ends. Glazed +inside. (Fig. 21.)</p> + +<p>Storage jars: Various sizes. The one wholly restored specimen (Lewes, +Delaware) has a rim diameter of 8″ and a height of 12½″. Rims of +largest examples (diameters 7″, 10″, 12″) have reinforcement strips +applied below external projection. Heavy vertical loop handles, with tops +attached to rims.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> Most have interior flanges to receive covers. Glazed +inside. Such jars were essential for preserving and pickling foods and for +brewing beer. (Fig. 25.)</p> + +<p>Plate warmer or chafing dish: Unique specimen. Diameter (including handle) +11″, height 7″. Heavy, flaring pedestal foot supports wide bowl, glazed +inside. Flat rim with slight elevation on outer edge. Protruding +vertically from rim are three lugs or supports for holding plates. +Vertical loop handles extend from rim to lower sides of bowl. “Spirits of +wine” were probably burned in the bowl to heat the plate above. (Fig. 20.) +Fragmentary pedestals, similar in profile to the one here (but smaller, +having step turnings around base) may have been parts of smaller chafing +dishes. (Fig. 31.)</p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig30.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 30.</span>—Exteriors (left) and interiors of +gravel-tempered sherds. Top to bottom: rim of small bowl; rim of small jar +with internal flange to receive cover; and pipkin handle. Colonial +National Historical Park. (<i>From Smithsonian photos 43039-C, 43039-D.</i>)</p></div> +<p> </p> + +<p>Ovens: (1) One wholly reconstructed oven at Jamestown. Made in sections on +drape molds: base, two sides, two halves of top, opening frame, and door. +Side and top sections are joined with seams, reinforced by finger +impressions, meeting at top of trapezoidal opening. The opening was molded +separately and joined with thumb-impressed reinforcements. A flat door +with heavy vertical handle, round in section, fits snugly into opening. +Thickness varies from ¾″ to 1½″. Unglazed, although smears of glaze +dripped during the firing indicate that the oven was fired with glazed +utensils stacked above it. (Fig. 10.)</p> + +<p>(2) Oven in place in Bowne House, Flushing, Long Island. Similar in shape +to Jamestown oven. Opening is arched.</p> + +<p>(3) Body sherd and handle sherds at Jamestown, from additional oven or +ovens.</p> + +<p>(4) Body sherd from dome-top oven similar to those at Jamestown and +Flushing. John Howland House site, Rocky Nook, Kingston, Plymouth County, +Massachusetts. (Fig. 26.)</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Comparative Evidence</span></p> + +<p>Paste color, temper, and texture are consistent when examined +microscopically. Resemblance is very close between oven sherds from the +Jamestown and Howland house sites, and between these and a large chip +obtained from the Smithsonian’s oven purchased in Bideford. Except for a +somewhat lower proportion of temper, utensil sherds from various sites are +consistent with the oven fragments. The Smithsonian’s 19th-century +Bideford pan also closely resembles these, except for the proportion of +temper, which is somewhat less. Further close resemblance of form exists +between the Jamestown and Flushing ovens and those in the Bideford Museum. +(Figs. 7, 9.)</p> + +<p>In 1954 comparative tests were made by Frederick H. Norton, professor of +ceramics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Jamestown clay was used +for a control. Thin sections, made of sherds found at Jamestown, were +fired at several temperatures and the results recorded in +photomicrographs. Of the gravel-tempered sherd submitted in these tests, +Professor Norton commented, “The clay mass looks quite dissimilar from the +Jamestown clay.”</p> + +<p>No other identifiable English ware of this period compares with the +gravel-tempered pottery, the use of gravel for temper apparently being +restricted to North Devon. Gravel is found in red earthenware sherds from +Spanish colonial sites and in olive oil jars of Hispanic origin, but both +the quality and proportion of temper differs, as do the paste +characteristics, so that no possibility exists for confusion between them +and the North Devon ware.</p> + +<p>The North Devon potteries produced gravel-tempered ovens that probably +were unique in England. Ceramic ovens were made elsewhere, to be sure; +Jewitt describes and illustrates an oven made in Yearsley by the Yorkshire +Wedgwoods in 1712, but it is in no way related to the North Devon form. We +have mentioned Dr. Pococke’s allusion to “earthenware ovens” made in the +mid-18th century at Calstock on the Cornish side of the Devonshire border, +about 35 miles from Bideford; however, one may suppose that these were the +products of diffusion from the North Devon center, if, indeed, they even +resembled the North Devon ovens.</p> + +<p>The closest comparisons with the North Devon ovens are to be found in +Continental sources. A woodcut in Ulrich von Richental’s <i>Concilium zu +Constancz</i> (fig. 35), printed at Augsburg in 1483, shows an oven whose +shape is similar to that of the Jamestown specimen. The oven in the +woodcut is mounted on a two-wheeled cart drawn by two men. A woman is +removing a tart from the flame-licked opening while a couple sits nearby +at a table in front of a shop. Le Moyne, a century later, depicted the +Huguenot Fort Caroline in Florida.<a name="fna_71_71" id="fna_71_71"></a><a href="#fn_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> Just outside the stockade, on a +raised platform under a thatched lean-to appears an oven whose form is +similar to that of typical North Devon examples (fig. 36). It is a safe +assumption that the ovens in both Richental’s and Le Moyne’s scenes were +ceramic ovens, for both were used outdoors in a portable or temporary +manner. No other material would have been suitable for such use.</p> + +<p>This portable usage gives support to Bailey’s conjecture that the +Jamestown oven may have been used indoors in the winter and outdoors in +the summer. He noted that carbon had been ground into the base, as though +the oven had lain on a fireplace hearth.<a name="fna_72_72" id="fna_72_72"></a><a href="#fn_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> Sidney Strickland, writing +about his excavation of the John Howland House site, noted that the stone +fireplace foundation there had no provision for a built-in brick oven of +conventional type.<a name="fna_73_73" id="fna_73_73"></a><a href="#fn_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> Not having recognized the earthen oven sherd, he +assumed that bread was baked on the stone hearth. The pottery oven may +well have been placed on the hearth or have been set up in an outbuilding. +That ovens of some sort, whether ceramic or brick, were used away from +houses is borne out by occasional documentary evidence. In 1662 John +Andrews of Ipswich, Massachusetts, bequeathed a “bake house” worth 2 +pounds, 10 shillings. In 1673, Henry Short of Newbury provided in his will +that his widow should have “free egress and regress into the Bakehouse for +bakeing & washing.” In 1679 the inventory of Lt. George Gardner’s estate +in Salem listed his “dwelling house, bake house & out housing.”<a name="fna_74_74" id="fna_74_74"></a><a href="#fn_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> Bailey +quotes the records of Henrico County, Virginia, to show a similar usage in +the South.<a name="fna_75_75" id="fna_75_75"></a><a href="#fn_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig31.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 31.</span>—Pedestal bases of small chafing dishes or +standing salts. Top, exterior and interior of one sherd; bottom, exterior +and top view of another sherd. Colonial National Historical Park. (<i>From +Smithsonian photos 43039-C, 43030-D.</i>)</p></div> +<p> </p> + +<p>The only unquestionable evidence of how these ovens were used remains in +the Bowne House, where the oven is built into the fireplace back. +Originally, the oven protruded outdoors from the back of the chimney.<a name="fna_76_76" id="fna_76_76"></a><a href="#fn_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<h2>Conclusions</h2> + +<p>Archeological, documentary, and literary evidences indicate that yellow +sgraffito ware, gravel-tempered earthenware utensils, and gravel-tempered +pottery ovens were made in several potteries in and around Barnstaple and +Bideford in North Devon. Clay from the Fremington clay beds was used.</p> + +<p>The North Devon potteries manufactured for export, sending their wares to +Ireland as early as 1600 and to America by 1635. The trade was +particularly heavy in the years following the Stuart Restoration and was +tied to the influential 17th-century West-of-England commerce with +America. New England, Maryland, and Virginia received many shipments of +North Devon pottery, an entire cargo of it having been delivered in Boston +in 1688.</p> + +<p>Sgraffito ware found in colonial sites in Virginia and Maryland is from a +common source. The style of decoration is unique to English pottery and +reflects Continental elements of design. It is reminiscent of decoration +found on English and colonial New England furniture and embroideries. The +only counterparts of this ware—matching it in style, paste color, and +technique—are found among 17th-century sherds excavated from the sites of +two potteries in Barnstaple. The 18th-century and 19th-century North Devon +sgraffito ware surviving above ground differs considerably in style and +form but in other respects it is the same as the ware found +archeologically in Virginia and Maryland. The stylistic differences, +noticeable on a piece in the Glaisher collection dated as early as 1704 +(in which traces of the earlier style remain), were introduced by the turn +of the century, thus strengthening the conclusion that the sgraffito +tablewares found archeologically in this country must date from before +1700.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> </p> +<table width="60%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig32a.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td><td align="center"><img src="images/fig32b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/fig32c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 32.</span>—Photomicrographs of gravel-tempered sherds +enlarged twice natural size, showing cross-sectional fractures. Top left, +pan sherd from Jamestown (Colonial National Historical Park); top right, +pan sherd from Angelica Knoll site, Calvert County, Maryland (United +States National Museum); and oven sherd from Bideford (United States National Museum).</td></tr></table> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p> + +<table width="60%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/fig33a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig33b.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td><td align="center"><img src="images/fig33c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 33.</span>—Photomicrographs of gravel-tempered sherds +enlarged three times natural size, showing cross-sectional fractures. Top, +pan sherd from “R. M.” site, Plymouth, Massachusetts (Plimoth Plantation, +Inc.); lower left, oven sherd from Jamestown (Colonial National Historical +Park); and oven sherd from John Howland house site, Rocky Nook, Plymouth, Massachusetts (Plimoth Plantation, Inc.).</td></tr></table> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig34.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 34.</span>—Rim profiles of North Devon gravel-tempered +earthenware pans. All are from the fill around and beneath the +May-Hartwell site drain at Jamestown (constructed between 1689 and 1695) +except those marked, as follows: <i>A</i>, from Angelica Knoll site, Calvert +County, Maryland, late 17th century to about 1765; <i>B</i>, from John +Washington House site, Westmoreland County, Virginia, the period from +about 1664 to about 1680; <i>C</i>, from “R. M.” site, Plymouth, Massachusetts, +about 1670; <i>D</i>, from site of George Washington’s birthplace, near the +John Washington house site; <i>E</i>, from Winslow site, Marshfield, +Massachusetts, which was occupied from about 1635 to about 1699.</p></div> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>For kitchen utensils, tiles, and other objects subject to heat or +breakage, the same Fremington clay received an admixture of fine pebbles, +or gravel, secured at a special place in the bed of the River Torridge in +Bideford. The use of gravel was described by 18th-century writers as well +as by later historians. As found in America, the gravel-tempered ware +apparently is unique among the products of either English or colonial +American potters.</p> + +<p>A specialty of the North Devon potteries was the manufacture of ovens made +of the same gravel-tempered clay as the kitchen utensils. The appearance +of these ovens and the method of making them remained virtually the same +from the 17th through the 19th centuries. At Jamestown, a wholly +reconstructed oven reveals typical North Devon traits throughout, while a +fragment of an oven from the John Howland House site near Plymouth +displays, under a microscope, the same qualities of paste and temper as in +a fragment of an oven obtained in Bideford by the Smithsonian Institution. +Sherds of gravel-tempered utensils from several American sites also match +the oven fragments. Paste characteristics, exclusive of the temper, are +the same in the sgraffito ware, the gravel-tempered ware, and the ovens. +Furthermore,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> the gravel-tempered ware occasionally is found with a plain +coating of slip, which, under the glaze, has the same yellow color as the +sgraffito ware, while an undecorated variant of the sgraffito ware also +occurs with a similar plain slip.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig35.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 35.</span>—Baker’s portable oven in a woodcut from Ulrich +von Richenthal’s <i>Concilium zu Constancz</i>, printed at Augsburg, Germany, +in 1483. Lessing J. Rosenwald Collection, Library of Congress.</p></div> +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig36.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 36.</span>—Detail from De Bry’s engraving of Le Moyne’s +painting of Fort Caroline, depicting an oven on a raised platform under a +crude shed. Fort Caroline was a French Hugenot settlement established in +Florida in 1564. Rare Book Room, Library of Congress.</p></div> +<p> </p> + +<p>All these wares, including the ovens, are interrelated—the specimens +found in America having been shipped in a busy North Devon-North American +trade. The North Devon towns, moreover, were an important pottery-making +center for export markets in the West of England, Ireland, and North +America. Thousands of parcels of earthenware were shipped to the American +colonies from Bideford and Barnstaple during the 17th century. Any doubts +that ovens were among these overseas shipments are dispelled by the +knowledge that they continually were being shipped in the English +coastwise trade, and also by intrinsic and comparative evidence that oven +sherds found on American sites are of North Devon origin.</p> + +<p>The only known counterparts of the North Devon ovens are Continental. A +15th-century example appears in an Augsburg woodcut, and a 16th-century +specimen is depicted in De Bry’s engraving after Le Moyne’s painting of +Fort Caroline, the Huguenot settlement in Florida. There are many +suggestions of Huguenot and Low Country influences on North Devon pottery. +Bideford and Barnstaple both were Puritan strongholds in the 17th century, +and both became French Huguenot centers, especially after the revocation +of the Edict of Nantes in 1685.</p> + +<p>The style of sgraffito decoration changed radically after about 1700. +After that date, decoration was confined mainly to harvest jugs and +presentation pieces. Gravel-tempered utensils and ovens continued to be +made, but the North Devon trade with America ceased by 1760.</p> + +<p>Archeological evidence indicates that gravel-tempered ware was used in +America between about 1675 and about 1760. An isolated example of +sgraffito pottery, distinguished by crude design and glaze, dates from +before 1640. The typical sgraffito ware is illustrated by specimens found +in the fill under and around the brick drain in the May-Hartwell site at +Jamestown. This ware dates between 1677 and 1695. No other sites provide a +more certain dating than this. Sgraffito ware found at Bridge’s Creek, +Virginia (John<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> Washington house site), may date as early as 1664, but may +be as late as 1677 or a few years thereafter.</p> + +<p>The May-Hartwell oven was also found in the drain fill, so presumably it +also was used before 1695. The oven fragment from the site of the John +Howland house dates between about 1630 and about 1675, the lifetime of the +house. The oven in the Bowne House is no earlier than 1664, the date of +construction.</p> + +<p>Typical sgraffito ware, therefore, dates from 1664 to 1695, plus or minus +a few years. Gravel-tempered ware predominates in the same period, but +extends well into the 18th century, probably to about 1760. Ovens date +from between 1664 and 1695. The concentrations of wares within the limits +of the May-Hartwell drain site correspond roughly with records of heavy +shipments of the wares between 1681 and 1690. The earliest shipment +recorded was to New England in 1635.</p> + +<p>The sgraffito ware probably served as much for decoration as for practical +use. Each piece was decorated differently, with elaborate designs, and in +such a manner that it could provide a colorful effect on a court cupboard +or a dresser, matching in style the carved woodwork or crewel embroidery +of late 17th-century furnishings. Although sgraffito ware represented a +degree of richness and dramatic color, it did not match the elegance of +contemporary majolica, decorated after the manner of Chinese porcelain. +Heavy and coarse, the sgraffito ware essentially was a variant of English +folk pottery, reflecting the less sophisticated tastes of rural West of +England. It did not occur in the colonies after 1700, by which time it was +supplanted in public taste by the more refined majolica.</p> + +<p>Gravel-tempered ware apparently was esteemed as a kitchen ware, much as is +the modern “ovenware” or Pyrex in the contemporary home. Since +gravel-tempered ovens were widely used in the West of England, they were +accepted by settlers in America, especially where built-in brick ovens +were lacking.</p> + +<p>Unlike those of Staffordshire or Bristol, the North Devon potteries failed +to develop new techniques or to change with shifts in taste. The delftware +of London and Bristol and the yellow wares of Bristol and Staffordshire +became preferable to the soft and imperfect sgraffito ware. In the same +way, the kitchen ware of Staffordshire and the adequate red-wares of +American potters made obsolete the heavy, ugly, and incomparably crude +gravel-tempered ware, while American bricklayers, having adopted the +custom of building brick ovens into fireplaces, outmoded the portable +ovens from North Devon after 1700. Any chance of a renaissance of North +Devon’s potteries was killed by the blockading of its ports in the +mid-18th century. From then on the potteries continued traditionally, +their markets gradually shrinking at home in the face of modern production +elsewhere. Today, only Brannan’s Litchdon Street Pottery in Barnstaple has +survived.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<div class="note"> +<p class="center"><span class="large"><span class="smcap">Other References Consulted</span></span></p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Bemrose, Geoffrey</span>, <i>Nineteenth-Century English Pottery and Porcelain</i>, New +York, n.d. (about 1952).</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Blacker, J. F.</span>, <i>Nineteenth-Century English Ceramic Art</i>, London, 1911.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Chaffers, William</span>, <i>Marks and Monograms on Pottery and Porcelain</i>, 14th +issue, London, 1932.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Gribble, Joseph B.</span>, <i>Memorials of Barnstaple</i>, Barnstaple, 1830.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Haggar, Reginald</span>, <i>English Country Pottery</i>, London, 1950.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Honey, W. B.</span>, <i>European Ceramic Art from the end of the Middle Ages to +about 1815</i>, London, n.d. (about 1952).</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Mankowitz, Wolf, and Haggar, Reginald G.</span>, <i>The Concise Encyclopedia of +English Pottery and Porcelain</i>, London, 1957.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Meteyard, Eliza</span>, <i>The Life of Josiah Wedgwood</i>, London, 1865.</p></div> + +<p> </p><p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p> +<p class="center">U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1960</p> +<p class="center">For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D.C. Price 35 cents.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><strong>Footnotes:</strong></p> + +<p><a name="fn_1_1" id="fn_1_1"></a><a href="#fna_1_1">[1]</a> Worth Bailey, “Concerning Jamestown Pottery—Its Past and +Present,” <i>Ceramic Age</i>, October 1939, pp. 101-104.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_2_2" id="fn_2_2"></a><a href="#fna_2_2">[2]</a> H. C. Forman, <i>Jamestown and Saint Mary’s</i>, Baltimore, 1938, +p. 133.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_3_3" id="fn_3_3"></a><a href="#fna_3_3">[3]</a> Worth Bailey, “A Jamestown Baking Oven of the Seventeenth +Century,” <i>William and Mary College Quarterly Historical Magazine</i>, 1937, ser. 2, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 496-500.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_4_4" id="fn_4_4"></a><a href="#fna_4_4">[4]</a> John Watkins, <i>An Essay Towards a History of Bideford in the +County of Devon</i>, Exeter, 1792, p. 56.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_5_5" id="fn_5_5"></a><a href="#fna_5_5">[5]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 65, 67-68.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_6_6" id="fn_6_6"></a><a href="#fna_6_6">[6]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 70.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_7_7" id="fn_7_7"></a><a href="#fna_7_7">[7]</a> Port Book, Barnstaple, 1620, Public Record Office, London +(hereinafter referred to as <i>Port Book</i>), E 190/947.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_8_8" id="fn_8_8"></a><a href="#fna_8_8">[8]</a> <i>Virginia Magazine of History and Biography</i>, 1911, vol. 19, +p. 31.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_9_9" id="fn_9_9"></a><a href="#fna_9_9">[9]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, quoting Sainsbury Abstracts, p. 184.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_10_10" id="fn_10_10"></a><a href="#fna_10_10">[10]</a> <i>Virginia Magazine of History and Biography</i>, 1901, vol. 9, +pp. 257-258.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_11_11" id="fn_11_11"></a><a href="#fna_11_11">[11]</a> Bernard Bailyn, <i>The New England Merchants in the +Seventeenth Century</i>, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1955, p. 87.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_12_12" id="fn_12_12"></a><a href="#fna_12_12">[12]</a> Isle of Wight County (Virginia) records, quoted in <i>William +and Mary College Quarterly Historical Magazine</i>, 1899, ser. 1, vol. 7, p. 228.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_13_13" id="fn_13_13"></a><a href="#fna_13_13">[13]</a> P. A. Bruce, <i>Economic History of Virginia in the +Seventeenth Century</i>, New York, 1895, vol. 2, p. 334.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_14_14" id="fn_14_14"></a><a href="#fna_14_14">[14]</a> Watkins, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 4), p. 65.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_15_15" id="fn_15_15"></a><a href="#fna_15_15">[15]</a> <i>Port Book</i>, E 190/959/6.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_16_16" id="fn_16_16"></a><a href="#fna_16_16">[16]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, E 190/954/6.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_17_17" id="fn_17_17"></a><a href="#fna_17_17">[17]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, E 190/959/6.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_18_18" id="fn_18_18"></a><a href="#fna_18_18">[18]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, E 190/960/10.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_19_19" id="fn_19_19"></a><a href="#fna_19_19">[19]</a> Richard Corkhill was one of the six Bideford factors +residing in Northampton County. Bruce, <i>op. cit.</i> (see footnote 13).</p> + +<p><a name="fn_20_20" id="fn_20_20"></a><a href="#fna_20_20">[20]</a> <i>Port Book</i>, E 190/959/6.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_21_21" id="fn_21_21"></a><a href="#fna_21_21">[21]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, E 190/960/8.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_22_22" id="fn_22_22"></a><a href="#fna_22_22">[22]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, E 190/960/3.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_23_23" id="fn_23_23"></a><a href="#fna_23_23">[23]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, E 190/966/10.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_24_24" id="fn_24_24"></a><a href="#fna_24_24">[24]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, E 190/968/10.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_25_25" id="fn_25_25"></a><a href="#fna_25_25">[25]</a> Colonial office shipping records relating to Massachusetts +ports, typescript in Essex Institute, Salem, Massachusetts, 1931, vol. 1, p. 78.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_26_26" id="fn_26_26"></a><a href="#fna_26_26">[26]</a> <i>Port Book</i>, E 190/939/14; 942/13; 944/8; 951.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_27_27" id="fn_27_27"></a><a href="#fna_27_27">[27]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, E 190/959/5.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_28_28" id="fn_28_28"></a><a href="#fna_28_28">[28]</a> “Some Account of Biddeford, in Answer to the Queries +Relative to a Natural History of England,” <i>The Gentlemen’s Magazine</i>, 1755, vol. 25, p. 445.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_29_29" id="fn_29_29"></a><a href="#fna_29_29">[29]</a> Watkins, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 4), pp. 74-75.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_30_30" id="fn_30_30"></a><a href="#fna_30_30">[30]</a> T. M. Hall, “On Barum Tobacco-Pipes and North Devon Clays,” +<i>Report and Transactions of the Devonshire Association for the Advancement +of Science, Literature, and Art</i>, Devon, 1890, vol. 22, pp. 317-323.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_31_31" id="fn_31_31"></a><a href="#fna_31_31">[31]</a> T. Charbonnier, “Notes on North Devon Pottery of the +Seventeenth, Eighteenth, and Nineteenth Centuries,” <i>Report and +Transactions of the Devonshire Association for the Advancement of Science, +Literature, and Art</i>, Devon, 1906, vol. 38, p. 255.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_32_32" id="fn_32_32"></a><a href="#fna_32_32">[32]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 256.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_33_33" id="fn_33_33"></a><a href="#fna_33_33">[33]</a> Bernard Rackham, <i>Catalogue of the Glaisher Collection of +Pottery and Porcelain in the Fitzwilliam Museum</i>, Cambridge, 1950, ed. 2, vol. 1, pp. 10-11.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_34_34" id="fn_34_34"></a><a href="#fna_34_34">[34]</a> Llewellyn Jewitt, <i>The Ceramic Art of Great Britain</i>, +London, 1883, ed. 2, pp. 206-207.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_35_35" id="fn_35_35"></a><a href="#fna_35_35">[35]</a> George Maw, “On a Supposed Deposit of Boulder-Clay in North +Devon,” <i>Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London</i>, 1864, vol. 20, pp. 445-451.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_36_36" id="fn_36_36"></a><a href="#fna_36_36">[36]</a> Charbonnier, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 31), pp. 255, 259.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_37_37" id="fn_37_37"></a><a href="#fna_37_37">[37]</a> “Supplement to the Account of Biddeford,” <i>The Gentlemen’s +Magazine</i>, 1755, vol. 25, p. 564.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_38_38" id="fn_38_38"></a><a href="#fna_38_38">[38]</a> Watkins, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 4), p. 74. However, the +“byelaws” of Barnstaple for 1689 indicate that tempering materials were +also obtained locally: “Every one that fetcheth sand from the sand ridge, +shall pay for each horse yearly 1<sup>d</sup>, and for every boat of Crock Sand +1<sup>d</sup>., according to the antient custome.” (Joseph B. Gribble, <i>Memorials +of Barnstaple</i>, Barnstaple, 1830, p. 360.)</p> + +<p><a name="fn_39_39" id="fn_39_39"></a><a href="#fna_39_39">[39]</a> Charbonnier, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 31), p. 258.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_40_40" id="fn_40_40"></a><a href="#fna_40_40">[40]</a> B. W. Oliver, “The Three Tuns, Barnstaple,” <i>Report and +Transactions of the Devonshire Association for the Advancement of Science, +Literature, and Art</i>, Torquay, Devon, 1948, vol. 80, pp. 151-152.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_41_41" id="fn_41_41"></a><a href="#fna_41_41">[41]</a> Mildred E. Jenkinson in personal correspondence from Bideford, April 20, 1955.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_42_42" id="fn_42_42"></a><a href="#fna_42_42">[42]</a> Hall, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 30), p. 319.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_43_43" id="fn_43_43"></a><a href="#fna_43_43">[43]</a> H. W. Strong, “The Potteries of North Devon,” <i>Report and +Transactions of the Devonshire Association for the Advancement of Science, Literature, and Art</i>, Devon, 1891, vol. 23, p. 393.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_44_44" id="fn_44_44"></a><a href="#fna_44_44">[44]</a> Charbonnier, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 31), p. 257.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_45_45" id="fn_45_45"></a><a href="#fna_45_45">[45]</a> Jewitt, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 34), vol. 1, pp. 205-206.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_46_46" id="fn_46_46"></a><a href="#fna_46_46">[46]</a> <i>Great Exhibition 1851. Official, Descriptive, and +Illustrated Catalogue</i>, London, 1851, p. 776, no. 131.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_47_47" id="fn_47_47"></a><a href="#fna_47_47">[47]</a> W. J. Pountney, <i>Old Bristol Potteries</i>, Bristol, n.d., pp. 153-154.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_48_48" id="fn_48_48"></a><a href="#fna_48_48">[48]</a> Cloume = cloam: “In O. E. Mud, clay. Hence, in mod. dial. +use: Earthenware, clay ... b. <i>attr.</i> or <i>adj.</i>” (J. A. H. Murray, ed., <i>A +New English Dictionary on Historic Principles</i>, Oxford, 1893, vol. 2, p. 509.)</p> + +<p><a name="fn_49_49" id="fn_49_49"></a><a href="#fna_49_49">[49]</a> J. J. Cartwright, ed., <i>The Travels through England of Dr. +Richard Pococke</i>, Camden Society Publications, 1888, new ser., no. 42, vol. 1, p. 135.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_50_50" id="fn_50_50"></a><a href="#fna_50_50">[50]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. 1, p. 131.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_51_51" id="fn_51_51"></a><a href="#fna_51_51">[51]</a> Jenkinson correspondence (see footnote 41).</p> + +<p><a name="fn_52_52" id="fn_52_52"></a><a href="#fna_52_52">[52]</a> Jewitt, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 34), pp. 206-207.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_53_53" id="fn_53_53"></a><a href="#fna_53_53">[53]</a> Charbonnier, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 31), p. 258.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_54_54" id="fn_54_54"></a><a href="#fna_54_54">[54]</a> Jenkinson correspondence (footnote 41).</p> + +<p><a name="fn_55_55" id="fn_55_55"></a><a href="#fna_55_55">[55]</a> <i>Made in Devon. An Exhibition of Beautiful Objects Past and +Present</i>, Dartington Hall, 1950, p. 9.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_56_56" id="fn_56_56"></a><a href="#fna_56_56">[56]</a> Charbonnier, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 31), p. 258.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_57_57" id="fn_57_57"></a><a href="#fna_57_57">[57]</a> John L. Cotter, <i>Archeological Excavations at Jamestown, +Virginia</i>. Archeological Research Series, no. 4, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, 1958.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_58_58" id="fn_58_58"></a><a href="#fna_58_58">[58]</a> J. C. Harrington, <i>Archeological Report, May-Hartwell Site, +Jamestown: Excavations at the May-Hartwell site in 1935, 1938, and 1939 +and Ditch Explorations East of the May-Hartwell Site in 1935 and 1938</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_59_59" id="fn_59_59"></a><a href="#fna_59_59">[59]</a> Cotter, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 57), p. 158.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_60_60" id="fn_60_60"></a><a href="#fna_60_60">[60]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 112-119.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_61_61" id="fn_61_61"></a><a href="#fna_61_61">[61]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 102-112.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_62_62" id="fn_62_62"></a><a href="#fna_62_62">[62]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 151-152.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_63_63" id="fn_63_63"></a><a href="#fna_63_63">[63]</a> Joseph B. Brittingham and Alvin W. Brittingham, Sr., <i>The +First Trading Post at Kicotan (Kecoughtan), Hampton, Virginia</i>, Hampton, 1947.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_64_64" id="fn_64_64"></a><a href="#fna_64_64">[64]</a> Louis R. Caywood, <i>Excavations at Green Spring Plantation</i>, +Yorktown, 1955.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_65_65" id="fn_65_65"></a><a href="#fna_65_65">[65]</a> J. Paul Hudson, “George Washington Birthplace National +Monument, Virginia,” National Park Service Historical Handbook Series, no. 26, Washington, 1956.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_66_66" id="fn_66_66"></a><a href="#fna_66_66">[66]</a> Virginia Cullen, <i>History of Lewes, Delaware</i>, Lewes, 1956; +C. A. Bonine, “Archeological Investigation of the Dutch ‘Swanendael’ +Settlement under de Vries, 1631-1632,” <i>The Archeolog. News Letter of the +Sussex Archeological Association</i>, Lewes, December 1956, vol. 8, no. 3.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_67_67" id="fn_67_67"></a><a href="#fna_67_67">[67]</a> S. T. Strickland, <i>Excavation of Ancient Pilgrim Home +Discloses Nature of Pottery and Other Details of Everyday Life</i>, typescript, n.d.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_68_68" id="fn_68_68"></a><a href="#fna_68_68">[68]</a> James Deetz, <i>Excavations at the Joseph Howland Site (C5), +Rocky Nook, Kingston, Massachusetts, 1959: A Preliminary Report</i>. +Supplement, <i>The Howland Quarterly, 1960</i>, vol. 24, nos. 2, 3. The Pilgrim +John Howland Society, Inc.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_69_69" id="fn_69_69"></a><a href="#fna_69_69">[69]</a> Rackham, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 33), vol. 2, p. 11, fig. 8 <span class="smcaplc">D</span>, +no. 58.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_70_70" id="fn_70_70"></a><a href="#fna_70_70">[70]</a> John Eliot Hodgkin and Edith Hodgkin, <i>Examples of Early +English Pottery, Named, Dated, and Inscribed</i>. London, 1891, p. 59.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_71_71" id="fn_71_71"></a><a href="#fna_71_71">[71]</a> J. Le Moyne, <i>Brevis Narratio corum quae in Florida ...</i>, +Frankfort, 1591, pl. 10.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_72_72" id="fn_72_72"></a><a href="#fna_72_72">[72]</a> Bailey, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 3), pp. 497-498.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_73_73" id="fn_73_73"></a><a href="#fna_73_73">[73]</a> Strickland, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 67).</p> + +<p><a name="fn_74_74" id="fn_74_74"></a><a href="#fna_74_74">[74]</a> The probate records of Essex County, Massachusetts, Salem, +Massachusetts, 1916, vol. 1, p. 378; vol. 2, p. 346; vol. 3, p. 328.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_75_75" id="fn_75_75"></a><a href="#fna_75_75">[75]</a> Bailey, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 3), p. 498.</p> + +<p><a name="fn_76_76" id="fn_76_76"></a><a href="#fna_76_76">[76]</a> <i>Bowne House; A Shrine to Religious Freedom</i>, Flushing, New +York. Pamphlet of The Bowne House Historical Society, Flushing, N.Y., n.d.</p> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of North Devon Pottery and Its Export to +America in the 17th Century, by C. Malcolm Watkins + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NORTH DEVON POTTERY *** + +***** This file should be named 36092-h.htm or 36092-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/6/0/9/36092/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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