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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of North Devon Pottery and its Export to America in the 17th Century, by C. Malcolm Watkins.
+    </title>
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of North Devon Pottery and Its Export to
+America in the 17th Century, by C. Malcolm Watkins
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: North Devon Pottery and Its Export to America in the 17th Century
+
+Author: C. Malcolm Watkins
+
+Release Date: May 13, 2011 [EBook #36092]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NORTH DEVON POTTERY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="title">
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Contributions from</span></p>
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">The Museum of History and Technology:</span></p>
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Paper 13</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">North Devon Pottery and Its Export</span></p>
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">To America in the 17th Century</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="right"><i>C. Malcolm Watkins</i></p></div>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig1.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="note"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 1.</span>&mdash;North Devon sgraffito cup, deep dish, and jug
+restored from fragments excavated from fill under brick drain at
+May-Hartwell site, Jamestown, Virginia. The drain was laid between 1689
+and 1695. Colonial National Historical Park.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="note"><p class="right"><span class="large">By C. Malcolm Watkins</span></p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="giant">NORTH DEVON POTTERY<br />AND ITS EXPORT TO AMERICA<br />IN THE 17th CENTURY</span></p>
+
+<div class="note"><p><i>Recent excavations of ceramics at historic sites such as Jamestown
+and Plymouth indicate that the seaboard colonists of the 17th century
+enjoyed a higher degree of comfort and more esthetic furnishings than
+heretofore believed. In addition, these findings have given us much
+new information about the interplay of trade and culture between the
+colonists and their mother country.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>This article represents the first work in the author&#8217;s long-range
+study of ceramics used by the English colonists in America.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Author</span>: <i>C. Malcolm Watkins is curator of cultural history, United
+States National Museum, Smithsonian Institution.</i></p></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">Pottery</span> sherds found archeologically in colonial sites serve a multiple
+purpose. They help to date the sites; they reflect cultural and economic
+levels in the areas of their use; and they throw light on manufacture,
+trade, and distribution.</p>
+
+<p>Satisfying instances of these uses were revealed with the discovery in
+1935 of two distinct but unidentified pottery types in the excavations
+conducted by the National Park Service at Jamestown, Virginia, and later
+elsewhere along the eastern seaboard. One type was an elaborate and
+striking yellow sgraffito ware, the other a coarse utilitarian kitchen
+ware whose red paste was heavily tempered with a gross water-worn gravel
+or &#8220;grit.&#8221; Included in the latter class were the components of large
+earthen baking ovens. Among the literally hundreds of thousands of sherds
+uncovered at Jamestown between 1935 and 1956, these types occurred with
+relatively high incidence. For a long time no relationship between them
+was noted, yet their histories have proved to be of one fabric, reflecting
+the activities of a 17th-century English potterymaking center of
+unsuspected magnitude.</p>
+
+<p>The sgraffito pottery is a red earthenware, coated with a white slip
+through which designs have been incised. An amber lead glaze imparts a
+golden yellow to the slip-covered portions and a brownish amber to the
+exposed red paste. The gravel-tempered ware is made of a similar
+red-burning clay and is remarkable for its lack of refinement, for the
+pebbly texture caused by protruding bits of gravel, and for the crude and
+careless manner in which the heavy amber glaze was applied to interior
+surfaces. Once seen, it is instantly recognizable and entirely distinct
+from other known types of English or continental pottery. A complete oven
+(fig. 10), now restored at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> Jamestown, is of similar paste and quality of
+temper. It has a roughly oval beehive shape with a trapezoidal framed
+opening in which a pottery door fits snugly.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig2.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 2.</span>&mdash;Sketch of sherd of sgraffito-ware dish, dating
+about 1670, that was found during excavations of C. H. Brannam&#8217;s pottery
+in Barnstaple. (<i>Sketch by Mrs. Constance Christian, from photo.</i>)</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Following the initial discoveries at Jamestown there was considerable
+speculation about these two types. Worth Bailey, then museum technician at
+Jamestown, was the first to recognize the source of the sgraffito ware as
+&#8220;Devonshire.&#8221;<a name="fna_1_1" id="fna_1_1"></a><a href="#fn_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Henry Chandlee Forman, asserting that such ware was
+&#8220;undoubtedly made in England,&#8221; felt that it &#8220;derives its inspiration from
+Majolica ware ... especially that of the early Renaissance period from
+Faenza.&#8221;<a name="fna_2_2" id="fna_2_2"></a><a href="#fn_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>Bailey also noted that the oven and the gravel-tempered utensils were made
+of identical clay and temper. However, in an attempt to prove that
+earthenware was produced locally, he assumed, perhaps because of their
+crudeness, that the utensils were made at Jamestown. This led him to
+conjecture that the oven, having similar ceramic qualities, was also a
+local product. He felt in support of this that it was doubtful &#8220;so fragile
+an object could have survived a perilous sea voyage.&#8221;<a name="fna_3_3" id="fna_3_3"></a><a href="#fn_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>Since these opinions were expressed, much further archeological work in
+colonial sites has revealed widespread distribution of the two types.
+Bailey himself noted that a pottery oven is intact and in place in the
+John Bowne House in Flushing, Long Island. A fragment of another pottery
+oven recently has been identified among the artifacts excavated by Sidney
+Strickland from the site of the John Howland House, near Plymouth,
+Massachusetts; and gravel-tempered utensil sherds have occurred in many
+sites. The sgraffito ware has been unearthed in Virginia, Maryland, and
+Massachusetts.</p>
+
+<p>Such a wide distribution of either type implies a productive European
+source for each, rather than a local American kiln in a struggling
+colonial settlement like Jamestown. Bailey&#8217;s attribution of the sgraffito
+ware to Devonshire was confirmed in 1950 when J. C. Harrington,
+archeologist of the National Park Service, came upon certain evidence at
+Barnstaple in North Devon, England. This evidence was found in the form of
+sherds exhibited in a display window of C. H. Brannam&#8217;s Barnstaple Pottery
+that were uncovered during excavation work on the premises. These are
+unmistakably related in technique and design to the American examples. A
+label under a fragment of a large deep dish (fig. 2) in the display is
+inscribed: &#8220;Piece of dish found in site of pottery. In sgraffiato. About
+1670.&#8221; This clue opened the way to the investigation pursued here, the
+results of which relate the sgraffito ware, the gravel-tempered ware, and
+the ovens to the North Devon towns and to a busy commerce in earthenware
+between Barnstaple, Bideford, and the New World.</p>
+
+<p>This study, conducted at first hand only on the American side of the
+Atlantic, is admittedly incomplete. Later, it is planned to consider sherd
+collections in England, comparative types of sgraffito wares, and possible
+influences and sources of techniques and designs. For the present, it is
+felt the immediate evidence is sufficient to warrant the conclusions drawn
+here.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 3.</span>&mdash;Map of the area around Bideford and Barnstaple.
+Reproduced from J. B. Gribble, <i>Memorials of Barnstaple</i>, 1830.</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>The author is under special obligation to J. C. Harrington, chief of
+interpretation, Region I, National Park Service, who discovered the North
+Devon wares and whose warm encouragement led to this paper. Also, the
+author is greatly indebted to the following for their help and
+cooperation: E. Stanley Abbott, superintendent, J. Paul Hudson, curator,
+and Charles Hatch, chief of interpretation, Colonial National Historical
+Park; Worth Bailey, Historic American Buildings Survey; Robert A. Elder,
+Jr., assistant curator, division of ethnology, U.S. National Museum; Miss
+Margaret Franklin of London; Henry Hornblower II and Charles Strickland of
+Plimoth Plantation, Inc.; Ivor Noel Hume, chief archeologist, Colonial
+Williamsburg, Inc.; Miss Mildred E. Jenkinson, librarian and curator,
+Borough of Bideford Library and Museum; Frederick H. Norton, professor of
+ceramics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; and Mrs. Edwin M. Snell
+of Washington.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/deco.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h2>Historical Background</h2>
+
+<p>Barnstaple and its neighbor Bideford are today quiet market centers and
+summer resorts. In the 17th and early 18th centuries, by contrast, they
+were deeply involved in trade with America and with the whole West of
+England interest in colonial settlement. Bideford was the home of Sir
+Richard Grenville, who, with Sir Walter Raleigh, was one of the first
+explorers of Virginia. As the leading citizen of Bideford, Grenville
+obtained from Queen Elizabeth a modern charter of incorporation for the
+town. Consequently, according to the town&#8217;s 18th-century chronicler,
+&#8220;Bideford rose so rapidly as to become a port of importance at the latter
+end of Queen Elizabeth&#8217;s reign ... when the trade began to open between
+England and America in the reign of King James the First, Bideford early
+took a part in it.&#8221;<a name="fna_4_4" id="fna_4_4"></a><a href="#fn_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Its orientation for a lengthy period was towards
+America, and the welfare of its inhabitants was therefore largely
+dependent upon commerce with the colonies.</p>
+
+<p>In common with other West of England ports, Barnstaple and Bideford
+engaged heavily in the Newfoundland fishing trade. However, &#8220;the principal
+part of foreign commerce that Bideford was ever engaged in, was to
+Maryland and Virginia for tobacco.... Its connections with New England
+were also very considerable.&#8221;<a name="fna_5_5" id="fna_5_5"></a><a href="#fn_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>During the first half of the 18th century Bideford&#8217;s imports of tobacco
+were second only to London&#8217;s, but the wars with France caused a decline
+about the year 1760.<a name="fna_6_6" id="fna_6_6"></a><a href="#fn_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> Barnstaple, situated farther up the River Taw,
+followed the pattern of Bideford in the rise and decline as well as the
+nature of its trade. Although rivals, both towns functioned in effect as a
+single port; Barnstaple and Bideford ships sailed from each other&#8217;s
+wharves and occasionally the two ports were listed together in the Port
+Books. As early as 1620 seven ships, some of Bideford and some of
+Barnstaple registry, sailed from Barnstaple for America,<a name="fna_7_7" id="fna_7_7"></a><a href="#fn_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> but the height
+of trade between North Devon and the colonies occurred after the
+Restoration and lasted until the early part of the 18th century. In 1666,
+for example, the <i>Samuel</i> of Bideford and the <i>Philip</i> of Barnstaple
+sailed for Virginia, despite the dangers of Dutch warfare.<a name="fna_8_8" id="fna_8_8"></a><a href="#fn_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> The
+following year, on August 13, 1667, it was reported that 20 ships of the
+Virginia fleet, &#8220;bound to Bideford, Barnstaple, and Bristol have passed
+into the Severn in order to escape Dutch men-of-war.&#8221;<a name="fna_9_9" id="fna_9_9"></a><a href="#fn_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> Later, in 1705,
+we find that the <i>Susanna</i> of Barnstaple, as well as the <i>Victory</i>,
+<i>Zunt</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> <i>Devonshire</i>, <i>Laurell</i>, <i>Blackstone</i>, and <i>Mary and Hannah</i>, all
+of Bideford, were anchored in Hampton Roads off Kecoughtan. They comprised
+one-ninth of a fleet of 63 ships from various English ports.<a name="fna_10_10" id="fna_10_10"></a><a href="#fn_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig4.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 4.</span>&mdash;Old pottery in Torrington Lane (formerly
+Potter&#8217;s Lane), East-the-Water section of Bideford. The photo was taken in
+1920, just before the buildings were razed. (<i>Courtesy of Miss M. E. Jenkinson.</i>)</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Aside from such indications of a well-established mercantile trade, the
+entrenchment of North Devon interests in the colonies is repeatedly shown
+in other ways. Before 1645, Thomas Fowle, a Boston merchant, was doing
+business with his brother-in-law, Vincent Potter, who lived in
+Barnstaple.<a name="fna_11_11" id="fna_11_11"></a><a href="#fn_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> In 1669, John Selden, a Barnstaple merchant, died after
+consigning a shipment of goods to William Burke, a merchant of Chuckatuck,
+Virginia. John&#8217;s widow and administratrix, Sisely Selden, brought suit to
+recover these goods, which were &#8220;left to the sd. W<sup>m</sup> Burke, &amp;c., for the
+use of my late husband.&#8221;<a name="fna_12_12" id="fna_12_12"></a><a href="#fn_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> Burke was evidently an agent, or factor, who
+acted in Virginia on Selden&#8217;s behalf. In Northampton County, alone, there
+resided six Bideford factors, remarkable when one considers the isolated
+location of this Virginia Eastern Shore county and the sparseness of its
+population in the 17th century.<a name="fna_13_13" id="fna_13_13"></a><a href="#fn_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> John Watkins, the Bideford historian,
+adds further evidence of mercantile involvement with the colonies, stating
+of Bideford that &#8220;some of its chief merchants had very extensive
+possessions in Virginia and Maryland.&#8221;<a name="fna_14_14" id="fna_14_14"></a><a href="#fn_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Both in New England and the
+southern colonies, local merchants acted as resident agents for merchants
+based in the mother country. Often tied to the latter by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> bonds of family
+relationship, the factors arranged the exchange of American raw materials
+for the manufactured goods in which their English counterparts
+specialized.</p>
+
+<p>That there was a large and important commerce in North Devon earthenware
+to account for many of the relationships between Bideford, Barnstaple, and
+the colonies seems to have remained unnoticed. Indeed, the fact that the
+two towns comprised an important center of earthenware manufacture and
+export in the 17th century has hitherto received little attention from
+ceramic historians, and then merely as sources of picturesque folk
+pottery. Yet in the excavations of colonial sites and in the British
+Public Records Office are indications that the North Devon potters, for a
+time at least, rivaled those of Staffordshire.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest record of North Devon pottery reaching America occurs in the
+Port Book entry for Barnstaple in 1635, when the <i>Truelove</i>, Vivian
+Limbry, master, sailed on March 4 for New England with &#8220;40 doz.
+earthenware,&#8221; consigned to John Boole, merchant.<a name="fna_15_15" id="fna_15_15"></a><a href="#fn_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> The following year
+the same ship sailed for New England with a similar amount. After the
+Stuart restoration larger shipments of earthenware are recorded, as
+illustrated by sample listings (below) chosen from Port Books in the
+British Public Records Office.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Typical Shipments of Earthenware from North Devon</span></p>
+<p class="center">(Sample entries from Port Books, verbatim)</p>
+
+<p class="center">BARNSTAPLE 1665<a name="fna_16_16" id="fna_16_16"></a><a href="#fn_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="topbor" align="center">Date</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Ship</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Master</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">For</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">In Cargo</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Subsidy</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="topbor" align="center">&nbsp;</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">&nbsp;</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">&nbsp;</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">&nbsp;</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">&nbsp;</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">s d</td></tr>
+<tr><td>26 Aug<br />1665</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Exchange of<br />Biddeford</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">W<sup>m</sup> Titherly</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">New England</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>150 doz. of<br />Earthenware</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top" align="center">7-6</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>4 Sept<br />1665</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Philipp of<br />Biddeford</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Edmond<br />Prickard</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Virginia</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>30 doz. of<br />Earthenware</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top" align="center">1-6</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="botbor">28 Nov<br />1665</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor">Providence of<br />Barnstaple</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor">Nicholas<br />Taylor</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor" valign="top">Virginia</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor">20 doz. of<br />Earthenware</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor" valign="top" align="center">1-0</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">BARNSTAPLE AND BIDEFORD, 1680<a name="fna_17_17" id="fna_17_17"></a><a href="#fn_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="topbor" align="center">Date</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Ship</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Master</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Shipment</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="topbor" valign="top">Aug 6<sup>th</sup><br />1680</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor">Forester of<br />Barnstaple,<br />for Maryland</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor" valign="top">Christopher Browning</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor">Twenty dozen of<br />Earthenware<br />Subsidy 1/</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="botbor" valign="top">Sept 6</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor" valign="top">Loyalty of<br />Barnstaple</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor" valign="top">Philip Greenslade</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor">30 dozen of Earthenware<br />Andrew Hopkins, merchant<br />Subsidy 1/6</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center">BARNSTAPLE, 1681<a name="fna_18_18" id="fna_18_18"></a><a href="#fn_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="topbor" align="center">Date</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Ship</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Master</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">To</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Goods &amp; Merchants</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="topbor" valign="top">May 30<br />1681</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor" valign="top">Seafare of<br />Bideford</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor" valign="top">Bartholomew<br />Shapton</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor" valign="top">New England</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor">Forty-two hundred [weight]<br />parcells of Earthenware<br />Subsidy 7/</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">28 June</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Hopewell of<br />Bideford</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Peter Prust</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Virginia</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>30 cwt. parcells of<br />Earthenware<br />Peter Luxeron Merchant<br />Subsidy 5/</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="botbor" valign="top">Aug. 12</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor" valign="top">Beginning<br />of Bideford</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor" valign="top">John Limbry</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor" valign="top">Virginia</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor">15 cwt. parcells of<br />Earthenware Subsidy 2/6<br />Richard Corkhill Merchant<a name="fna_19_19" id="fna_19_19"></a><a href="#fn_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">BIDEFORD, 1681<a name="fna_20_20" id="fna_20_20"></a><a href="#fn_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="topbor" align="center">Date</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Ship</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Master</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">To</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Goods</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="topbor" valign="top">21 June</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor" valign="top">Beginning<br />of Bideford</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor" valign="top">Thomas<br />Phillips</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor" valign="top">Virginia</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor">Thirty hundred<br />pclls of Earthenware<br />Joseph Conor merchant<br />Subsidy 5/</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">19 July</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">John &amp; Mary<br />of Bideford</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Thomas<br />Courtis</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Maryland</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>750 parcells of<br />Earthenware<br />John Barnes, Merchant<br />Subsidy 1/3</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">14 Aug</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Exchange of<br />Bideford</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">George<br />Ewings</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Maryland</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>40 dozen earthenware<br />William Titherly Merchant<br />Subsidy 2/</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Aug. 22</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Merchants<br />Delight of<br />Bideford</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">William<br />Britten</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Virginia</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>1500 parcells<br />Earthenware<br />Henry Guiness Merchant<br />Subsidy 2/6</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="botbor" valign="top">Aug. 23</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor" valign="top">Hart of<br />Bideford</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor" valign="top">Henry<br />Penryn</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor" valign="top">Virginia</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor">1500 parcells of<br />Earthenware<br />John Lord Merch<sup>t</sup><br />Subsidy 2/6</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center">1682&mdash;BARNSTAPLE<a name="fna_21_21" id="fna_21_21"></a><a href="#fn_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="topbor" align="center">Date</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Ship</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Master</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">To</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Cargo, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="topbotbor" valign="top">Michaelmas<br />Quarter</td><td class="topbotbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbotbor" valign="top">Robert &amp;<br />William of<br />North<sup>am</sup></td><td class="topbotbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbotbor" valign="top">John Esh</td><td class="topbotbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbotbor" valign="top">Maryland</td><td class="topbotbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbotbor">30 dozen Earthenware<br />Subsidy 1/6<br />William Bishop merchant</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">BIDEFORD 1682&mdash;OUTWARDS<a name="fna_22_22" id="fna_22_22"></a><a href="#fn_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="topbor" align="center">Date</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Ship</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Master</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">To</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Cargo, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="topbor" valign="top">May 15</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor" valign="top">Seafare of<br />Bideford</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor" valign="top">John Titherley</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor" valign="top">New England</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor">42 cwt. parcells of<br />Earthenware<br />Barth. Shapton<br />Merchant<br />Subsidy 7/</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">July 9</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">John &amp; Mary<br />of Bideford</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Thomas Courtis</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Maryland</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>9 cwt parcells of<br />Earthenware<br />John Barnes Merchant<br />Subsidy 1/6</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">July 20</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Merchant&#8217;s<br />Delight of<br />Bideford</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">William Bruston</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Maryland</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>6 cwt parcells of<br />Earthenware<br />Samuel Donnerd<br />merchant</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="botbor" valign="top">Sept. 11</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor" valign="top">Exchange of<br />Bideford</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor" valign="top">Mark Chappell</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor" valign="top">Maryland</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor">30 cwt. parcells of<br />earthenware Subsidy 5/<br />William Titherly<br />Merchant</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">BARNSTAPLE/BIDEFORD OUTWARDS 1690<a name="fna_23_23" id="fna_23_23"></a><a href="#fn_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="topbor" align="center">Date</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Ship</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Master</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">To</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Cargo, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="topbor" valign="top">Aug. 23</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor" valign="top">Yarmouth<br />of Bideford</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor" valign="top">Roger Jones</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor" valign="top">Maryland</td><td class="topbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbor">300 parcells of<br />Earthenware Subsidy 6<sup>d</sup></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Sept. 11</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Expedition<br />of Bideford</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Humphrey<br />Bryant</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Maryland</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>1,200 parcells of<br />Earthenware Subsidy 2/</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Sept. 23</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Integrity<br />of Bideford</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">John Tucker</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Maryland</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>300 parcells of<br />Earthenware Subsidy 6<sup>d</sup></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Sept. 23</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Happy Return<br />of Bideford</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">John Rock</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top">Maryland</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>750 parcells of<br />Earthenware Subsidy 1/3</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="botbor" valign="top">Sept. 23</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor" valign="top">Sea Faire<br />of Bideford</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor" valign="top">Tym. Brutton</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor" valign="top">Maryland</td><td class="botbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="botbor">1800 parcells of<br />Earthenware Subsidy 3/</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center">BARNSTAPLE &amp; BIDEFORD 1694<a name="fna_24_24" id="fna_24_24"></a><a href="#fn_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="topbor" align="center">Date</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Ship</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Master</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">To</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Cargo, etc.</td><td class="topbor"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="topbor" align="center">Subsidy</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="topbotbor" valign="top">Dec. 6</td><td class="topbotbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbotbor" valign="top">Happy Returne</td><td class="topbotbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbotbor" valign="top">John Hartwell</td><td class="topbotbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbotbor" valign="top">Maryland</td><td class="topbotbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbotbor">450 parcels of<br />Earthen ware</td><td class="topbotbor">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="topbotbor" valign="top" align="center">9d</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />Another source shows that the <i>Eagle</i> of Bideford arrived at Boston from
+her home port on October 11, 1688, with a cargo consisting entirely of
+9,000 parcels of earthenware, while on July 28, 1689, the <i>Freindship</i>
+(sic) of Bideford landed 7,200 parcels of earthenware and one hogshead of
+malt. On August 24 of the same year the <i>Delight</i> brought a cargo of
+&#8220;9,000 parcels of earthenware and 2 fardells of dry goods&#8221; from
+Bideford.<a name="fna_25_25" id="fna_25_25"></a><a href="#fn_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<p>It will be noted that there was a close relationship between vessel,
+shipmaster, and factor, suggesting that there may have been an equally
+close connection between all of them and the owners of the potteries. The
+<i>Exchange</i>, for instance, seems to have been regularly employed in the
+transport of earthenware. In 1665, according to the listings, she sailed
+to New England under command of William Titherly. By 1681 Titherly had
+become a Maryland factor to whom the Exchange&#8217;s earthenware was consigned
+then and in 1682. In the same way Bartholomew Shapton in 1681 sailed as
+master on the <i>Sea Faire</i> with earthenware to New England, becoming in the
+following year the factor for earthenware sent on the same ship under
+command of John Titherly.</p>
+
+<p>The proportion of earthenware cargo to the carrying capacity of the usual
+17th-century ocean-going ship, which ranged from about 30 to 50 tons, is
+difficult to estimate. A ton and a half of milk pans nested in stacks
+would be compact and would occupy only a small amount of space. A similar
+weight of ovens might require a much larger space. When earthenware
+shipments are recorded in terms of parcels, we are again left in doubt,
+since the sizes of the parcels are not indicated. We know, however, that
+the <i>Eagle</i>, which was a 50-ton ship, carried 9,000 parcels of
+earthenware as her sole cargo in 1688, in contrast to the much smaller
+amounts shown in the sample listings where the parcel standard is used.
+Yet even a typical shipment of 1,500 parcels, with each parcel containing
+an indeterminate number of pots, must have filled the needs of many
+kitchens when delivered in Virginia in 1681. Certainly a shipment such as
+this suggests a vigorous rate of production and an active trade.</p>
+
+<p>The export of earthenware from North Devon was not solely to America. As
+early as 1601 there were shipped from Barnstaple to &#8220;Dublyn&mdash;100 dozen
+Earthen Pottes of all sorts.&#8221; In later years, selected at random, we find
+the following shipments to Ireland from Barnstaple listed in the Public
+Record Office Port Books: 1617, 290 dozen; 1618, 320 dozen; 1619, 322
+dozen; 1620, 508 dozen; 1632, 260 dozen; 1635, 300 dozen; 1636, 480 dozen;
+1639, 660 dozen. Typical of the destinations were Kinsale, Youghal,
+Limerick, Cork, Galway, Coleraine, and Waterford. As the century advanced,
+this trade increased enormously. In 1694, 17 separate earthenware
+shipments totaling 50,400 parcels were made from Barnstaple and Bideford
+to Dublin, Wexford, and Waterford.<a name="fna_26_26" id="fna_26_26"></a><a href="#fn_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> It is possible that some of these
+cargoes were shipped to America, since it was necessary to list only the
+first port of entry. However, the rapid turnaround of many of the ships
+shows this was not usually the case.</p>
+
+<p>Besides Ireland, Bristol and Exeter were destinations in a busy coastwise
+trade. In 1681, for example, large quantities of earthenware, tobacco
+pipes, and pipe clay were sent to these places.<a name="fna_27_27" id="fna_27_27"></a><a href="#fn_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> Bristol merchants
+probably re-exported some of the earthenware to America.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig5.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 5.</span>&mdash;Map of Barnstaple. Reproduced from J. B.
+Gribble, <i>Memorials of Barnstaple</i>, 1830.</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p>The coastwise trade appears to have diminished very little as time passed.
+In 1755, <i>The Gentlemen&#8217;s<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> Magazine</i> carried an account of Bideford,
+stating:<a name="fna_28_28" id="fna_28_28"></a><a href="#fn_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Great quantities of potters ware are made, and exported to Wales,
+Ireland, and Bristol.... In the parish of Fremington are great
+quantities of reddish potters&#8217; clay, which are brought and
+manufactured at Biddeford, whence the ware is sent to different places
+by sea.</p></div>
+
+<p>John Watkins, in 1792, wrote:<a name="fna_29_29" id="fna_29_29"></a><a href="#fn_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The potters here, for making coarse brown earthenware, are pretty
+considerable, and the demand for the articles of their manufacture in
+various parts of the kingdom, is constantly great ... The profits to
+the manufacturers of this article are very great, which is evidenced
+by several persons having risen within a few years, from a state of
+the greatest obscurity and poverty, to wealth and consequence of no
+small extent.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig6.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig7.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top" align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 6.</span>&mdash;Gravel-tempered oven of the 17th or early 18th century, acquired in Bideford. (<i>USNM 394505.</i>)</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 7.</span>&mdash;Gravel-tempered oven from 17th-century house on
+Bideford Quay. Borough of Bideford Public Library and Museum. (<i>Photo by A. C. Littlejohns.</i>)</td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Not only was coastwise trade in earthenware maintained throughout the 18th
+century but it was continued, in fact, until the final decline of the
+potteries at the turn of the present century.</p>
+
+<p>Although great antiquity attaches to the origins of North Devon pottery
+manufacture&mdash;Barnstaple has had its Crock Street for 450 years<a name="fna_30_30" id="fna_30_30"></a><a href="#fn_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>&mdash;the
+principal evidence of early manufacture falls into the second half of the
+17th century. We have seen that a growing America provided an increasing
+market for North Devon&#8217;s ceramic wares. In 1668 Crocker&#8217;s pottery was
+established at Bideford, and it is in the period following that Bideford&#8217;s
+importance as a pottery center becomes noticeable. Crocker&#8217;s was operated
+until 1896, its dated 17th-century kilns then still intact after producing
+wares that varied little during all of the pottery&#8217;s 228 years of
+existence.<a name="fna_31_31" id="fna_31_31"></a><a href="#fn_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+<p>In Barnstaple the oldest pottery to survive until modern times was
+situated in the North Walk. When it was dismantled in 1900, sherds dating
+from the second half of the 17th century were found in the surroundings,
+as was a potter&#8217;s guild sign, dated 1675, which now hangs in Brannam&#8217;s
+pottery in Litchdon Street, Barnstaple. A pair of fire dogs, dated 1655
+and shaped by molds similar to one from the North Walk site, was excavated
+near the North Walk pottery.</p>
+
+<p>Both Bideford and Barnstaple had numerous potteries in addition to
+Crocker&#8217;s and Brannam&#8217;s. One, in Potter&#8217;s Lane in the East-the-Water
+section of Bideford, was still making &#8220;coarse plain ware&#8221; in 1906;<a name="fna_32_32" id="fna_32_32"></a><a href="#fn_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> its
+buildings were still standing in 1920. We have already observed that the
+Litchdon Street works of C. H. Brannam, Ltd., remains in operation in a
+modern building on the site of its 17th-century forerunner. Outside the
+limits of the two large towns there were &#8220;a number of small pot works in
+remote districts,&#8221; including the parish of Fremington, where Fishley&#8217;s
+pottery, established in the 18th century, flourished until 1912.<a name="fna_33_33" id="fna_33_33"></a><a href="#fn_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>
+Jewitt states that the remains of five old potteries were found in the
+location of Fishley&#8217;s.<a name="fna_34_34" id="fna_34_34"></a><a href="#fn_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig8left.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig8right.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 8.</span>&mdash;Views of opening of oven in figure 7,
+photographed before its removal from house. This illustrates how oven was
+built into corner of fireplace and concealed from view. At right, the oven
+door is in place. (<i>Photos by A. C. Littlejohns.</i>)</td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The clay with which all the potters worked came from three similar deep
+clay deposits in a valley <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>running parallel with the River Taw in the
+parishes of Tawstock and Fremington between Bideford and Barnstaple. A
+geologist in 1864 wrote that the clay is &#8220;perfectly homogeneous ...
+exceedingly tough, free from slightest grit and soft as butter.&#8221;<a name="fna_35_35" id="fna_35_35"></a><a href="#fn_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> When
+fired at too high a temperature, he wrote, the clay would become so
+vesicular that it would float on water. The kilns were bottle-shaped and,
+according to tradition, originally were open at the top, like lime kilns;
+the contents were roofed over with old crocks.<a name="fna_36_36" id="fna_36_36"></a><a href="#fn_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p>
+
+<p>Apparently all the potteries made the same types of wares, &#8220;coarse&#8221; or
+common earthenware having comprised the bulk of their product. The
+utilitarian red-ware was indeed coarse, since it was liberally tempered
+with Bideford gravel in order to insure hardness and to offset the purity
+and softness of the Fremington clay. An anonymous historian wrote in
+1755:<a name="fna_37_37" id="fna_37_37"></a><a href="#fn_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p>
+
+<p>Just above the bridge [over the River Torridge] is a little ridge of
+gravel of a peculiar quality, without which the potters could not make
+their ware. There are many other ridges of gravel within the bar, but this
+only is proper for their use.</p>
+
+<p>John Watkins wrote that Bideford earthenware &#8220;is generally supposed to be
+superiour to any other of the kind, and this is accounted for, from the
+peculiar excellence of the gravel which this river affords, in binding the
+clay.&#8221; His claim that &#8220;this is the true reason, seems clear, from the fact
+that though the potteries at Barnstaple make use of the same sort of clay,
+yet their earthenware is not held in such esteem at Bristol, &amp;c. as that
+of Bideford&#8221;<a name="fna_38_38" id="fna_38_38"></a><a href="#fn_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> is scarcely supportable, since the Barnstaple potters
+also used the same Bideford gravel. The fire dogs found in Barnstaple with
+the date 1655, referred to above, were tempered with this gravel, as were
+&#8220;ovens, tiles, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>pipkins, etc.,&#8221; in order &#8220;to harden the ware,&#8221; according
+to Charbonnier, who also observed that &#8220;The ware generally was very badly
+fired.... From the fragments it can be seen that the firing was most
+unequal, parts of the body being grey in colour instead of a rich red, as
+the well-fired portions are.&#8221; He noted that the potters applied &#8220;the
+galena native sulphide of lead for the glaze, no doubt originally dusted
+on to the ware, as with the older potters elsewhere.&#8221;<a name="fna_39_39" id="fna_39_39"></a><a href="#fn_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> A sherd of
+gravel-tempered ware is displayed in the window of Brannam&#8217;s Barnstaple
+pottery, while a small pan from Bideford, probably of 19th-century origin,
+is in the Smithsonian collections (USNM 394440).</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig9.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig10.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 9.</span>&mdash;Gravel-tempered oven made at Crocker pottery,
+Bideford, in the 19th century. Borough of Bideford Public Library and Museum. (<i>Photo by A. C. Littlejohns.</i>)</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 10.</span>&mdash;Restored gravel-tempered oven from Jamestown.
+Colonial National Historical Park. (<i>National Park Service photo.</i>)</td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The most remarkable form utilizing gravel-tempered clay is found in the
+baking ovens which remained a North Devon specialty for over two
+centuries. These ovens vary somewhat in shape, and were made in graduated
+sizes. Most commonly they are rectangular with domed superstructures,
+having been molded or &#8220;draped&#8221; in sections, with their parts joined
+together, leaving seams with either tooled or thumb-impressed
+reenforcements. An oven obtained in Bideford has a flat top, without
+visible seams (USNM 394505; fig. 6).</p>
+
+<p>An early example occurs in Barnstaple, where, in a recently restored inn,
+an oven was found installed at the side of a fireplace which is &#8220;late
+sixteenth century in character.&#8221; Pipes and a pair of woman&#8217;s shoes, all
+dating from the first half of the 18th century, were found in the
+fireplace after it had been exposed, thus indicating the period of its
+most recent use.<a name="fna_40_40" id="fna_40_40"></a><a href="#fn_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> An oven discovered intact behind a wall during
+alteration of a Bideford house is believed to date from between 1650 and
+1675.<a name="fna_41_41" id="fna_41_41"></a><a href="#fn_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> That oven (figs. 7, 8) is now exhibited in the Bideford Museum.</p>
+
+<p>At the other extreme, C. H. Brannam of Barnstaple in 1890 was still making
+ovens in the ancient North Walk pottery.<a name="fna_42_42" id="fna_42_42"></a><a href="#fn_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> The following year H. W.
+Strong wrote of Fishley&#8217;s Fremington pottery that &#8220;shiploads of the big
+clay ovens in which the Cornishman bakes his bread ... meet with a ready
+sale in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> the fishing towns
+on the rugged coast of North Cornwall.&#8221;<a name="fna_43_43" id="fna_43_43"></a><a href="#fn_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a>
+Fremington ovens also were shipped to Wales,<a name="fna_44_44" id="fna_44_44"></a><a href="#fn_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> and, according to Jewitt,
+those made in the Crocker pottery in Bideford &#8220;are, and for generations
+have been, in much repute in Devonshire and Cornwall, and in the Welsh
+districts, and the bread baked in them is said to have a sweeter and more
+wholesome flavour than when baked in ordinary ovens.&#8221;<a name="fna_45_45" id="fna_45_45"></a><a href="#fn_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig11.1.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig11.2.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig11.3.jpg" alt="" /></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig11.4.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig11.5.jpg" alt="" /></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig11.6.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig11.7.jpg" alt="" /></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 11.</span>&mdash;Sgraffito-ware platters from Jamestown.<br />The
+platter shown above has a diameter<br />of 15 inches; the others, 12 inches.<br />Colonial National Historical Park.</td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Of ovens made at Barnstaple there is much the same kind of evidence. In
+1851, Thomas Brannam<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> exhibited an oven at the Crystal Palace, where it
+was described as &#8220;generally used in Devonshire for baking bread and
+meat.&#8221;<a name="fna_46_46" id="fna_46_46"></a><a href="#fn_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> In 1786, &#8220;Barnstaple ovens&#8221; were advertised for sale in Bristol
+at M. Ewers&#8217; &#8220;Staffordshire, Broseley, and Glass Warehouse.&#8221;<a name="fna_47_47" id="fna_47_47"></a><a href="#fn_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a>
+Thirty-six years earlier, in 1750, Dr. Pococke, who indefatigably entered
+every sort of observation in his journal, noted that in Devonshire and
+Cornwall &#8220;they make great use here of Cloume ovens,<a name="fna_48_48" id="fna_48_48"></a><a href="#fn_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> which are of
+earthen ware of several sizes, like an oven, and being heated they stop
+&#8217;em up and cover &#8217;em over with embers to keep in the heat.&#8221;<a name="fna_49_49" id="fna_49_49"></a><a href="#fn_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> Pococke
+visited Calstock, &#8220;where they have a manufacture of coarse earthenware,
+and particularly of earthenware ovens.&#8221;<a name="fna_50_50" id="fna_50_50"></a><a href="#fn_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>We have encountered only one
+other instance of ovens having been made at any place other than the North
+Devon communities around the Fremington clay beds. Calstock lies some 35
+miles below Bideford in the southeast corner of Cornwall, just over the
+Devonshire boundary.</p>
+
+<p>As for evidence concerning the manner in which these ovens were used in
+England, we have already seen that they were built into houses. Jewitt
+wrote that they &#8220;are simply enclosed in raised brickwork, leaving the
+mouth open to the front.&#8221; They were heated until red hot by sticks or
+logs, which were then raked out with long iron tongs.<a name="fna_51_51" id="fna_51_51"></a><a href="#fn_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> A bundle of
+gorse, or wood, according to Jewitt,<a name="fna_52_52" id="fna_52_52"></a><a href="#fn_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> was sufficient to &#8220;thoroughly
+bake three pecks of dough.&#8221; Pococke&#8217;s remarks to the effect that the ovens
+were covered over with embers to keep in the heat suggests that they were
+sometimes freestanding. However, this could also have been the practice
+when ovens were built into fireplaces.</p>
+
+<p>From an esthetic point of view, the crowning achievement of the North
+Devon potters was their sgraffito ware, examples of which in Brannam&#8217;s
+window display have already been noted. Further evidence in the form of
+17th-century sherds was found by Charbonnier around the site of the North
+Walk pottery in Barnstaple. These consisted of &#8220;plates and dishes of
+various size and section.... Extensive as the demand for these dishes must
+have been, judging from the heap of fragments, not a single piece has to
+my knowledge been found above ground.&#8221;<a name="fna_53_53" id="fna_53_53"></a><a href="#fn_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> The apparently complete
+disappearance of the sgraffito table wares suggests that they ceased to be
+made about 1700. They were apparently forced from the market by the
+refinement of taste that developed in the 18th century and by the
+delftware of Bristol and London and Liverpool that was so much more in
+keeping with that taste.</p>
+
+<p>However, certain kinds of sgraffito ware continued to be made without
+apparent interruption until early in the present century. Instead of
+useful tableware, decorated with symbols and motifs characteristic of
+17th-century English folk ornament, we find after 1700 only presentation
+pieces, particularly in the form of large harvest jugs. The harvest jugs
+were made for annual harvest celebrations, when they were passed around by
+the farmers among their field hands in a folk ritual observed at the end
+of harvest.<a name="fna_54_54" id="fna_54_54"></a><a href="#fn_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> Unlike the sgraffito tablewares, where style and taste
+were deciding factors in their survival, these special jugs were intended
+to be used only in annual ceremonies. Thus they were carefully preserved
+and passed on from generation to generation, with a higher chance for
+survival than that which the sgraffito tablewares enjoyed.</p>
+
+<p>The style of the harvest jugs is in sharp contrast to that of the
+tablewares, the jugs having been decorated in a pagan profusion of
+fertility and prosperity symbols, mixed sometimes with pictorial and
+inscriptive allusions to the sea, particularly on jugs ascribed to
+Bideford. The oldest dated examples embody characteristics of design and
+techniques that relate them unmistakably to the tablewares, while later
+specimens made throughout the 18th and 19th centuries show an increasing
+divergence from the 17th-century style. An especially elaborate piece was
+made for display at the Great Exhibition of 1851 in the Crystal
+Palace.<a name="fna_55_55" id="fna_55_55"></a><a href="#fn_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p>
+
+<p>Less complicated pieces, with a minimum of incising, were made for
+ordinary use, as were plain pieces whose surfaces were covered with slip
+without decoration. The trailing and splashing of slip designs on the body
+of the ware, practiced in Staffordshire and many of our colonial
+potteries, apparently was not followed in North Devon.<a name="fna_56_56" id="fna_56_56"></a><a href="#fn_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<h2>Sites Yielding North Devon Types</h2>
+
+
+<p>Excepting the Bowne House oven and a 1698 jug (see p. 45), no example of
+North Devon pottery used in America is known to have survived above
+ground. Archeological evidence, however, provides a sufficient record of
+North Devon wares and the tastes and customs they reflected. Following are
+descriptions of the principal sites in which these wares were found.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><small>JAMESTOWN, VIRGINIA: MAY-HARTWELL SITE.</small></p>
+
+<p>The site of Jamestown, first permanent English settlement in North
+America, has been excavated at intervals by the National Park Service. The
+early excavations were under the supervision of several<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> archeological
+technicians directing Civilian Conservation Corps crews. In September
+1936, J. C. Harrington became supervising archeologist of the project, and
+until World War II he continued the work as funds permitted. Except for
+the privately sponsored excavation of the Jamestown glasshouse site by
+Harrington in 1947, no extensive archeological work was thereafter
+undertaken until 1954, when John L. Cotter was appointed chief
+archeologist. Thorough exploration of Jamestown was his responsibility
+until 1956.<a name="fna_57_57" id="fna_57_57"></a><a href="#fn_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting subsites in the Jamestown complex was the two
+and one-half acres of lots which belonged successively to William May,
+Nicholas Merriweather, William White, and Henry Hartwell. The site was
+first explored in 1935. On this occasion there was disclosed a meandering
+brick drain that had been built on top of a fill of artifactual refuse,
+mostly pottery sherds. The richness of this yield was unparalleled
+elsewhere at Jamestown; from it comes our principal evidence about the
+North Devon types sent to America.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig12.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 12.</span>&mdash;Sgraffito-ware cup and plate from Jamestown.
+The cup is 4 inches high; the plate is 7 inches in diameter. Colonial National Historical Park.</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The May-Hartwell site was explored further and in far greater detail in
+1938 and 1939 by Harrington, whose unpublished typescript report is on
+file with the National Park Service.<a name="fna_58_58" id="fna_58_58"></a><a href="#fn_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> Harrington&#8217;s excavation, in the
+light of historical documentation, led to the conclusion that the brick
+drain had been laid during Henry Hartwell&#8217;s occupancy of the site<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> between
+1689 and 1695. This was supported by the inclusion in the fill of many
+bottle seals bearing Hartwell&#8217;s initials, &#8220;H. H.&#8221; Hartwell married the
+widow of William White, who had purchased the property from Nicholas
+Merriweather in 1677. That was the year following Bacon&#8217;s Rebellion, when
+Merriweather&#8217;s house presumably was destroyed.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig13.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 13.</span>&mdash;Sgraffito-ware jugs, about 8 inches high, from
+Jamestown. Colonial National Historical Park.</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>There were many hundreds of sherds in the fill under and around the brick
+drain, as well as in other ditches in the site. The North Devon types were
+found here in association with numerous classes of pottery. The most
+readily identifiable were sherds of English delftware of many forms and
+styles of decoration related to the second half of the 17th century. There
+were occasional earlier 17th-century examples, also, as might be expected.
+No 18th-century intrusions were noted in the brick drain area, and only a
+scattering in other portions; none was found in association with the North
+Devon sherds.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><small>JAMESTOWN, VIRGINIA: OTHER SITES.</small></p>
+
+<p>North Devon wares occur in the majority of sites at Jamestown, but it is
+not always possible to date them from contextual evidence because precise
+archeological records were not always kept in the early phases of the
+excavations. Nevertheless, narrow dating is easily possible in enough
+sites to suggest date horizons for the wares.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest evidence occurs in material from a well (W-21)&mdash;excavated in
+1956<a name="fna_59_59" id="fna_59_59"></a><a href="#fn_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a>&mdash;that contained an atypical sgraffito sherd described below (p.
+43). The sherd lay beneath a foot-deep deposit that included Dutch
+majolica, Italian sgraffito ware, and tobacco pipes, all dating in form or
+decoration prior to 1650. This sherd is unique among all those found at
+Jamestown, but it is essentially characteristic of North Devon work.
+Presumably it is a forerunner of the typical varieties found in the
+May-Hartwell site and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>No gravel-tempered sherds occur in contexts that can positively be dated
+prior to 1675. A sizable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> deposit of gravel-tempered sherds was found
+between the depth of one foot and the level of the cellar floor of the
+mansion house site (Structure 112) located near the pitch-and-tar swamp.
+This house was built before 1650, but burned, probably during Bacon&#8217;s
+Rebellion in 1676.<a name="fna_60_60" id="fna_60_60"></a><a href="#fn_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> The sherds were doubtless part of the household
+equipment of the time. All other ceramic fragments, with one exception,
+were associated with objects dating earlier than 1660.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig14.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 14.</span>&mdash;Sgraffito-ware jug and cups from Jamestown.
+Colonial National Historical Park.</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In sites dating from before about 1670, no North Devon wares are found,
+excepting the early sgraffito sherd mentioned above. Such was the case
+with a brick kiln (Structure 127) of early 17th-century date and two sites
+(Structure 110 and Kiln C) in the vicinity of the pottery kiln. In
+Structure 110 all the ceramics date from before 1650.<a name="fna_61_61" id="fna_61_61"></a><a href="#fn_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p>
+
+<p>The latest occurrence of gravel-tempered wares is in contexts of the early
+and middle 18th century. A pit near the Ambler property (Refuse Pit
+2)<a name="fna_62_62" id="fna_62_62"></a><a href="#fn_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> yielded a typical early 18th-century deposit with flat-rimmed
+gravel-tempered pans of characteristic type. Associated with these were
+pieces of blue delft (before 1725), Staffordshire &#8220;combed&#8221; ware (made
+throughout the 18th century, but mostly about 1730-1760), Nottingham
+stoneware (throughout the 18th century), gray-white H&ouml;hr stoneware (last
+quarter, 17th century), Buckley black-glazed ware (mostly 1720-1770), and
+Staffordshire white salt-glazed ware (1740-1770).</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><small>HAMPTON, VIRGINIA: KECOUGHTAN SITE.</small></p>
+
+<p>In 1941, Joseph B. and Alvin W. Brittingham, amateur archeologists of
+Hampton, Virginia, excavated several refuse pits on the site of what they
+believed to be an early 17th-century trading post located at the original
+site of Kecoughtan, an Indian village<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> and colonial outpost settlement
+which later became Elizabeth City, Virginia. Rich artifactual evidence,
+reflecting on a small scale what was found at Jamestown, indicates a
+continuous occupancy from the beginning of settlement in 1610 to about
+1760.<a name="fna_63_63" id="fna_63_63"></a><a href="#fn_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> The collection was given to the Smithsonian Institution in 1950.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig15.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig16.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 15.</span>&mdash;This sgraffito-ware chamber pot, from
+Jamestown, has incised on the rim <i>WR 16 ..</i>, probably in reference to the
+king. Height, 5&#189; inches. Colonial National Historical Park.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 16.</span>&mdash;Sgraffito-ware harvest jug made in Bideford,
+with the date &#8220;1795&#8221; inscribed. Borough of Bideford Public Library and Museum. (<i>Photo by A. C. Littlejohns.</i>)</td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><small>JAMES CITY COUNTY, VIRGINIA: GREEN SPRING PLANTATION.</small></p>
+
+<p>In 1642 Sir William Berkeley arrived in Virginia to be its governor. Seven
+years later he built Green Spring, about five miles north of Jamestown.
+The house remained standing until after 1800. Its site was excavated in
+1954 by the National Park Service under supervision of Louis R. Caywood,
+Park Service archeologist.<a name="fna_64_64" id="fna_64_64"></a><a href="#fn_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> The project, supported jointly by the
+Jamestown-Williamsburg-Yorktown Celebration Commission and the Virginia
+350th Anniversary Commission, was executed under supervision of Colonial
+National Historical Park at Yorktown, Virginia.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><small>WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA: EARLY 18TH-CENTURY DEPOSITS.</small></p>
+
+<p>A small amount of North Devon gravel-tempered ware was found in sites
+excavated in Williamsburg by Colonial Williamsburg, Inc. These excavations
+have been carried out as adjuncts to the Williamsburg restoration program
+over a 30-year period. Few of the North Devon sherds found can be closely
+dated, having occurred primarily in undocumented ditches, pits, and
+similar deposits. However, it is unlikely that any of the material dates
+earlier than the beginning of the 18th century, since Williamsburg was not
+authorized as a town until 1699. It is significant, in the light of this,
+that North Devon pan sherds in the Williamsburg collection have
+characteristics like those of specimens from other 18th-century sites.
+Also <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>significant is the fact that no sgraffito ware occurs here. A
+gravel-tempered pan (fig. 23) from the Coke-Garrett House site was found
+in a context that can be dated about 1740-1760.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig17left.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig17right.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 17.</span>&mdash;Views of North Devon harvest jug used in Sussex
+County, Delaware. This jug, 11 inches high and dated 1698, is in the collection of Charles G. Dorman. The inscription reads:</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="dent">&#8220;Kind S<sup>r</sup>: i com to Gratifiey youre Kindness Love and Courtisy and
+Sarve youre table with Strong beare for this intent i was sent heare:
+or if you pleas i will supply youre workmen when in harvist dry when
+they doe labour hard and swear<sup>e</sup> good drinke is better far then Meat&#8221;</td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><small>WESTMORELAND COUNTY, VIRGINIA: SITE OF JOHN WASHINGTON HOUSE.</small></p>
+
+<p>In 1930 the National Park Service became custodians for &#8220;Wakefield,&#8221; the
+George Washington birthplace site on Pope&#8217;s Creek in Westmoreland County.
+About a mile to the west of &#8220;Wakefield&#8221; itself, but within the Park area,
+is the site of Bridges Creek Plantation, purchased in 1664 by John
+Washington, the earliest member of the family in America. It was occupied
+by John at least until his death in 1677, and probably by Lawrence
+Washington until a few years later. Much artifactual material was dug from
+the plantation house site, including the largest deposits of North Devon
+types found outside of Jamestown.<a name="fna_65_65" id="fna_65_65"></a><a href="#fn_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><small>STAFFORD COUNTY, VIRGINIA: MARLBOROUGH SITE.</small></p>
+
+<p>A short-lived town was built in 1691 at the confluence of Potomac Creek
+and the Potomac River on Potomac Neck. The town was abandoned by 1720, but
+six years later became the abode of John Mercer, who developed a
+plantation there. The site of his house was excavated by the Smithsonian
+Institution in 1956. Two small sherds of North Devon gravel-tempered ware
+were found there in a predominantly mid-18th-century deposit.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig18top.jpg" alt="" /><br /><img src="images/fig18bot.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 18.</span>&mdash;Gravel-tempered pan (top) and cooking pot with
+cover, all from Jamestown. The pan has a height of 4&#189; inches and a
+diameter of 15 inches. The pot is 6 inches high and 9&#189; inches in
+diameter; the diameter of its cover is 10 inches. Colonial National Historical Park.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><small>CALVERT COUNTY, MARYLAND: ANGELICA KNOLL SITE.</small></p>
+
+<p>Since 1954 Robert A. Elder, Jr., assistant curator of ethnology at the
+United States National Museum, has been investigating the site on the
+Chesapeake Bay of a plantation or small settlement known as Angelica
+Knoll. This investigation has revealed a generous variety of
+gravel-tempered utensil forms, including both 17th and 18th century
+styles. The range of associated artifacts points to a site dating from the
+late 17th century to about 1765.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><small>KENT ISLAND, QUEEN ANNE COUNTY, MARYLAND.</small></p>
+
+<p>A small collection of late 17th-century and early 18th-century
+material&mdash;gathered by Richard H. Stearns near the shore of Kent Island, a
+quarter-mile south of Kent Island Landing&mdash;includes both North Devon
+types. The collection was given to the United States National Museum.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><small>LEWES, SUSSEX COUNTY, DELAWARE: TOWNSEND SITE.</small></p>
+
+<p>The Townsend site was excavated by members of the Sussex County
+Archeological Society in 1947. This was primarily an Indian site, but a
+pit or well contained European artifacts, including a North Devon
+gravel-tempered jar (fig. 25). The village of Lewes, originally the Dutch
+settlement of Zwaanandael, was destroyed by the British, who occupied the
+area in 1664.<a name="fna_66_66" id="fna_66_66"></a><a href="#fn_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> The European materials from the Townsend site were given
+to the United States National Museum.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><small>PLYMOUTH, PLYMOUTH COUNTY, MASSACHUSETTS: &#8220;R.M.&#8221; SITE.</small></p>
+
+<p>A site of a house believed to have been Robert Morton&#8217;s, located south of
+the town of Plymouth, was excavated by Henry Hornblower II. It contained
+North Devon gravel-tempered sherds. The collection is now in the
+archeological laboratory of Plimoth Plantation, Inc., in Plymouth.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><small>ROCKY NOOK, KINGSTON, PLYMOUTH COUNTY, MASSACHUSETTS: SITES OF JOHN
+HOWLAND HOUSE AND JOSEPH HOWLAND HOUSE.</small></p>
+
+<p>The John Howland house was built between 1628 and 1630; it burned about
+1675. The site was excavated between September 1937 and July 1938 under
+supervision of the late Sidney T. Strickland.<a name="fna_67_67" id="fna_67_67"></a><a href="#fn_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> Several gravel-tempered
+utensil sherds were found here, as well as a piece of an oven (see fig.
+26). Artifacts from this and the following site are at the Plimoth
+Plantation laboratory.</p>
+
+<p>The foundations of the Joseph Howland house, adjacent to the John Howland
+house site, were excavated in 1959 by James Deetz, archeologist at Plimoth
+Plantation. This is the only New England site of which we are aware that
+has yielded North Devon sgraffito ware. Two successive houses apparently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+stood on the site. Statistical evidence of pipe-stem-bore measurements
+points to 1680-1710 as the first principal period of occupancy.<a name="fna_68_68" id="fna_68_68"></a><a href="#fn_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><small>MARSHFIELD, PLYMOUTH COUNTY, MASSACHUSETTS: WINSLOW SITE.</small></p>
+
+<p>This site, excavated by Henry Hornblower II and tentatively dated
+1635-1699, yielded considerable quantities of gravel-tempered ware.
+Cultural material is predominantly from about 1675.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><small>FLUSHING, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK: THE JOHN BOWNE HOUSE.</small></p>
+
+<p>The John Bowne House is a historic house museum at Bowne Street and Fox
+Lane, Flushing, Long Island, maintained by the Bowne House Historical
+Society. Bowne was a Quaker from Derbyshire, who built his house in 1661.
+A North Devon oven is still in place, with its opening at the back of the
+fireplace.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><small>YORKTOWN, VIRGINIA.</small></p>
+
+<p>The National Park Service has excavated at various locations in Yorktown,
+both in the neighboring battlefield sites and the town itself. Yorktown,
+like Marlborough, was established by the Act for Ports in 1691. In several
+of the areas excavated, occasional sherds of North Devon gravel-tempered
+ware were found. In refuse behind the site of the Swan Tavern, opened as
+an inn in 1722 but probably occupied earlier, a single large fragment of a
+15-inch sgraffito platter was discovered. No other pieces of this type
+were found, associated artifacts having been predominantly from the 18th
+century.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig19top.jpg" alt="" /><br /><img src="images/fig19bot.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 19.</span>&mdash;Gravel-tempered bowl (top) and pipkins from
+Jamestown. Colonial National Historical Park.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<h2>Descriptions of Types</h2>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">North Devon Sgraffito Ware</span></p>
+
+<p>Sites: Jamestown, Kecoughtan, Green Spring, John Washington House, Kent
+Island, Yorktown, Joseph Howland House.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Paste</span></p>
+
+<p>Manufacture: Wheel-turned, with templates used to shape collars of jugs
+and to shape edges and sometimes ridges where plate rims join bezels.</p>
+
+<p>Temper: Fine, almost microscopic, water-worn sand particles.</p>
+
+<p>Texture: Fine, smooth, well-mixed, sharp, regular cleavage.</p>
+
+<p>Color: Dull pinkish red, with gray core usual.</p>
+
+<p>Firing: Two firings, one before glazing and one after. Usually incomplete
+oxidation, shown by gray core. A few specimens have surface breaks or
+flakings incurred in the firing and most show warping (suggesting that
+&#8220;rejects,&#8221; unsalable in England, were sent to the colonists, who had no
+recourse but to accept them).</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Surfaces</span></p>
+
+<p>Treatment: Inner surfaces of plates and bowls and outer surfaces of jugs,
+cups, mugs, chamber pots, and other utensils viewed on the exteriors are
+coated with white kaolin slip. Designs are scratched through the slip
+while wet and into the surface of the paste, exposing the latter.
+Undersides of plates and chargers are often scraped to make irregular flat
+areas of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>surface. Slip-covered portions are coated with amber glaze by
+sifting on powdered galena (lead sulphide). Containers which are slipped
+externally are glazed externally and internally. Slip and glaze do not
+cover lower portions of jugs, but run down unevenly.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig20.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 20.</span>&mdash;Gravel-tempered chafing dish from Jamestown.
+Colonial National Historical Park. (<i>Smithsonian photo 43104.</i>)</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Color: Slipped surfaces are white where exposed without glaze. Unglazed
+surfaces are a dull terra cotta. The glaze varies in tone from honey color
+to a dark greenish amber. When applied over the slip, the glaze ranges
+from lemon to a toneless brown-yellow, or, at best, a sparkling butter
+color. When applied directly over the paste and over the incised and
+abraided designs, the glaze appears as a rich mahogany brown or dark
+amber.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Forms</span></p>
+
+<p>Plates, platters, and chargers:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(a) Diameter 7&Prime;-7&#189;&Prime;. Upper surface slipped, decorated, and glazed.
+(Fig. 12.)</p>
+
+<p>(b) Diameter 12&Prime;; depth 2&Prime;-3&Prime;. Upper surface slipped, decorated, and
+glazed. (Fig. 11.)</p>
+
+<p>(c) Diameter 14&#189;&Prime;-15&Prime;; depth 2&Prime;-3&Prime;. Upper surface slipped,
+decorated, and glazed. (Fig. 11.)</p></div>
+
+<p>All have wide rims, but of varying widths, raised bezels, and heavy,
+raised, curved edges.</p>
+
+<p>Baluster wine cups: Height 3&#190;&Prime;-4&Prime;. Slipped and decorated externally;
+glazed internally and externally. (Figs. 12, 14.)</p>
+
+<p>Concave-sided mugs: Height about 4&Prime;. Slipped and decorated externally;
+glazed internally and externally. (Only complete specimen, at Jamestown,
+had incised band around rim.) (Fig. 14.)</p>
+
+<p>Jugs: Height 6&#189;&Prime; and 8&Prime;-8&#189;&Prime;. Globose bodies, vertical or slightly
+everted collars tooled in a series of ridged bands, with tooled rims at
+top. Some have pitcher lips, some do not. Slipped, decorated, and glazed
+externally above an incised line encircling the waist; glazed internally.
+(Figs. 13, 14.)</p>
+
+<p>Eating bowls: Diameter, including handle, 9&Prime;-10&Prime;; depth 3&#188;&Prime;-4&Prime;.
+Straight, everted sides, flat rims, with slightly raised edges, one small
+flat loop handle secured to rim. Slipped, decorated, and glazed internally
+and on rim.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig21.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 21.</span>&mdash;Gravel-tempered baking pan from Jamestown.
+Length, 15 inches; width, about 12 inches. Colonial National Historical Park.</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Chamber pots: Height 5&#189;&Prime;. Curving sides, terminating at heavy, raised,
+rounded band surmounted by concave, everted rim. Rim 1&Prime; wide and flat.
+Slipped, decorated, and glazed externally and internally. (Fig. 15.)</p>
+
+<p>Candlestick: Unique specimen. Height 6&Prime;. Bell-shaped base with flange and
+shaft above with socket at top. Handle from bottom of socket to bottom of
+shaft. Upper portion slipped, decorated, and glazed.</p>
+
+<p>Ripple-edged, shallow dish: Unique specimen. Diameter 9&#188;&Prime;. Concave,
+rimless dish or plate with edge crimped as for a pie or tart plate. Upper
+surface slipped, decorated, and glazed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Decoration</span></p>
+
+<p>Technique: (1) Incising through wet slip into paste with pointed tool for
+linear effects. (2) Excising of small areas to reveal paste and to
+strengthen tonal qualities of designs. (3) Incising with multiple-pointed
+tools having three to five points, to draw multiple-lined stripes. (4)
+Stippling with same tools.</p>
+
+<p>Motifs: The motifs are varied and never occur in any one combination more
+than once. There are two general categories of design, geometric and
+floral, although in some cases these are joined in the same specimen.</p>
+
+<p>In the geometric category, the majority of plate rims are decorated with
+hastily drawn spirals and <i>guilloches</i>. The centers may have circles
+within squares, circles enclosing compass-drawn petals, circles within a
+series of swags embellished with lines. Triple-lined chevrons decorate the
+border of one plate. A chamber pot is decorated with diagonal stripes of
+multiple lines, between which wavy lines are punctuated by small excised
+rectangles. Some cups, jugs, and the candlestick are simply decorated with
+vertical stripes, between which are wavy lines, stippling, and excised
+blocks.</p>
+
+<p>The floral category includes elaborate and intricate stylized floral and
+vine motifs: tulips, sunflowers, leaves, tendrils, hearts, four-petaled
+flowers. One plate (fig. 11) combines the geometric feeling of the first
+category with the floral qualities of the second in its swag-and-tassel
+rim and swagged band, which encloses a sunflower springing from a stalk
+between two leaves.</p>
+
+<p>The design motifs are unique in comparison with those found on other
+English pottery of the 17th century. The geometrical patterns and spiral
+ornaments, which also occur in Hispanic majolica, have a Moorish flavor.
+Christian symbols&mdash;especially tulips, sunflowers, and hearts&mdash;are
+recurrent, as they are on contemporary West-of-England furniture, pewter,
+and embroidery and on the carved chests, and crewel work of Puritan New
+England. There is considerable reason to believe that there was a
+connection between North Devon sgraffito-ware manufacture and design on
+the one hand and the influx of Huguenot and Netherlands Protestant
+artisans into southern and southwestern England on the other. Low Country
+immigrant potters were responsible for two other ceramic innovations
+elsewhere in England&mdash;stoneware and majolica.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig22.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 22.</span>&mdash;Slip-coated porringers and drinking bowl
+(center). Colonial National Historical Park.</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig23.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 23.</span>&mdash;North Devon gravel-tempered pan with typical
+terra cotta paste and characteristic 18th-century flattened rim, slightly
+undercut on the interior. This pan, measuring 13&#188; inches in diameter
+and 4&#8540; inches high, was found at the Coke-Garrett house site in
+Williamsburg, Virginia, in a context attributed to the period about
+1740-1760. Colonial Williamsburg, Inc. (<i>Colonial Williamsburg photo 59-DW-703-44.</i>)</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Atypical Specimen</span></p>
+
+<p>Already mentioned is a large fragment of a dish found in a context not
+later than 1640 and cruder and simpler in treatment than the remainder of
+North Devon sgraffito ware thus far seen. It nevertheless belongs to the
+same class. Its paste has the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> characteristics of color and fracture,
+while the firing has left the same tell-tale gray core found in a large
+proportion of North Devon sherds. Surface treatment techniques match those
+reflected in the typical dish sherds&mdash;glazed slip over the red paste on
+the interior; unglazed, scraped, and abraided surfaces on the underside.
+The yellow color is paler and the glazed surface is duller. The rim has a
+smaller edge and omits the heavy raised bezel usually occurring on the
+typical plates and chargers. The design motifs&mdash;crude and primitive in
+comparison with those described above&mdash;consist of a series of stripes on
+the rim, drawn at right angles to the edge with a four-pointed tool, and
+crude hook-like ornaments traced with the same tool in the bowl of the
+plate. This may be regarded as a forerunner of the developed sgraffito
+ware made in the second half of the 17th century.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig24.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 24.</span>&mdash;Gravel-tempered pan sherds from Kecoughtan
+site, Hampton, Virginia. United States National Museum.</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Unique Feature</span></p>
+
+<p>The flat rim of a chamber pot from Jamestown (fig. 15) has &#8220;WR 16 ..&#8221;
+scratched through the slip. It is probable that the initials indicate
+&#8220;William Rex,&#8221; for William III, who became king in 1688. Why the king
+should be memorialized in such an undignified fashion could be explained
+by the fact that Barnstaple and Bideford were strongly Puritan and also
+Huguenot centers. Although William was a popular monarch, he was,
+nevertheless, head of the Church of England, and an anti-royalist,
+Calvinist potter might well have expressed an earthy contempt in this way.
+Later, in the 18th century, George III appears to have been treated with
+similar disrespect by Staffordshire potters, who made saltglazed chamber
+pots in the style of Rhenish Westerwald drinking jugs, flaunting &#8220;GR&#8221;
+emblems on the sides. Owners&#8217; initials or names do not occur on any of the
+North Devon wares found in American sites, nor do the initials of the
+potters. Otherwise, it would seem unlikely that the only exception would
+appear on the rim of a chamber pot.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Comparative Evidence</span></p>
+
+<p>Sherds owned by C. H. Brannam, Ltd., and excavated at the site of the
+Litchdon Street pottery in Barnstaple.&mdash;The largest of these is part of a
+deep dish (fig. 2). Its border design seems to be a degenerate form of a
+beetle-like device found on Portuguese majolica of the period. From a
+crude oval with a stippled line running the length of it, extends a spiral
+scroll, terminating in a heavy dot, reminiscent of the tendrils found on
+the Portuguese examples. From incised lines near the rim and on the edge
+of the bezel are small linear &#8220;hooks.&#8221; The interior has sunflower petals
+flanking a short, stylized palmette, with another stalk and pair of leaves
+above, reaching up to what may have been an elaborate floral center, now
+missing. This decoration resembles closely the interiors of the
+floral-type plates and chargers found at Jamestown. A section of plate rim
+is similar to typical rims found in American sites. The surface color is
+the butter yellow found on the best Jamestown pieces. Paste color also
+matches.</p>
+
+<p>Sherds from the North Walk pottery in Barnstaple, described by
+Charbonnier.&mdash;These were found near the site, on the banks of the Yeo and
+in a pasture. They include plates and dishes, some finished and others
+thrown out in the biscuit state. Charbonnier illustrates a plate with a
+zig-zag or chevron border and an incised bird in the center. The chevron
+appears on Jamestown specimens but the bird does not.</p>
+
+<p>Harvest jugs.&mdash;18th-century North Devon harvest jugs examined by the
+writer display the same characteristics of paste, slip, and glaze as the
+Jamestown sherds. However, the jugs differ stylistically to a marked
+degree, suggesting that later potters were not affected by the influences
+that appear in the earlier work (fig. 16). The earliest harvest jug of
+which we are aware is a hitherto unrecorded example, dated 1698, that is
+in the collection of Charles G. Dorman. This is the only harvest jug yet
+encountered with a history of use in America and the only North Devon
+sgraffito piece known to have survived above ground on this continent. It
+is a remarkably vigorous pot, having a great rotund body, a high flaring
+collar, and a lengthy inscription (see fig. 17). A female figure under a
+wreath of pomegranates forms the central motif. The head is turned in left
+profile, with hair cascading to the shoulders. The bust is highly stylized
+in an oval shape, within which are intersecting curved lines forming areas
+decorated with diagonal incising or with rows of short dashes. The
+design here is strongly reminiscent of the geometrical decoration on
+Jamestown plates and deep dishes. A pair of unicorns flanks the central
+figure, and behind each unicorn are a dove and swan, at left and right
+respectively. Under these are sunflowers and tulips, while a tulip stands
+above rows of leaves on a stem below the handle. Feather-like leaves flank
+the lower attachment of the handle. At the junction of the shoulder and
+collar is a narrow band of incised tulips. Above this is a heavy ridge
+from which springs the flaring collar. Under the spout is a male head,
+wearing a wig which is depicted in the same manner as the pomegranates on
+the wreath, and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> stylized hat and stock-like collar. One suspects that
+the man is a clergyman, although his eyes are cast down in a most worldly
+manner upon the lady below. He is flanked by a pair of doves; behind each
+dove is a vertical tulip with stem and leaves.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig25.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 25.</span>&mdash;Gravel-tempered food-storage jar from Townsend
+site, Lewes, Delaware. Height, 12 inches; diameter at base, 9 inches.
+(<i>USNM 60.1188; Smithsonian photo 38821.</i>)</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig26.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 26.</span>&mdash;Gravel-tempered sherds from Plymouth,
+Massachusetts: fragment of oven (left) and rim sherd (upper right), from
+John Howland house site; and pan-rim sherd from &#8220;R. M.&#8221; site. Plimoth
+Plantation, Inc., Plymouth. (<i>Smithsonian photo 45008-B.</i>)</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Some of the shading is applied with a four-pointed tool, as in many of the
+Jamestown pieces, although the tool was smaller. The handle bears the same
+characteristics as those on jugs found at Jamestown&mdash;the same carelessly
+formed ridge, the same spreading, up-thrust reinforcement at the base of
+the handle. Unlike the Jamestown jugs, this one is covered completely on
+the exterior with slip and glaze. However, since this was a presentation
+piece, we could expect more careful treatment than was usual on pots made
+for commercial sale.</p>
+
+<p>The jug descended in a Sussex County, Delaware, family&mdash;on the distaff
+side, curiously. Family recollection traces its ownership back to the
+early 19th century, with an unsubstantiated legend that it was used by
+British soldiers during the Revolutionary War. We may conclude at least
+that the jug is not a recent import and surmise that it was probably
+brought to America as an heirloom by an emigrating Devon family, perhaps
+before the Revolution. Sussex County has a stable population, mostly of
+old-stock English descent. It was settled during the second half of the
+17th and first half of the 18th centuries. There is a strong possibility,
+therefore,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> that the jug was introduced into Delaware at a comparatively
+early date.</p>
+
+<p>Many other harvest jugs have been similarly cherished in England. An
+almost exact counterpart of the Delaware jug, and obviously by the same
+potter, is in the Glaisher collection in Cambridge. This jug, dated
+&#8220;1703/4,&#8221;<a name="fna_69_69" id="fna_69_69"></a><a href="#fn_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> displays such variations as absence of the male head and a
+different inscription. Another jug, with a hunting scene but with a
+similar neck and collar treatment, seems again to be by the same hand;
+it is dated &#8220;1703.&#8221;<a name="fna_70_70" id="fna_70_70"></a><a href="#fn_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig27.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 27.</span>&mdash;Gravel-tempered sherds from Angelica Knoll
+site, Calvert County, Maryland. United States National Museum.
+(<i>Smithsonian photo 45008-A.</i>)</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>From the standpoint of identifying and dating the archeologically
+recovered sgraffito ware, these jugs are important in showing certain
+traits similar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> to those found in the sherds, while displaying other
+characteristics that are distinctly different. They support the
+archeological evidence that the Jamestown pieces are earlier than the jugs
+and that new design concepts were appearing by the turn of the century in
+a novel type of presentation piece.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">North Devon Plain Slip-Coated Ware</span></p>
+
+<p>This is a plain variant of the sgraffito ware, differing only in the
+absence of decoration and in some of the forms.</p>
+
+<p>Site: Jamestown.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Forms</span></p>
+
+<p>Plates: Diameter 7&Prime;-11&#189;&Prime;. Profiles as in sgraffito plates. Upper
+surface slipped and glazed.</p>
+
+<p>Eating bowls: Diameter 9&Prime;; height 3&#189;&Prime;. Profile and handle same as in
+sgraffito bowls. Slipped and glazed on interior and over rim.</p>
+
+<p>Porringers: Diameter 5&#189;&Prime;; height 2&#190;&Prime;. Ogee profiles. Horizontal loop
+handle applied &#190;&Prime; below rim on each. Slipped and glazed on interiors.
+(Fig. 22.)</p>
+
+<p>Drinking bowls: Diameter of rim, including handle, 5&Prime;; height 2&#190;&Prime;-3&Prime;;
+diameter of base 2&Prime;. In shape of mazer bowl, these have narrow bases and
+straight sides terminating in raised tooled bands at the junctions with
+vertical or slightly inverted rims 1&Prime; in height. Each has a horizontal
+looped handle attached at bottom of rim. Slipped and glazed on interiors.
+(Fig. 22.)</p>
+
+<p>Wavy-edge pans: Diameter 9&Prime;-10&Prime;; height 2&Prime;. Flat round pans with vertical
+rims distorted in wide scallops or waves. Purpose not known. Slipped and
+glazed on interiors.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">North Devon Gravel-Tempered Ware</span></p>
+
+<p>Sites: Jamestown, Kecoughtan, Green Spring, Williamsburg, Marlborough,
+John Washington House, Kent Island, Angelica Knoll, Townsend, John Bowne
+House, &#8220;R. M.,&#8221; Winslow, John Howland House.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Paste</span></p>
+
+<p>Manufacture: Wheel-turned, except ovens and rectangular pans, which are
+&#8220;draped&#8221; over molds. (See &#8220;Forms,&#8221; below.)</p>
+
+<p>Temper: Very coarse water-worn quartz and feldsparthic gravel up to
+one-half inch in length; also occasional sherds. Proportion of temper
+15-25 percent, except in ovens, which were about 30 percent.</p>
+
+<p>Texture: Poorly kneaded, bubbly, and porous, with temper poorly mixed.
+Temper particles easily rubbed out of matrix. Very irregular and angular
+cleavage because of coarse temper. Hard and resistant to blows, but
+crumbles at fracture when broken.</p>
+
+<p>Color: Dull pinkish red to deep orange-red. Almost invariably gray at
+core, except in ovens.</p>
+
+<p>Firing: Carelessly fired, with incomplete oxidation of paste.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Surface</span></p>
+
+<p>Treatment: Glazed with powdered galena on interiors of containers, never
+externally. Glaze very carelessly applied, with much evidence of dripping,
+running, and unintentional spilling.</p>
+
+<p>Texture: Very coarse and irregular, with gravel temper protruding.</p>
+
+<p>Color: Unglazed surfaces range from bright terra cotta to reddish buff.
+Glazed surfaces on well-fired pieces are transparent yellow-green with
+frequent orange splotches. Overtired pieces become dark olive-amber,
+sometimes approaching black. Rare specimens have slipped interiors
+subsequently glazed, with similar butter-yellow color effect as in
+sgraffito and plain slip-coated types.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Forms</span></p>
+
+<p>All forms are not completely indicated, there being many rims not
+represented by complete or reconstructed pieces. The following are
+established forms.</p>
+
+<p>Round, flat-bottomed pans: Diameter 16&Prime;, height 4&Prime;; diameter 16&Prime;, height
+5&Prime;; diameter 18&Prime;, height 4&Prime;; diameter 15&Prime;, height 4&#189;&Prime;; diameter
+13&#188;&Prime;, height 4&#8540;&Prime;. Heavy rounded rims. Glazed internally below rims.
+These were probably milk pans, but may also have served for cooking and
+washing. Those lined with slip may have functioned as wash basins. (Figs.
+18, 23.)</p>
+
+<p>Round, flat-bottomed pans: Diameter approximately 19&Prime;, height unknown. (No
+complete specimen.) Heavy rims, reinforced with applied strips of clay
+beneath external projection of rim. Reinforcement strips are secured with
+thumb impressions or square impressions made by end of flat tool. (Figs.
+28, 29.)</p>
+
+<p>Cooking pots: Diameter 12&Prime;, height 6&Prime;; diameter 8&Prime;, height 5&Prime;. Curving
+sides, terminating at tooled concave band with flattened, slightly curving
+rim above. Glazed inside.</p>
+
+<p>Bowls: Diameter 8&Prime;, height 5&Prime;. Sides curved, with flattened-curve rims,
+tooled bands below rims. Glazed internally. (Fig. 19.)</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig28.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 28.</span>&mdash;Exteriors (left) and interiors of
+gravel-tempered sherds. Top to bottom: bowl; pan; heavy pan with
+reinforced rim; and pan with 18th-century-type rim. Colonial National
+Historical Park. (<i>From Smithsonian photos 43039-A, 43041-A.</i>)</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Cooking pots: Diameter (including handles) 9&#189;&Prime;, height 6&Prime;. Profile a
+segmented curve, with rim the same diameter as base. Exterior flange to
+receive cover. Small horizontal loop handles. Band of three incised lines
+around waist. (Fig. 18.)</p>
+
+<p>Cooking pot covers: Diameters 7&Prime;, 10&Prime;, 10&#189;&Prime;, 11&Prime;. Flat covers, with
+downward-turned rims. Off-center loop handles, probably designed to
+facilitate <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>examination of contents of pot by permitting one to lift up
+one edge of cover. Covers are sometimes numbered with incised numerals.
+Unglazed. (Fig. 18.)</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig29.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 29.</span>&mdash;Exteriors (left) and interiors of
+gravel-tempered sherds. Pan (top) with 18th-century-type rim, and handle
+of heavy pan with reinforced rim. Colonial National Historical Park.
+(<i>From Smithsonian photos 43039-C, 43039-D.</i>)</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Pipkins: Diameter 7&Prime;, height 3&Prime;; diameter 8&#189;&Prime;, height 3&#189;&Prime;; diameter
+8&#188;&Prime;, height 4&Prime;; diameter 8&Prime;, height 5&Prime;. Curving sides, terminating at
+tooled concave band with flattened, slightly curved rim above. Three
+stubby legs. Stub handle crudely shaped and casually applied at an upward
+angle. Glazed inside. Used as a saucepan to stand in the coals. (Fig. 19.)</p>
+
+<p>Rectangular basting or baking pans: Length 15&Prime;, width 11&#190;&Prime; (dimensions
+of single restored specimen at Jamestown; many fragments in addition at
+Jamestown and Plymouth). Drape-molded. Reinforced scalloped rim. Heavy
+horizontal loop handles are sometimes on sides, sometimes on ends. Glazed
+inside. (Fig. 21.)</p>
+
+<p>Storage jars: Various sizes. The one wholly restored specimen (Lewes,
+Delaware) has a rim diameter of 8&Prime; and a height of 12&#189;&Prime;. Rims of
+largest examples (diameters 7&Prime;, 10&Prime;, 12&Prime;) have reinforcement strips
+applied below external projection. Heavy vertical loop handles, with tops
+attached to rims.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> Most have interior flanges to receive covers. Glazed
+inside. Such jars were essential for preserving and pickling foods and for
+brewing beer. (Fig. 25.)</p>
+
+<p>Plate warmer or chafing dish: Unique specimen. Diameter (including handle)
+11&Prime;, height 7&Prime;. Heavy, flaring pedestal foot supports wide bowl, glazed
+inside. Flat rim with slight elevation on outer edge. Protruding
+vertically from rim are three lugs or supports for holding plates.
+Vertical loop handles extend from rim to lower sides of bowl. &#8220;Spirits of
+wine&#8221; were probably burned in the bowl to heat the plate above. (Fig. 20.)
+Fragmentary pedestals, similar in profile to the one here (but smaller,
+having step turnings around base) may have been parts of smaller chafing
+dishes. (Fig. 31.)</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig30.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 30.</span>&mdash;Exteriors (left) and interiors of
+gravel-tempered sherds. Top to bottom: rim of small bowl; rim of small jar
+with internal flange to receive cover; and pipkin handle. Colonial
+National Historical Park. (<i>From Smithsonian photos 43039-C, 43039-D.</i>)</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Ovens: (1) One wholly reconstructed oven at Jamestown. Made in sections on
+drape molds: base, two sides, two halves of top, opening frame, and door.
+Side and top sections are joined with seams, reinforced by finger
+impressions, meeting at top of trapezoidal opening. The opening was molded
+separately and joined with thumb-impressed reinforcements. A flat door
+with heavy vertical handle, round in section, fits snugly into opening.
+Thickness varies from &#190;&Prime; to 1&#189;&Prime;. Unglazed, although smears of glaze
+dripped during the firing indicate that the oven was fired with glazed
+utensils stacked above it. (Fig. 10.)</p>
+
+<p>(2) Oven in place in Bowne House, Flushing, Long Island. Similar in shape
+to Jamestown oven. Opening is arched.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Body sherd and handle sherds at Jamestown, from additional oven or
+ovens.</p>
+
+<p>(4) Body sherd from dome-top oven similar to those at Jamestown and
+Flushing. John Howland House site, Rocky Nook, Kingston, Plymouth County,
+Massachusetts. (Fig. 26.)</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Comparative Evidence</span></p>
+
+<p>Paste color, temper, and texture are consistent when examined
+microscopically. Resemblance is very close between oven sherds from the
+Jamestown and Howland house sites, and between these and a large chip
+obtained from the Smithsonian&#8217;s oven purchased in Bideford. Except for a
+somewhat lower proportion of temper, utensil sherds from various sites are
+consistent with the oven fragments. The Smithsonian&#8217;s 19th-century
+Bideford pan also closely resembles these, except for the proportion of
+temper, which is somewhat less. Further close resemblance of form exists
+between the Jamestown and Flushing ovens and those in the Bideford Museum.
+(Figs. 7, 9.)</p>
+
+<p>In 1954 comparative tests were made by Frederick H. Norton, professor of
+ceramics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Jamestown clay was used
+for a control. Thin sections, made of sherds found at Jamestown, were
+fired at several temperatures and the results recorded in
+photomicrographs. Of the gravel-tempered sherd submitted in these tests,
+Professor Norton commented, &#8220;The clay mass looks quite dissimilar from the
+Jamestown clay.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>No other identifiable English ware of this period compares with the
+gravel-tempered pottery, the use of gravel for temper apparently being
+restricted to North Devon. Gravel is found in red earthenware sherds from
+Spanish colonial sites and in olive oil jars of Hispanic origin, but both
+the quality and proportion of temper differs, as do the paste
+characteristics, so that no possibility exists for confusion between them
+and the North Devon ware.</p>
+
+<p>The North Devon potteries produced gravel-tempered ovens that probably
+were unique in England. Ceramic ovens were made elsewhere, to be sure;
+Jewitt describes and illustrates an oven made in Yearsley by the Yorkshire
+Wedgwoods in 1712, but it is in no way related to the North Devon form. We
+have mentioned Dr. Pococke&#8217;s allusion to &#8220;earthenware ovens&#8221; made in the
+mid-18th century at Calstock on the Cornish side of the Devonshire border,
+about 35 miles from Bideford; however, one may suppose that these were the
+products of diffusion from the North Devon center, if, indeed, they even
+resembled the North Devon ovens.</p>
+
+<p>The closest comparisons with the North Devon ovens are to be found in
+Continental sources. A woodcut in Ulrich von Richental&#8217;s <i>Concilium zu
+Constancz</i> (fig. 35), printed at Augsburg in 1483, shows an oven whose
+shape is similar to that of the Jamestown specimen. The oven in the
+woodcut is mounted on a two-wheeled cart drawn by two men. A woman is
+removing a tart from the flame-licked opening while a couple sits nearby
+at a table in front of a shop. Le Moyne, a century later, depicted the
+Huguenot Fort Caroline in Florida.<a name="fna_71_71" id="fna_71_71"></a><a href="#fn_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> Just outside the stockade, on a
+raised platform under a thatched lean-to appears an oven whose form is
+similar to that of typical North Devon examples (fig. 36). It is a safe
+assumption that the ovens in both Richental&#8217;s and Le Moyne&#8217;s scenes were
+ceramic ovens, for both were used outdoors in a portable or temporary
+manner. No other material would have been suitable for such use.</p>
+
+<p>This portable usage gives support to Bailey&#8217;s conjecture that the
+Jamestown oven may have been used indoors in the winter and outdoors in
+the summer. He noted that carbon had been ground into the base, as though
+the oven had lain on a fireplace hearth.<a name="fna_72_72" id="fna_72_72"></a><a href="#fn_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> Sidney Strickland, writing
+about his excavation of the John Howland House site, noted that the stone
+fireplace foundation there had no provision for a built-in brick oven of
+conventional type.<a name="fna_73_73" id="fna_73_73"></a><a href="#fn_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> Not having recognized the earthen oven sherd, he
+assumed that bread was baked on the stone hearth. The pottery oven may
+well have been placed on the hearth or have been set up in an outbuilding.
+That ovens of some sort, whether ceramic or brick, were used away from
+houses is borne out by occasional documentary evidence. In 1662 John
+Andrews of Ipswich, Massachusetts, bequeathed a &#8220;bake house&#8221; worth 2
+pounds, 10 shillings. In 1673, Henry Short of Newbury provided in his will
+that his widow should have &#8220;free egress and regress into the Bakehouse for
+bakeing &amp; washing.&#8221; In 1679 the inventory of Lt. George Gardner&#8217;s estate
+in Salem listed his &#8220;dwelling house, bake house &amp; out housing.&#8221;<a name="fna_74_74" id="fna_74_74"></a><a href="#fn_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> Bailey
+quotes the records of Henrico County, Virginia, to show a similar usage in
+the South.<a name="fna_75_75" id="fna_75_75"></a><a href="#fn_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig31.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 31.</span>&mdash;Pedestal bases of small chafing dishes or
+standing salts. Top, exterior and interior of one sherd; bottom, exterior
+and top view of another sherd. Colonial National Historical Park. (<i>From
+Smithsonian photos 43039-C, 43030-D.</i>)</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The only unquestionable evidence of how these ovens were used remains in
+the Bowne House, where the oven is built into the fireplace back.
+Originally, the oven protruded outdoors from the back of the chimney.<a name="fna_76_76" id="fna_76_76"></a><a href="#fn_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<h2>Conclusions</h2>
+
+<p>Archeological, documentary, and literary evidences indicate that yellow
+sgraffito ware, gravel-tempered earthenware utensils, and gravel-tempered
+pottery ovens were made in several potteries in and around Barnstaple and
+Bideford in North Devon. Clay from the Fremington clay beds was used.</p>
+
+<p>The North Devon potteries manufactured for export, sending their wares to
+Ireland as early as 1600 and to America by 1635. The trade was
+particularly heavy in the years following the Stuart Restoration and was
+tied to the influential 17th-century West-of-England commerce with
+America. New England, Maryland, and Virginia received many shipments of
+North Devon pottery, an entire cargo of it having been delivered in Boston
+in 1688.</p>
+
+<p>Sgraffito ware found in colonial sites in Virginia and Maryland is from a
+common source. The style of decoration is unique to English pottery and
+reflects Continental elements of design. It is reminiscent of decoration
+found on English and colonial New England furniture and embroideries. The
+only counterparts of this ware&mdash;matching it in style, paste color, and
+technique&mdash;are found among 17th-century sherds excavated from the sites of
+two potteries in Barnstaple. The 18th-century and 19th-century North Devon
+sgraffito ware surviving above ground differs considerably in style and
+form but in other respects it is the same as the ware found
+archeologically in Virginia and Maryland. The stylistic differences,
+noticeable on a piece in the Glaisher collection dated as early as 1704
+(in which traces of the earlier style remain), were introduced by the turn
+of the century, thus strengthening the conclusion that the sgraffito
+tablewares found archeologically in this country must date from before
+1700.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+<table width="60%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig32a.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td><td align="center"><img src="images/fig32b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/fig32c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 32.</span>&mdash;Photomicrographs of gravel-tempered sherds
+enlarged twice natural size, showing cross-sectional fractures. Top left,
+pan sherd from Jamestown (Colonial National Historical Park); top right,
+pan sherd from Angelica Knoll site, Calvert County, Maryland (United
+States National Museum); and oven sherd from Bideford (United States National Museum).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
+
+<table width="60%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/fig33a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig33b.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td><td align="center"><img src="images/fig33c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><span class="smcap">Figure 33.</span>&mdash;Photomicrographs of gravel-tempered sherds
+enlarged three times natural size, showing cross-sectional fractures. Top,
+pan sherd from &#8220;R. M.&#8221; site, Plymouth, Massachusetts (Plimoth Plantation,
+Inc.); lower left, oven sherd from Jamestown (Colonial National Historical
+Park); and oven sherd from John Howland house site, Rocky Nook, Plymouth, Massachusetts (Plimoth Plantation, Inc.).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig34.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 34.</span>&mdash;Rim profiles of North Devon gravel-tempered
+earthenware pans. All are from the fill around and beneath the
+May-Hartwell site drain at Jamestown (constructed between 1689 and 1695)
+except those marked, as follows: <i>A</i>, from Angelica Knoll site, Calvert
+County, Maryland, late 17th century to about 1765; <i>B</i>, from John
+Washington House site, Westmoreland County, Virginia, the period from
+about 1664 to about 1680; <i>C</i>, from &#8220;R. M.&#8221; site, Plymouth, Massachusetts,
+about 1670; <i>D</i>, from site of George Washington&#8217;s birthplace, near the
+John Washington house site; <i>E</i>, from Winslow site, Marshfield,
+Massachusetts, which was occupied from about 1635 to about 1699.</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>For kitchen utensils, tiles, and other objects subject to heat or
+breakage, the same Fremington clay received an admixture of fine pebbles,
+or gravel, secured at a special place in the bed of the River Torridge in
+Bideford. The use of gravel was described by 18th-century writers as well
+as by later historians. As found in America, the gravel-tempered ware
+apparently is unique among the products of either English or colonial
+American potters.</p>
+
+<p>A specialty of the North Devon potteries was the manufacture of ovens made
+of the same gravel-tempered clay as the kitchen utensils. The appearance
+of these ovens and the method of making them remained virtually the same
+from the 17th through the 19th centuries. At Jamestown, a wholly
+reconstructed oven reveals typical North Devon traits throughout, while a
+fragment of an oven from the John Howland House site near Plymouth
+displays, under a microscope, the same qualities of paste and temper as in
+a fragment of an oven obtained in Bideford by the Smithsonian Institution.
+Sherds of gravel-tempered utensils from several American sites also match
+the oven fragments. Paste characteristics, exclusive of the temper, are
+the same in the sgraffito ware, the gravel-tempered ware, and the ovens.
+Furthermore,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> the gravel-tempered ware occasionally is found with a plain
+coating of slip, which, under the glaze, has the same yellow color as the
+sgraffito ware, while an undecorated variant of the sgraffito ware also
+occurs with a similar plain slip.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig35.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 35.</span>&mdash;Baker&#8217;s portable oven in a woodcut from Ulrich
+von Richenthal&#8217;s <i>Concilium zu Constancz</i>, printed at Augsburg, Germany,
+in 1483. Lessing J. Rosenwald Collection, Library of Congress.</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig36.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Figure 36.</span>&mdash;Detail from De Bry&#8217;s engraving of Le Moyne&#8217;s
+painting of Fort Caroline, depicting an oven on a raised platform under a
+crude shed. Fort Caroline was a French Hugenot settlement established in
+Florida in 1564. Rare Book Room, Library of Congress.</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>All these wares, including the ovens, are interrelated&mdash;the specimens
+found in America having been shipped in a busy North Devon-North American
+trade. The North Devon towns, moreover, were an important pottery-making
+center for export markets in the West of England, Ireland, and North
+America. Thousands of parcels of earthenware were shipped to the American
+colonies from Bideford and Barnstaple during the 17th century. Any doubts
+that ovens were among these overseas shipments are dispelled by the
+knowledge that they continually were being shipped in the English
+coastwise trade, and also by intrinsic and comparative evidence that oven
+sherds found on American sites are of North Devon origin.</p>
+
+<p>The only known counterparts of the North Devon ovens are Continental. A
+15th-century example appears in an Augsburg woodcut, and a 16th-century
+specimen is depicted in De Bry&#8217;s engraving after Le Moyne&#8217;s painting of
+Fort Caroline, the Huguenot settlement in Florida. There are many
+suggestions of Huguenot and Low Country influences on North Devon pottery.
+Bideford and Barnstaple both were Puritan strongholds in the 17th century,
+and both became French Huguenot centers, especially after the revocation
+of the Edict of Nantes in 1685.</p>
+
+<p>The style of sgraffito decoration changed radically after about 1700.
+After that date, decoration was confined mainly to harvest jugs and
+presentation pieces. Gravel-tempered utensils and ovens continued to be
+made, but the North Devon trade with America ceased by 1760.</p>
+
+<p>Archeological evidence indicates that gravel-tempered ware was used in
+America between about 1675 and about 1760. An isolated example of
+sgraffito pottery, distinguished by crude design and glaze, dates from
+before 1640. The typical sgraffito ware is illustrated by specimens found
+in the fill under and around the brick drain in the May-Hartwell site at
+Jamestown. This ware dates between 1677 and 1695. No other sites provide a
+more certain dating than this. Sgraffito ware found at Bridge&#8217;s Creek,
+Virginia (John<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> Washington house site), may date as early as 1664, but may
+be as late as 1677 or a few years thereafter.</p>
+
+<p>The May-Hartwell oven was also found in the drain fill, so presumably it
+also was used before 1695. The oven fragment from the site of the John
+Howland house dates between about 1630 and about 1675, the lifetime of the
+house. The oven in the Bowne House is no earlier than 1664, the date of
+construction.</p>
+
+<p>Typical sgraffito ware, therefore, dates from 1664 to 1695, plus or minus
+a few years. Gravel-tempered ware predominates in the same period, but
+extends well into the 18th century, probably to about 1760. Ovens date
+from between 1664 and 1695. The concentrations of wares within the limits
+of the May-Hartwell drain site correspond roughly with records of heavy
+shipments of the wares between 1681 and 1690. The earliest shipment
+recorded was to New England in 1635.</p>
+
+<p>The sgraffito ware probably served as much for decoration as for practical
+use. Each piece was decorated differently, with elaborate designs, and in
+such a manner that it could provide a colorful effect on a court cupboard
+or a dresser, matching in style the carved woodwork or crewel embroidery
+of late 17th-century furnishings. Although sgraffito ware represented a
+degree of richness and dramatic color, it did not match the elegance of
+contemporary majolica, decorated after the manner of Chinese porcelain.
+Heavy and coarse, the sgraffito ware essentially was a variant of English
+folk pottery, reflecting the less sophisticated tastes of rural West of
+England. It did not occur in the colonies after 1700, by which time it was
+supplanted in public taste by the more refined majolica.</p>
+
+<p>Gravel-tempered ware apparently was esteemed as a kitchen ware, much as is
+the modern &#8220;ovenware&#8221; or Pyrex in the contemporary home. Since
+gravel-tempered ovens were widely used in the West of England, they were
+accepted by settlers in America, especially where built-in brick ovens
+were lacking.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike those of Staffordshire or Bristol, the North Devon potteries failed
+to develop new techniques or to change with shifts in taste. The delftware
+of London and Bristol and the yellow wares of Bristol and Staffordshire
+became preferable to the soft and imperfect sgraffito ware. In the same
+way, the kitchen ware of Staffordshire and the adequate red-wares of
+American potters made obsolete the heavy, ugly, and incomparably crude
+gravel-tempered ware, while American bricklayers, having adopted the
+custom of building brick ovens into fireplaces, outmoded the portable
+ovens from North Devon after 1700. Any chance of a renaissance of North
+Devon&#8217;s potteries was killed by the blockading of its ports in the
+mid-18th century. From then on the potteries continued traditionally,
+their markets gradually shrinking at home in the face of modern production
+elsewhere. Today, only Brannan&#8217;s Litchdon Street Pottery in Barnstaple has
+survived.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<div class="note">
+<p class="center"><span class="large"><span class="smcap">Other References Consulted</span></span></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Bemrose, Geoffrey</span>, <i>Nineteenth-Century English Pottery and Porcelain</i>, New
+York, n.d. (about 1952).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Blacker, J. F.</span>, <i>Nineteenth-Century English Ceramic Art</i>, London, 1911.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Chaffers, William</span>, <i>Marks and Monograms on Pottery and Porcelain</i>, 14th
+issue, London, 1932.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Gribble, Joseph B.</span>, <i>Memorials of Barnstaple</i>, Barnstaple, 1830.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Haggar, Reginald</span>, <i>English Country Pottery</i>, London, 1950.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Honey, W. B.</span>, <i>European Ceramic Art from the end of the Middle Ages to
+about 1815</i>, London, n.d. (about 1952).</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Mankowitz, Wolf, and Haggar, Reginald G.</span>, <i>The Concise Encyclopedia of
+English Pottery and Porcelain</i>, London, 1957.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Meteyard, Eliza</span>, <i>The Life of Josiah Wedgwood</i>, London, 1865.</p></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center">U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1960</p>
+<p class="center">For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D.C. Price 35 cents.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><strong>Footnotes:</strong></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_1_1" id="fn_1_1"></a><a href="#fna_1_1">[1]</a> Worth Bailey, &#8220;Concerning Jamestown Pottery&mdash;Its Past and
+Present,&#8221; <i>Ceramic Age</i>, October 1939, pp. 101-104.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_2_2" id="fn_2_2"></a><a href="#fna_2_2">[2]</a> H. C. Forman, <i>Jamestown and Saint Mary&#8217;s</i>, Baltimore, 1938,
+p. 133.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_3_3" id="fn_3_3"></a><a href="#fna_3_3">[3]</a> Worth Bailey, &#8220;A Jamestown Baking Oven of the Seventeenth
+Century,&#8221; <i>William and Mary College Quarterly Historical Magazine</i>, 1937, ser. 2, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 496-500.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_4_4" id="fn_4_4"></a><a href="#fna_4_4">[4]</a> John Watkins, <i>An Essay Towards a History of Bideford in the
+County of Devon</i>, Exeter, 1792, p. 56.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_5_5" id="fn_5_5"></a><a href="#fna_5_5">[5]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 65, 67-68.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_6_6" id="fn_6_6"></a><a href="#fna_6_6">[6]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 70.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_7_7" id="fn_7_7"></a><a href="#fna_7_7">[7]</a> Port Book, Barnstaple, 1620, Public Record Office, London
+(hereinafter referred to as <i>Port Book</i>), E 190/947.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_8_8" id="fn_8_8"></a><a href="#fna_8_8">[8]</a> <i>Virginia Magazine of History and Biography</i>, 1911, vol. 19,
+p. 31.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_9_9" id="fn_9_9"></a><a href="#fna_9_9">[9]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, quoting Sainsbury Abstracts, p. 184.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_10_10" id="fn_10_10"></a><a href="#fna_10_10">[10]</a> <i>Virginia Magazine of History and Biography</i>, 1901, vol. 9,
+pp. 257-258.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_11_11" id="fn_11_11"></a><a href="#fna_11_11">[11]</a> Bernard Bailyn, <i>The New England Merchants in the
+Seventeenth Century</i>, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1955, p. 87.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_12_12" id="fn_12_12"></a><a href="#fna_12_12">[12]</a> Isle of Wight County (Virginia) records, quoted in <i>William
+and Mary College Quarterly Historical Magazine</i>, 1899, ser. 1, vol. 7, p. 228.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_13_13" id="fn_13_13"></a><a href="#fna_13_13">[13]</a> P. A. Bruce, <i>Economic History of Virginia in the
+Seventeenth Century</i>, New York, 1895, vol. 2, p. 334.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_14_14" id="fn_14_14"></a><a href="#fna_14_14">[14]</a> Watkins, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 4), p. 65.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_15_15" id="fn_15_15"></a><a href="#fna_15_15">[15]</a> <i>Port Book</i>, E 190/959/6.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_16_16" id="fn_16_16"></a><a href="#fna_16_16">[16]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, E 190/954/6.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_17_17" id="fn_17_17"></a><a href="#fna_17_17">[17]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, E 190/959/6.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_18_18" id="fn_18_18"></a><a href="#fna_18_18">[18]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, E 190/960/10.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_19_19" id="fn_19_19"></a><a href="#fna_19_19">[19]</a> Richard Corkhill was one of the six Bideford factors
+residing in Northampton County. Bruce, <i>op. cit.</i> (see footnote 13).</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_20_20" id="fn_20_20"></a><a href="#fna_20_20">[20]</a> <i>Port Book</i>, E 190/959/6.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_21_21" id="fn_21_21"></a><a href="#fna_21_21">[21]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, E 190/960/8.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_22_22" id="fn_22_22"></a><a href="#fna_22_22">[22]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, E 190/960/3.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_23_23" id="fn_23_23"></a><a href="#fna_23_23">[23]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, E 190/966/10.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_24_24" id="fn_24_24"></a><a href="#fna_24_24">[24]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, E 190/968/10.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_25_25" id="fn_25_25"></a><a href="#fna_25_25">[25]</a> Colonial office shipping records relating to Massachusetts
+ports, typescript in Essex Institute, Salem, Massachusetts, 1931, vol. 1, p. 78.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_26_26" id="fn_26_26"></a><a href="#fna_26_26">[26]</a> <i>Port Book</i>, E 190/939/14; 942/13; 944/8; 951.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_27_27" id="fn_27_27"></a><a href="#fna_27_27">[27]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, E 190/959/5.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_28_28" id="fn_28_28"></a><a href="#fna_28_28">[28]</a> &#8220;Some Account of Biddeford, in Answer to the Queries
+Relative to a Natural History of England,&#8221; <i>The Gentlemen&#8217;s Magazine</i>, 1755, vol. 25, p. 445.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_29_29" id="fn_29_29"></a><a href="#fna_29_29">[29]</a> Watkins, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 4), pp. 74-75.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_30_30" id="fn_30_30"></a><a href="#fna_30_30">[30]</a> T. M. Hall, &#8220;On Barum Tobacco-Pipes and North Devon Clays,&#8221;
+<i>Report and Transactions of the Devonshire Association for the Advancement
+of Science, Literature, and Art</i>, Devon, 1890, vol. 22, pp. 317-323.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_31_31" id="fn_31_31"></a><a href="#fna_31_31">[31]</a> T. Charbonnier, &#8220;Notes on North Devon Pottery of the
+Seventeenth, Eighteenth, and Nineteenth Centuries,&#8221; <i>Report and
+Transactions of the Devonshire Association for the Advancement of Science,
+Literature, and Art</i>, Devon, 1906, vol. 38, p. 255.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_32_32" id="fn_32_32"></a><a href="#fna_32_32">[32]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 256.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_33_33" id="fn_33_33"></a><a href="#fna_33_33">[33]</a> Bernard Rackham, <i>Catalogue of the Glaisher Collection of
+Pottery and Porcelain in the Fitzwilliam Museum</i>, Cambridge, 1950, ed. 2, vol. 1, pp. 10-11.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_34_34" id="fn_34_34"></a><a href="#fna_34_34">[34]</a> Llewellyn Jewitt, <i>The Ceramic Art of Great Britain</i>,
+London, 1883, ed. 2, pp. 206-207.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_35_35" id="fn_35_35"></a><a href="#fna_35_35">[35]</a> George Maw, &#8220;On a Supposed Deposit of Boulder-Clay in North
+Devon,&#8221; <i>Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London</i>, 1864, vol. 20, pp. 445-451.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_36_36" id="fn_36_36"></a><a href="#fna_36_36">[36]</a> Charbonnier, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 31), pp. 255, 259.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_37_37" id="fn_37_37"></a><a href="#fna_37_37">[37]</a> &#8220;Supplement to the Account of Biddeford,&#8221; <i>The Gentlemen&#8217;s
+Magazine</i>, 1755, vol. 25, p. 564.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_38_38" id="fn_38_38"></a><a href="#fna_38_38">[38]</a> Watkins, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 4), p. 74. However, the
+&#8220;byelaws&#8221; of Barnstaple for 1689 indicate that tempering materials were
+also obtained locally: &#8220;Every one that fetcheth sand from the sand ridge,
+shall pay for each horse yearly 1<sup>d</sup>, and for every boat of Crock Sand
+1<sup>d</sup>., according to the antient custome.&#8221; (Joseph B. Gribble, <i>Memorials
+of Barnstaple</i>, Barnstaple, 1830, p. 360.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_39_39" id="fn_39_39"></a><a href="#fna_39_39">[39]</a> Charbonnier, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 31), p. 258.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_40_40" id="fn_40_40"></a><a href="#fna_40_40">[40]</a> B. W. Oliver, &#8220;The Three Tuns, Barnstaple,&#8221; <i>Report and
+Transactions of the Devonshire Association for the Advancement of Science,
+Literature, and Art</i>, Torquay, Devon, 1948, vol. 80, pp. 151-152.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_41_41" id="fn_41_41"></a><a href="#fna_41_41">[41]</a> Mildred E. Jenkinson in personal correspondence from Bideford, April 20, 1955.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_42_42" id="fn_42_42"></a><a href="#fna_42_42">[42]</a> Hall, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 30), p. 319.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_43_43" id="fn_43_43"></a><a href="#fna_43_43">[43]</a> H. W. Strong, &#8220;The Potteries of North Devon,&#8221; <i>Report and
+Transactions of the Devonshire Association for the Advancement of Science, Literature, and Art</i>, Devon, 1891, vol. 23, p. 393.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_44_44" id="fn_44_44"></a><a href="#fna_44_44">[44]</a> Charbonnier, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 31), p. 257.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_45_45" id="fn_45_45"></a><a href="#fna_45_45">[45]</a> Jewitt, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 34), vol. 1, pp. 205-206.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_46_46" id="fn_46_46"></a><a href="#fna_46_46">[46]</a> <i>Great Exhibition 1851. Official, Descriptive, and
+Illustrated Catalogue</i>, London, 1851, p. 776, no. 131.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_47_47" id="fn_47_47"></a><a href="#fna_47_47">[47]</a> W. J. Pountney, <i>Old Bristol Potteries</i>, Bristol, n.d., pp. 153-154.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_48_48" id="fn_48_48"></a><a href="#fna_48_48">[48]</a> Cloume = cloam: &#8220;In O. E. Mud, clay. Hence, in mod. dial.
+use: Earthenware, clay ... b. <i>attr.</i> or <i>adj.</i>&#8221; (J. A. H. Murray, ed., <i>A
+New English Dictionary on Historic Principles</i>, Oxford, 1893, vol. 2, p. 509.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_49_49" id="fn_49_49"></a><a href="#fna_49_49">[49]</a> J. J. Cartwright, ed., <i>The Travels through England of Dr.
+Richard Pococke</i>, Camden Society Publications, 1888, new ser., no. 42, vol. 1, p. 135.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_50_50" id="fn_50_50"></a><a href="#fna_50_50">[50]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. 1, p. 131.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_51_51" id="fn_51_51"></a><a href="#fna_51_51">[51]</a> Jenkinson correspondence (see footnote 41).</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_52_52" id="fn_52_52"></a><a href="#fna_52_52">[52]</a> Jewitt, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 34), pp. 206-207.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_53_53" id="fn_53_53"></a><a href="#fna_53_53">[53]</a> Charbonnier, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 31), p. 258.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_54_54" id="fn_54_54"></a><a href="#fna_54_54">[54]</a> Jenkinson correspondence (footnote 41).</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_55_55" id="fn_55_55"></a><a href="#fna_55_55">[55]</a> <i>Made in Devon. An Exhibition of Beautiful Objects Past and
+Present</i>, Dartington Hall, 1950, p. 9.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_56_56" id="fn_56_56"></a><a href="#fna_56_56">[56]</a> Charbonnier, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 31), p. 258.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_57_57" id="fn_57_57"></a><a href="#fna_57_57">[57]</a> John L. Cotter, <i>Archeological Excavations at Jamestown,
+Virginia</i>. Archeological Research Series, no. 4, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, 1958.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_58_58" id="fn_58_58"></a><a href="#fna_58_58">[58]</a> J. C. Harrington, <i>Archeological Report, May-Hartwell Site,
+Jamestown: Excavations at the May-Hartwell site in 1935, 1938, and 1939
+and Ditch Explorations East of the May-Hartwell Site in 1935 and 1938</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_59_59" id="fn_59_59"></a><a href="#fna_59_59">[59]</a> Cotter, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 57), p. 158.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_60_60" id="fn_60_60"></a><a href="#fna_60_60">[60]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 112-119.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_61_61" id="fn_61_61"></a><a href="#fna_61_61">[61]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 102-112.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_62_62" id="fn_62_62"></a><a href="#fna_62_62">[62]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 151-152.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_63_63" id="fn_63_63"></a><a href="#fna_63_63">[63]</a> Joseph B. Brittingham and Alvin W. Brittingham, Sr., <i>The
+First Trading Post at Kicotan (Kecoughtan), Hampton, Virginia</i>, Hampton, 1947.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_64_64" id="fn_64_64"></a><a href="#fna_64_64">[64]</a> Louis R. Caywood, <i>Excavations at Green Spring Plantation</i>,
+Yorktown, 1955.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_65_65" id="fn_65_65"></a><a href="#fna_65_65">[65]</a> J. Paul Hudson, &#8220;George Washington Birthplace National
+Monument, Virginia,&#8221; National Park Service Historical Handbook Series, no. 26, Washington, 1956.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_66_66" id="fn_66_66"></a><a href="#fna_66_66">[66]</a> Virginia Cullen, <i>History of Lewes, Delaware</i>, Lewes, 1956;
+C. A. Bonine, &#8220;Archeological Investigation of the Dutch &#8216;Swanendael&#8217;
+Settlement under de Vries, 1631-1632,&#8221; <i>The Archeolog. News Letter of the
+Sussex Archeological Association</i>, Lewes, December 1956, vol. 8, no. 3.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_67_67" id="fn_67_67"></a><a href="#fna_67_67">[67]</a> S. T. Strickland, <i>Excavation of Ancient Pilgrim Home
+Discloses Nature of Pottery and Other Details of Everyday Life</i>, typescript, n.d.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_68_68" id="fn_68_68"></a><a href="#fna_68_68">[68]</a> James Deetz, <i>Excavations at the Joseph Howland Site (C5),
+Rocky Nook, Kingston, Massachusetts, 1959: A Preliminary Report</i>.
+Supplement, <i>The Howland Quarterly, 1960</i>, vol. 24, nos. 2, 3. The Pilgrim
+John Howland Society, Inc.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_69_69" id="fn_69_69"></a><a href="#fna_69_69">[69]</a> Rackham, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 33), vol. 2, p. 11, fig. 8 <span class="smcaplc">D</span>,
+no. 58.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_70_70" id="fn_70_70"></a><a href="#fna_70_70">[70]</a> John Eliot Hodgkin and Edith Hodgkin, <i>Examples of Early
+English Pottery, Named, Dated, and Inscribed</i>. London, 1891, p. 59.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_71_71" id="fn_71_71"></a><a href="#fna_71_71">[71]</a> J. Le Moyne, <i>Brevis Narratio corum quae in Florida ...</i>,
+Frankfort, 1591, pl. 10.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_72_72" id="fn_72_72"></a><a href="#fna_72_72">[72]</a> Bailey, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 3), pp. 497-498.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_73_73" id="fn_73_73"></a><a href="#fna_73_73">[73]</a> Strickland, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 67).</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_74_74" id="fn_74_74"></a><a href="#fna_74_74">[74]</a> The probate records of Essex County, Massachusetts, Salem,
+Massachusetts, 1916, vol. 1, p. 378; vol. 2, p. 346; vol. 3, p. 328.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_75_75" id="fn_75_75"></a><a href="#fna_75_75">[75]</a> Bailey, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 3), p. 498.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_76_76" id="fn_76_76"></a><a href="#fna_76_76">[76]</a> <i>Bowne House; A Shrine to Religious Freedom</i>, Flushing, New
+York. Pamphlet of The Bowne House Historical Society, Flushing, N.Y., n.d.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of North Devon Pottery and Its Export to
+America in the 17th Century, by C. Malcolm Watkins
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NORTH DEVON POTTERY ***
+
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+</body>
+</html>
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author	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 20:05:05 -0700
committer	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 20:05:05 -0700
commit	b5c9a042dbc6ead606c30756c6539ac78e7c85d3 (patch)
tree	245b7ea21f03dbc651a7f3c09c46dc4b3e363e0f /36092-h