initial commit of ebook 35936HEADmain

22 files changed, 7906 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/35936-8.txt b/35936-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..efa8de8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2604 @@
+Project Gutenberg's Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, by Anonymous
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado
+
+Author: Anonymous
+
+Release Date: April 22, 2011 [EBook #35936]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MESA VERDE NATIONAL PARK, COLORADO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Tom Cosmas and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                              Mesa Verde
+
+                              [COLORADO]
+
+                             National Park
+
+
+
+               United States Department of the Interior
+                   _Harold L. Ickes, Secretary_
+
+                         NATIONAL PARK SERVICE
+                   _Arno B. Cammerer, Director_
+
+
+
+                       [Illustration: DOI Logo]
+
+
+
+                             UNITED STATES
+                      GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
+                           WASHINGTON: 1937
+
+
+
+ +----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+ |+--------------------------------------------------------------------+|
+ ||                             Events                                 ||
+ ||                                                                    ||
+ ||                    OF HISTORICAL IMPORTANCE                        ||
+ |+--------------------------------------------------------------------+|
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ || 1st century[1] | The earliest occupation of Cliff Palace cave was  ||
+ ||    B.C. or     |   probably before, or immediately following, the  ||
+ ||      A.D.      |   beginning of the Christian era. These earliest  ||
+ ||                |   occupants, known to scientists as Basket        ||
+ ||                |   Makers, were the first agricultural Indians of  ||
+ ||                |   the Southwest.                                  ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||  4th to 7th[1] | By the beginning of the fourth century A.D., the  ||
+ ||   centuries    |   early agriculturists were developing the art of ||
+ ||      A.D.      |   pottery making. Later, their semisubterranean   ||
+ ||                |   homes were spread widely over the Mesa Verde.   ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||     7th to     | During the three or four centuries preceding 1000 ||
+ ||     10th[1]    |   A.D., the Pueblo Culture on Mesa Verde was      ||
+ ||    centuries   |   developing from modest beginnings toward its    ||
+ ||      A.D.      |   classical stage, which culminated in the        ||
+ ||                |   building of the great cliff dwelling.           ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1066      | Earliest date established for large Mesa Verde    ||
+ ||                |   cliff dwellings (Beam section from Mug House.)  ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||    1073-1273   | Construction of Cliff Palace.                     ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1276      | Beginning of 24-year drought, an important factor ||
+ ||                |   in forcing the cliff dwellers from the Mesa     ||
+ ||                |   Verde.                                          ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1776      | Expedition of Padre Silvestre Velez de Escalante  ||
+ ||                |   to southwestern Colorado. Party camped on the   ||
+ ||                |   Mancos River near the base of the Mesa Verde.   ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1859      | Ascent of the north escarpment of Mesa Verde by   ||
+ ||                |   Capt. J. N. Macomb, of the United States Army,  ||
+ ||                |   and members of his party of geologists.         ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1874      | Discovery of the ruins in the Mancos Canyon by    ||
+ ||                |   W. H. Jackson, United States Geological Survey. ||
+ ||                |   Party harrassed by Ute Indians.                 ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1888      | Discovery of Cliff Palace and other major ruins   ||
+ ||                |   by Richard Wetherill and Charlie Mason.         ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1891      | First organized archeological expedition to Mesa  ||
+ ||                |   Verde, under direction of Baron G. Nordenskiöld.||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1906      | Mesa Verde National Park created June 29.         ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1907      | Excavation of Spruce Tree House by Dr. J. Walter  ||
+ ||                |   Fewkes, of Smithsonian Institution.             ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1909      | Excavation of Cliff Palace.                       ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1911      | Excavation and repair of Balcony House by Jesse   ||
+ ||                |   L. Nusbaum.                                     ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1913      | First entrance road completed. First automobile in||
+ ||                |   Spruce Tree Camp. Extension of park boundaries  ||
+ ||                |   to include notable ruins and archeological      ||
+ ||                |   remains.                                        ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1914      | Construction of first wagon road from Spruce Tree ||
+ ||                |   Camp to principal cliff dwellings.              ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1915      | Sun Temple excavated by Dr. Fewkes.               ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1916      | Far View House excavated by Dr. Fewkes.           ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1917      | First Government-constructed trails to Spring     ||
+ ||                |   House and Soda Canyon.                          ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1918      | First camp accommodations established at Spruce   ||
+ ||                |    Tree Camp.                                     ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1919      | Square Tower House excavated.                     ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1921      | Establishment of superintendent's office and home ||
+ ||                |   at park headquarters.                           ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1925      | First unit of park museum constructed by donated  ||
+ ||                |   funds.                                          ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1926      | Excavation in Step House Cave and discovery of    ||
+ ||                |   its occupation by Basket Maker III people more  ||
+ ||                |   than 3 centuries in advance of cliff dweller    ||
+ ||                |   occupation.                                     ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1928      | Exclusive jurisdiction of park tendered to the    ||
+ ||                |   United States and accepted by act of Congress   ||
+ ||                |   April 25.                                       ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1934      | Completion of deep water well (4,192 feet).       ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1936      | Addition to park museum completed.                ||
+ |+--------------------------------------------------------------------+|
+ +----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+                         RULES AND REGULATIONS
+
+
+                              · Briefed ·
+
+
+A complete copy of the rules and regulations for governing the park
+may be seen at the office of the superintendent.
+
++Automobiles.+--Secure automobile permit, fee $1 per car. Speed
+limit 35 miles per hour on entrance highway, 20 miles per hour in
+headquarters area and on ruin roads. Drive carefully; free wheeling is
+prohibited within the park.
+
++Fires.+--Confine fires to designated places. Extinguish completely
+before leaving camp, even for temporary absences. Do not guess your
+fire is out--KNOW IT.
+
++Firewood.+--Use only the wood that is stacked and marked "firewood"
+near your campsite. By all means do not use your ax on any standing
+tree or strip bark from the junipers.
+
++Grounds.+--Burn all combustible rubbish before leaving your camp.
+Do not throw papers, cans, or other refuse on the ground or over the
+canyon rim. Use the incinerators which are placed for this purpose.
+
++Hiking.+--Do not venture away from the headquarters area unless
+accompanied by a guide or after first having secured permission from a
+duly authorized park officer.
+
++Hunting.+--Hunting is prohibited within the park. This area is a
+sanctuary for all wildlife.
+
++Noise.+--Be quiet in camp after others have gone to bed. Many
+people come here for rest.
+
++Park Rangers.+--The rangers are here to help and advise you as well
+as to enforce regulations. When in doubt, ask a ranger.
+
++Ruins and Structures.+--Do not mark, disturb, or injure in any way
+the ruins or any of the buildings, signs, or other properties within
+the park.
+
++Trees, Flowers, and Animals.+--Do not carve initials upon or pull
+the bark from any logs or trees. Flowers may not be picked unless
+written permission is obtained from the superintendent or park
+naturalist. Do not harm or frighten any of the wild animals or birds
+within the park. We wish to protect them for your enjoyment.
+
++Visitors.+--Register and secure permit at the park entrance.
+Between travel seasons, registration and permit are arranged for at
+park headquarters.
+
+
+
+
+                               Contents
+
+
+                                                            Page
+
+ The Ruins   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   3
+     Spruce Tree House   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   4
+     Cliff Palace  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   8
+     Balcony House   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  11
+     Square Tower House  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  12
+     Oak Tree House  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  15
+     Sun Set House   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  15
+     Sun Temple  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  15
+     New Fire-House Group  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  19
+     Cedar Tree Tower  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  21
+     Far View House, a Mesa Verde Pueblo   . . . . . . . . .  21
+     Earth Lodge A   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  25
+     Unexcavated Ruins   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  25
+
+ Dates for Mesa Verde Ruins Established by Tree-Ring
+     Chronology    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  26
+
+ Discoveries of Recent Years   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  27
+
+ Prehistoric Inhabitants of the Mesa Verde   . . . . . . . .  28
+
+ Fauna and Flora   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  32
+
+ How to Reach the Park   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  34
+     By Automobile   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  34
+     By Railroad   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  34
+
+ Motor Transportation    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  35
+
+ Administration  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  36
+
+ Educational Service   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  37
+     Guided Trips to the Ruins   . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  37
+     Campfire Talks   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
+     Park Museum  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
+     Reference Library  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
+
+ Free Public Camp Grounds     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
+
+ Horseback and Hiking Trips   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
+
+ Hospital and Medical Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
+
+ Accommodations and Expenses  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
+
+ References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
+
+
+   [Illustration:  _Grant photo._
+        COMPETENT RANGER NATURALISTS ACCOMPANY VISITORS TO THE RUINS]
+
+
+
+
+                              MESA VERDE
+
+                            _National Park_
+
+
+                 · SEASON FROM MAY 15 TO OCTOBER 15 ·
+
+
+The mesa verde, or green mesa, so-called because its juniper and piñon
+trees give it a verdant tone, is 15 miles long by 8 miles wide. Rising
+abruptly from the valley on the north side, its top slopes gradually
+southward to the high cliffs bordering the canyon of the Mancos River
+on the south. Into this valley open a number of large high-walled
+canyons through which occasionally, in times of heavy rain, raging
+torrents of water flow into the Mancos. In the shelter of the caves
+that have been eroded in the sides of these canyons are some of the
+best-preserved cliff dwellings in America, built many centuries ago by
+a tribe of peace-loving Indians who prized the security offered by the
+almost inaccessible caves. In order to preserve these cliff dwellings
+Mesa Verde National Park was created, but they are not the only
+attractions in the area. In the winter the park is closed to travel by
+deep snow, but in the early spring the blanket of snow is replaced by
+a mantle of flowers that change with the seasons, and to the story of
+the prehistoric inhabitants is added an absorbing story of nature that
+is peculiar to this mesa and canyon country.
+
+"The Mesa Verde region", writes Arthur Chapman, "has many attractions
+besides its ruins. It is a land of weird beauty. The canyons which
+seam the mesa, all of which lead toward the distant Mancos River, are,
+in many cases, replicas of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. While the
+summer days are warm, the nights are cool, and the visitor should
+bring plenty of wraps besides the clothing and shoes necessary for the
+work of climbing around among the trails. It is a country for active
+footwork, just as it was in the days of the cliff dwellers themselves.
+But when one has spent a few days among the cedars and piñon pines of
+the Mesa Verde, well named Green Table by the Spaniards of early days,
+he becomes an enthusiast and will be found among those who return
+again and again to this most unique of national parks to study its
+mysteries and its beauties from all angles."
+
+The northern edge of the mesa terminates in a precipitous bluff,
+averaging 2,000 feet above the Montezuma Valley. The general slope of
+the surface is to the south, and as the main entrance highway meanders
+back and forth in heading each smaller canyon, many times skirting the
+very brink of the great northern fault line, tremendous expanses of
+diversified terrain are brought into view, first in Colorado and Utah,
+then in Arizona and New Mexico.
+
+A new scenic road approximately 1 mile in length branches from the
+main highway at a point 10.2 miles beyond the entrance checking
+station and ascends to the crest of Park Point, the highest part of
+the Mesa Verde National Park, which attains an elevation of 8,572 feet
+above sea level.
+
+From this majestic prominence the great Montezuma Valley, dotted with
+artificial lakes and fertile fields, appears as from an airplane,
+while to the north are seen the Rico Mountains and the Lone Cone of
+Colorado, and to the east, the La Plata Mountains. To the west the La
+Sals, the Blues, and Bears Ears, of Utah, dominate the horizon. Some
+of these landmarks are more than 115 miles distant. Southward numerous
+deep canyons, in which the more important cliff dwellings are found,
+subdivide the Mesa Verde into many long, narrow tonguelike mesas. The
+dark purplish canyon of the Mancos River is visible in the middle
+foreground, and beyond, above the jagged outline of the mesa to the
+south, the Navajo Reservation, surrounded by the deep-blue Carrizos of
+Arizona and the Lukachukai and Tunichas of New Mexico.
+
+In the midst of this great mountain-enclosed, sandy plain, which, seen
+from the mesa, resembles a vast inland sea surrounded by dark,
+forbidding mountains, rises Ship Rock (45 miles distant), a great,
+jagged shaft of igneous rock, 1,860 feet high, which appears for all
+the world like a great "windjammer" under full sail. Toward evening
+the illusion is perfect.
+
+The distance from Park Point to Spruce Tree Camp, the park
+headquarters, is 10.5 miles. The entire road from the park entrance to
+headquarters, 20 miles, is gravel surfaced and oil treated, full
+double width, and cars may pass at any point thereon.
+
+Although there are hundreds of cliff dwellings within the Mesa Verde
+National Park, the more important are located in Rock, Long, Wickiup,
+Navajo, Spruce, Soda, Moccasin, and tributary canyons. Surface ruins
+of a different type are widely distributed over the narrow mesas
+separating the numerous canyons. A vast area surrounding the park
+contains more or less important ruins of these early inhabitants, most
+important and easiest of access from the park being the Aztec Ruins
+and Chaco Canyon National Monuments, New Mexico; the Yucca House
+National Monument, Colorado; and the Hovenweep National Monument,
+Colorado-Utah.
+
+   [Illustration: ROAD MAP OF MESA VERDE NATIONAL PARK,
+                  SHOWING IMPORTANT RUINS ON CHAPIN MESA ONLY]
+
+
+
+
+                              THE RUINS
+
+
+Although the Spaniards were in the Mesa Verde region as early as 1765
+and the Americans as early as 1859, it was not until 1872 that the
+first settlement was made. In that year the Mancos Valley, lying at
+the foot of the Mesa Verde, was settled, but because of the fact that
+the mesa itself was a stronghold of the warlike Ute Indians, many
+years passed before the cliff dwellings were discovered.
+
+The ruins in the Mancos Canyon were discovered as early as 1874 when
+W. H. Jackson, who led a Government party, found there many small
+dwellings broken down by the weather. The next year he was followed by
+Prof. W. H. Holmes, later chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
+who drew attention to the remarkable stone towers also found in this
+region. Had either of the explorers followed up the side canyons of
+the Mancos they would have then discovered ruins which, in the words
+of Baron Gustav Nordenskiöld, the talented Swedish explorer, are "so
+magnificent that they surpass anything of the kind known in the United
+States."
+
+The largest cliff ruin, known as Cliff Palace, was discovered by
+Richard Wetherill and Charlie Mason while hunting cattle one December
+day in 1888. Coming to the edge of a small canyon they first caught
+sight of a village under the overhanging cliff on the opposite side,
+placed like a picture in its rocky frame. In their enthusiasm they
+thought it was a palace. With the same enthusiasm the visitors of
+today involuntarily express their pleasure and surprise as they first
+view this spectacular ruin.
+
+Later these two men explored this ruin and gave it the name of Cliff
+Palace, an unfortunate designation, for it is in no respect a palace,
+but a community house, containing more than 200 living rooms, former
+abodes of families, and 23 ceremonial rooms or kivas. They also
+discovered other community dwellings, one of which was called Spruce
+Tree House, from a large spruce tree, since cut down, growing in front
+of it. This had eight ceremonial rooms and probably housed 300
+inhabitants.
+
+The findings of these two ruins did not complete the discoveries of
+ancient buildings in the Mesa Verde; many other ruins were found by
+the Wetherill brothers and other early explorers. They mark the oldest
+and most congested region of the park, but the whole number of
+archeological sites may reach into the thousands.
+
+Only a few of the different types of ruins that have already been
+excavated, repaired, and made accessible to the visitor are considered
+herein. This excavation and repair was the work of the late Dr. J.
+Walter Fewkes, formerly chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
+with the exception of Balcony House, which was done by Jesse L.
+Nusbaum. Hundreds of sites await scientific investigation, being
+accessible now only on foot or horseback.
+
+
+                           SPRUCE TREE HOUSE
+
+Spruce Tree House, located in a large cave just across Spruce Tree
+Canyon from the museum, has been made readily accessible by a short
+winding trail. This is the only excavated cliff dwelling in the park
+that may be visited without going on a conducted tour, and is open to
+the public at all times. A ranger is always on duty to protect the
+ruin from vandalism and to give information to the visitors.
+
+   [Illustration: SPRUCE TREE HOUSE, A COMMUNITY DWELLING OF 114 ROOMS]
+
+                         GENERAL DESCRIPTION
+
+The total length of Spruce Tree House is 216 feet, and its greatest
+width is 89 feet. During the excavation of the ruin in 1907, Dr.
+Fewkes counted 8 ceremonial rooms, or kivas, and 114 rooms that had
+been used for living, storage, and other purposes. At least 14 seemed
+to have been storage and burial rooms so that probably not more than
+100 were used as dwellings. If it is considered that a family occupied
+each room, the population would have been large, but it is doubtful if
+all of the rooms were occupied at one time. An average of 2 or 3
+persons to the room, making a total of not more than 300 for the
+entire village, would no doubt be a fair estimate.
+
+Two hundred feet north of Spruce Tree House the canyon comes to an
+abrupt box end. A splendid spring flows from the base of the sandstone
+cliff, and it was to this spring that the cliff-dweller women went for
+water carrying it back to their homes in their big water jars. At the
+south end of the cave a trail, consisting of small toeholds cut in the
+cliff, led to the mesa top above. This trail was used by the men as
+they went to their mesa-top fields, where they raised corn, beans, and
+squash, and by the hunters as they went in search of deer and mountain
+sheep that lived in the forests above.
+
+                             LIVING ROOMS
+
+The rooms of Spruce Tree House are divided into two groups by a court
+or street running from the front to the back of the cave, at a point
+just south of the center of the village. The majority of the rooms are
+north of this street, and some of the walls show the finest work in
+the entire structure. The stones were well shaped and smoothed; the
+mud mortar was carefully worked into the crevices and compressed with
+thin stone wedges. Over many of the walls was spread a thin coat of
+reddish plaster, often decorated with paintings. These rooms, standing
+as when they were constructed 700 years ago, are mute evidence of the
+cleverness of the masons who built them.
+
+Spruce Tree House has more walls that reach the top of the cave than
+any other ruin in the park. All through the central part the walls
+were three stories high, the top of the cave serving as the roof of
+the upper rooms. One-and two-story structures usually required a
+ceiling of heavy rafters, running lengthwise of the rooms. These were
+covered with a crosswise layer of small poles and withes as a support
+for an average 3-inch floor of clay. Very often a small hatchway was
+left in one corner of the ceiling. A short ladder leaning in the corner
+of the lower room gave access to the room above.
+
+Very few of the houses were equipped with fire pits. Most of the
+cooking was done in the open courts. Small fire pits can be found
+along the walls and in the corners of the courts and passageways.
+
+                       CEREMONIAL ROOMS OR KIVAS
+
+Spruce Tree House has eight of the circular, subterranean rooms that
+were set aside for ceremonial purposes. Similar rooms are still in use
+in the present day Pueblo Indian villages and are known as kivas.
+
+Usually the kiva roofs have collapsed, but in Square Tower House two
+kivas have the original roofs almost intact. Following the plan of
+these original roofs, three of the kivas in Spruce Tree House have
+been reroofed. Details of construction may be noted by descending the
+ladder into one of these restored kivas.
+
+Kivas in the Mesa Verde are always underground and generally circular
+in shape. The average diameter is 12 to 13 feet and the depth is such
+that the roof would clear a man's head. At a point about 3 feet above
+the floor is a narrow ledge running entirely around the room. This
+ledge is known as the banquette and its exact use is unknown. On this
+ledge were built six stone buttresses or pilasters, 2 to 3 feet in
+height, which served as roof supports. Short beams were placed from
+pilaster to pilaster around the room, and additional series of beams
+were laid to span the angles formed by the lower series. Normally five
+or six sets of beams extended this cribwork almost to the ground
+level. Horizontal beams were then placed across the top and the whole
+structure was covered with bark and earth. A small square hole in the
+center of the roof provided an entrance which also served for a smoke
+vent.
+
+On the south side of the kiva the banquette is wider between two of
+the pilasters than anywhere else around the room. This deep recess is
+often referred to as an altar, although its exact use is not known.
+Just back of the wall of this deep recess is a vertical shaft that
+leads down to meet a horizontal shaft that opens into the kiva just
+above the floor. This is the ventilator shaft. The fire, burning in
+the small pit in the center of the room, sent the smoke up through the
+hole in the roof, and the fresh air was drawn down through the
+ventilator shaft. Between the ventilator and the fire pit a small
+wall, known as the "deflector", was constructed to keep the fresh air
+current from blowing on the fire.
+
+Two or three feet from the fire pit, and in a straight line with the
+ventilator shaft, the deep recess, the deflector, and the fire pit is
+a small hole in the floor of the kiva. This hole is usually about 3
+inches in diameter and from 4 to 6 inches deep; its walls and bottom
+often covered with a smooth layer of mud. In the present-day kivas
+this hole is known as the "sipapu", and is considered to be the
+symbolic entrance to the underworld. The kiva was a combination
+ceremonial, club, and work room for the men. Even in the present-day
+villages the women are rarely ever allowed to enter the kivas because
+of the fact that the men take almost entire charge of the religious
+work. It is believed that each clan had its own kiva. It may be noted
+that in almost every case the kiva is surrounded by a group of living
+rooms. The members of the clan no doubt lived in these rooms and the
+men held their ceremonies in the adjoining kiva. Two of the kivas in
+Spruce Tree House have side entrances that lead to nearby rooms. These
+rooms may have been the homes of the priests, or dressing rooms for
+them.
+
+                          DATE OF OCCUPATION
+
+Twenty-one of the roof beams in Spruce Tree House have been dated by
+tree-ring chronology. These dates show that the houses were
+constructed during the years between 1230 A.D. and 1274 A.D. In 1276
+A.D. a 24-year period of drought began that caused the cliff dwellers
+to move to regions where there was a more permanent supply of water.
+In those same regions are the homes of the modern Pueblo Indians and
+no doubt some of these people are the descendants of the cliff
+dwellers.
+
+
+                             CLIFF PALACE
+
+Cliff Palace lies in an eastern spur of Cliff Canyon under the roof of
+an enormous cave that arches 50 to 100 feet above it. The floor of the
+cave is elevated about 200 feet above the bottom of the canyon and is
+just under the rim of the mesa. The entrance of the cave faces west,
+toward a great promontory upon which stands Sun Temple.
+
+The total length of the cave is over 300 feet and its greatest depth
+is just under 100 feet. The vaulted roof is so high that the cave is
+always light and airy, offering a perfect home site to the cliff
+dwellers who were seeking protection from the elements as well as from
+their enemies.
+
+Fortunately, the configuration of the cliffs above the ruin makes it
+possible to get a fine bird's-eye view from the rim of the mesa. Views
+obtained from the heads of the two trails are most striking and give
+an idea of the setting and size of the building before it is entered
+for closer inspection. The most spectacular view of Cliff Palace is
+from Sun Temple, across the canyon. This is the only spot from which
+the entire ruin may be seen.
+
+                             LIVING ROOMS
+
+Cliff Palace is the largest known cliff dwelling. Dr. Fewkes, who
+excavated the ruin in 1909, placed the number of living rooms at
+slightly more than 200. Very few of the walls reached the top of the
+cave because of its great height, but many of the structures were as
+high as two and three stories. Near the south end of the ruin is the
+tallest structure, a four-story tower that reaches the cave roof.
+Ground space appropriate for building purposes was at a premium in the
+cave. To provide for an increasing population, second-, third-, and
+even fourth-story rooms were superimposed on the original
+single-story structures which predominated in the initial
+cliff-dweller occupation of this site.
+
+When the cliff dwellers started building in the cave they were
+confronted with the problem of an uneven floor. The floor of the cave
+slanted from the back to the front and was covered with huge, angular
+boulders that had fallen from the cave roof. This problem the cliff
+dweller solved by erecting terraces and filling in the irregular
+places. The open spaces between the boulders were excellent for kivas,
+as there was not a great deal of excavation necessary. After the kiva
+walls were built the extra space was filled in with trash and dirt.
+When the flat kiva roof was added a level court resulted. Around this
+court the homes were constructed, often on the rough surfaces of the
+big boulders. Because of the uneven floor and the terracing that was
+necessary, six distinct terrace levels resulted.
+
+                                KIVAS
+
+Twenty-two kivas are located in the cave and another, lying about 50
+feet from the western end, and thought to have been used by men living
+in the cave, brings the total to 23. Twenty of these conform to the
+plan of the typical Mesa Verde kiva, but three seem to be of a
+different type. These three, instead of being round, are square with
+rounded corners. The banquette is missing as well as the pilasters or
+roof supports.
+
+                             STORAGE ROOMS
+
+Because of the fact that the inhabitants of Cliff Palace were forced
+to store enough corn each fall to last until the next harvest a great
+many storage rooms were constructed. Any small nook or cranny that was
+too small for a home was utilized for that purpose. Far back in the
+cave a number were constructed of large, thin sandstone slabs. These
+slabs were placed on end to form small rectangular rooms. When the
+door slabs were in place and all of the crevices were well chinked
+with mud the grain was safe from the rodents. High up under the roof
+of the cave, at the back, was a long narrow shelf that was also
+utilized for storage space. A wall was built along the front of the
+ledge to the cave roof, and the space back of the wall was divided
+into 14 small storage rooms. A ladder on the roof of one of the houses
+below gave access to the ledge.
+
+                              PAINTINGS
+
+In the third floor room of the four-story tower is the finest painting
+yet found in the Mesa Verde. The entire inner surface of the four
+walls was covered with bright red designs on a white background. The
+designs are similar to those found on cliff-dweller pottery. The white
+color was obtained by mixing finely ground gypsum with water to form
+a smooth paste; the red was obtained by treating hematite, or red
+ochre, in the same manner.
+
+                            THE ROUND TOWER
+
+The outstanding structure in Cliff Palace is the two-story round tower
+that stands just south of the center of the cave. Every stone in this
+tower is rounded to conform to the curvature of the walls and the
+graceful taper toward the top makes it one of the finest examples of
+masonry work in the region. When the early explorers first entered
+this tower the only object found was the most beautiful stone ax they
+ever discovered. Whether this tower was a home or whether it was
+constructed for some special purpose is a matter of conjecture.
+
+                          POSSIBLE POPULATION
+
+Because of the fact that Cliff Palace is the largest of all cliff
+dwellings, its population is of special interest. A close inspection
+of the rooms in the ruin shows that they are smaller, on the average,
+than the rooms in any of the other large cliff dwellings. When judged
+from our modern standards, it is difficult to imagine more than a
+couple of people living in each one. Our modern ideas, however, will
+not help us in understanding the people who once lived in Cliff
+Palace.
+
+More than anything else the cliff dwellers desired security from their
+enemies. Their next desire was safety from the elements. When it is
+considered that these were the motivating influences, it can easily be
+understood that such minor matters as space and comfort would receive
+little consideration. Since the inhabitants were an easy-going,
+peace-loving group it can be imagined that crowded living conditions
+would not be objectionable. In addition it must be considered that the
+rooms were used principally as sleeping quarters. All activities were
+carried on in the open courts and on the terraced roof tops. Even the
+cooking was done over open fires outside the houses.
+
+An average of two to the room would give a population of 400; an
+average of three would place 600 in the cave. If every room were
+occupied at one time and if the average of two or three to the room is
+not too high, it would seem that a total population of 500 would not
+be too great for Cliff Palace.
+
+
+                            BALCONY HOUSE
+
+Balcony House lies in Soda Canyon about 2½ miles southeast of
+Spruce Tree Camp, and is reached by a continuation of the Cliff Palace
+Road. It is one of the most picturesque of the accessible ruins in the
+park and occupies a better position for defense than most of the other
+ruins on the mesa. A few defenders could have repelled a large
+attacking force. Additional precautions have been taken at the south
+end of the ruin for the strengthening of its defenses, where the only
+means of reaching it is through a fortified narrow cleft. The south
+part of the ledge was walled up to a height of about 15 feet, the
+lower part of the wall closing the cleft being pierced by a narrow
+tunnel. Through this tunnel a man may creep on hands and knees from
+the cliff dwelling to the south part of the ledge, which affords a
+footing, with a precipice to the left and the cliff to the right, for
+about 100 paces. The ledge here terminates in the perpendicular wall
+of the canyon. The ruined walls of a defensive structure, built to cut
+off approach on this side, may still be traced.
+
+At the north end of the ruin the foundation gave the builders
+considerable trouble, but the difficulties were skillfully overcome. A
+supporting wall was erected on a lower ledge, to form a stable
+foundation for the outer wall of the upper rooms, where the higher
+ledge was too narrow or abrupt for building purposes.
+
+South of the rooms fronted by this wall is a small open court, bounded
+at the back by a few very regular and well-preserved rooms which rise
+to the roof of the cave. The poles supporting the floors of these
+upper-story rooms project about 2 feet to provide support for a
+balcony. Split poles, laid parallel with the front wall, were covered
+at right angles with rods of cedar bast and generously plastered with
+clay to form the floor of the balcony, which served as a means of
+outside communication between the rooms of the upper story. A low,
+thick parapet wall built on the edge of the precipice encloses the
+canyon side of the northern court.
+
+The funds for the excavation and repair of Balcony House in 1911 were
+largely furnished by the Colorado Cliff Dwellers Society, an
+organization founded and directed by Mrs. Gilbert McClurg, of Colorado
+Springs, Colo. The original purpose of this society was to stimulate
+interest in legislation for the preservation and protection of the
+prehistoric remains of the Mesa Verde. This society advanced the
+creation of Mesa Verde National Park in 1906.
+
+
+                          SQUARE TOWER HOUSE
+
+Square Tower House Ruin is situated in an eastern spur of Navajo
+Canyon, opposite a great bluff called Echo Cliff. An ancient approach
+to the ruin from the canyon rim is visible to the south of the
+dwelling. Footholes for ascent and descent had been cut in the cliff
+by the Indians which enabled them to reach the level on which the ruin
+is situated. The footpath now used by visitors parallels the ancient
+trail. Along the top of the talus this pathway splits into an upper
+and lower branch. The former, hugging the cliff, passes through the
+"Eye of the Needle"; the latter is lower down on the talus and is used
+by the stouter and older visitors.
+
+The Square Tower House cave is shallow, its back wall perpendicular,
+with roof slightly overhanging. At the extreme eastern end of the ruin
+the vertical cliff suddenly turns at right angles, forming an angle in
+which, high above the main ruin, there still remain walls of rooms. To
+these rooms, which are tucked away just under the canyon rim, with
+only their front walls visible, the name "Crow's Nest" is given. Logs,
+with their ends resting in notches cut in the rock actually support
+walls of masonry, as seen in the angle of this cliff. This is a
+well-known method of cliff-house construction.
+
+This ruin measures about 138 feet from its eastern to its western end.
+There are no streets or passageways as at Spruce Tree House and Cliff
+Palace. The rooms are continuous and compactly constructed, the walls
+being united from one end of the cave to the other, excepting for the
+spaces above the kivas. The absence of a cave recess to the rear of
+the ruin is significant as it allowed the cliff to be used as the back
+wall of rooms. Rooms in Square Tower House do not differ radically
+from those of Spruce Tree House and other cliff dwellings. They have
+smaller windows, door openings, and supports of balconies. The
+rectangular rooms were constructed above the ground; the circular
+rooms were subterranean. The former were devoted to secular and the
+latter to ceremonial purposes.
+
+                              THE TOWER
+
+The tower is, of course, the most conspicuous as well as the most
+interesting architectural feature of the ruin, being visible for a
+long distance as one approaches Square Tower House. Its foundation
+rests on a large boulder situated in the eastern section of the cave
+floor. This tower has three walls constructed of masonry, the fourth
+being the perpendicular rear wall of the cave. The masonry of the
+tower stands about 35 feet above the foundation, but the foundation
+boulder on which it stands increases its height over 5 feet.
+
+On a projecting rock on the west side above the tower is the wall of a
+small, inaccessible room which may have been used as a lookout or as
+an eagle house.
+
+The lowest story of the tower is entered from plaza B, and on the east
+side there are three openings, situated one over another, indicating
+the first, second, and third stories, but on the south side of the
+tower there are only two doorways. The roof of the lowest room is
+practically intact, showing good workmanship, but about half of its
+floor is destroyed. The upper walls of the second-story room have the
+original plaster, reddish dado below and white above. Although the
+third and fourth stories are destitute of floors, they are plastered.
+
+                                KIVAS
+
+Some of the best preserved circular ceremonial chambers (kivas) in the
+Southwest are to be seen in Square Tower House. The majority of the
+kivas belong to the pure type, distinguished by mural pilasters
+supporting a vaulted roof.
+
+Kiva A is particularly instructive on account of the good preservation
+of its roof. Its greatest diameter is 13 feet 6 inches; or, measuring
+inside the banquettes, 11 feet 1 inch. The interior is well plastered
+with many layers of brown plaster. The pilasters are six in number,
+one of which is double. Two depressions are visible in the smooth
+floor, in addition to a fireplace and a sipapu. These suggest ends of
+a ladder, but no remains of a ladder were found in the room.
+
+Kiva B is the largest ceremonial chamber in Square Tower House,
+measuring 16 feet 9 inches in diameter over all. This kiva is not only
+one of the best preserved, but also one of the most instructive in
+Square Tower House, since half of the roof, with the original
+cribbing, is still in place, extending completely around the
+periphery. It has six pilasters and as many banquettes. Where the
+plaster had not fallen, it was found to have several layers.
+
+   [Illustration: SUN TEMPLE, A MYSTERIOUS FORM OF RUIN]
+
+                             PETROGLYPHS
+
+The perpendicular cliff back of Square Tower House has several
+different forms of incised petroglyphs. From the fact that these
+usually occur on  the cliff above the kiva roofs, they may be regarded
+as connected in some way with a religious symbolism. A few petroglyphs
+are also found on stones set in the walls of the rooms.
+
+
+                            OAK TREE HOUSE
+
+The ruin formerly called Willow House, but now known as Oak Tree
+House, lies on the north side of Fewkes Canyon, in a symmetrical cave
+and has an upper and a lower part. The two noteworthy features of Oak
+Tree House are the kivas and the remnant of the wall of a circular
+room made of sticks plastered with adobe but destitute of stone
+masonry.
+
+Oak Tree House has seven kivas and may be called a large cliff
+dwelling. One of the kivas has a semicircular ground plan with a
+rectangular room on the straight side. There are no pilasters or
+banquettes in this kiva. The floor of another kiva was almost wholly
+occupied by a series of grinding bins, indicating a secondary use. The
+excavation work on Oak Tree House has not yet been completed, but a
+small collection of specimens at one end of the ruin shows the nature
+of the objects thus far found.
+
+
+                            SUN SET HOUSE
+
+Looking across Cliff Canyon from Sun Point one can see the fine ruin
+called Sun Set House, formerly known as Community House. This ruin,
+like many other cliff dwellings, has an upper and a lower house, the
+former being relatively larger than is usually the case. Although Sun
+Set House is accessible, it has never been excavated.
+
+
+                              SUN TEMPLE
+
+The cliff houses considered in the preceding pages are habitations.
+There are also specialized buildings on the Mesa Verde which were
+never inhabited but were used for other purposes. Two of these
+presumably were devoted solely to ceremonial purposes and are known as
+Sun Temple and Fire Temple.
+
+Sun Temple is situated west of Cliff Palace, on the promontory formed
+by the confluence of Cliff and Fewkes Canyons. Up to the year 1915 the
+site of Sun Temple was a mound of earth and stones, all showing
+artificial working or the pecking of primitive stone hammers. This
+mound had a circular depression in the middle and its surface was
+covered with trees and bushes. No high walls projected above the
+ground nor was there any intimation of the size or character of the
+buried building. It was believed to be a pueblo or communal
+habitation. Excavation of this mound brought into view one of the most
+unusual buildings in the park.
+
+Sun Temple is a type of ruin hitherto unknown in the park. The
+building excavated shows excellent masonry and is the most mysterious
+form yet discovered in a region rich in prehistoric remains. Although
+at first there was some doubt as to the use of this building, it was
+early recognized that it was not constructed for habitation, and it is
+now believed that it was intended for the performance of rites and
+ceremonies; the first of its type devoted to religious purposes yet
+recognized in the Southwest.
+
+The ruin was purposely constructed on a commanding promontory in the
+neighborhood of large inhabited cliff houses. It sets somewhat back
+from the edge of the canyon, but near enough to make it clearly
+visible from all sides, especially the neighboring mesas. It must have
+presented an imposing appearance rising on top of a point high above
+inaccessible, perpendicular cliffs. No better place could have been
+chosen for a religious building in which the inhabitants of many cliff
+dwellings could gather and together perform their great ceremonial
+dramas.
+
+The ground plan of the ruin has the form of the letter D. The building
+is in two sections, the larger of which, taken separately, is also
+D-shaped. This is considered the original building. The addition
+enlarging it is regarded as an annex. The south wall, which is
+straight and includes both the original building and the annex, is
+131.7 feet long. The ruin is 64 feet wide.
+
+There are about 1,000 feet of walls in the whole building. These walls
+average 4 feet in thickness, and are double, enclosing a central core
+of rubble and adobe. They are uniformly well made.
+
+The fine masonry, the decorated stones that occur in it, and the unity
+of plan stamp Sun Temple as the highest example of Mesa Verde
+architecture.
+
+The walls were constructed of the sandstone of the neighborhood. Many
+stone hammers and pecking stones were found in the vicinity.
+
+                            THE SUN SYMBOL
+
+On the upper surface of a large rock protruding from the base of the
+southwest corner of the building a peculiar depression, surrounded by
+radiating ridges, was found. To primitive minds, this may have
+appeared as a symbol of the sun and, therefore, deemed an object of
+great significance, to be protected as a shrine. This natural
+impression may have prompted Dr. Fewkes in the naming of this ruin.
+
+                        ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES
+
+There are three circular rooms in Sun Temple which from their form may
+be identified as ceremonial in function, technically called kivas. Two
+of these, free from other rooms, are situated in the plaza that
+occupies the central part of the main building, and one is embedded in
+rooms of the so-called "annex." Adjoining the last mentioned, also
+surrounded by rooms, is a fourth circular chamber which is not a kiva.
+This room, found to be almost completely filled with spalls or broken
+stones, perhaps originally served as an elevated tower or lookout.
+
+The kiva that is situated in the west section of Sun Temple has a
+ventilator stack attached to the south side, recalling the typical
+ventilator of a Mesa Verde cliff kiva, and there are indications of
+the same structure in the two circular chambers in the court. These
+kivas, however, have no banquettes or pilasters to support a vaulted
+roof, and no fragments of roof beams were found in the excavations
+made at Sun Temple. East of Sun Temple, where formerly there was only
+a mound of stone and earth, there were found the remains of a low
+circular structure of undetermined use.
+
+Most of the peripheral rooms of Sun Temple open into adjoining rooms,
+a few into the central court, but none has external openings. Some of
+the rooms are without lateral entrances, as if it were intended to
+enter them through a hatch in the roof.
+
+Not only pits indicative of the stone tools by which the stones
+forming the masonry of Sun Temple were dressed appear on all the rocks
+used in its construction, but likewise many bear incised symbols.
+Several of these still remain in the walls of the building; others
+have been set in cement near the outer wall of the eastern kiva. It is
+interesting to record that some of the stones of which the walls were
+constructed were probably quarried on the mesa top not far from the
+building, but as the surface of the plateau is now forested, the
+quarries themselves are hidden in accumulated soil and are difficult
+to discover.
+
+                                 AGE
+
+Sun Temple is believed to be among the latest constructed of all the
+aboriginal buildings in the park, probably contemporaneous with late
+building activities in Balcony House, Spruce Tree House, and Cliff
+Palace.
+
+Because of the absence of timbers or roof beams it is impossible to
+tell when Sun Temple was begun, how long it took for its construction,
+or when it was deserted. There are indications that its walls may
+never have been completed, and from the amount of fallen stones there
+can hardly be a doubt that when it was abandoned they had been carried
+up in some places at least 6 feet above their present level. The top
+of the wall had been worn down at any rate 6 feet in the interval
+between the time it was abandoned and the date of excavation of the
+mound. No one can tell the length of this interval in years.
+
+We have, however, knowledge of the lapse of time, because the mound
+had accumulated enough soil on its surface to support growth of large
+trees. Near the summit of the highest wall in the annex there grew a
+juniper tree of great antiquity, alive and vigorous when excavation
+work was begun. This tree undoubtedly sprouted after the desertion of
+the building and grew after a mound had developed from fallen walls.
+Its roots penetrated into the adjacent rooms and derived nourishment
+from the soil filling them.
+
+Necessarily, when these roots were cut off the tree was killed. It was
+then cut off about a foot above the ground, the stump remaining. A
+cross section of this stump was examined by Gordon Parker, supervisor
+of the Montezuma National Forest, who found that it had 360 annual
+rings without allowing for decayed heartwood which would add a few
+more years to its age.
+
+It is not improbable that this tree began to grow on the top of the
+Sun Temple mound shortly after the year 1540, when Coronado first
+entered New Mexico. How long an interval elapsed for crumbling walls
+to form the mound in which it grew, and how much earlier the
+foundations of the ruined walls were laid, no one can tell. A
+conservative guess of 350 years for the interval between construction
+and the time the cedar began to sprout would carry the antiquity of
+Sun Temple back to about 1200 A.D.
+
+                         UNITY OF CONSTRUCTION
+
+The argument that appeals most strongly to many in supporting the
+theory that Sun Temple was a ceremonial building is the unity shown in
+its construction. A preconceived plan existed in the minds of the
+builders before they began work on the main building. Sun Temple was
+not constructed haphazardly, nor was its form due to addition of one
+clan after another, each adding rooms to a preexisting nucleus. There
+is no indication of patching one building to another, so evident at
+Cliff Palace and other large cliff dwellings. The construction of the
+recess in the south wall, situated exactly, to an inch, midway in its
+length, shows it was planned from the beginning.
+
+We can hardly believe that one clan could have been numerous enough to
+construct a house so large and massive. Its walls are too extensive;
+the work of dressing the stones too great. The construction of Sun
+Temple presumably represents the cooperative efforts of many clans
+from adjacent cliff dwellings uniting in a common purpose. Such a
+united effort represents a higher state of sociological development
+than a loosely connected population of a cliff dwelling.
+
+                               BUILDERS
+
+On the theory that this building was erected by people from several
+neighboring cliff dwellings for ceremonies held in common, we may
+suppose that the builders came daily from their dwellings in Cliff
+Palace and other houses and returned at night, after they had finished
+work, to their homes. The trails down the sides of the cliffs which
+the workmen used are still to be seen. The place was frequented by
+many people, but there is no evidence that any one clan dwelt near
+this mysterious building during its construction.
+
+The argument that cliff dwellers in the neighborhood built Sun Temple
+and that incoming aliens had nothing to do with its construction seems
+very strong. The architectural differences between it and Cliff Palace
+are not objections, for the architectural form of Sun Temple may be
+regarded as a repetition, in the open, of a form of building that
+developed in a cliff house; the rounded north wall conforms with the
+rear of a cave and the straight south wall reproduces the front of a
+cliff dwelling. The recess midway in the south wall of Sun Temple
+could be likened without forcing the comparison to a similar recess
+which occurs at the main entrance into Cliff Palace.
+
+Sun Temple was not built by an alien people, but by the cliff dwellers
+as a specialized building mainly for religious purposes, and, so far
+as known, is the first of its type recognized in the Mesa Verde area.
+
+
+                         NEW FIRE-HOUSE GROUP
+
+                             FIRE TEMPLE
+
+Fire Temple is one of the most remarkable cliff houses in the park, if
+not in the whole Southwest. It is situated in a shallow cave in the
+north wall of Fewkes Canyon, near its head, and can readily be seen
+from the road along the southwest rim of the canyon. This ruin was
+formerly called Painted House, but when it was excavated in May 1920
+evidence was obtained that it was a specialized building and not a
+habitation. The facts brought to light point to the theory that it was
+consecrated to the fire cult, one of the most ancient forms of
+worship.
+
+The ruin is rectangular in form, almost completely filling the whole
+of its shallow cave, and the walls of the rooms extend to the roof. A
+ground plan shows a central court 50 feet long and about 25 feet
+broad, flanked at each end with massive-walled buildings two stories
+high. The walls of these rooms are well constructed, plastered red and
+white within and on the side turned to the court. The white plaster is
+adorned with symbolic figures. The beams used in the construction of
+the ceiling of the lower room are missing, but the walls show clearly
+that the structure was formerly two stories high. No beams were used
+in the construction of the floors, the lower story having been filled
+in with fragments of rocks on which was plastered a good adobe floor.
+
+The court or plaza was bounded by a low wall on the south side, the
+buildings enclosing the east and west ends, where there was a
+banquette. The north side of the court was formed by the solid rocks
+of the cliff, but on the lower part a narrow masonry wall had been
+laid up about head high, projecting from the cliff a foot and less on
+the top. The wall was formerly plastered red below and white above,
+triangular figures and zigzag markings recalling symbols of lightning
+on the line of the junction of the red and white surfaces.
+
+In the center of the court on a well-hardened adobe floor there is a
+circular walled fire pit containing an abundance of ashes, and on
+either side of it are foundations of small rectangular structures. The
+function of the rectangular enclosures, lying one on each side of the
+fire pit, is unknown. The middle room of the lowest tier of rooms just
+west of the main court has a number of painted symbols and zoormorphic
+figures upon its walls. These paintings, in red, still remain in a
+fair state of preservation, and consist of five symbols, supposedly of
+fire, and many pictures of mountain sheep and other animals.
+
+Just west of Fire Temple there is a group of rooms which were
+evidently habitations, since household utensils were found in them.
+One of these rooms has in the floor a vertical shaft which opens
+outside the house walls like a ventilator. The former use of this
+structure is unknown. Although the Fire Temple was not inhabited,
+there were undoubtedly dwellings nearby.
+
+                            NEW FIRE HOUSE
+
+A hundred feet east of the Fire Temple there are two low caves, one
+above the other. This cliff dwelling is called New Fire House. The
+rooms in the lower cave were fitted for habitation, consisting of two,
+possibly three, circular ceremonial rooms and a few secular rooms; but
+the upper cave is destitute of the former. The large rooms of the
+upper house look like granaries for the storage of provisions,
+although possibly they also were inhabited. In the rear of the large
+rooms identified as granaries was found a small room with a
+well-preserved human skeleton accompanied with mortuary pottery. One
+of these mortuary offerings is a fine mug made of black and white ware
+beautifully decorated. In the rear of the cave were three
+well-constructed grinding bins, their metates still in place.
+
+The upper house is now approached from the lower by foot holes in the
+cliff and a ladder. Evidences of a secondary occupation of one of the
+kivas in the lower house appear in a wall of crude masonry without
+mortar, part of a rectangular room built diagonally across the kiva.
+The plastering on the rear walls of the lower house is particularly
+well preserved. One of the kivas, has, in place of a deflector and
+ventilator shaft, a small rectangular walled enclosure surrounded by a
+wall, recalling structures on the floor of the kivas of Sun Temple.
+The meaning of this departure from the prescribed form of ventilator
+is not apparent.
+
+
+                           CEDAR TREE TOWER
+
+Hidden in the timber about one-half mile east of the main entrance
+highway, and 1 mile north of Park Headquarters, stands a prehistoric
+tower. This ruin has been named Cedar Tree Tower because of the
+ancient juniper tree that grows adjacent to the north wall. The
+excavation of the tower and the area about its base led to the
+discovery that although it appeared to stand alone there were two
+subterranean rooms connected with its base. The larger of these rooms
+is a kiva, typical of the Mesa Verde cliff dwelling. Communication
+between kiva and tower was by means of a subterranean passage. This
+passage bifurcates, one branch opening through the tower floor, the
+other into a small square room. In the middle of the solid rock floor
+of the tower a circular hole, or _sipapu_, symbolic of the entrance to
+the underworld, had been drilled.
+
+The masonry is excellent and the massive character and workmanship of
+the walls indicate some important use. No living rooms were found
+adjacent to the tower. The walls of the tower are uniformly two feet
+in width and they still stand to the height of 12 feet.
+
+
+                  FAR VIEW HOUSE, A MESA VERDE PUEBLO
+
+Archeological investigations have shown that the inhabitants of the
+Mesa Verde built compact pueblo-style structures on the open mesa land
+separating the deep canyons. Lacking natural protection of the caves
+and cliffs of the canyons, a closely knit and compact structure was
+necessary for defensive purposes. Not having to conform to the
+irregular contours of the cave as in the cliff-house type, the
+structure assumed a roughly rectangular shape in the open, with the
+kivas within protected by the adjacent outside living and storage
+rooms. The roofed-over kivas formed small open courts within the
+higher outside walls. Structurally, there is but little difference
+between the cliff house and the pueblo; undoubtedly they belong to the
+same culture and period.
+
+   [Illustration: A MESA VERDE SURFACE RUIN. FAR VIEW HOUSE]
+
+Four and a half miles north of Spruce Tree Camp the park road passes
+near 16 major and many minor mounds. This is the so-called Mummy Lake
+group, a misnomer, since the walled depression at the crest of the
+slope above the group was never used as a reservoir, also since
+mummies are never found where the least dampness occurs. In the spring
+of the year water is still conducted to the depression by the drainage
+ditches which the early cowmen in the park constructed in their
+efforts to impound sufficient water for their stock.
+
+The first unit of this group to be excavated was named Far View House
+because of the wonderful panorama of diversified terrain that is
+visible in Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona from the walls of the
+ruin. At the beginning of the work, this mound appeared very much as
+any of the other adjacent major mounds, no sign of standing wall
+appearing above the even contour of the ruin. Heavy growths of
+sagebrush covered the whole area. Three months' time was devoted to
+the excavation in revealing the rectangular pueblo, 100 by 113 feet in
+size, now seen. The slow crumbling of the heavy dirt-covered roofs and
+the walls, together with the annual deposit of wind-blown sand from
+the San Juan country early each spring, gradually filled the rooms to
+the level of the standing walls, after which destructive elements and
+forces can little change the contour of any ruin.
+
+The external features of Far View House are apparent as we approach
+its walls; mounting to the top of the highest wall we can best observe
+the general plan. This pueblo is rectangular in shape, consisting of
+concentrated rooms with a court surrounded by a wall annexed to the
+south side. On its southeast corner, a little less than 100 feet away,
+lies the cemetery from which have been taken a number of skeletons
+with their offerings of food bowls and other objects, such as was the
+custom of these people to deposit in the graves of their dead.
+
+At its highest point on the north wall the pueblo had three stories,
+but on the southern side there was but a single story. This building
+was terraced, one tier of rooms above another. In the corner of the
+interior of the highest room may still be seen the ancient fireplaces
+and stones for grinding corn, set in their original positions as used
+by the former inhabitants. There are no external windows or passages,
+except on the south side where midway in length is a recess in which
+was placed a ladder in order to be hidden from view. The inhabitants
+evidently used the roof of the lowest terrace for many occupations. A
+bird's-eye view shows that all the rooms, now roofless, fall into two
+groups.
+
+In the center of this mass of rooms is a kiva 32 feet in diameter, and
+around it are three smaller kivas. The size of the large kiva is
+noteworthy. In the cliff dwellings the kivas were necessarily small
+because of the limited floor space, but in the surface villages, where
+unlimited space was available, they were often large. This arrangement
+of one large kiva and several small ones is common. It might indicate
+that each clan had a small kiva of its own but that in the major
+ceremonies, when all of the clans worked together, the large
+ceremonial room was used. The structural details of the large kiva are
+identical with those of the smaller ones. The only variation is in
+the size.
+
+The rooms surrounding these circular ones vary somewhat in form but
+are, as a rule, rectangular, the shapes of those near the kivas being
+triangular to fill the necessary spaces. The contents of the
+rectangular rooms show that they were living rooms. Artifacts were
+found and indications of various industries as well as marks of smoke
+from their fireplaces appear on the walls. From the nature of this
+evidence there is no doubt that Far View House was once inhabited by
+the people living the same way as those who used the cliff dwellings.
+
+The court added to the pueblo on its south side is enclosed by a low
+wall. Here were probably performed, in ancient times, the many
+religious dances and festivals.
+
+Far View House is but one of the 16 pueblos in the Mummy Lake group,
+and at the period of maximum development could have housed a large
+population. To the north and east, where the two branches of Soda
+Canyon join, another large village or group has been located, and one
+can almost trace the trail across the west fork of Soda Canyon to the
+neighboring village and imagine the dusky visitors going from one to
+the other in prehistoric times. Each narrow tonguelike mesa of the
+Mesa Verde has its ruins of either isolated pueblo structures, or
+adjacent groups, denoting the widespread distribution of the mesa
+pueblo builders.
+
+Pottery is the best index as to the chronological sequence of the
+ruins in the Southwest, and in examining the pottery of some of the
+mesa-type pueblos it is found that some contain pottery antedating
+that of the cliff-house culture, while others contain similar types.
+Undoubtedly, they were simultaneously inhabited, in part at least, and
+the transitory period was of long duration; but the period in
+prehistoric time when they were built and later deserted has not been
+determined. We cannot say from data now at hand when this took place,
+documentary history affording no help.
+
+The aborigines who lived near these ruins when discovered in 1874 were
+Utes, a Shoshonean stock who disclaimed all knowledge of the people
+who constructed these buildings. They avoided them as uncanny and even
+now can only with difficulty be induced to enter them. They have dim
+legends of conflicts between the earliest Utes and cliff dwellers.
+Unfortunately, however, such legendary evidence is not reliable, as
+the general mythology of these people has been much distorted due to
+foreign contacts and the passage of time.
+
+                   OTHER RUINS NEAR FAR VIEW HOUSE
+
+During the season of 1922 excavation and repair work in the vicinity
+of Far View House was carried on simultaneously. Among the ruins
+excavated were Pipe Shrine House, One Clan House, Far View Tower, and
+Megalithic House.
+
+
+                             EARTH LODGE A
+
+In 1922 one of the Late Basket Maker pit houses was excavated on the
+mesa above Square Tower House. This structure is known as Earth Lodge
+A. Although it once had a mud and pole roof almost as high as a man's
+head, nothing now remains but the underground part of the house. None
+of these pit houses have ever been found that have not been burned,
+and only a few pieces of charcoal remain as evidence of the former
+roof. The pit is 30 inches deep and 18 feet in diameter. In the center
+is a fire pit. In the floor are also four holes, forming a large
+square, in which the roof supports once stood. The walls of the pit
+were formerly plastered with a thick layer of mud, but only a few
+patches of this remain. Around the edge of the room, at floor level,
+were a number of small storage bins made of thin stone slabs. No side
+entrance was located during excavation. In some of the pit houses
+evidence has shown that entrance was often made by means of a ladder
+through the smokehole in the roof.
+
+This was a typical home of the Lake Basket Makers who were living in
+this region when the Pueblo Indians arrived about 700 A. D. These pit
+houses passed out of existence as soon as the masonry wall was
+perfected.
+
+
+                           UNEXCAVATED RUINS
+
+Of all the ruins in Mesa Verde National Park only 28 have been named
+and only 30 excavated. No survey of the unexcavated sites has been
+made, and the total number of ruins is unknown. Several hundred cliff
+dwellings have been discovered, and new ones will probably be found in
+the more remote canyons. The surface pueblos outnumber the cliff
+dwellings, and a careful search would reveal many that are now hidden
+by a thick growth of underbrush. The earth lodges of the Late Basket
+Makers are so common that hundreds will be brought to light by careful
+search. Dozens of them can be located in a half-hour walk over any of
+the mesas.
+
+
+
+
+                DATES FOR MESA VERDE RUINS ESTABLISHED
+                    BY THE TREE-RING CHRONOLOGY[2]
+
+
+Dr. A. E. Douglass, director of Steward Observatory, University of
+Arizona, established the tree-ring chronology for dating Southwestern
+ruins. This chronology is based upon the facts that solar changes
+affect our weather and weather in turn the trees of the arid
+Southwest, as else-where, and that such affects are recorded in the
+variation of tree-ring growth during wet and dry years. Thus the
+tree-ring record of living trees has been extended into the past by
+arranging beams from historic pueblos in their proper sequence so that
+the inner rings of one match the outer rings of its predecessor, and
+in turn match the rings of the living trees. After completing the
+series from living trees and pueblos, of known dates, the record has
+been continued through the cross-sections of prehistoric beams of fir
+and pine that were chopped with the stone axes. The continuation of
+this chronology is only limited by the finding of earlier beams than
+those used in the established chronology.
+
+The National Geographic Society tree-ring expedition took, in all, 49
+beam sections from ruins within Mesa Verde National Park. During 1932
+and 1933 further tree-ring research was carried on in this area and
+additional dates have been secured. Presuming that the year of cutting
+the timber was the year of actual use in construction, the following
+dates have been established for the major cliff dwellings:
+
+ Mug House, A. D. 1066             Long House, A. D. 1204-11
+ Cliff Palace, A. D. 1073-1273     Square Tower House, A. D. 1204-46
+ Oak Tree House, A. D. 1112-84     Spruce Tree House, A. D. 1230-74
+ Spring House, A. D. 1115          New Fire House, A. D. 1259
+ Hemenway House, A. D. 1171        Ruin No. 16, A. D. 1261
+ Balcony House, A. D. 1190-1272    Buzzard House, A. D. 1273
+
+Since considerable tree-ring material from these ruins remains yet to
+be examined, the dates given above are not final. On the basis of
+present evidence, Cliff Palace, the largest and most complex cliff
+house within the park, shows an occupancy of 200 years.
+
+It is an interesting fact that all of the dates fall just short of the
+beginning of the great drought, which the tree-ring chronology shows
+commenced in 1276 and extended to 1299, a period of 24 years.
+
+
+
+
+                      DISCOVERIES OF RECENT YEARS
+
+
+In 1923 Roy Henderson and A. B. Hardin discovered the largest and
+finest watchtower that had yet been found. The tower was circular, 25
+feet in height and 11 feet in diameter. Loopholes at various levels
+commanded the approach from every exposed quarter.
+
+During the winter of 1924 the north refuse space of Spruce Tree House
+was excavated. Two child burials were found, one partially mummified,
+the other skeletal only. With one was found a mug, a ladle, a digging
+stick, and two ring baskets that had held food. Several corrugated
+jars were found, together with miscellaneous material. A layer of
+turkey droppings a foot thick indicated the space had been used as a
+turkey pen.
+
+During January and February of 1926, when snow was available as a
+water supply, excavations were carried on in Step House Cave, by
+Superintendent Jesse L. Nusbaum. In 1891 Nordenskiöld had found many
+fine burials in this cave and it had suffered greatly from pothunting.
+The cliff dweller refuse at the south end of the cave had not been
+thoroughly cleaned out, however, and it was under this layer of trash
+that the important discovery was made. Three of the Late Basket Maker
+pit houses were found, giving the first evidence that these people had
+used the caves before the cliff dwellers. Very few artifacts were
+found because of the earlier pothunting. In 1926 also a low, deep cave
+opposite Fire Temple was excavated, and a small amount of Basket Maker
+material found. Most interesting were two tapered cylinders of
+crystallized salt that still bore the imprint of the molder's hands.
+While bracing a slipping boulder in Cliff Palace, Fred Jeep found, in
+1916, a sandal of the Early Basket Maker type that indicates a former
+occupancy of the cave by the first group of Agricultural Indians in
+this region.
+
+In 1927 Bone Awl House was excavated. A series of unusually fine bone
+awls was found that suggested the name for the ruin. Much
+miscellaneous material was also found. Another small cliff dwelling
+nearby was cleaned out. One baby mummy and an adult burial were found,
+as well as some pottery and bone and stone tools. This ruin is reached
+by a spectacular series of 104 footholds that the cliff dwellers had
+cut in the almost perpendicular canyon wall.
+
+During March of 1928 and the winter of 1929 restricted excavations
+were conducted in ruins 11 to 19, inclusive, on the west side of
+Wetherill Mesa.
+
+Several burials were found, all in poor condition because of dampness.
+Outstanding was an unusual bird pendant of hematite with crystal eyes
+set into drilled sockets with piñon gum. Forty-two bowls were
+reconstructed from the sherds found.
+
+In the summer of 1929 Mr. and Mrs. Harold S. Gladwin and associates of
+Gila Pueblo, Globe, Ariz., assisted by Deric Nusbaum, conducted an
+archeological survey of small-house ruins on Chapin Mesa and in the
+canyon heads along the North Rim. The survey covered 250 sites. One
+hundred sherds were collected from each site and studied to identify
+the pottery types, the sequence of their development, and their
+relationship to pottery types of other southwestern archeological
+areas.
+
+The forest fire of 1934 revealed many hitherto unknown ruins. Two
+splendid watchtowers were found on the west cliff of Rock Canyon. In a
+small area at the head of Long Canyon 10 new Early Pueblo ruins were
+located and no doubt scores of others will be found upon more careful
+search. In the heads of the small canyons many dams and terraces were
+noted.
+
+In the stabilization program that was carried on in 1934-35 a number
+of artifacts were found. A certain amount of debris had to be moved in
+order that the weakened walls and slipping foundations might be
+strengthened and varied finds resulted. Axes, bone awls, sandals,
+pottery, planting sticks, and similar articles were most common, but a
+few burials were also found.
+
+In August 1934 the undisturbed skeleton of an old woman was found on
+the bare floor of a small ruin just across the canyon from the public
+campgrounds. This skeleton, of particular importance because of fusion
+of the spinal column, had apparently remained exposed and undisturbed
+through more than seven centuries.
+
+Because of the fact that no detailed, comprehensive survey has ever
+been made of the archeological resources of the park, the findings of
+new ruins, artifacts, and human remains are more or less regularly
+reported at the park museum.
+
+
+
+
+            PREHISTORIC INHABITANTS OF THE MESA VERDE
+
+
+The so-called "Mesa Verde cliff dwellers" were not the first of the
+prehistoric southwestern cultures, nor were they the first human
+occupants of the natural caves that abound in the area of the park.
+Centuries before the cliff-dweller culture with its complex social
+organizations, agriculture, and highly developed arts of masonry,
+textiles, and ceramics, it is thought that small groups of primitive
+Mongoloid hunters crossed from the north-eastern peninsula of Asia to
+the western coast of Alaska. The Bering Strait, with but 60 miles of
+water travel, offered the safest and easiest route.
+
+Just when these migrations to the east had their origin and how long
+they continued cannot definitely be said, but it is thought the
+earliest Mongoloid hunters were in northwestern America about twelve
+to fifteen thousand years ago. When Columbus "discovered" America the
+continent was inhabited from Alaska to the Strait of Magellan and from
+the Pacific to the Atlantic coasts.
+
+For perhaps several thousand years following the first migrations
+little of great significance developed. There undoubtedly was
+cultural progress, but it was slow, and in the long perspective of
+time its evidences are hardly discernible. With the knowledge and
+benefits of agriculture, which was probably developed first in Mexico,
+hunting gave way to husbandry, nomadism to sedentary life, and there
+followed a great period of change and advancement. The introduction of
+corn or Indian maize into what is now the southwestern United States
+may be called the antecedent condition for all advanced cultures of
+the area.
+
+Evidence has not yet been established that the first of the
+maize-growing Indians of the Southwest were permanent occupants of the
+Mesa Verde. Nevertheless, in the Cliff Palace cave, well below the
+horizon or floor level of the cliff dwellers, archeologists have found
+a yucca fiber sandal of a distinctive type which is associated only
+with the first agricultural civilization. From this evidence it would
+be reasonable to assume that the caves of Mesa Verde at least offered
+temporary shelter, if not permanent homes, to the people of this
+period.
+
+The earliest culture so far definitely identified as having permanent
+habitation on the Mesa Verde is the Basket Maker III or the Second
+Agricultural Basket Maker first found in Step House cave on the west
+side of the park below the debris of the latter cliff-house
+occupation. Recent excavations and archeological surveys furnish
+conclusive evidence that the second agricultural people were most
+numerous in the area now included in this national park, and they
+constructed their roughly circular subterranean rooms not only in the
+sandy floor of the caves but also in the red soil on the comparatively
+level mesas separating the numerous canyons. Late Basket Maker House
+A, formerly known as Earth Lodge A, is an example of this early type
+of structure. Up to this time excavations have failed to uncover a
+single house structure of this type not destroyed by fire.
+
+These early inhabitants made basketry, excelled in the art of weaving,
+and it is believed were the first of the southwestern cultures to
+invent fired pottery. The course of this invention can be traced from
+the crude sun-dried vessel tempered with shredded cedar bark to the
+properly tempered and durable fired vessel.
+
+Then followed a long development in house structure, differing
+materially from this earlier type. Horizontal masonry replaced the
+cruder attempts of house-wall construction; rectangular or squarish
+forms replaced the somewhat circular earlier type; and gradually the
+single-room structures were grouped into ever-enlarging units which
+assumed varying forms of arrangement as the development progressed.
+The art of pottery making improved concurrently with the more complex
+house structure. This later period represents the intermediate era of
+development from the crude Late Basket Maker dwellings to the
+remarkable structures of the "Cliff House Culture."
+
+During this period of transition new people penetrated the area. The
+Basket Makers throughout the course of their development were
+consistently a long-headed group. The appearance of an alien group is
+recorded through the finding of skeletons with broad or round skulls
+and a deformed occiput. These new people, the Pueblos, took over,
+changed, and adapted to their own needs the material culture of the
+earlier inhabitants.
+
+The Pueblos were not content with the crude buildings and earth lodges
+that sufficed as homes during the earlier periods. For their
+habitations they shaped stones into regular forms, sometimes
+ornamenting them with designs, and laid them in mud mortar, one on
+another. Their masonry has resisted the destructive forces of the
+elements for centuries.
+
+The arrangement of houses in a cliff dwelling the size of Cliff Palace
+is characteristic and is intimately associated with the distribution
+of the social divisions of its former inhabitants.
+
+The population was composed of a number of units, possibly clans, each
+of which had its more or less distinct social organization, as
+indicated in the arrangement of the rooms. The rooms occupied by a
+clan were not necessarily connected, and generally neighboring rooms
+were distinguished from one another by their uses. Thus, each clan had
+its men's room, which is called the "kiva." Each clan had also a
+number of rooms, which may be styled the living rooms, and other
+enclosures for granaries. The corn was ground into meal in another
+room containing the metate set in a stone bin or trough. Sometimes the
+rooms had fireplaces, although these were generally in the plazas or
+on the housetops. All these different rooms, taken together,
+constituted the houses that belonged to one clan.
+
+The conviction that each kiva denotes a distinct social unit, as a
+clan or a family, is supported by a general similarity in the masonry
+of the kiva walls and that of adjacent houses ascribed to the same
+clan. From the number of these rooms it would appear that there were
+at least 23 social units or clans in Cliff Palace.
+
+Apparently there is no uniformity or prearranged plan in the
+distribution of the kivas. As religious belief and custom prescribed
+that these rooms should be subterranean, the greatest number were
+placed in front of the rectangular buildings where it was easiest to
+construct them. When necessary, because of limited space or other
+conditions, kivas were also built far back in the cave and enclosed by
+a double wall of masonry, with the walls being spaced about two and a
+half to three feet apart. The section between the walls was then
+backfilled with earth or rubble to the level of the kiva roof. In
+that way the ceremonial structure was artificially made subterranean,
+as their beliefs required.
+
+In addition to their ability as architects and masons, the cliff
+dwellers excelled in the art of pottery making and as agriculturists.
+Their decorated pottery--a black design on pearly white
+background--will compare favorably with pottery of the other cultures
+of the prehistoric Southwest.
+
+As their sense of beauty was keen, their art, though primitive, was
+true; rarely realistic, generally symbolic. Their decoration of cotton
+fabrics and ceramic work might be called beautiful, even when judged
+by our own standards. They fashioned axes, spear points, and rude
+tools of stone; they wove sandals, and made attractive basketry.
+
+The staple product of the cliff dwellers was corn; they also planted
+beans and squash. This limited selection was perhaps augmented by
+piñon nuts, yucca fruit, and other indigenous products found in
+abundance. Nevertheless, successful agriculture on the semiarid
+plateau of the Mesa Verde must have been dependent upon hard work and
+diligent efforts. Without running streams irrigation was impossible
+and success depended upon the ability of the farmer to save the crop
+through the dry period of June and early July.
+
+Rain at the right time was the all-important problem, and so
+confidently did they believe that they were dependent upon the gods to
+make the rain fall and the corn grow that their prayers for rain
+probably developed into their most important ceremonies.
+
+From Dr. A. E. Douglass's tree-ring chronology the earliest date so
+far established for the Mesa Verde cliff dwellings is 1066 A.D. and
+the latest date 1274 A.D. While it should not be imagined that these
+are the all-inclusive dates representing the total time of the
+cliff-dweller culture, it is interesting to note that this same
+tree-ring story tells us that a great drought commenced in 1276 and
+extended for a 24-year period to 1299. It may logically be presumed
+that the prehistoric population was gradually forced to withdraw from
+the area as the drought continued and to establish itself near more
+favorable sources of water supply.
+
+The so-called "Aztec ruin", which is situated on the banks of the
+Animas River in northwestern New Mexico, substantiates this hypothesis
+of the voluntary desertion of the cliff dwellings. In this ruin is
+found unmistakable evidence of a secondary occupation which has been
+definitely identified as a Mesa Verde settlement.
+
+It is thought that certain of the present-day Pueblo Indians are
+descendants, in part at least, of the cliff dwellers. Many of these
+Indian towns or pueblos still survive in the States of New Mexico and
+Arizona, the least modified of which are the villages of the Hopi,
+situated not far from the Grand Canyon National Park.
+
+
+
+
+                           FAUNA AND FLORA
+
+
+The fauna and flora of Mesa Verde should be particularly interesting
+to visitors. A combination of desert types from the lower arid country
+and mountain types, usually associated with regions of greater
+rainfall, occur here. The desert types are highly specialized to cope
+with their environment, particularly the plant and smaller animal
+life.
+
+Rocky Mountain mule deer are perhaps the only big game to be found
+abundantly in the park. They are often seen. Their numbers in the
+park, however, vary greatly according to the season. It is hoped to
+reintroduce the native species of Rocky Mountain bighorn as soon as
+range sufficient for the needs of this species has been added to the
+park. Occasionally a black bear is reported.
+
+Cougars, or mountain lions, and bobcats are part of the wildlife of
+the park and, strange to say, are occasionally seen in broad daylight.
+In other national parks these animals are rarely seen even by rangers.
+Coyotes and foxes are not as numerous as they once were on the mesa.
+As a result of the reduction of the predators, many of the smaller
+animals, such as rabbits, porcupines, and prairie dogs, have greatly
+increased. Rock and ground squirrels and the Colorado chipmunk are
+present in great numbers.
+
+More than 200 varieties of birds have been recorded. The species range
+from the majestic golden eagle, the largest bird, down to a variety of
+dainty humming birds.
+
+Game birds are represented by the dusky grouse. No wild turkeys are
+now to be found in the park, although it is believed that they were
+once here. The cliff dwellers domesticated the turkey, and their
+bones, feathers, and droppings are found in all the ruins. At present
+the reintroduction of wild turkeys to Mesa Verde is under
+consideration.
+
+   [Illustration: A YUCCA PLANT IN FRUIT (YUCCA BACCATA)]
+
+Among the interesting animal residents of Mesa Verde are the reptiles.
+The lizards are represented by the horned lizard, the western spotted
+or earless lizard, the collared lizard, the striped race runner, utas,
+rock swifts, and sagebrush swifts. Among the snakes are found the bull
+snake, the smooth green snake, the western striped racer, the rock
+snake, and the prairie rattlesnake. The latter, the only poisonous
+species on the Mesa Verde, lives among the rocks in the lower canyons.
+
+Mesa Verde receives considerably more rainfall than true desert areas,
+and vegetation typical of the upper sonoran or transition zone is
+moderately luxuriant. This heavy cover of vegetation accounts for its
+name, which means "Green Tableland." The dense forest consists of
+piñon pine, juniper, Douglas fir, and western yellow pine. The
+north-facing slopes and moist canyons contain quaking aspen and box
+elders, with willows and cottonwoods growing along the Mancos River.
+The heavy covering of scrub oak and mountain mahogany over the higher
+elevations of the park makes this region a most colorful one during
+the fall months.
+
+Among the fruit-bearing shrubs and trees are the service berry, choke
+cherry, Oregon grape, and elderberry.
+
+An abundance of wild flowers, varying in color with the growing
+season, include principally the Mariposa lily, Indian paint brush,
+pentstemon, lupine, wild sweet pea, and a great variety of the
+compositae family.
+
+
+
+
+                         HOW TO REACH THE PARK
+
+
+                            BY AUTOMOBILE
+
+Mesa Verde National Park may be reached by automobile from Denver,
+Colorado Springs, Pueblo, and other Colorado points. Through Pueblo
+one road leads to the park by way of Canon City, from where one may
+look down into the Royal Gorge, the deepest canyon in the world
+penetrated by a railroad and river. This road passes through Salida
+and on through Gunnison and Montrose, and then south through Ouray,
+Silverton, and Durango. This route passes through some of Colorado's
+most magnificent mountain scenery. Another road leads south from
+Pueblo through Walsenburg, across La Veta Pass, on through Alamosa,
+Del Norte, Pagosa Springs, and Durango, crossing Wolf Creek Pass en
+route. Both roads lead west from Durango to Mancos and on into the
+park.
+
+Motorists coming from Utah turn southward from Green River or
+Thompsons, crossing the Colorado River at Moab, proceeding southward
+to Monticello, thence eastward to Cortez, Colo., and the park.
+
+From Arizona and New Mexico points, Gallup, on the National Old Trails
+Road, is easily reached. The auto road leads north from Gallup through
+the Navajo Indian Reservation and a corner of the Ute Indian
+Reservation. At Shiprock Indian Agency, 98 miles north of Gallup, the
+San Juan River is crossed.
+
+
+                             BY RAILROAD
+
+Mesa Verde National Park is approached by rail both from the north and
+from the south: From the north via the Denver & Rio Grande Western
+Railroad main transcontinental line through Grand Junction, and branch
+lines through Montrose or Durango; from the south via the main
+transcontinental line of the Santa Fe Railroad through Gallup, N. Mex.
+
+The lines of the Denver & Rio Grande Western System traverse some of
+the most magnificent scenery of the Rocky Mountain region, a fact
+which gives the journey to Mesa Verde zestful travel flavor. Two
+main-line routes are provided to the Grand Junction gateway.
+
+The Royal Gorge Route goes through the Grand Canyon of the Arkansas,
+now spanned by an all-steel suspension bridge, 1,053 feet above the
+tracks in the Royal Gorge. This route crosses Tennessee Pass
+(altitude, 10,240 feet) and follows the Eagle River to its junction
+with the Colorado River at Dotsero, thence to Grand Junction.
+
+Service was inaugurated in June 1934 via the new James Peak Route of
+the D. & R. G. W., utilizing the Moffat Tunnel (altitude at apex,
+9,239 feet), 6.2-mile bore which pierces the Continental Divide 50
+miles west of Denver. This route follows the Colorado River from
+Fraser, high on the west slope of the continent, through Byers Canyon,
+Red Gorge, Gore Canyon, and Red Canyon, thence over the Dotsero
+Cut-off to Dotsero, where it joins the Royal Gorge Route. The new line
+saves 175 miles in the distance from Denver to Grand Junction.
+
+
+
+
+                         MOTOR TRANSPORTATION
+
+
+The Rio Grande Motor Way, Inc., of Grand Junction, Colo., from June 15
+to September 15, operates a daily motor service from Grand Junction,
+Delta, Montrose, Ouray, Silverton, Durango, and Mancos, Colo., to
+Spruce Tree Lodge in Mesa Verde National Park. This motor bus leaves
+Grand Junction at 6:45 a.m., via the scenic Chief Ouray Highway,
+stopping en route at other places mentioned, crossing beautiful Red
+Mountain Pass (altitude, 11,025 feet), arriving at Spruce Tree Lodge
+at 7 p.m. The stage leaves the park at 7 a.m., when there are
+passengers, arriving at Grand Junction at 5:40 p.m. The round trip
+fare between Grand Junction and the park is $18.65.
+
+Entrance to Mesa Verde from the south through Gallup, N. Mex., via the
+Navajo and Southern Ute Indian Reservations, is growing constantly in
+convenience and popularity. Hunter Clarkson, Inc., with headquarters
+at El Navajo Hotel, in Gallup, operates two-day round trip light sedan
+service, leaving Gallup at 8 a.m. and returning to Gallup at 6 p.m.
+the second day. This service permits the visiting of ruins in the
+park, in accordance with regular schedules, on the afternoon of the
+first day and on the morning of the second. The round trip fare per
+person (360 miles) is $25. A minimum of two passengers is required.
+Fare for children, five and under twelve, is $12.50. Meals and hotel
+accommodations en route or at the park are not included. El Navajo
+Hotel, operated by Fred Harvey, offers excellent overnight
+accommodations at Gallup.
+
+The Cannon Ball Stage operates bus service from Gallup, via Shiprock
+and Farmington, to Durango, where arrangements may be made with the
+Rio Grande Motor Way, Inc., for transportation to and from the park.
+
+The Cannon Ball Stage bus leaves Gallup each day at 11:30 a.m.,
+arriving at Durango at 4:45 p.m. Returning it leaves Durango at 8 a.m.
+and arrives at Gallup at 1 p.m. The fare from Gallup to Durango is $6
+one way and $10.80 for the round trip. The round trip fare to the park
+from Durango via the Rio Grande Motor Way, Inc., is $7.50.
+
+
+
+
+                            ADMINISTRATION
+
+
+The Mesa Verde National Park is under the exclusive control of the
+National Park Service of the Department of the Interior, which is
+authorized to make rules and regulations and to establish such service
+as it may deem necessary for the care and management of the park and
+the preservation from injury or spoliation of the ruins and other
+remains of prehistoric man within the limits of the reservation.
+
+The National Park Service is represented in the actual administration
+of the park by a superintendent, who is assisted in the protection and
+interpretation of its natural and prehistoric features by a
+well-trained staff. The present superintendent is Jesse L. Nusbaum,
+and his post-office address is Mesa Verde National Park, Colo.
+
+The park season extends from May 15 to October 15, complete lodging
+and food accommodations and automobile stage service being available
+from June 15 to September 15. Informal lodging and meal accommodations
+are provided during the remainder of the park season.
+
+   [Illustration: HEADQUARTERS AREA]
+
+Exclusive jurisdiction over the park was ceded to the United States by
+act of the Colorado Legislature approved May 2, 1927, and accepted by
+Congress by act approved April 25, 1928. There is a United States
+Commissioner at park headquarters.
+
+Telegrams sent prepaid to Mancos, Colo., will be phoned to addressee
+at park office. The post-office address for parties within the park is
+Mesa Verde National Park, Colo.
+
+
+
+
+                         EDUCATIONAL SERVICE
+
+
+Educational service, carefully planned to provide each visitor with an
+opportunity to interpret and appreciate the features of the Mesa
+Verde, is provided, without charge, by the Government. This service is
+directed by the park naturalist, who is assisted by a group of ranger
+naturalists.
+
+
+                       GUIDED TRIPS TO THE RUINS
+
+During the season visitors are accompanied from the park museum to the
+various ruins by competent ranger naturalists. These men, well trained
+in the social and biological sciences, make it their duty to help the
+visitor understand the natural and archeological features of the Mesa
+Verde. Because of the need of protecting the ruins and the somewhat
+devious trails by which they are reached, no one will be allowed to
+enter any ruin except Spruce Tree House unless accompanied by a ranger
+naturalist.
+
+
+                            CAMPFIRE TALKS
+
+Each evening at 8 o'clock informal talks are given at the campfire
+circle near park headquarters. The superintendent, the park
+naturalist, and members of the educational staff give talks on the
+archeology of the region. Visiting scientists, writers, lecturers, and
+noted travelers often contribute to the evening's entertainment. After
+the talks six of the best singers and dancers among the Navajo Indians
+employed in the park can usually be persuaded, by modest voluntary
+contributions on the part of the visitors, to give some of their songs
+and dances.
+
+
+                              PARK MUSEUM
+
+The park museum houses very important and comprehensive collections of
+excavated cliff-dweller and basket maker material, as well as
+restricted collections of arts and crafts of modern Indians of the
+Southwest. These collections have been assembled through the conduct
+of excavations within the park and through loan or gift of materials
+by park friends or cooperating institutions. This material is arranged
+in a definite chronological order.
+
+By following through from the earliest culture to those of the present
+time a clear and concise picture of the former material cultures of
+the Mesa Verde and surrounding regions may be obtained.
+
+One room has been set aside for natural history exhibits exemplifying
+the geology, fauna, and flora of this peculiar mesa-canyon country.
+
+
+                          REFERENCE LIBRARY
+
+A part of the museum is given over to an excellent reference library
+and reading room. This library consists of books on archeology and
+related natural history subjects pertaining to this interesting
+region. Visitors have access to these books on application to the
+museum assistant who is in charge. These books may not be removed from
+the reading room.
+
+
+
+
+                        FREE PUBLIC CAMPGROUNDS
+
+
+The new public campgrounds are located in the piñons and junipers on
+the rim of Spruce Canyon only a few hundred feet from Spruce Tree
+Lodge and park headquarters. Individual party campsites have been
+cleared, and a protecting screen of shrubbery contributes to their
+privacy. Each site is provided with a fireplace, a table with seats,
+and a large level place for a tent. Good water has been piped to
+convenient places, and cut wood is provided without charge. Toilet
+facilities, showers, and laundry tubs are also provided. A ranger is
+detailed for duty in the campgrounds.
+
++Leave your campsite clean when you have finished with it.+
+
++Do not drive cars on, or walk over, the shrubbery.+
+
+The campground facilities at Mesa Verde have been greatly improved and
+expanded through the work of the Civilian Conservation Corps.
+
+Provisions for campers are obtainable at reasonable prices in any of
+the nearby towns. Groceries, gas, and oil can also be purchased at
+Spruce Tree Lodge.
+
+
+
+
+                      HORSEBACK AND HIKING TRIPS
+
+
+Visitors who view the Mesa Verde from the automobile roads gain but an
+inkling of the weird beauty and surprises that this area holds for the
+more adventurous. Horseback and hiking trips along the rim rocks and
+into the canyons lead to spectacular ruins not seen from any of the
+roads. Such great ruins as Spring House, Long House, Kodak House, Jug
+House, Mug House, and Step House, as well as all of the ruins in the
+more remote canyons, can be reached by trail only. Each turn of the
+trail reveals entrancing vistas of rugged canyons, sheer cliffs, great
+caves, hidden ruins, distant mountains, tree-covered mesas, and open
+glades.
+
+In making these trips it is important that the hiker prepare himself
+with proper footwear, as the trails are very precipitous in places.
+
+
+
+
+                     HOSPITAL AND MEDICAL SERVICE
+
+
+There is an excellent hospital at park headquarters where medical and
+surgical service is provided to care for all emergency cases. Prices
+are regulated by the Secretary of the Interior.
+
+
+
+
+                      ACCOMMODATIONS AND EXPENSES
+
+
+At Spruce Tree Lodge, situated among the piñons and junipers
+over-looking Spruce, Spruce Tree, and Navajo Canyons, cottages may be
+rented at prices ranging from $1.25 to $2 a person per day and
+comfortable floored tents at 50 cents to $1 per day. Meals table
+d'hote are served at the following reasonable prices: Breakfast, 50
+cents to $1; luncheon, 55 cents to 85 cents; and dinner, 75 cents to
+$1.15. A la carte service is also available. Children: No charge under
+3; half rates from 3 to 8. The official season for Spruce Tree Lodge
+is from June 15 to September 15.
+
+The company also operates, for visitors who do not care to use their
+own cars or are without private transportation, automobile service to
+various ruins for $1 each round trip. A special evening trip to Park
+Point to see the spectacular sunset from the highest point in the park
+is $1.50 per person.
+
+                     OUT-OF-SEASON ACCOMMODATIONS
+
+From May 15 to June 15 and from September 15 to October 15, cabins may
+be rented from the caretaker of Spruce Tree Lodge at the regular
+rates. Meals, with breakfast 50 cents, and luncheon and dinner 75
+cents, may be had at the Government dining hall. In nearby towns, less
+than an hour's drive from park headquarters, accommodations are also
+obtainable.
+
+                    PACK AND SADDLE ACCOMMODATIONS
+
+Saddle horses, especially trained for mountain work, may be rented
+from the Mesa Verde Pack & Saddle Co. For short trips the rental is $1
+for the first hour and 50 cents for each additional hour. For short
+1-day trips for three persons or more the cost is $3.50 each; two
+persons $4 each; one person $6. Longer 1-day trips for experienced
+riders are available at $2 per person more than the rate for the
+shorter 1-day trips. All prices include guide service, and a slicker,
+canteen, and lunch bag are provided with each horse. Arrangements
+should be made the evening before the trip is taken.
+
+   [Illustration: A PARTY OFF FOR THE LESS-FREQUENTED TRAILS]
+
+                              PACK TRIPS
+
+Nonscheduled pack trips to the more remote sections of the park may be
+arranged (2 days' notice is required) at prices ranging from $9 a day
+each for parties of five or more to $15 a day for one person. This
+includes a guide-cook and furnishes each person with one saddle horse,
+one pack horse, bed, tent, canteen, slicker, and subsistence for the
+trip. Three days is the minimum time for which these trips can be
+arranged.
+
+
+
+
+                              REFERENCES[3]
+
+
+ CHAPIN, F. H. The Land of the Cliff Dwellers.[4] W. B. Clarke & Co.,
+     Boston, Mass. 1892. 187 pages.
+
+ DOUGLASS, DR. ANDREW ELLICOTT. The Secret of the Southwest Solved by
+     the Talkative Tree Rings, in National Geographic Magazine,
+     December 1929.[4]
+
+ FARIS, JOHN T. Roaming the Rockies. Farrar & Rinehart, Inc., New
+     York. 1930. Illustrated. 333 pages. Mesa Verde on pp. 193-203.
+
+ FEWKES, J. WALTER:
+
+   Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Spruce Tree House.[4]
+     (Bureau of American Ethnology Bull. 41, 1909. 57 pages,
+     illustrated.) (Out of print.)
+
+   Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Cliff Palace.[4]
+     (Bureau of American Ethnology Bull. 51, 1911. 82 pages,
+     illustrated.) (Out of print.)
+
+   Excavation and Repair of Sun Temple, Mesa Verde National Park.[4]
+     (Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 1916. 32
+     pages, illustrated.) (Out of print.)
+
+   A Prehistoric Mesa Verde Pueblo and Its People.[4] (Report of the
+     Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 1917. 26 pages.) (Out of
+     print.)
+
+   Prehistoric Villages, Castles, and Towers of Southwestern
+     Colorado.[4] (Bureau of American Ethnology Bull. 70. 1919. 79
+     pages text, 33 plates.)
+
+ GILLMOR, FRANCES, and WETHERILL, LOUISA Wade. Traders to the
+     Navahos.[4] Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston and New York. 1934.
+     Illustrated, 265 pages. Describes discovery of cliff dwellings by
+     Wetherill brothers.
+
+ HOLMES, WILLIAM H. Report on Ancient Ruins in Southwestern Colorado
+     Examined During Summers of 1875 and 1876. (Geological and
+     Geographical Survey of the Territories (Hayden), Tenth Report,
+     1876, pp. 381-408, illustrated.)
+
+ ICKES, ANNA WILMARTH. Mesa Land.[4] Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston and
+     New York, 1933. Illustrated. 228 pages. Southwest in general. Mesa
+     Verde, pp. 100-101.
+
+ INGERSOLL, ERNEST. Reprint, first article. Mancos River Ruins, New
+     York Tribune. Nov. 3, 1874; in Indian Notes, vol. 5, no. 2, April
+     1928, pp. 183-206, Museum of American Indian, Heye Foundation, New
+     York.[4]
+
+ JACKSON, W. H. The Pioneer Photographer.[4] World Book Co., 1929.
+
+ JEFFERS, LE ROY. The Call of the Mountains. 282 pages, illustrated.
+     Dodd, Mead & Co., 1922. Mesa Verde on pp. 96-111.
+
+ KANE, J. F. Picturesque America. 1935. 256 pp., illustrated.
+     Published by Frederick Gumbrecht, Brooklyn, N. Y. Mesa Verde on
+     pp. 121-124.
+
+ KIDDER, ALFRED VINCENT:
+
+   An introduction to the Study of Southwestern Archaeology.[4] 300
+     pages, illustrated. Yale University Press, 1924. Mesa Verde on pp.
+     58-68.
+
+   Beautiful America--Our National Parks. 1924. 160 pages pictorial
+     views. Beautiful America Publishing Corporation, New York City.
+     Mesa Verde views pp. 58-68.
+
+ MILLS, ENOS A. Your National Parks. 1917. 532 pages, illustrated.
+     Mesa Verde National Park on pp. 161-174; 488-490.
+
+ MORRIS, ANN AXTELL. Digging in the Southwest.[4] Doubleday Doran
+     Co., 1933. Readable account of the trade secrets of a southwestern
+     archeologist.
+
+ NORDENSKIÖLD, G. The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde.[4] 1893. 171
+     pages, illustrated.
+
+ NUSBAUM, DERIC. Deric in Mesa Verde.[4] 1926. Illustrated. G. P.
+     Putnam's Sons. Knickerbocker Press.
+
+ ROLFE, MARY A. Our National Parks.[4] Book One. A supplementary
+     reader on the national parks for the fifth and sixth grade
+     students. Benj. H. Sanborn & Co. 1927. Illustrated. Mesa Verde on
+     pp. 221-234.
+
+ YARD, ROBERT STERLING:
+
+   The Top of the Continent. 1917. 244 pages, illustrated. Mesa Verde
+     National Park on pp. 44-62.
+
+   The Book of the National Parks. 1926. 444 pages, illustrated. Mesa
+     Verde National Park on pp. 284-304.
+
+
+                               WHAT TO DO
+
+
++Things to See on Way from Park Entrance to Headquarters+
+
+ 3.5 miles--Top of first grade--Mancos Valley and La Plata Mountains.
+
+ 5 miles--Knife Edge Road--Montezuma Valley and Sleeping Ute Mountain.
+
+ 10.5 miles--Scenic road to Park Point, highest elevation within Mesa
+     Verde National Park, 8,572 feet above sea level; 2,200 feet above
+     the Montezuma Valley. Views into four States--Colorado, New
+     Mexico, Arizona, and Utah.
+
+ 16 miles--Pueblo III ruins on top of mesa--Far View House Ruin, Pipe
+     Shrine House Ruin, Far View Tower Ruin.
+
+ 18.5 miles--Cedar Tree Tower Ruin--road branches off to left.
+
+ 20 miles--Park headquarters. Park ranger will meet visitors' cars and
+     give information.
+
+
++Things to Do While on the Mesa Verde+
+
+ _Motor caravans to ruins--Daily. Use your own car. No charge for
+     ranger service_
+
+ 8 a.m.--Earth Lodge A, Square Tower House, Little Long House, Sun
+     Point, Fire Temple, Sun Temple. Return 11:15 a.m. Distance
+     6 1/2 miles.
+
+ 10 a.m.--A shortened trip of morning route to accommodate late
+     comers. Return 11:15 a.m.
+
+ 1:30 p.m.--Cliff Palace, Rim Drive, Balcony House. Return 4:15 p.m.
+     Distance 7 miles.
+
+ 3 p.m.--A shortened trip of the 1:30 route to accommodate late
+     comers. Does not go through Cliff Palace but views this ruin from
+     the top of the mesa. Return 4:30 p.m.
+
+ _Motor caravan to park point--Daily. Use your own car_
+
+ 6:30 or 7 p.m.--Departure is timed to arrive at Park Point to view
+     colorful sunset. Ranger in charge will discuss the flora, geology,
+     and scenic points. Distance 21 miles.
+
+ _Campfire lecture--Daily_
+
+ 8 p.m.--Campfire circle at park headquarters. Archeological story of
+     the Southwest followed by Ceremonial dances by Navajo Indians at
+     about 9 p.m.
+
+
++Things to Do--Not on Regular Schedule+
+
+ Museum--Open from 8 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. A splendid collection of
+     material from the cliff ruins and other sections of the Southwest.
+
+ Community building--A display of cut wild flowers. Porch, with
+     comfortable chairs, overlooks Spruce Tree Ruin. Open at all times.
+
+ Spruce Tree Ruin--Below park headquarters. May be visited at your
+     leisure without guide. Ranger on duty in this ruin for
+     information.
+
+ Nature trail--The path to Spruce Tree Ruin has been prepared with a
+     series of signs explaining the flora and rock formations.
+
+ Horseback trips--Splendid trails lead in all directions. Large,
+     unexcavated ruins, magnificent canyons and mesas off the beaten
+     path unfold the charm of this primitive region. Rates are very
+     reasonable.
+
+ Hikes--To any section of the park can be arranged for with the park
+     naturalist. If sufficient numbers enroll for such hikes, a
+     naturalist guide will be provided.
+
+
++Accommodations+
+
+ At park headquarters, 20 miles from entrance. SPRUCE TREE
+     LODGE--Cabins, tents, meals, beverages, campers' supplies,
+     and curios. FREE GOVERNMENT CAMPGROUND--Firewood and water
+     furnished.
+
+
+   [Illustration: AREAS ADMINISTERED BY THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE]
+
+
+     *     *     *     *     *     *     *
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+   [1] Approximate dating. Exact dating by the methods
+          of tree-ring chronology is yet to be accomplished.
+
+   [2] The Secret of the Southwest Solved by Talkative Tree Rings,
+          by A. E. Douglass: National Geographic Magazine.
+          December 1929.
+
+   [3] For complete bibliography apply at the park museum or
+          write to the Superintendent, Mesa Verde National Park.
+
+   [4] Copies in Mesa Verde Museum Library.
+
+
+     *     *     *     *     *     *     *
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+
+With the exception of the following items, the text presented here
+matches the printed booklet which may include some inconsistancies
+with modern usage that were left unchanged:
+
+A. Rearranged Text:
+    Footnotes moved to the end of the text.
+
+B. Typographical Corrections:
+    Page ii  - missing period after "(4,192 feet)"
+    Page iii - missing period after "Visitors"
+    Page 2   - comma moved out of quotes "The Mesa Verde region",
+
+C. Emphasis Notation:
+    _Text_  Italics
+    +Text+  Bold + Italics
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, by Anonymous
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MESA VERDE NATIONAL PARK, COLORADO ***
+
+***** This file should be named 35936-8.txt or 35936-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/9/3/35936/
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Tom Cosmas and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/35936-8.zip b/35936-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b3ae595
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936-8.zip
diff --git a/35936-h.zip b/35936-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bf97f7b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936-h.zip
diff --git a/35936-h/35936-h.htm b/35936-h/35936-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4928a6d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936-h/35936-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,2682 @@
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
+<html>
+<head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1">
+     <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+
+    body        {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;}
+    p           {margin-top: .75em; text-indent: 1.5em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em;}
+    .title      {font-size:2.0em; font-weight:bolder; text-align: center;}
+    .caption1   {font-size:1.5em; font-weight:bolder; text-align: center;}
+    .caption2   {font-size:1.25em; font-weight:bolder; text-align: center;}
+    .caption3   {font-size:1.05em; font-weight:bolder; text-align: center;}
+    .caption4   {font-size:0.75em; font-weight:bolder; text-align: center;}
+    .hr0        {height: 1px; width: 100%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;
+                 margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both; color:#000000;}
+    .hr1        {height: 6px; width: 100%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;
+                 clear: both; color:#000000; background-color:#000000;}
+    .hr2        {height: 1px; width: 100%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;
+                 clear: both; color:#000000; background-color:#000000;}
+
+     table      {padding:2px; text-align: left; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;}
+    .tocch      {text-align: left; vertical-align: top;}
+    .tocpg      {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;}
+    .data1      {border-width:1px;border-style:solid;border-color:#000000;}
+    .data2      {border-width:3px;border-style:solid;border-color:#000000;}
+
+    .pagenum    {position: absolute; left: 92%; text-indent: 0; font-weight: normal;
+                 color: gray; font-size: 0.7em; text-align: right;}
+
+    .refs       {text-align:left; text-indent:-3em; padding-left:3em; margin-bottom: 4px;}
+    .refs1      {text-align:left; text-indent:-3em; padding-left:6em; margin-bottom: 4px;}
+    .center     {text-align: center;}
+    .figcenter  {margin: auto; text-align: center; }
+    .text_rt    {text-align:right;}
+    .smcaps     {font-variant: small-caps;}
+	.smaller    {font-size:0.85em;}
+    .typos      {text-decoration:none;color:#004000;}
+    .tech_notes {border:solid #000 1px; background-color:#d0d0d0; padding: 7px;}
+    .wsnb       {white-space:nowrap;}
+
+    .footnotes  {border: solid black 1px; background-color: #EEE; padding: 0 1em 0 1em;
+                 margin-left: 5%; margin-right:5%;}
+    .footnote         {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;}
+    .footnote .label  {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;}
+    .fnanchor         {vertical-align: text-top; font-size: .75em; text-decoration: none;}
+
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, by Anonymous
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado
+
+Author: Anonymous
+
+Release Date: April 22, 2011 [EBook #35936]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MESA VERDE NATIONAL PARK, COLORADO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Tom Cosmas and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<img src="images/coverpage.png" width="447" height="700" alt="coverpage" title="coverpage" />
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[Pg_i]</a></span>
+<div class="center">
+<div class="title">Mesa Verde</div>
+<div class="caption3">[COLORADO]</div>
+<div class="caption2">National Park</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr class="hr0" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+United States Department of the Interior<br />
+<i>Harold L. Ickes, Secretary</i><br />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+NATIONAL PARK SERVICE<br />
+<i>Arno B. Cammerer, Director</i><br />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<img src="images/doi_logo.png" width="136" height="142" border="0" alt="DOI Logo" title="DOI Logo"/>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr class="hr0" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+UNITED STATES<br />
+GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE<br />
+WASHINGTON: 1937<br />
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[Pg_ii]</a></span>
+<table width="100%" class="data2" summary="table frame">
+<tr><td>
+<table width="100%" class="data1" summary="Historical Events Listing">
+<tr><td colspan=2 class="center"><div class="caption2">Events</div> <div class="caption3">of Historical Importance</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td width="15%" class="center">1st century<a name="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1">[1]</a><br />B.C. or<br />A.D.</td><td>The earliest occupation of Cliff Palace cave was probably
+before, or immediately following, the beginning of the
+Christian era. These earliest occupants, known to
+scientists as Basket Makers, were the first agricultural
+Indians of the Southwest.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">4th to<br />7th<a href="#Footnote_1">[1]</a> centuries<br />A.D. </td><td>By the beginning of the fourth century A.D., the early
+agriculturists were developing the art of pottery
+making. Later, their semisubterranean homes were
+spread widely over the Mesa Verde.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">7th to<br />10th<a href="#Footnote_1">[1]</a><br />centuries<br /> A.D.<br /></td><td>During the three or four centuries preceding 1000 A.D.,
+the Pueblo Culture on Mesa Verde was developing from
+modest beginnings toward its classical stage, which
+culminated in the building of the great cliff dwelling.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1066</td><td>Earliest date established for large Mesa Verde cliff
+dwellings (Beam section from Mug House.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1073-1273</td><td>Construction of Cliff Palace</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1276</td><td>Beginning of 24-year drought, an important factor in
+forcing the cliff dwellers from the Mesa Verde.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1776</td><td>Expedition of Padre Silvestre Velez de Escalante to
+southwestern Colorado. Party camped on the Mancos River||
+near the base of the Mesa Verde.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1859</td><td>Ascent of the north escarpment of Mesa Verde by Capt.
+J. N. Macomb, of the United States Army, and members
+of his party of geologists</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1874</td><td>Discovery of the ruins in the Mancos Canyon by W. H.
+Jackson, United States Geological Survey. Party
+harrassed by Ute Indians.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1888</td><td>Discovery of Cliff Palace and other major ruins by
+Richard Wetherill and Charlie Mason.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1891</td><td>First organized archeological expedition to Mesa Verde,
+under direction of Baron G. Nordenskiöld.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1906</td><td>Mesa Verde National Park created June 29.</td></tr>
+<tr><td width="15%" class="center">1907</td><td>Excavation of Spruce Tree House by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes,
+of Smithsonian Institution
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg_iii]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1909</td><td>Excavation of Cliff Palace.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1911</td><td>Excavation and repair of Balcony House by Jesse L.
+Nusbaum.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1913</td><td>First entrance road completed. First automobile in Spruce||
+Tree Camp. Extension of park boundaries to include
+notable ruins and archeological remains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1914</td><td>Construction of first wagon road from Spruce Tree Camp
+to principal cliff dwellings.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1915</td><td>Sun Temple excavated by Dr. Fewkes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1916</td><td>Far View House excavated by Dr. Fewkes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1917</td><td>First Government-constructed trails to Spring House and
+Soda Canyon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1918</td><td>First camp accommodations established at Spruce Tree
+Camp.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1919</td><td>Square Tower House excavated</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1921</td><td>Establishment of superintendent's office and home at park
+headquarters.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1925</td><td>First unit of park museum constructed by donated funds.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1926</td><td>Excavation in Step House Cave and discovery of its occupation
+by Basket Maker III people more than 3 centuries
+in advance of cliff dweller occupation.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1928</td><td>Exclusive jurisdiction of park tendered to the United
+States and accepted by act of Congress April 25.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1934</td><td>Completion of deep water well <a name="feet"></a><a href="#typos"><span  class="typos">(4,192 feet).</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1936</td><td>Addition to park museum completed.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</td></tr>
+</table>
+<br />
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Approximate dating. Exact dating by the
+methods of tree-ring chronology is yet to be accomplished.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg_iv]</a></span>
+<div class="caption2">RULES AND REGULATIONS</div>
+
+<div class="caption3">&#9679; Briefed &#9679;</div>
+
+<p>A complete copy of the rules and regulations for governing the
+park may be seen at the office of the superintendent.</p>
+
+<p><b><i>Automobiles.</i></b>&mdash;Secure automobile permit, fee $1 per car. Speed limit 35 miles per
+hour on entrance highway, 20 miles per hour in headquarters area and on ruin roads.
+Drive carefully; free wheeling is prohibited within the park.</p>
+
+<p><b><i>Fires.</i></b>&mdash;Confine fires to designated places. Extinguish completely before leaving camp,
+even for temporary absences. Do not guess your fire is out&mdash;KNOW IT.</p>
+
+<p><b><i>Firewood.</i></b>&mdash;Use only the wood that is stacked and marked "firewood" near your campsite.
+By all means do not use your ax on any standing tree or strip bark from the junipers.</p>
+
+<p><b><i>Grounds.</i></b>&mdash;Burn all combustible rubbish before leaving your camp. Do not throw
+papers, cans, or other refuse on the ground or over the canyon rim. Use the incinerators
+which are placed for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p><b><i>Hiking.</i></b>&mdash;Do not venture away from the headquarters area unless accompanied by a
+guide or after first having secured permission from a duly authorized park officer.</p>
+
+<p><b><i>Hunting.</i></b>&mdash;Hunting is prohibited within the park. This area is a sanctuary for all
+wildlife.</p>
+
+<p><b><i>Noise.</i></b>&mdash;Be quiet in camp after others have gone to bed. Many people come here for
+rest.</p>
+
+<p><b><i>Park Rangers.</i></b>&mdash;The rangers are here to help and advise you as well as to enforce
+regulations. When in doubt, ask a ranger.</p>
+
+<p><b><i>Ruins and Structures.</i></b>&mdash;Do not mark, disturb, or injure in any way the ruins or any of
+the buildings, signs, or other properties within the park.</p>
+
+<p><b><i>Trees, Flowers, and Animals.</i></b>&mdash;Do not carve initials upon or pull the bark from any
+logs or trees. Flowers may not be picked unless written permission is obtained from the
+superintendent or park naturalist. Do not harm or frighten any of the wild animals or
+birds within the park. We wish to protect them for your enjoyment.</p>
+
+<p><a name="visitors"></a><b><i><a href="#typos"><span class="typos">Visitors.</span></a></i></b>&mdash;Register and secure permit at the park entrance. Between travel seasons,
+registration and permit are arranged for at park headquarters.</p>
+
+<a name="TOC">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg_v]</a></span>
+
+<table width="100%" class="data2" summary="table frame">
+<tr><td>
+<table width="100%" class="data1" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td>
+<div class="caption2">Contents</div>
+<div class="text_rt">Page</div>
+
+<table width="100%" summary="Table of Contents">
+<tr><td class="tocch"><a href="#the_ruins">The Ruins</a></td><td class="tocpg">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#sp_tr_hs">Spruce Tree House</a></td><td class="tocpg">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#cliff_pal">Cliff Palace</a></td><td class="tocpg">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#bal_hs">Balcony House</a></td><td class="tocpg">11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#sq_tw_hs">Square Tower House</a></td><td class="tocpg">12</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#oak_tr_hs">Oak Tree House</a></td><td class="tocpg">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#sun_st_hs">Sun Set House</a></td><td class="tocpg">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#sun_tmpl">Sun Temple</a></td><td class="tocpg">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#nw_fr_hs">New Fire-House Group</a></td><td class="tocpg">19</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#ced_tr_hs">Cedar Tree Tower</a></td><td class="tocpg">21</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#far_vw_hs">Far View House, a Mesa Verde Pueblo</a></td><td class="tocpg">21</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#earth_lodge_a">Earth Lodge A</a></td><td class="tocpg">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#unex_ru">Unexcavated Ruins</a></td><td class="tocpg">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch"><a href="#tree_rngs">Dates for Mesa Verde Ruins Established by Tree-Ring Chronology</a></td><td class="tocpg">26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch"><a href="#rec_disc">Discoveries of Recent Years</a></td><td class="tocpg">27</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch"><a href="#preh_inh">Prehistoric Inhabitants of the Mesa Verde</a></td><td class="tocpg">28</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch"><a href="#fauna_flora">Fauna and Flora</a></td><td class="tocpg">32</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch"><a href="#get_there">How to Reach the Park</a></td><td class="tocpg">34</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#get_there">By Automobile</a></td><td class="tocpg">34</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#by_rail">By Railroad</a></td><td class="tocpg">34</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch"><a href="#motor_trans">Motor Transportation</a></td><td class="tocpg">35</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch"><a href="#admin">Administration</a></td><td class="tocpg">36</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch"><a href="#educ_serv">Educational Service</a></td><td class="tocpg">37</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#educ_serv">Guided Trips to the Ruins</a></td><td class="tocpg">37</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#educ_serv">Campfire Talks</a></td><td class="tocpg">37</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#museum">Park Museum</a></td><td class="tocpg">37</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#museum">Reference Library</a></td><td class="tocpg">38</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch"><a href="#campgrnds">Free Public Camp Grounds</a></td><td class="tocpg">38</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch"><a href="#hr_hk_trips">Horseback and Hiking Trips</a></td><td class="tocpg">38</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch"><a href="#medical">Hospital and Medical Service</a></td><td class="tocpg">39</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch"><a href="#accm_expns">Accommodations and Expenses</a></td><td class="tocpg">39</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch"><a href="#references">References</a></td><td class="tocpg">40</td></tr>
+</table>
+</td></tr>
+</table>
+</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg_vi]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center">
+<table width=544 summary="frame">
+<tr><td><img src="images/naturalist.png" width="544" height="700" border="0" alt="Photo of Ruins" title="Photo of Ruins"/><br />
+<div class="text_rt"><i>Grant photo.</i></div>
+</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div><br />
+<div class="caption3">COMPETENT RANGER NATURALISTS ACCOMPANY VISITORS TO THE RUINS</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_01" id="Page_01">[Pg_01]</a></span>
+<div class="center">
+<hr class="hr1" />
+<hr class="hr2" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="title">MESA VERDE</div>
+<br />
+<div class="caption2"><i>National Park</i></div>
+
+<hr class="hr0" />
+
+<div class="caption4">&#9679; SEASON FROM MAY 15 TO OCTOBER 15 &#9679;</div>
+
+<hr class="hr0" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The mesa verde, or green mesa, so-called because its juniper and
+piñon trees give it a verdant tone, is 15 miles long by 8 miles wide.
+Rising abruptly from the valley on the north side, its top slopes
+gradually southward to the high cliffs bordering the canyon of the Mancos
+River on the south. Into this valley open a number of large high-walled
+canyons through which occasionally, in times of heavy rain, raging torrents
+of water flow into the Mancos. In the shelter of the caves that have been
+eroded in the sides of these canyons are some of the best-preserved cliff
+dwellings in America, built many centuries ago by a tribe of peace-loving
+Indians who prized the security offered by the almost inaccessible caves.
+In order to preserve these cliff dwellings Mesa Verde National Park was
+created, but they are not the only attractions in the area. In the winter
+the park is closed to travel by deep snow, but in the early spring the blanket
+of snow is replaced by a mantle of flowers that change with the seasons,
+and to the story of the prehistoric inhabitants is added an absorbing story
+of nature that is peculiar to this mesa and canyon country.</p>
+
+<p><a name="comma" class="typo"></a><a href="#typos"><span class="typos">"The Mesa Verde region",</span></a> writes Arthur Chapman, "has many attractions
+besides its ruins. It is a land of weird beauty. The canyons which
+seam the mesa, all of which lead toward the distant Mancos River, are, in
+many cases, replicas of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. While the
+summer days are warm, the nights are cool, and the visitor should bring
+plenty of wraps besides the clothing and shoes necessary for the work of
+climbing around among the trails. It is a country for active footwork,
+just as it was in the days of the cliff dwellers themselves. But when one
+has spent a few days among the cedars and piñon pines of the Mesa Verde,
+well named Green Table by the Spaniards of early days, he becomes an
+enthusiast and will be found among those who return again and again to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_02" id="Page_02">[Pg_02]</a></span>
+this most unique of national parks to study its mysteries and its beauties
+from all angles."</p>
+
+<p>The northern edge of the mesa terminates in a precipitous bluff, averaging
+2,000 feet above the Montezuma Valley. The general slope of the surface
+is to the south, and as the main entrance highway meanders back and forth
+in heading each smaller canyon, many times skirting the very brink of the
+great northern fault line, tremendous expanses of diversified terrain are
+brought into view, first in Colorado and Utah, then in Arizona and New
+Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>A new scenic road approximately 1 mile in length branches from the
+main highway at a point 10.2 miles beyond the entrance checking station
+and ascends to the crest of Park Point, the highest part of the Mesa Verde
+National Park, which attains an elevation of 8,572 feet above sea level.</p>
+
+<p>From this majestic prominence the great Montezuma Valley, dotted with
+artificial lakes and fertile fields, appears as from an airplane, while to the
+north are seen the Rico Mountains and the Lone Cone of Colorado, and to
+the east, the La Plata Mountains. To the west the La Sals, the Blues, and
+Bears Ears, of Utah, dominate the horizon. Some of these landmarks are
+more than 115 miles distant. Southward numerous deep canyons, in which
+the more important cliff dwellings are found, subdivide the Mesa Verde
+into many long, narrow tonguelike mesas. The dark purplish canyon of
+the Mancos River is visible in the middle foreground, and beyond, above
+the jagged outline of the mesa to the south, the Navajo Reservation, surrounded
+by the deep-blue Carrizos of Arizona and the Lukachukai and
+Tunichas of New Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>In the midst of this great mountain-enclosed, sandy plain, which, seen
+from the mesa, resembles a vast inland sea surrounded by dark, forbidding
+mountains, rises Ship Rock (45 miles distant), a great, jagged shaft of
+igneous rock, 1,860 feet high, which appears for all the world like a great
+"windjammer" under full sail. Toward evening the illusion is perfect.</p>
+
+<p>The distance from Park Point to Spruce Tree Camp, the park headquarters,
+is 10.5 miles. The entire road from the park entrance to headquarters,
+20 miles, is gravel surfaced and oil treated, full double width,
+and cars may pass at any point thereon.</p>
+
+<p>Although there are hundreds of cliff dwellings within the Mesa Verde
+National Park, the more important are located in Rock, Long, Wickiup,
+Navajo, Spruce, Soda, Moccasin, and tributary canyons. Surface ruins
+of a different type are widely distributed over the narrow mesas separating
+the numerous canyons. A vast area surrounding the park contains more or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_03" id="Page_03">[Pg_03]</a></span>
+less important ruins of these early inhabitants, most important and easiest
+of access from the park being the Aztec Ruins and Chaco Canyon National
+Monuments, New Mexico; the Yucca House National Monument, Colorado;
+and the Hovenweep National Monument, Colorado-Utah.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="Road_Map"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<div class="caption3">ROAD MAP OF MESA VERDE NATIONAL PARK,<br />SHOWING IMPORTANT RUINS ON
+CHAPIN MESA ONLY</div>
+<a href="images/road_map_lg.png"><img src="images/road_map.png" width="687" height="700" border="0" alt="Road Map of Mesa Verde NP" title="Road Map of Mesa Verde NP" /></a><br /><br /><span class="smaller">Click on image to view larger sized.</span>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="the_ruins"><br /></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span>
+<div class="caption1">THE RUINS</div>
+
+
+<p>Although the Spaniards were in the Mesa Verde region as early as
+1765 and the Americans as early as 1859, it was not until 1872 that the
+first settlement was made. In that year the Mancos Valley, lying at the
+foot of the Mesa Verde, was settled, but because of the fact that the mesa
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_04" id="Page_04">[Pg_04]</a></span>
+itself was a stronghold of the warlike Ute Indians, many years passed
+before the cliff dwellings were discovered.</p>
+
+<p>The ruins in the Mancos Canyon were discovered as early as 1874 when
+W. H. Jackson, who led a Government party, found there many small
+dwellings broken down by the weather. The next year he was followed
+by Prof. W. H. Holmes, later chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
+who drew attention to the remarkable stone towers also found in this region.
+Had either of the explorers followed up the side canyons of the Mancos
+they would have then discovered ruins which, in the words of Baron
+Gustav Nordenskiöld, the talented Swedish explorer, are "so magnificent
+that they surpass anything of the kind known in the United States."</p>
+
+<p>The largest cliff ruin, known as Cliff Palace, was discovered by Richard
+Wetherill and Charlie Mason while hunting cattle one December day in
+1888. Coming to the edge of a small canyon they first caught sight of a
+village under the overhanging cliff on the opposite side, placed like a picture
+in its rocky frame. In their enthusiasm they thought it was a palace.
+With the same enthusiasm the visitors of today involuntarily express their
+pleasure and surprise as they first view this spectacular ruin.</p>
+
+<p>Later these two men explored this ruin and gave it the name of Cliff
+Palace, an unfortunate designation, for it is in no respect a palace, but a
+community house, containing more than 200 living rooms, former abodes
+of families, and 23 ceremonial rooms or kivas. They also discovered other
+community dwellings, one of which was called Spruce Tree House, from a
+large spruce tree, since cut down, growing in front of it. This had eight
+ceremonial rooms and probably housed 300 inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>The findings of these two ruins did not complete the discoveries of
+ancient buildings in the Mesa Verde; many other ruins were found by the
+Wetherill brothers and other early explorers. They mark the oldest and
+most congested region of the park, but the whole number of archeological
+sites may reach into the thousands.</p>
+
+<p>Only a few of the different types of ruins that have already been excavated,
+repaired, and made accessible to the visitor are considered herein. This
+excavation and repair was the work of the late Dr. J. Walter Fewkes,
+formerly chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology, with the exception of
+Balcony House, which was done by Jesse L. Nusbaum. Hundreds of sites
+await scientific investigation, being accessible now only on foot or horseback.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="Spruce_Tree_House"></a>
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_05" id="Page_05">[Pg_05]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/sp_tr_hs.png" width="700" height="452" border="0" alt="Spruce Tree House" title="Spruce Tree House" /><br /><br />
+<div class="caption3">SPRUCE TREE HOUSE, A COMMUNITY DWELLING OF 114 ROOMS</div>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_06" id="Page_06">[Pg_06]</a></span>
+<a name="sp_tr_hs"></a>
+<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span></p>
+<div class="caption2">SPRUCE TREE HOUSE</div>
+
+<p>Spruce Tree House, located in a large cave just across Spruce Tree
+Canyon from the museum, has been made readily accessible by a short
+winding trail. This is the only excavated cliff dwelling in the park that
+may be visited without going on a conducted tour, and is open to the public
+at all times. A ranger is always on duty to protect the ruin from vandalism
+and to give information to the visitors.</p>
+
+
+<div class="caption3">GENERAL DESCRIPTION</div>
+
+<p>The total length of Spruce Tree House is 216 feet, and its greatest width
+is 89 feet. During the excavation of the ruin in 1907, Dr. Fewkes counted
+8 ceremonial rooms, or kivas, and 114 rooms that had been used for living,
+storage, and other purposes. At least 14 seemed to have been storage and
+burial rooms so that probably not more than 100 were used as dwellings.
+If it is considered that a family occupied each room, the population would
+have been large, but it is doubtful if all of the rooms were occupied at one
+time. An average of 2 or 3 persons to the room, making a total of not
+more than 300 for the entire village, would no doubt be a fair estimate.</p>
+
+<p>Two hundred feet north of Spruce Tree House the canyon comes to an
+abrupt box end. A splendid spring flows from the base of the sandstone
+cliff, and it was to this spring that the cliff-dweller women went for water
+carrying it back to their homes in their big water jars. At the south end
+of the cave a trail, consisting of small toeholds cut in the cliff, led to the
+mesa top above. This trail was used by the men as they went to their
+mesa-top fields, where they raised corn, beans, and squash, and by the
+hunters as they went in search of deer and mountain sheep that lived in
+the forests above.</p>
+
+
+<div class="caption3">LIVING ROOMS</div>
+
+<p>The rooms of Spruce Tree House are divided into two groups by a
+court or street running from the front to the back of the cave, at a point
+just south of the center of the village. The majority of the rooms are north
+of this street, and some of the walls show the finest work in the entire
+structure. The stones were well shaped and smoothed; the mud mortar
+was carefully worked into the crevices and compressed with thin stone
+wedges. Over many of the walls was spread a thin coat of reddish plaster,
+often decorated with paintings. These rooms, standing as when they were
+constructed 700 years ago, are mute evidence of the cleverness of the masons
+who built them.</p>
+
+<p>Spruce Tree House has more walls that reach the top of the cave than
+any other ruin in the park. All through the central part the walls were
+three stories high, the top of the cave serving as the roof of the upper rooms.
+One-and two-story structures usually required a ceiling of heavy rafters,
+running lengthwise of the rooms. These were covered with a crosswise
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_07" id="Page_07">[Pg_07]</a></span>
+layer of small poles and withes as a support for an average 3-inch floor of
+clay. Very often a small hatchway was left in one corner of the ceiling.
+A short ladder leaning in the corner of the lower room gave access to the
+room above.</p>
+
+<p>Very few of the houses were equipped with fire pits. Most of the cooking
+was done in the open courts. Small fire pits can be found along the walls
+and in the corners of the courts and passageways.</p>
+
+
+<div class="caption3">CEREMONIAL ROOMS OR KIVAS</div>
+
+<p>Spruce Tree House has eight of the circular, subterranean rooms that
+were set aside for ceremonial purposes. Similar rooms are still in use in
+the present day Pueblo Indian villages and are known as kivas.</p>
+
+<p>Usually the kiva roofs have collapsed, but in Square Tower House two
+kivas have the original roofs almost intact. Following the plan of these
+original roofs, three of the kivas in Spruce Tree House have been reroofed.
+Details of construction may be noted by descending the ladder into one of
+these restored kivas.</p>
+
+<p>Kivas in the Mesa Verde are always underground and generally circular
+in shape. The average diameter is 12 to 13 feet and the depth is such that
+the roof would clear a man's head. At a point about 3 feet above the floor
+is a narrow ledge running entirely around the room. This ledge is known
+as the banquette and its exact use is unknown. On this ledge were built
+six stone buttresses or pilasters, 2 to 3 feet in height, which served as roof
+supports. Short beams were placed from pilaster to pilaster around the
+room, and additional series of beams were laid to span the angles formed
+by the lower series. Normally five or six sets of beams extended this
+cribwork almost to the ground level. Horizontal beams were then placed
+across the top and the whole structure was covered with bark and earth.
+A small square hole in the center of the roof provided an entrance which
+also served for a smoke vent.</p>
+
+<p>On the south side of the kiva the banquette is wider between two of the
+pilasters than anywhere else around the room. This deep recess is often
+referred to as an altar, although its exact use is not known. Just back of
+the wall of this deep recess is a vertical shaft that leads down to meet a
+horizontal shaft that opens into the kiva just above the floor. This is the
+ventilator shaft. The fire, burning in the small pit in the center of the
+room, sent the smoke up through the hole in the roof, and the fresh air was
+drawn down through the ventilator shaft. Between the ventilator and the
+fire pit a small wall, known as the "deflector", was constructed to keep the
+fresh air current from blowing on the fire.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_08" id="Page_08">[Pg_08]</a></span>
+Two or three feet from the fire pit, and in a straight line with the ventilator
+shaft, the deep recess, the deflector, and the fire pit is a small hole in the
+floor of the kiva. This hole is usually about 3 inches in diameter and from
+4 to 6 inches deep; its walls and bottom often covered with a smooth layer
+of mud. In the present-day kivas this hole is known as the "sipapu",
+and is considered to be the symbolic entrance to the underworld. The
+kiva was a combination ceremonial, club, and work room for the men.
+Even in the present-day villages the women are rarely ever allowed to
+enter the kivas because of the fact that the men take almost entire charge
+of the religious work. It is believed that each clan had its own kiva. It
+may be noted that in almost every case the kiva is surrounded by a group of
+living rooms. The members of the clan no doubt lived in these rooms and
+the men held their ceremonies in the adjoining kiva. Two of the kivas in
+Spruce Tree House have side entrances that lead to nearby rooms. These
+rooms may have been the homes of the priests, or dressing rooms for them.</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">DATE OF OCCUPATION</div>
+
+<p>Twenty-one of the roof beams in Spruce Tree House have been dated by
+tree-ring chronology. These dates show that the houses were constructed
+during the years between 1230 A.D. and 1274 A.D. In 1276 A.D. a
+24-year period of drought began that caused the cliff dwellers to move to
+regions where there was a more permanent supply of water. In those
+same regions are the homes of the modern Pueblo Indians and no doubt
+some of these people are the descendants of the cliff dwellers.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="cliff_pal"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption2">CLIFF PALACE</div>
+
+<p>Cliff Palace lies in an eastern spur of Cliff Canyon under the roof of an
+enormous cave that arches 50 to 100 feet above it. The floor of the cave is
+elevated about 200 feet above the bottom of the canyon and is just under
+the rim of the mesa. The entrance of the cave faces west, toward a great
+promontory upon which stands Sun Temple.</p>
+
+<p>The total length of the cave is over 300 feet and its greatest depth is just
+under 100 feet. The vaulted roof is so high that the cave is always light
+and airy, offering a perfect home site to the cliff dwellers who were seeking
+protection from the elements as well as from their enemies.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately, the configuration of the cliffs above the ruin makes it
+possible to get a fine bird's-eye view from the rim of the mesa. Views
+obtained from the heads of the two trails are most striking and give an
+idea of the setting and size of the building before it is entered for closer
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_09" id="Page_09">[Pg_09]</a></span>
+inspection. The most spectacular view of Cliff Palace is from Sun Temple,
+across the canyon. This is the only spot from which the entire ruin may
+be seen.</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">LIVING ROOMS</div>
+
+<p>Cliff Palace is the largest known cliff dwelling. Dr. Fewkes, who
+excavated the ruin in 1909, placed the number of living rooms at slightly
+more than 200. Very few of the walls reached the top of the cave because
+of its great height, but many of the structures were as high as two and
+three stories. Near the south end of the ruin is the tallest structure, a
+four-story tower that reaches the cave roof. Ground space appropriate for
+building purposes was at a premium in the cave. To provide for an
+increasing population, second-, third-, and even fourth-story rooms were
+superimposed on the original single-story structures which predominated
+in the initial cliff-dweller occupation of this site.</p>
+
+<p>When the cliff dwellers started building in the cave they were confronted
+with the problem of an uneven floor. The floor of the cave slanted from
+the back to the front and was covered with huge, angular boulders that
+had fallen from the cave roof. This problem the cliff dweller solved by
+erecting terraces and filling in the irregular places. The open spaces
+between the boulders were excellent for kivas, as there was not a great deal
+of excavation necessary. After the kiva walls were built the extra space
+was filled in with trash and dirt. When the flat kiva roof was added a level
+court resulted. Around this court the homes were constructed, often on
+the rough surfaces of the big boulders. Because of the uneven floor and
+the terracing that was necessary, six distinct terrace levels resulted.</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">KIVAS</div>
+
+<p>Twenty-two kivas are located in the cave and another, lying about 50
+feet from the western end, and thought to have been used by men living
+in the cave, brings the total to 23. Twenty of these conform to the plan
+of the typical Mesa Verde kiva, but three seem to be of a different type.
+These three, instead of being round, are square with rounded corners.
+The banquette is missing as well as the pilasters or roof supports.</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">STORAGE ROOMS</div>
+
+<p>Because of the fact that the inhabitants of Cliff Palace were forced to
+store enough corn each fall to last until the next harvest a great many
+storage rooms were constructed. Any small nook or cranny that was too
+small for a home was utilized for that purpose. Far back in the cave a
+number were constructed of large, thin sandstone slabs. These slabs were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg_10]</a></span>
+placed on end to form small rectangular rooms. When the door slabs
+were in place and all of the crevices were well chinked with mud the grain
+was safe from the rodents. High up under the roof of the cave, at the
+back, was a long narrow shelf that was also utilized for storage space. A
+wall was built along the front of the ledge to the cave roof, and the space
+back of the wall was divided into 14 small storage rooms. A ladder on
+the roof of one of the houses below gave access to the ledge.</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">PAINTINGS</div>
+
+<p>In the third floor room of the four-story tower is the finest painting yet
+found in the Mesa Verde. The entire inner surface of the four walls was
+covered with bright red designs on a white background. The designs are
+similar to those found on cliff-dweller pottery. The white color was
+obtained by mixing finely ground gypsum with water to form a smooth
+paste; the red was obtained by treating hematite, or red ochre, in the same
+manner.</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">THE ROUND TOWER</div>
+
+<p>The outstanding structure in Cliff Palace is the two-story round tower
+that stands just south of the center of the cave. Every stone in this tower
+is rounded to conform to the curvature of the walls and the graceful taper
+toward the top makes it one of the finest examples of masonry work in the
+region. When the early explorers first entered this tower the only object
+found was the most beautiful stone ax they ever discovered. Whether
+this tower was a home or whether it was constructed for some special
+purpose is a matter of conjecture.</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">POSSIBLE POPULATION</div>
+
+<p>Because of the fact that Cliff Palace is the largest of all cliff dwellings,
+its population is of special interest. A close inspection of the rooms in the
+ruin shows that they are smaller, on the average, than the rooms in any
+of the other large cliff dwellings. When judged from our modern standards,
+it is difficult to imagine more than a couple of people living in each one.
+Our modern ideas, however, will not help us in understanding the people
+who once lived in Cliff Palace.</p>
+
+<p>More than anything else the cliff dwellers desired security from their
+enemies. Their next desire was safety from the elements. When it is
+considered that these were the motivating influences, it can easily be
+understood that such minor matters as space and comfort would receive
+little consideration. Since the inhabitants were an easy-going, peace-loving
+group it can be imagined that crowded living conditions would not be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg_11]</a></span>
+objectionable. In addition it must be considered that the rooms were
+used principally as sleeping quarters. All activities were carried on in
+the open courts and on the terraced roof tops. Even the cooking was done
+over open fires outside the houses.</p>
+
+<p>An average of two to the room would give a population of 400; an average
+of three would place 600 in the cave. If every room were occupied at one
+time and if the average of two or three to the room is not too high, it would
+seem that a total population of 500 would not be too great for Cliff Palace.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="bal_hs"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption2">BALCONY HOUSE</div>
+
+<p>Balcony House lies in Soda Canyon about 2&frac12; miles southeast of Spruce
+Tree Camp, and is reached by a continuation of the Cliff Palace Road. It
+is one of the most picturesque of the accessible ruins in the park and occupies
+a better position for defense than most of the other ruins on the mesa. A
+few defenders could have repelled a large attacking force. Additional
+precautions have been taken at the south end of the ruin for the strengthening
+of its defenses, where the only means of reaching it is through a fortified
+narrow cleft. The south part of the ledge was walled up to a height of
+about 15 feet, the lower part of the wall closing the cleft being pierced by a
+narrow tunnel. Through this tunnel a man may creep on hands and knees
+from the cliff dwelling to the south part of the ledge, which affords a footing,
+with a precipice to the left and the cliff to the right, for about 100 paces.
+The ledge here terminates in the perpendicular wall of the canyon. The
+ruined walls of a defensive structure, built to cut off approach on this side,
+may still be traced.</p>
+
+<p>At the north end of the ruin the foundation gave the builders considerable
+trouble, but the difficulties were skillfully overcome. A supporting wall
+was erected on a lower ledge, to form a stable foundation for the outer wall
+of the upper rooms, where the higher ledge was too narrow or abrupt for
+building purposes.</p>
+
+<p>South of the rooms fronted by this wall is a small open court, bounded at
+the back by a few very regular and well-preserved rooms which rise to the
+roof of the cave. The poles supporting the floors of these upper-story
+rooms project about 2 feet to provide support for a balcony. Split poles,
+laid parallel with the front wall, were covered at right angles with rods of
+cedar bast and generously plastered with clay to form the floor of the
+balcony, which served as a means of outside communication between the
+rooms of the upper story. A low, thick parapet wall built on the edge of
+the precipice encloses the canyon side of the northern court.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg_12]</a></span>
+The funds for the excavation and repair of Balcony House in 1911 were
+largely furnished by the Colorado Cliff Dwellers Society, an
+organization founded and directed by Mrs. Gilbert McClurg, of Colorado
+Springs, Colo. The original purpose of this society was to stimulate
+interest in legislation for the preservation and protection of the
+prehistoric remains of the Mesa Verde. This society advanced the
+creation of Mesa Verde National Park in 1906.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="sq_tw_hs"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption2">SQUARE TOWER HOUSE</div>
+
+<p>Square Tower House Ruin is situated in an eastern spur of Navajo
+Canyon, opposite a great bluff called Echo Cliff. An ancient approach
+to the ruin from the canyon rim is visible to the south of the
+dwelling. Footholes for ascent and descent had been cut in the cliff
+by the Indians which enabled them to reach the level on which the ruin
+is situated. The footpath now used by visitors parallels the ancient
+trail. Along the top of the talus this pathway splits into an upper
+and lower branch. The former, hugging the cliff, passes through the
+"Eye of the Needle"; the latter is lower down on the talus and is used
+by the stouter and older visitors.</p>
+
+<p>The Square Tower House cave is shallow, its back wall perpendicular,
+with roof slightly overhanging. At the extreme eastern end of the ruin the
+vertical cliff suddenly turns at right angles, forming an angle in which, high
+above the main ruin, there still remain walls of rooms. To these rooms, which
+are tucked away just under the canyon rim, with only their front walls visible,
+the name "Crow's Nest" is given. Logs, with their ends resting in
+notches cut in the rock actually support walls of masonry, as seen in the
+angle of this cliff. This is a well-known method of cliff-house construction.</p>
+
+<p>This ruin measures about 138 feet from its eastern to its western end.
+There are no streets or passageways as at Spruce Tree House and Cliff
+Palace. The rooms are continuous and compactly constructed, the walls
+being united from one end of the cave to the other, excepting for the spaces
+above the kivas. The absence of a cave recess to the rear of the ruin is
+significant as it allowed the cliff to be used as the back wall of rooms.
+Rooms in Square Tower House do not differ radically from those of Spruce
+Tree House and other cliff dwellings. They have smaller windows, door
+openings, and supports of balconies. The rectangular rooms were constructed
+above the ground; the circular rooms were subterranean. The
+former were devoted to secular and the latter to ceremonial purposes.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">THE TOWER</div>
+
+<p>The tower is, of course, the most conspicuous as well as the most interesting
+architectural feature of the ruin, being visible for a long distance as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg_13]</a></span>
+one approaches Square Tower House. Its foundation rests on a large
+boulder situated in the eastern section of the cave floor. This tower has
+three walls constructed of masonry, the fourth being the perpendicular
+rear wall of the cave. The masonry of the tower stands about 35 feet above
+the foundation, but the foundation boulder on which it stands increases
+its height over 5 feet.</p>
+
+<p>On a projecting rock on the west side above the tower is the wall of a
+small, inaccessible room which may have been used as a lookout or as an
+eagle house.</p>
+
+<p>The lowest story of the tower is entered from plaza B, and on the east
+side there are three openings, situated one over another, indicating the
+first, second, and third stories, but on the south side of the tower there are
+only two doorways. The roof of the lowest room is practically intact,
+showing good workmanship, but about half of its floor is destroyed. The
+upper walls of the second-story room have the original plaster, reddish
+dado below and white above. Although the third and fourth stories are
+destitute of floors, they are plastered.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">KIVAS</div>
+
+<p>Some of the best preserved circular ceremonial chambers (kivas) in the
+Southwest are to be seen in Square Tower House. The majority of the
+kivas belong to the pure type, distinguished by mural pilasters supporting
+a vaulted roof.</p>
+
+<p>Kiva A is particularly instructive on account of the good preservation of
+its roof. Its greatest diameter is 13 feet 6 inches; or, measuring inside the
+banquettes, 11 feet 1 inch. The interior is well plastered with many layers
+of brown plaster. The pilasters are six in number, one of which is double.
+Two depressions are visible in the smooth floor, in addition to a fireplace
+and a sipapu. These suggest ends of a ladder, but no remains of a ladder
+were found in the room.</p>
+
+<p>Kiva B is the largest ceremonial chamber in Square Tower House,
+measuring 16 feet 9 inches in diameter over all. This kiva is not only
+one of the best preserved, but also one of the most instructive in Square
+Tower House, since half of the roof, with the original cribbing, is still in
+place, extending completely around the periphery. It has six pilasters
+and as many banquettes. Where the plaster had not fallen, it was found
+to have several layers.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">PETROGLYPHS</div>
+
+<p>The perpendicular cliff back of Square Tower House has several different
+forms of incised petroglyphs. From the fact that these usually occur on
+the cliff above the kiva roofs, they may be regarded as connected in some
+way with a religious symbolism. A few petroglyphs are also found on stones
+set in the walls of the rooms.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="Sun_Temple"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg_14]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/sun_tmpl.png" width="700" height="447" alt="Sun Temple" title="Sun Temple" /><br /><br />
+     <div class="caption3">SUN TEMPLE, A MYSTERIOUS FORM OF RUIN</div>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="oak_tr_hs"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg_15]</a></span></p>
+<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span></p>
+<div class="caption2">OAK TREE HOUSE</div>
+
+<p>The ruin formerly called Willow House, but now known as Oak Tree
+House, lies on the north side of Fewkes Canyon, in a symmetrical cave and
+has an upper and a lower part. The two noteworthy features of Oak Tree
+House are the kivas and the remnant of the wall of a circular room made
+of sticks plastered with adobe but destitute of stone masonry.</p>
+
+<p>Oak Tree House has seven kivas and may be called a large cliff dwelling.
+One of the kivas has a semicircular ground plan with a rectangular room
+on the straight side. There are no pilasters or banquettes in this kiva. The
+floor of another kiva was almost wholly occupied by a series of grinding
+bins, indicating a secondary use. The excavation work on Oak Tree
+House has not yet been completed, but a small collection of specimens at
+one end of the ruin shows the nature of the objects thus far found.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="sun_st_hs"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption2">SUN SET HOUSE</div>
+
+<p>Looking across Cliff Canyon from Sun Point one can see the fine ruin
+called Sun Set House, formerly known as Community House. This ruin,
+like many other cliff dwellings, has an upper and a lower house, the former
+being relatively larger than is usually the case. Although Sun Set House
+is accessible, it has never been excavated.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="sun_tmpl"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption2">SUN TEMPLE</div>
+
+<p>The cliff houses considered in the preceding pages are habitations.
+There are also specialized buildings on the Mesa Verde which were never
+inhabited but were used for other purposes. Two of these presumably were
+devoted solely to ceremonial purposes and are known as Sun Temple and
+Fire Temple.</p>
+
+<p>Sun Temple is situated west of Cliff Palace, on the promontory formed
+by the confluence of Cliff and Fewkes Canyons. Up to the year 1915 the
+site of Sun Temple was a mound of earth and stones, all showing artificial
+working or the pecking of primitive stone hammers. This mound had a
+circular depression in the middle and its surface was covered with trees
+and bushes. No high walls projected above the ground nor was there any
+intimation of the size or character of the buried building. It was believed
+to be a pueblo or communal habitation. Excavation of this mound brought
+into view one of the most unusual buildings in the park.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg_16]</a></span>
+Sun Temple is a type of ruin hitherto unknown in the park. The
+building excavated shows excellent masonry and is the most mysterious
+form yet discovered in a region rich in prehistoric remains. Although at
+first there was some doubt as to the use of this building, it was early recognized
+that it was not constructed for habitation, and it is now believed
+that it was intended for the performance of rites and ceremonies; the first
+of its type devoted to religious purposes yet recognized in the Southwest.</p>
+
+<p>The ruin was purposely constructed on a commanding promontory in
+the neighborhood of large inhabited cliff houses. It sets somewhat back
+from the edge of the canyon, but near enough to make it clearly visible from
+all sides, especially the neighboring mesas. It must have presented an imposing
+appearance rising on top of a point high above inaccessible, perpendicular
+cliffs. No better place could have been chosen for a religious
+building in which the inhabitants of many cliff dwellings could gather and
+together perform their great ceremonial dramas.</p>
+
+<p>The ground plan of the ruin has the form of the letter D. The building
+is in two sections, the larger of which, taken separately, is also D-shaped.
+This is considered the original building. The addition enlarging it is
+regarded as an annex. The south wall, which is straight and includes
+both the original building and the annex, is 131.7 feet long. The ruin is
+64 feet wide.</p>
+
+<p>There are about 1,000 feet of walls in the whole building. These walls
+average 4 feet in thickness, and are double, enclosing a central core of
+rubble and adobe. They are uniformly well made.</p>
+
+<p>The fine masonry, the decorated stones that occur in it, and the unity of
+plan stamp Sun Temple as the highest example of Mesa Verde architecture.</p>
+
+<p>The walls were constructed of the sandstone of the neighborhood. Many
+stone hammers and pecking stones were found in the vicinity.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">THE SUN SYMBOL</div>
+
+<p>On the upper surface of a large rock protruding from the base of the
+southwest corner of the building a peculiar depression, surrounded by
+radiating ridges, was found. To primitive minds, this may have appeared
+as a symbol of the sun and, therefore, deemed an object of great significance,
+to be protected as a shrine. This natural impression may have prompted
+Dr. Fewkes in the naming of this ruin.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES</div>
+
+<p>There are three circular rooms in Sun Temple which from their form
+may be identified as ceremonial in function, technically called kivas. Two
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg_17]</a></span>
+of these, free from other rooms, are situated in the plaza that occupies the
+central part of the main building, and one is embedded in rooms of the
+so-called "annex." Adjoining the last mentioned, also surrounded by
+rooms, is a fourth circular chamber which is not a kiva. This room, found
+to be almost completely filled with spalls or broken stones, perhaps originally
+served as an elevated tower or lookout.</p>
+
+<p>The kiva that is situated in the west section of Sun Temple has a ventilator
+stack attached to the south side, recalling the typical ventilator of a Mesa
+Verde cliff kiva, and there are indications of the same structure in the two
+circular chambers in the court. These kivas, however, have no banquettes
+or pilasters to support a vaulted roof, and no fragments of roof beams were
+found in the excavations made at Sun Temple. East of Sun Temple, where
+formerly there was only a mound of stone and earth, there were found the
+remains of a low circular structure of undetermined use.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the peripheral rooms of Sun Temple open into adjoining rooms,
+a few into the central court, but none has external openings. Some of
+the rooms are without lateral entrances, as if it were intended to enter
+them through a hatch in the roof.</p>
+
+<p>Not only pits indicative of the stone tools by which the stones forming the
+masonry of Sun Temple were dressed appear on all the rocks used in its
+construction, but likewise many bear incised symbols. Several of these
+still remain in the walls of the building; others have been set in cement
+near the outer wall of the eastern kiva. It is interesting to record that some
+of the stones of which the walls were constructed were probably quarried
+on the mesa top not far from the building, but as the surface of the plateau
+is now forested, the quarries themselves are hidden in accumulated soil
+and are difficult to discover.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">AGE</div>
+
+<p>Sun Temple is believed to be among the latest constructed of all the
+aboriginal buildings in the park, probably contemporaneous with late
+building activities in Balcony House, Spruce Tree House, and Cliff Palace.</p>
+
+<p>Because of the absence of timbers or roof beams it is impossible to tell
+when Sun Temple was begun, how long it took for its construction, or
+when it was deserted. There are indications that its walls may never have
+been completed, and from the amount of fallen stones there can hardly be
+a doubt that when it was abandoned they had been carried up in some
+places at least 6 feet above their present level. The top of the wall had been
+worn down at any rate 6 feet in the interval between the time it was abandoned
+and the date of excavation of the mound. No one can tell the length
+of this interval in years.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg_18]</a></span>
+We have, however, knowledge of the lapse of time, because the mound
+had accumulated enough soil on its surface to support growth of large trees.
+Near the summit of the highest wall in the annex there grew a juniper
+tree of great antiquity, alive and vigorous when excavation work was
+begun. This tree undoubtedly sprouted after the desertion of the building
+and grew after a mound had developed from fallen walls. Its roots penetrated
+into the adjacent rooms and derived nourishment from the soil filling
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Necessarily, when these roots were cut off the tree was killed. It was then
+cut off about a foot above the ground, the stump remaining. A cross
+section of this stump was examined by Gordon Parker, supervisor of the
+Montezuma National Forest, who found that it had 360 annual rings
+without allowing for decayed heartwood which would add a few more
+years to its age.</p>
+
+<p>It is not improbable that this tree began to grow on the top of the Sun
+Temple mound shortly after the year 1540, when Coronado first entered
+New Mexico. How long an interval elapsed for crumbling walls to form
+the mound in which it grew, and how much earlier the foundations of the
+ruined walls were laid, no one can tell. A conservative guess of 350 years
+for the interval between construction and the time the cedar began to
+sprout would carry the antiquity of Sun Temple back to about 1200 A.D.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">UNITY OF CONSTRUCTION</div>
+
+<p>The argument that appeals most strongly to many in supporting the
+theory that Sun Temple was a ceremonial building is the unity shown in
+its construction. A preconceived plan existed in the minds of the builders
+before they began work on the main building. Sun Temple was not constructed
+haphazardly, nor was its form due to addition of one clan after
+another, each adding rooms to a preexisting nucleus. There is no indication
+of patching one building to another, so evident at Cliff Palace and other
+large cliff dwellings. The construction of the recess in the south wall,
+situated exactly, to an inch, midway in its length, shows it was planned
+from the beginning.</p>
+
+<p>We can hardly believe that one clan could have been numerous enough
+to construct a house so large and massive. Its walls are too extensive; the
+work of dressing the stones too great. The construction of Sun Temple
+presumably represents the cooperative efforts of many clans from adjacent
+cliff dwellings uniting in a common purpose. Such a united effort represents
+a higher state of sociological development than a loosely connected population
+of a cliff dwelling.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg_19]</a></span>
+<div class="caption3">BUILDERS</div>
+
+<p>On the theory that this building was erected by people from several
+neighboring cliff dwellings for ceremonies held in common, we may suppose
+that the builders came daily from their dwellings in Cliff Palace and other
+houses and returned at night, after they had finished work, to their homes.
+The trails down the sides of the cliffs which the workmen used are still to
+be seen. The place was frequented by many people, but there is no evidence
+that any one clan dwelt near this mysterious building during its construction.</p>
+
+<p>The argument that cliff dwellers in the neighborhood built Sun Temple
+and that incoming aliens had nothing to do with its construction seems
+very strong. The architectural differences between it and Cliff Palace
+are not objections, for the architectural form of Sun Temple may be
+regarded as a repetition, in the open, of a form of building that developed
+in a cliff house; the rounded north wall conforms with the rear of a cave
+and the straight south wall reproduces the front of a cliff dwelling. The
+recess midway in the south wall of Sun Temple could be likened without
+forcing the comparison to a similar recess which occurs at the main entrance
+into Cliff Palace.</p>
+
+<p>Sun Temple was not built by an alien people, but by the cliff dwellers as
+a specialized building mainly for religious purposes, and, so far as known, is
+the first of its type recognized in the Mesa Verde area.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="nw_fr_hs"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption2">NEW FIRE-HOUSE GROUP</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">FIRE TEMPLE</div>
+
+<p>Fire Temple is one of the most remarkable cliff houses in the park, if
+not in the whole Southwest. It is situated in a shallow cave in the north
+wall of Fewkes Canyon, near its head, and can readily be seen from the
+road along the southwest rim of the canyon. This ruin was formerly called
+Painted House, but when it was excavated in May 1920 evidence was
+obtained that it was a specialized building and not a habitation. The
+facts brought to light point to the theory that it was consecrated to the
+fire cult, one of the most ancient forms of worship.</p>
+
+<p>The ruin is rectangular in form, almost completely filling the whole of
+its shallow cave, and the walls of the rooms extend to the roof. A ground
+plan shows a central court 50 feet long and about 25 feet broad, flanked
+at each end with massive-walled buildings two stories high. The walls of
+these rooms are well constructed, plastered red and white within and on
+the side turned to the court. The white plaster is adorned with symbolic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg_20]</a></span>
+figures. The beams used in the construction of the ceiling of the lower
+room are missing, but the walls show clearly that the structure was formerly
+two stories high. No beams were used in the construction of the floors, the
+lower story having been filled in with fragments of rocks on which was
+plastered a good adobe floor.</p>
+
+<p>The court or plaza was bounded by a low wall on the south side, the
+buildings enclosing the east and west ends, where there was a banquette.
+The north side of the court was formed by the solid rocks of the cliff, but
+on the lower part a narrow masonry wall had been laid up about head
+high, projecting from the cliff a foot and less on the top. The wall was
+formerly plastered red below and white above, triangular figures and zigzag
+markings recalling symbols of lightning on the line of the junction of the
+red and white surfaces.</p>
+
+<p>In the center of the court on a well-hardened adobe floor there is a
+circular walled fire pit containing an abundance of ashes, and on either
+side of it are foundations of small rectangular structures. The function of
+the rectangular enclosures, lying one on each side of the fire pit, is unknown.
+The middle room of the lowest tier of rooms just west of the main court
+has a number of painted symbols and zoormorphic figures upon its walls.
+These paintings, in red, still remain in a fair state of preservation, and
+consist of five symbols, supposedly of fire, and many pictures of mountain
+sheep and other animals.</p>
+
+<p>Just west of Fire Temple there is a group of rooms which were evidently
+habitations, since household utensils were found in them. One of these
+rooms has in the floor a vertical shaft which opens outside the house walls
+like a ventilator. The former use of this structure is unknown. Although the
+Fire Temple was not inhabited, there were undoubtedly dwellings nearby.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<div class="caption3">NEW FIRE HOUSE</div>
+
+<p>A hundred feet east of the Fire Temple there are two low caves, one
+above the other. This cliff dwelling is called New Fire House. The
+rooms in the lower cave were fitted for habitation, consisting of two,
+possibly three, circular ceremonial rooms and a few secular rooms; but
+the upper cave is destitute of the former. The large rooms of the upper
+house look like granaries for the storage of provisions, although possibly
+they also were inhabited. In the rear of the large rooms identified as
+granaries was found a small room with a well-preserved human skeleton
+accompanied with mortuary pottery. One of these mortuary offerings is a
+fine mug made of black and white ware beautifully decorated. In the
+rear of the cave were three well-constructed grinding bins, their metates
+still in place.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg_21]</a></span>
+The upper house is now approached from the lower by foot holes in the
+cliff and a ladder. Evidences of a secondary occupation of one of the kivas
+in the lower house appear in a wall of crude masonry without mortar, part
+of a rectangular room built diagonally across the kiva. The plastering on
+the rear walls of the lower house is particularly well preserved. One of
+the kivas, has, in place of a deflector and ventilator shaft, a small rectangular
+walled enclosure surrounded by a wall, recalling structures on the floor of
+the kivas of Sun Temple. The meaning of this departure from the prescribed
+form of ventilator is not apparent.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="ced_tr_hs"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption2">CEDAR TREE TOWER</div>
+
+<p>Hidden in the timber about one-half mile east of the main entrance
+highway, and 1 mile north of Park Headquarters, stands a prehistoric
+tower. This ruin has been named Cedar Tree Tower because of the
+ancient juniper tree that grows adjacent to the north wall. The excavation
+of the tower and the area about its base led to the discovery that although
+it appeared to stand alone there were two subterranean rooms connected
+with its base. The larger of these rooms is a kiva, typical of the Mesa
+Verde cliff dwelling. Communication between kiva and tower was by
+means of a subterranean passage. This passage bifurcates, one branch
+opening through the tower floor, the other into a small square room. In
+the middle of the solid rock floor of the tower a circular hole, or <i>sipapu</i>,
+symbolic of the entrance to the underworld, had been drilled.</p>
+
+<p>The masonry is excellent and the massive character and workmanship
+of the walls indicate some important use. No living rooms were found
+adjacent to the tower. The walls of the tower are uniformly two feet in
+width and they still stand to the height of 12 feet.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="far_vw_hs"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption2">FAR VIEW HOUSE, A MESA VERDE PUEBLO</div>
+
+<p>Archeological investigations have shown that the inhabitants of the
+Mesa Verde built compact pueblo-style structures on the open mesa land
+separating the deep canyons. Lacking natural protection of the caves and
+cliffs of the canyons, a closely knit and compact structure was necessary for
+defensive purposes. Not having to conform to the irregular contours of
+the cave as in the cliff-house type, the structure assumed a roughly rectangular
+shape in the open, with the kivas within protected by the adjacent
+outside living and storage rooms. The roofed-over kivas formed small
+open courts within the higher outside walls. Structurally, there is but
+little difference between the cliff house and the pueblo; undoubtedly they
+belong to the same culture and period.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg_22]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/far_vw_hs.png" width="700" height="453" border="0" alt="Far View House" title="Far View House" /><br /><br />
+<div class="caption3">A MESA VERDE SURFACE RUIN. FAR VIEW HOUSE</div>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg_23]</a></span>
+Four and a half miles north of Spruce Tree Camp the park road passes
+near 16 major and many minor mounds. This is the so-called Mummy
+Lake group, a misnomer, since the walled depression at the crest of the
+slope above the group was never used as a reservoir, also since mummies
+are never found where the least dampness occurs. In the spring of the
+year water is still conducted to the depression by the drainage ditches which
+the early cowmen in the park constructed in their efforts to impound sufficient
+water for their stock.</p>
+
+<p>The first unit of this group to be excavated was named Far View House
+because of the wonderful panorama of diversified terrain that is visible in
+Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona from the walls of the ruin. At the
+beginning of the work, this mound appeared very much as any of the
+other adjacent major mounds, no sign of standing wall appearing above
+the even contour of the ruin. Heavy growths of sagebrush covered the
+whole area. Three months' time was devoted to the excavation in revealing
+the rectangular pueblo, 100 by 113 feet in size, now seen. The slow
+crumbling of the heavy dirt-covered roofs and the walls, together with
+the annual deposit of wind-blown sand from the San Juan country early
+each spring, gradually filled the rooms to the level of the standing walls,
+after which destructive elements and forces can little change the contour
+of any ruin.</p>
+
+<p>The external features of Far View House are apparent as we approach
+its walls; mounting to the top of the highest wall we can best observe the
+general plan. This pueblo is rectangular in shape, consisting of concentrated
+rooms with a court surrounded by a wall annexed to the south side.
+On its southeast corner, a little less than 100 feet away, lies the cemetery
+from which have been taken a number of skeletons with their offerings of
+food bowls and other objects, such as was the custom of these people to
+deposit in the graves of their dead.</p>
+
+<p>At its highest point on the north wall the pueblo had three stories, but
+on the southern side there was but a single story. This building was terraced,
+one tier of rooms above another. In the corner of the interior of
+the highest room may still be seen the ancient fireplaces and stones for
+grinding corn, set in their original positions as used by the former inhabitants.
+There are no external windows or passages, except on the south
+side where midway in length is a recess in which was placed a ladder in
+order to be hidden from view. The inhabitants evidently used the roof
+of the lowest terrace for many occupations. A bird's-eye view shows that
+all the rooms, now roofless, fall into two groups.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg_24]</a></span>
+In the center of this mass of rooms is a kiva 32 feet in diameter, and around
+it are three smaller kivas. The size of the large kiva is noteworthy. In
+the cliff dwellings the kivas were necessarily small because of the limited
+floor space, but in the surface villages, where unlimited space was available,
+they were often large. This arrangement of one large kiva and several
+small ones is common. It might indicate that each clan had a small
+kiva of its own but that in the major ceremonies, when all of the clans worked
+together, the large ceremonial room was used. The structural details of
+the large kiva are identical with those of the smaller ones. The only
+variation is in the size.</p>
+
+<p>The rooms surrounding these circular ones vary somewhat in form but
+are, as a rule, rectangular, the shapes of those near the kivas being triangular
+to fill the necessary spaces. The contents of the rectangular
+rooms show that they were living rooms. Artifacts were found and indications
+of various industries as well as marks of smoke from their fireplaces
+appear on the walls. From the nature of this evidence there is no doubt
+that Far View House was once inhabited by the people living the same way
+as those who used the cliff dwellings.</p>
+
+<p>The court added to the pueblo on its south side is enclosed by a low wall.
+Here were probably performed, in ancient times, the many religious dances
+and festivals.</p>
+
+<p>Far View House is but one of the 16 pueblos in the Mummy Lake group,
+and at the period of maximum development could have housed a large
+population. To the north and east, where the two branches of Soda
+Canyon join, another large village or group has been located, and one can
+almost trace the trail across the west fork of Soda Canyon to the neighboring
+village and imagine the dusky visitors going from one to the other in prehistoric
+times. Each narrow tonguelike mesa of the Mesa Verde has its
+ruins of either isolated pueblo structures, or adjacent groups, denoting the
+widespread distribution of the mesa pueblo builders.</p>
+
+<p>Pottery is the best index as to the chronological sequence of the ruins
+in the Southwest, and in examining the pottery of some of the mesa-type
+pueblos it is found that some contain pottery antedating that of the cliff-house
+culture, while others contain similar types. Undoubtedly, they
+were simultaneously inhabited, in part at least, and the transitory period
+was of long duration; but the period in prehistoric time when they were
+built and later deserted has not been determined. We cannot say from
+data now at hand when this took place, documentary history affording
+no help.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg_25]</a></span>
+The aborigines who lived near these ruins when discovered in 1874 were
+Utes, a Shoshonean stock who disclaimed all knowledge of the people who
+constructed these buildings. They avoided them as uncanny and even
+now can only with difficulty be induced to enter them. They have dim
+legends of conflicts between the earliest Utes and cliff dwellers. Unfortunately,
+however, such legendary evidence is not reliable, as the general
+mythology of these people has been much distorted due to foreign contacts
+and the passage of time.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption3">OTHER RUINS NEAR FAR VIEW HOUSE</div>
+
+<p>During the season of 1922 excavation and repair work in the vicinity of
+Far View House was carried on simultaneously. Among the ruins excavated
+were Pipe Shrine House, One Clan House, Far View Tower, and Megalithic
+House.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="earth_lodge_a"></a>
+<div class="caption2">EARTH LODGE A</div>
+
+<p>In 1922 one of the Late Basket Maker pit houses was excavated on the
+mesa above Square Tower House. This structure is known as Earth
+Lodge A. Although it once had a mud and pole roof almost as high as a
+man's head, nothing now remains but the underground part of the house.
+None of these pit houses have ever been found that have not been burned,
+and only a few pieces of charcoal remain as evidence of the former roof.
+The pit is 30 inches deep and 18 feet in diameter. In the center is a fire
+pit. In the floor are also four holes, forming a large square, in which the
+roof supports once stood. The walls of the pit were formerly plastered
+with a thick layer of mud, but only a few patches of this remain. Around
+the edge of the room, at floor level, were a number of small storage bins
+made of thin stone slabs. No side entrance was located during excavation.
+In some of the pit houses evidence has shown that entrance was often
+made by means of a ladder through the smokehole in the roof.</p>
+
+<p>This was a typical home of the Lake Basket Makers who were living in
+this region when the Pueblo Indians arrived about 700 A. D. These pit
+houses passed out of existence as soon as the masonry wall was perfected.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<a name="unex_ru"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption2">UNEXCAVATED RUINS</div>
+
+<p>Of all the ruins in Mesa Verde National Park only 28 have been named
+and only 30 excavated. No survey of the unexcavated sites has been
+made, and the total number of ruins is unknown. Several hundred cliff
+dwellings have been discovered, and new ones will probably be found in
+the more remote canyons. The surface pueblos outnumber the cliff
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg_26]</a></span>
+dwellings, and a careful search would reveal many that are now hidden by
+a thick growth of underbrush. The earth lodges of the Late Basket Makers
+are so common that hundreds will be brought to light by careful search.
+Dozens of them can be located in a half-hour walk over any of the mesas.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<a name="tree_rngs"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption1">DATES FOR MESA VERDE RUINS<br />ESTABLISHED BY THE TREE-RING
+CHRONOLOGY<span class="fnanchor"><a name="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2">[2]</a></span></div>
+
+<p>Dr. A. E. Douglass, director of Steward Observatory, University of
+Arizona, established the tree-ring chronology for dating Southwestern
+ruins. This chronology is based upon the facts that solar changes affect
+our weather and weather in turn the trees of the arid Southwest, as else-where,
+and that such affects are recorded in the variation of tree-ring
+growth during wet and dry years. Thus the tree-ring record of living
+trees has been extended into the past by arranging beams from historic
+pueblos in their proper sequence so that the inner rings of one match the
+outer rings of its predecessor, and in turn match the rings of the living
+trees. After completing the series from living trees and pueblos, of known
+dates, the record has been continued through the cross-sections of prehistoric
+beams of fir and pine that were chopped with the stone axes. The continuation
+of this chronology is only limited by the finding of earlier beams than
+those used in the established chronology.</p>
+
+<p>The National Geographic Society tree-ring expedition took, in all, 49
+beam sections from ruins within Mesa Verde National Park. During 1932
+and 1933 further tree-ring research was carried on in this area and additional
+dates have been secured. Presuming that the year of cutting the
+timber was the year of actual use in construction, the following dates have
+been established for the major cliff dwellings:</p>
+
+<table width="100%" summary="Occupation Chronology">
+<tr><td>Mug House, A. D. 1066</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Long House, A. D. 1204-11</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cliff Palace, A. D. 1073-1273</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Square Tower House, A. D. 1204-46</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Oak Tree House, A. D. 1112-84</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Spruce Tree House, A. D. 1230-74</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Spring House, A. D. 1115</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>New Fire House, A. D. 1259</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hemenway House, A. D. 1171</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Ruin No. 16, A. D. 1261</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Balcony House, A. D. 1190-1272</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Buzzard House, A. D. 1273</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Since considerable tree-ring material from these ruins remains yet to be
+examined, the dates given above are not final. On the basis of present
+evidence, Cliff Palace, the largest and most complex cliff house within the
+park, shows an occupancy of 200 years.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg_27]</a></span>
+It is an interesting fact that all of the dates fall just short of the beginning
+of the great drought, which the tree-ring chronology shows commenced in
+1276 and extended to 1299, a period of 24 years.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The Secret of the Southwest Solved by Talkative Tree Rings, by A. E. Douglass:
+National Geographic Magazine. December 1929.</p>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<a name="rec_disc"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption1">DISCOVERIES OF RECENT YEARS</div>
+
+<p>In 1923 Roy Henderson and A. B. Hardin discovered the largest and
+finest watchtower that had yet been found. The tower was circular, 25
+feet in height and 11 feet in diameter. Loopholes at various levels commanded
+the approach from every exposed quarter.</p>
+
+<p>During the winter of 1924 the north refuse space of Spruce Tree House
+was excavated. Two child burials were found, one partially mummified,
+the other skeletal only. With one was found a mug, a ladle, a digging
+stick, and two ring baskets that had held food. Several corrugated jars
+were found, together with miscellaneous material. A layer of turkey
+droppings a foot thick indicated the space had been used as a turkey pen.</p>
+
+<p>During January and February of 1926, when snow was available as a
+water supply, excavations were carried on in Step House Cave, by Superintendent
+Jesse L. Nusbaum. In 1891 Nordenskiöld had found many fine
+burials in this cave and it had suffered greatly from pothunting. The
+cliff dweller refuse at the south end of the cave had not been thoroughly
+cleaned out, however, and it was under this layer of trash that the important
+discovery was made. Three of the Late Basket Maker pit houses
+were found, giving the first evidence that these people had used the caves
+before the cliff dwellers. Very few artifacts were found because of the
+earlier pothunting. In 1926 also a low, deep cave opposite Fire Temple
+was excavated, and a small amount of Basket Maker material found. Most
+interesting were two tapered cylinders of crystallized salt that still bore the
+imprint of the molder's hands. While bracing a slipping boulder in Cliff
+Palace, Fred Jeep found, in 1916, a sandal of the Early Basket Maker
+type that indicates a former occupancy of the cave by the first group of
+Agricultural Indians in this region.</p>
+
+<p>In 1927 Bone Awl House was excavated. A series of unusually fine bone
+awls was found that suggested the name for the ruin. Much miscellaneous
+material was also found. Another small cliff dwelling nearby was cleaned
+out. One baby mummy and an adult burial were found, as well as some
+pottery and bone and stone tools. This ruin is reached by a spectacular
+series of 104 footholds that the cliff dwellers had cut in the almost perpendicular
+canyon wall.</p>
+
+<p>During March of 1928 and the winter of 1929 restricted excavations were
+conducted in ruins 11 to 19, inclusive, on the west side of Wetherill Mesa.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg_28]</a></span>
+Several burials were found, all in poor condition because of dampness. Outstanding
+was an unusual bird pendant of hematite with crystal eyes set into
+drilled sockets with piñon gum. Forty-two bowls were reconstructed from
+the sherds found.</p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1929 Mr. and Mrs. Harold S. Gladwin and associates
+of Gila Pueblo, Globe, Ariz., assisted by Deric Nusbaum, conducted an
+archeological survey of small-house ruins on Chapin Mesa and in the
+canyon heads along the North Rim. The survey covered 250 sites. One
+hundred sherds were collected from each site and studied to identify the
+pottery types, the sequence of their development, and their relationship to
+pottery types of other southwestern archeological areas.</p>
+
+<p>The forest fire of 1934 revealed many hitherto unknown ruins. Two
+splendid watchtowers were found on the west cliff of Rock Canyon. In a
+small area at the head of Long Canyon 10 new Early Pueblo ruins were
+located and no doubt scores of others will be found upon more careful
+search. In the heads of the small canyons many dams and terraces were
+noted.</p>
+
+<p>In the stabilization program that was carried on in 1934-35 a number of
+artifacts were found. A certain amount of debris had to be moved in
+order that the weakened walls and slipping foundations might be strengthened
+and varied finds resulted. Axes, bone awls, sandals, pottery, planting
+sticks, and similar articles were most common, but a few burials were also
+found.</p>
+
+<p>In August 1934 the undisturbed skeleton of an old woman was found on
+the bare floor of a small ruin just across the canyon from the public campgrounds.
+This skeleton, of particular importance because of fusion of the
+spinal column, had apparently remained exposed and undisturbed through
+more than seven centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Because of the fact that no detailed, comprehensive survey has ever been
+made of the archeological resources of the park, the findings of new ruins,
+artifacts, and human remains are more or less regularly reported at the
+park museum.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<a name="preh_inh"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption1">PREHISTORIC INHABITANTS OF THE MESA VERDE</div>
+
+<p>The so-called "Mesa Verde cliff dwellers" were not the first of the prehistoric
+southwestern cultures, nor were they the first human occupants of
+the natural caves that abound in the area of the park. Centuries before
+the cliff-dweller culture with its complex social organizations, agriculture,
+and highly developed arts of masonry, textiles, and ceramics, it is thought
+that small groups of primitive Mongoloid hunters crossed from the north-*
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg_29]</a></span>
+eastern peninsula of Asia to the western coast of Alaska. The Bering
+Strait, with but 60 miles of water travel, offered the safest and easiest route.</p>
+
+<p>Just when these migrations to the east had their origin and how long
+they continued cannot definitely be said, but it is thought the earliest
+Mongoloid hunters were in northwestern America about twelve to fifteen
+thousand years ago. When Columbus "discovered" America the continent
+was inhabited from Alaska to the Strait of Magellan and from the
+Pacific to the Atlantic coasts.</p>
+
+<p>For perhaps several thousand years following the first migrations little
+of great significance developed. There undoubtedly was cultural progress,
+but it was slow, and in the long perspective of time its evidences are hardly
+discernible. With the knowledge and benefits of agriculture, which was
+probably developed first in Mexico, hunting gave way to husbandry,
+nomadism to sedentary life, and there followed a great period of change and
+advancement. The introduction of corn or Indian maize into what is now
+the southwestern United States may be called the antecedent condition for
+all advanced cultures of the area.</p>
+
+<p>Evidence has not yet been established that the first of the maize-growing
+Indians of the Southwest were permanent occupants of the Mesa Verde.
+Nevertheless, in the Cliff Palace cave, well below the horizon or floor level
+of the cliff dwellers, archeologists have found a yucca fiber sandal of a
+distinctive type which is associated only with the first agricultural civilization.
+From this evidence it would be reasonable to assume that the caves
+of Mesa Verde at least offered temporary shelter, if not permanent homes,
+to the people of this period.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest culture so far definitely identified as having permanent habitation
+on the Mesa Verde is the Basket Maker III or the Second Agricultural
+Basket Maker first found in Step House cave on the west side of the
+park below the debris of the latter cliff-house occupation. Recent excavations
+and archeological surveys furnish conclusive evidence that the second
+agricultural people were most numerous in the area now included in this
+national park, and they constructed their roughly circular subterranean
+rooms not only in the sandy floor of the caves but also in the red soil on the
+comparatively level mesas separating the numerous canyons. Late Basket
+Maker House A, formerly known as Earth Lodge A, is an example of this
+early type of structure. Up to this time excavations have failed to uncover
+a single house structure of this type not destroyed by fire.</p>
+
+<p>These early inhabitants made basketry, excelled in the art of weaving,
+and it is believed were the first of the southwestern cultures to invent fired
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg_30]</a></span>
+pottery. The course of this invention can be traced from the crude sun-dried
+vessel tempered with shredded cedar bark to the properly tempered
+and durable fired vessel.</p>
+
+<p>Then followed a long development in house structure, differing materially
+from this earlier type. Horizontal masonry replaced the cruder
+attempts of house-wall construction; rectangular or squarish forms replaced
+the somewhat circular earlier type; and gradually the single-room structures
+were grouped into ever-enlarging units which assumed varying forms
+of arrangement as the development progressed. The art of pottery making
+improved concurrently with the more complex house structure. This later
+period represents the intermediate era of development from the crude Late
+Basket Maker dwellings to the remarkable structures of the "Cliff House
+Culture."</p>
+
+<p>During this period of transition new people penetrated the area. The
+Basket Makers throughout the course of their development were consistently
+a long-headed group. The appearance of an alien group is recorded
+through the finding of skeletons with broad or round skulls and a deformed
+occiput. These new people, the Pueblos, took over, changed, and adapted
+to their own needs the material culture of the earlier inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>The Pueblos were not content with the crude buildings and earth lodges
+that sufficed as homes during the earlier periods. For their habitations
+they shaped stones into regular forms, sometimes ornamenting them with
+designs, and laid them in mud mortar, one on another. Their masonry
+has resisted the destructive forces of the elements for centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangement of houses in a cliff dwelling the size of Cliff Palace is
+characteristic and is intimately associated with the distribution of the social
+divisions of its former inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>The population was composed of a number of units, possibly clans, each
+of which had its more or less distinct social organization, as indicated in the
+arrangement of the rooms. The rooms occupied by a clan were not necessarily
+connected, and generally neighboring rooms were distinguished from
+one another by their uses. Thus, each clan had its men's room, which is
+called the "kiva." Each clan had also a number of rooms, which may be
+styled the living rooms, and other enclosures for granaries. The corn was
+ground into meal in another room containing the metate set in a stone bin
+or trough. Sometimes the rooms had fireplaces, although these were
+generally in the plazas or on the housetops. All these different rooms,
+taken together, constituted the houses that belonged to one clan.</p>
+
+<p>The conviction that each kiva denotes a distinct social unit, as a clan or a
+family, is supported by a general similarity in the masonry of the kiva walls
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg_31]</a></span>
+and that of adjacent houses ascribed to the same clan. From the number of
+these rooms it would appear that there were at least 23 social units or clans
+in Cliff Palace.</p>
+
+<p>Apparently there is no uniformity or prearranged plan in the distribution
+of the kivas. As religious belief and custom prescribed that these rooms
+should be subterranean, the greatest number were placed in front of the
+rectangular buildings where it was easiest to construct them. When necessary,
+because of limited space or other conditions, kivas were also built far
+back in the cave and enclosed by a double wall of masonry, with the walls
+being spaced about two and a half to three feet apart. The section between
+the walls was then backfilled with earth or rubble to the level of the kiva
+roof. In that way the ceremonial structure was artificially made subterranean,
+as their beliefs required.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to their ability as architects and masons, the cliff dwellers
+excelled in the art of pottery making and as agriculturists. Their decorated
+pottery&mdash;a black design on pearly white background&mdash;will compare favorably
+with pottery of the other cultures of the prehistoric Southwest.</p>
+
+<p>As their sense of beauty was keen, their art, though primitive, was true;
+rarely realistic, generally symbolic. Their decoration of cotton fabrics and
+ceramic work might be called beautiful, even when judged by our own
+standards. They fashioned axes, spear points, and rude tools of stone; they
+wove sandals, and made attractive basketry.</p>
+
+<p>The staple product of the cliff dwellers was corn; they also planted beans
+and squash. This limited selection was perhaps augmented by piñon nuts,
+yucca fruit, and other indigenous products found in abundance. Nevertheless,
+successful agriculture on the semiarid plateau of the Mesa Verde must
+have been dependent upon hard work and diligent efforts. Without running
+streams irrigation was impossible and success depended upon the
+ability of the farmer to save the crop through the dry period of June and
+early July.</p>
+
+<p>Rain at the right time was the all-important problem, and so confidently
+did they believe that they were dependent upon the gods to make the rain
+fall and the corn grow that their prayers for rain probably developed into
+their most important ceremonies.</p>
+
+<p>From Dr. A. E. Douglass's tree-ring chronology the earliest date so far
+established for the Mesa Verde cliff dwellings is 1066 A.D. and the latest
+date 1274 A.D. While it should not be imagined that these are the all-inclusive
+dates representing the total time of the cliff-dweller culture, it is
+interesting to note that this same tree-ring story tells us that a great drought
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg_32]</a></span>
+commenced in 1276 and extended for a 24-year period to 1299. It may
+logically be presumed that the prehistoric population was gradually forced
+to withdraw from the area as the drought continued and to establish itself
+near more favorable sources of water supply.</p>
+
+<p>The so-called "Aztec ruin", which is situated on the banks of the Animas
+River in northwestern New Mexico, substantiates this hypothesis of the
+voluntary desertion of the cliff dwellings. In this ruin is found unmistakable
+evidence of a secondary occupation which has been definitely identified
+as a Mesa Verde settlement.</p>
+
+<p>It is thought that certain of the present-day Pueblo Indians are descendants,
+in part at least, of the cliff dwellers. Many of these Indian towns or
+pueblos still survive in the States of New Mexico and Arizona, the least
+modified of which are the villages of the Hopi, situated not far from the
+Grand Canyon National Park.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<a name="fauna_flora"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption1">FAUNA AND FLORA</div>
+
+<p>The fauna and flora of Mesa Verde should be particularly interesting
+to visitors. A combination of desert types from the lower arid country
+and mountain types, usually associated with regions of greater rainfall,
+occur here. The desert types are highly specialized to cope with their
+environment, particularly the plant and smaller animal life.</p>
+
+<p>Rocky Mountain mule deer are perhaps the only big game to be found
+abundantly in the park. They are often seen. Their numbers in the park,
+however, vary greatly according to the season. It is hoped to reintroduce
+the native species of Rocky Mountain bighorn as soon as range sufficient
+for the needs of this species has been added to the park. Occasionally a
+black bear is reported.</p>
+
+<p>Cougars, or mountain lions, and bobcats are part of the wildlife of the
+park and, strange to say, are occasionally seen in broad daylight. In other
+national parks these animals are rarely seen even by rangers. Coyotes and
+foxes are not as numerous as they once were on the mesa. As a result of
+the reduction of the predators, many of the smaller animals, such as rabbits,
+porcupines, and prairie dogs, have greatly increased. Rock and ground
+squirrels and the Colorado chipmunk are present in great numbers.</p>
+
+<p>More than 200 varieties of birds have been recorded. The species range
+from the majestic golden eagle, the largest bird, down to a variety of dainty
+humming birds.</p>
+
+<p>Game birds are represented by the dusky grouse. No wild turkeys are
+now to be found in the park, although it is believed that they were once
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg_33]</a></span>
+here. The cliff dwellers domesticated the turkey, and their bones, feathers,
+and droppings are found in all the ruins. At present the reintroduction of
+wild turkeys to Mesa Verde is under consideration.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/yucca.png" width="700" height="536" border="0" alt="Yucca" title="Yucca" /><br /><br />
+<div class="caption3">A YUCCA PLANT IN FRUIT (YUCCA BACCATA)</div>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Among the interesting animal residents of Mesa Verde are the reptiles.
+The lizards are represented by the horned lizard, the western spotted or
+earless lizard, the collared lizard, the striped race runner, utas, rock swifts,
+and sagebrush swifts. Among the snakes are found the bull snake, the
+smooth green snake, the western striped racer, the rock snake, and the
+prairie rattlesnake. The latter, the only poisonous species on the Mesa
+Verde, lives among the rocks in the lower canyons.</p>
+
+<p>Mesa Verde receives considerably more rainfall than true desert areas,
+and vegetation typical of the upper sonoran or transition zone is moderately
+luxuriant. This heavy cover of vegetation accounts for its name, which
+means "Green Tableland." The dense forest consists of piñon pine,
+juniper, Douglas fir, and western yellow pine. The north-facing slopes
+and moist canyons contain quaking aspen and box elders, with willows and
+cottonwoods growing along the Mancos River. The heavy covering of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg_34]</a></span>
+scrub oak and mountain mahogany over the higher elevations of the park
+makes this region a most colorful one during the fall months.</p>
+
+<p>Among the fruit-bearing shrubs and trees are the service berry, choke
+cherry, Oregon grape, and elderberry.</p>
+
+<p>An abundance of wild flowers, varying in color with the growing season,
+include principally the Mariposa lily, Indian paint brush, pentstemon,
+lupine, wild sweet pea, and a great variety of the compositae family.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<a name="get_there"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption1">HOW TO REACH THE PARK</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption2">BY AUTOMOBILE</div>
+
+<p>Mesa Verde National Park may be reached by automobile from Denver,
+Colorado Springs, Pueblo, and other Colorado points. Through Pueblo
+one road leads to the park by way of Canon City, from where one may look
+down into the Royal Gorge, the deepest canyon in the world penetrated
+by a railroad and river. This road passes through Salida and on through
+Gunnison and Montrose, and then south through Ouray, Silverton, and
+Durango. This route passes through some of Colorado's most magnificent
+mountain scenery. Another road leads south from Pueblo through Walsenburg,
+across La Veta Pass, on through Alamosa, Del Norte, Pagosa Springs,
+and Durango, crossing Wolf Creek Pass en route. Both roads lead west
+from Durango to Mancos and on into the park.</p>
+
+<p>Motorists coming from Utah turn southward from Green River or
+Thompsons, crossing the Colorado River at Moab, proceeding southward
+to Monticello, thence eastward to Cortez, Colo., and the park.</p>
+
+<p>From Arizona and New Mexico points, Gallup, on the National Old
+Trails Road, is easily reached. The auto road leads north from Gallup
+through the Navajo Indian Reservation and a corner of the Ute Indian
+Reservation. At Shiprock Indian Agency, 98 miles north of Gallup, the
+San Juan River is crossed.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<a name="by_rail"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption2">BY RAILROAD</div>
+
+<p>Mesa Verde National Park is approached by rail both from the north
+and from the south: From the north via the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Western
+Railroad main transcontinental line through Grand Junction, and branch
+lines through Montrose or Durango; from the south via the main transcontinental
+line of the Santa Fe Railroad through Gallup, N. Mex.</p>
+
+<p>The lines of the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Western System traverse some of
+the most magnificent scenery of the Rocky Mountain region, a fact which
+gives the journey to Mesa Verde zestful travel flavor. Two main-line routes
+are provided to the Grand Junction gateway.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg_35]</a></span>
+The Royal Gorge Route goes through the Grand Canyon of the Arkansas,
+now spanned by an all-steel suspension bridge, 1,053 feet above the tracks
+in the Royal Gorge. This route crosses Tennessee Pass (altitude, 10,240
+feet) and follows the Eagle River to its junction with the Colorado River
+at Dotsero, thence to Grand Junction.</p>
+
+<p>Service was inaugurated in June 1934 via the new James Peak Route of
+the D. &amp; R. G. W., utilizing the Moffat Tunnel (altitude at apex, 9,239
+feet), 6.2-mile bore which pierces the Continental Divide 50 miles west of
+Denver. This route follows the Colorado River from Fraser, high on the
+west slope of the continent, through Byers Canyon, Red Gorge, Gore
+Canyon, and Red Canyon, thence over the Dotsero Cut-off to Dotsero,
+where it joins the Royal Gorge Route. The new line saves 175 miles in
+the distance from Denver to Grand Junction.</p>
+
+
+<a name="motor_trans"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption1">MOTOR TRANSPORTATION</div>
+
+<p>The Rio Grande Motor Way, Inc., of Grand Junction, Colo., from June
+15 to September 15, operates a daily motor service from Grand Junction,
+Delta, Montrose, Ouray, Silverton, Durango, and Mancos, Colo., to Spruce
+Tree Lodge in Mesa Verde National Park. This motor bus leaves Grand
+Junction at 6:45 a.m., via the scenic Chief Ouray Highway, stopping en
+route at other places mentioned, crossing beautiful Red Mountain Pass
+(altitude, 11,025 feet), arriving at Spruce Tree Lodge at 7 p.m. The stage
+leaves the park at 7 a.m., when there are passengers, arriving at Grand
+Junction at 5:40 p.m. The round trip fare between Grand Junction and
+the park is $18.65.</p>
+
+<p>Entrance to Mesa Verde from the south through Gallup, N. Mex., via
+the Navajo and Southern Ute Indian Reservations, is growing constantly
+in convenience and popularity. Hunter Clarkson, Inc., with headquarters
+at El Navajo Hotel, in Gallup, operates two-day round trip light sedan
+service, leaving Gallup at 8 a.m. and returning to Gallup at 6 p.m. the
+second day. This service permits the visiting of ruins in the park, in accordance
+with regular schedules, on the afternoon of the first day and on the
+morning of the second. The round trip fare per person (360 miles) is $25.
+A minimum of two passengers is required. Fare for children, five and under
+twelve, is $12.50. Meals and hotel accommodations en route or at the
+park are not included. El Navajo Hotel, operated by Fred Harvey,
+offers excellent overnight accommodations at Gallup.</p>
+
+<p>The Cannon Ball Stage operates bus service from Gallup, via Shiprock
+and Farmington, to Durango, where arrangements may be made with the
+Rio Grande Motor Way, Inc., for transportation to and from the park.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg_36]</a></span>
+The Cannon Ball Stage bus leaves Gallup each day at 11:30 a.m.,
+arriving at Durango at 4:45 p.m. Returning it leaves Durango at 8 a.m.
+and arrives at Gallup at 1 p.m. The fare from Gallup to Durango is $6
+one way and $10.80 for the round trip. The round trip fare to the park
+from Durango via the Rio Grande Motor Way, Inc., is $7.50.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<a name="admin"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption1">ADMINISTRATION</div>
+
+<p>The Mesa Verde National Park is under the exclusive control of the
+National Park Service of the Department of the Interior, which is authorized
+to make rules and regulations and to establish such service as it may
+deem necessary for the care and management of the park and the preservation
+from injury or spoliation of the ruins and other remains of prehistoric
+man within the limits of the reservation.</p>
+
+<p>The National Park Service is represented in the actual administration of
+the park by a superintendent, who is assisted in the protection and interpretation
+of its natural and prehistoric features by a well-trained staff.
+The present superintendent is Jesse L. Nusbaum, and his post-office address
+is Mesa Verde National Park, Colo.</p>
+
+<p>The park season extends from May 15 to October 15, complete lodging
+and food accommodations and automobile stage service being available
+from June 15 to September 15. Informal lodging and meal accommodations
+are provided during the remainder of the park season.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<img src="images/hq_area.png" width="700" height="407" border="0" alt="Park HQ" title="Park HQ" /><br /><br />
+<div class="caption3">HEADQUARTERS AREA</div>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg_37]</a></span>
+Exclusive jurisdiction over the park was ceded to the United States by
+act of the Colorado Legislature approved May 2, 1927, and accepted by
+Congress by act approved April 25, 1928. There is a United States
+Commissioner at park headquarters.</p>
+
+<p>Telegrams sent prepaid to Mancos, Colo., will be phoned to addressee
+at park office. The post-office address for parties within the park is Mesa
+Verde National Park, Colo.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<a name="educ_serv"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption1">EDUCATIONAL SERVICE</div>
+
+<p>Educational service, carefully planned to provide each visitor with an
+opportunity to interpret and appreciate the features of the Mesa Verde, is
+provided, without charge, by the Government. This service is directed
+by the park naturalist, who is assisted by a group of ranger naturalists.</p>
+
+
+<div class="caption2">GUIDED TRIPS TO THE RUINS</div>
+
+<p>During the season visitors are accompanied from the park museum to
+the various ruins by competent ranger naturalists. These men, well
+trained in the social and biological sciences, make it their duty to help the
+visitor understand the natural and archeological features of the Mesa
+Verde. Because of the need of protecting the ruins and the somewhat
+devious trails by which they are reached, no one will be allowed to enter
+any ruin except Spruce Tree House unless accompanied by a ranger
+naturalist.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<div class="caption2">CAMPFIRE TALKS</div>
+
+<p>Each evening at 8 o'clock informal talks are given at the campfire circle
+near park headquarters. The superintendent, the park naturalist, and
+members of the educational staff give talks on the archeology of the region.
+Visiting scientists, writers, lecturers, and noted travelers often contribute to
+the evening's entertainment. After the talks six of the best singers and
+dancers among the Navajo Indians employed in the park can usually be
+persuaded, by modest voluntary contributions on the part of the visitors,
+to give some of their songs and dances.</p>
+
+
+<a name="museum"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption2">PARK MUSEUM</div>
+
+<p>The park museum houses very important and comprehensive collections
+of excavated cliff-dweller and basket maker material, as well as restricted
+collections of arts and crafts of modern Indians of the Southwest. These
+collections have been assembled through the conduct of excavations within
+the park and through loan or gift of materials by park friends or cooperating
+institutions. This material is arranged in a definite chronological order.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg_38]</a></span>
+By following through from the earliest culture to those of the present time
+a clear and concise picture of the former material cultures of the Mesa Verde
+and surrounding regions may be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>One room has been set aside for natural history exhibits exemplifying
+the geology, fauna, and flora of this peculiar mesa-canyon country.</p>
+
+
+<div class="caption2">REFERENCE LIBRARY</div>
+
+<p>A part of the museum is given over to an excellent reference library and
+reading room. This library consists of books on archeology and related
+natural history subjects pertaining to this interesting region. Visitors
+have access to these books on application to the museum assistant who is
+in charge. These books may not be removed from the reading room.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<a name="campgrnds"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption1">FREE PUBLIC CAMPGROUNDS</div>
+
+<p>The new public campgrounds are located in the piñons and junipers
+on the rim of Spruce Canyon only a few hundred feet from Spruce Tree
+Lodge and park headquarters. Individual party campsites have been
+cleared, and a protecting screen of shrubbery contributes to their privacy.
+Each site is provided with a fireplace, a table with seats, and a large level
+place for a tent. Good water has been piped to convenient places, and
+cut wood is provided without charge. Toilet facilities, showers, and
+laundry tubs are also provided. A ranger is detailed for duty in the
+campgrounds.</p>
+
+<p><b><i>Leave your campsite clean when you have finished with it.</i></b></p>
+
+<p><b><i>Do not drive cars on, or walk over, the shrubbery.</i></b></p>
+
+<p>The campground facilities at Mesa Verde have been greatly improved
+and expanded through the work of the Civilian Conservation Corps.</p>
+
+<p>Provisions for campers are obtainable at reasonable prices in any of the
+nearby towns. Groceries, gas, and oil can also be purchased at Spruce
+Tree Lodge.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<a name="hr_hk_trips"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption1">HORSEBACK AND HIKING TRIPS</div>
+
+<p>Visitors who view the Mesa Verde from the automobile roads gain but
+an inkling of the weird beauty and surprises that this area holds for the
+more adventurous. Horseback and hiking trips along the rim rocks and
+into the canyons lead to spectacular ruins not seen from any of the roads.
+Such great ruins as Spring House, Long House, Kodak House, Jug House,
+Mug House, and Step House, as well as all of the ruins in the more remote
+canyons, can be reached by trail only. Each turn of the trail reveals
+entrancing vistas of rugged canyons, sheer cliffs, great caves, hidden ruins,
+distant mountains, tree-covered mesas, and open glades.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg_39]</a></span>
+In making these trips it is important that the hiker prepare himself
+with proper footwear, as the trails are very precipitous in places.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<a name="medical"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption1">HOSPITAL AND MEDICAL SERVICE</div>
+
+<p>There is an excellent hospital at park headquarters where medical and
+surgical service is provided to care for all emergency cases. Prices are
+regulated by the Secretary of the Interior.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<a name="accm_expns"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption1">ACCOMMODATIONS AND EXPENSES</div>
+
+<p>At Spruce Tree Lodge, situated among the piñons and junipers over-looking
+Spruce, Spruce Tree, and Navajo Canyons, cottages may be
+rented at prices ranging from $1.25 to $2 a person per day and comfortable
+floored tents at 50 cents to $1 per day. Meals table d'hote are served at the
+following reasonable prices: Breakfast, 50 cents to $1; luncheon, 55 cents to
+85 cents; and dinner, 75 cents to $1.15. A la carte service is also available.
+Children: No charge under 3; half rates from 3 to 8. The official season
+for Spruce Tree Lodge is from June 15 to September 15.</p>
+
+<p>The company also operates, for visitors who do not care to use their own
+cars or are without private transportation, automobile service to various
+ruins for $1 each round trip. A special evening trip to Park Point to see
+the spectacular sunset from the highest point in the park is $1.50 per person.</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">OUT-OF-SEASON ACCOMMODATIONS</div>
+
+<p>From May 15 to June 15 and from September 15 to October 15, cabins
+may be rented from the caretaker of Spruce Tree Lodge at the regular
+rates. Meals, with breakfast 50 cents, and luncheon and dinner 75 cents,
+may be had at the Government dining hall. In nearby towns, less than an
+hour's drive from park headquarters, accommodations are also obtainable.</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">PACK AND SADDLE ACCOMMODATIONS</div>
+
+<p>Saddle horses, especially trained for mountain work, may be rented
+from the Mesa Verde Pack &amp; Saddle Co. For short trips the rental is $1
+for the first hour and 50 cents for each additional hour. For short 1-day
+trips for three persons or more the cost is $3.50 each; two persons $4 each;
+one person $6. Longer 1-day trips for experienced riders are available
+at $2 per person more than the rate for the shorter 1-day trips. All prices
+include guide service, and a slicker, canteen, and lunch bag are provided
+with each horse. Arrangements should be made the evening before the
+trip is taken.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg_40]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pack_n_sdl.png" width="700" height="533" border="0" alt="Heading Out!" title="Heading Out!" /><br /><br />
+<div class="caption3">A PARTY OFF FOR THE LESS-FREQUENTED TRAILS</div>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">PACK TRIPS</div>
+
+<p>Nonscheduled pack trips to the more remote sections of the park may be
+arranged (2 days' notice is required) at prices ranging from $9 a day each
+for parties of five or more to $15 a day for one person. This includes a
+guide-cook and furnishes each person with one saddle horse, one pack
+horse, bed, tent, canteen, slicker, and subsistence for the trip. Three
+days is the minimum time for which these trips can be arranged.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<a name="references"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a href="#TOC">[TOC]</a></span><br />
+<div class="caption1">REFERENCES<span class="fnanchor"><a name="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></span></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="refs"><span class="smcaps">Chapin, F. H.</span> The Land of the Cliff Dwellers.<a name="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>  W. B. Clarke &amp; Co., Boston, Mass. 1892. 187 pages.</div>
+
+<div class="refs"><span class="smcaps">Douglass, Dr. Andrew Ellicott.</span> The Secret of the Southwest Solved by the Talkative Tree Rings, in National Geographic Magazine, December 1929.<a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></div>
+
+<div class="refs"><span class="smcaps">Faris, John T.</span> Roaming the Rockies. Farrar &amp; Rinehart, Inc., New York. 1930. Illustrated. 333 pages. Mesa Verde on pp. 193-203.</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg_41]</a></span>
+<div class="refs"><span class="smcaps">Fewkes, J. Walter</span>:</div>
+
+<div class="refs1">Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Spruce Tree House.<a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> (Bureau of American Ethnology Bull. 41, 1909. 57 pages, illustrated.) (Out of print.)</div>
+
+<div class="refs1">Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Cliff Palace.<a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> (Bureau of American Ethnology Bull. 51, 1911. 82 pages, illustrated.) (Out of print.)</div>
+
+<div class="refs1">Excavation and Repair of Sun Temple, Mesa Verde National Park.<a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> (Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 1916. 32 pages, illustrated.) (Out of print.)</div>
+
+<div class="refs1">A Prehistoric Mesa Verde Pueblo and Its People.<a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> (Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 1917. 26 pages.) (Out of print.)</div>
+
+<div class="refs1">Prehistoric Villages, Castles, and Towers of Southwestern Colorado.<a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> (Bureau of American Ethnology Bull. 70. 1919. 79 pages text, 33 plates.)</div>
+
+<div class="refs"><span class="smcaps">Gillmor, Frances</span>, and <span class="smcaps">Wetherill, Louisa Wade</span>. Traders to the Navahos.<a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston and New York. 1934. Illustrated, 265 pages. Describes discovery of cliff dwellings by Wetherill brothers.</div>
+
+<div class="refs"><span class="smcaps">Holmes, William H.</span> Report on Ancient Ruins in Southwestern Colorado Examined During Summers of 1875 and 1876. (Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories (Hayden), Tenth Report, 1876, pp. 381-408, illustrated.)</div>
+
+<div class="refs"><span class="smcaps">Ickes, Anna Wilmarth</span>. Mesa Land.<a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston and New York, 1933. Illustrated. 228 pages. Southwest in general. Mesa Verde, pp. 100-101.</div>
+
+<div class="refs"><span class="smcaps">Ingersoll, Ernest</span>. Reprint, first article. Mancos River Ruins, New York Tribune. Nov. 3, 1874; in Indian Notes, vol. 5, no. 2, April 1928, pp. 183-206, Museum of American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York.<a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></div>
+
+<div class="refs"><span class="smcaps">Jackson, W. H.</span> The Pioneer Photographer.<a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> World Book Co., 1929.</div>
+
+<div class="refs"><span class="smcaps">Jeffers, Le Roy</span>. The Call of the Mountains. 282 pages, illustrated. Dodd, Mead &amp; Co., 1922. Mesa Verde on pp. 96-111.</div>
+
+<div class="refs"><span class="smcaps">Kane, J. F.</span> Picturesque America. 1935. 256 pp., illustrated. Published by Frederick Gumbrecht, Brooklyn, N. Y. Mesa Verde on pp. 121-124.</div>
+
+<div class="refs"><span class="smcaps">Kidder, Alfred Vincent</span>:</div>
+
+<div class="refs1">An introduction to the Study of Southwestern Archaeology.<a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> 300 pages, illustrated. Yale University Press, 1924. Mesa Verde on pp. 58-68.</div>
+
+<div class="refs1">Beautiful America&mdash;Our National Parks. 1924. 160 pages pictorial views. Beautiful America Publishing Corporation, New York City. Mesa Verde views pp. 58-68.</div>
+
+<div class="refs"><span class="smcaps">Mills, Enos A.</span> Your National Parks. 1917. 532 pages, illustrated. Mesa Verde National Park on pp. 161-174; 488-490.</div>
+
+<div class="refs"><span class="smcaps">Morris, Ann Axtell</span>. Digging in the Southwest.<a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Doubleday Doran Co., 1933. Readable account of the trade secrets of a southwestern archeologist.</div>
+
+<div class="refs"><span class="smcaps">Nordenskiöld, G.</span> The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde.<a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> 1893. 171 pages, illustrated.</div>
+
+<div class="refs"><span class="smcaps">Nusbaum, Deric</span>. Deric in Mesa Verde.<a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> 1926. Illustrated. G. P. Putnam's Sons. Knickerbocker Press.</div>
+
+<div class="refs"><span class="smcaps">Rolfe, Mary A.</span> Our National Parks.<a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Book One. A supplementary reader on the national parks for the fifth and sixth grade students. Benj. H. Sanborn &amp; Co. 1927. Illustrated. Mesa Verde on pp. 221-234.</div>
+
+<div class="refs"><span class="smcaps">Yard, Robert Sterling</span>:</div>
+
+<div class="refs1">The Top of the Continent. 1917. 244 pages, illustrated. Mesa Verde National Park on pp. 44-62.</div>
+
+<div class="refs1">The Book of the National Parks. 1926. 444 pages, illustrated. Mesa Verde National Park on pp. 284-304.</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> For complete bibliography apply at the park museum or write to the Superintendent, Mesa Verde National Park.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Copies in Mesa Verde Museum Library.</p>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg_42]</a></span>
+<div class="center">
+     <div class="caption3">WHAT TO DO</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<b><i>Things to See on Way from Park Entrance to Headquarters</i></b><br /><br />
+
+<div class="refs">3.5 miles&mdash;Top of first grade&mdash;Mancos Valley and La Plata Mountains.</div>
+
+<div class="refs">5 miles&mdash;Knife Edge Road&mdash;Montezuma Valley and Sleeping Ute Mountain.</div>
+
+<div class="refs">10.5 miles&mdash;Scenic road to Park Point, highest elevation within Mesa Verde National Park, 8,572 feet above sea level; 2,200 feet above the Montezuma Valley. Views into four States&mdash;Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah.</div>
+
+<div class="refs">16 miles&mdash;Pueblo III ruins on top of mesa&mdash;Far View House Ruin, Pipe Shrine House Ruin, Far View Tower Ruin.</div>
+
+<div class="refs">18.5 miles&mdash;Cedar Tree Tower Ruin&mdash;road branches off to left.</div>
+
+<div class="refs">20 miles&mdash;Park headquarters. Park ranger will meet visitors' cars and give information.</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<b><i>Things to Do While on the Mesa Verde</i></b><br /><br />
+
+<i><span class="smaller">Motor caravans to ruins&mdash;Daily. Use your own car. No charge for ranger service</span></i><br />
+
+<div class="refs">8 <span class="wsnb">a. m.</span>&mdash;Earth Lodge A, Square Tower House, Little Long House, Sun Point, Fire Temple, Sun Temple. Return 11:15 <span class="wsnb">a. m.</span> Distance 6&frac12; miles.</div>
+
+<div class="refs">10 <span class="wsnb">a. m.</span>&mdash;A shortened trip of morning route to accommodate late comers. Return 11:15 <span class="wsnb">a. m.</span></div>
+
+<div class="refs">1:30 <span class="wsnb">p. m.</span>&mdash;Cliff Palace, Rim Drive, Balcony House. Return 4:15 <span class="wsnb">p. m.</span> Distance 7 miles.</div>
+
+<div class="refs">3 <span class="wsnb">p. m.</span>&mdash;A shortened trip of the 1:30 route to accommodate late comers. Does not go through Cliff Palace but views this ruin from the top of the mesa. Return 4:30 <span class="wsnb">p. m.</span></div>
+<br />
+
+<i><span class="smaller">Motor caravan to park point&mdash;Daily. Use your own car</span></i><br />
+
+<div class="refs">6:30 or 7 <span class="wsnb">p. m.</span>&mdash;Departure is timed to arrive at Park Point to view colorful sunset. Ranger in charge will discuss the flora, geology, and scenic points. Distance 21 miles.</div>
+<br />
+
+<i><span class="smaller">Campfire lecture&mdash;Daily</span></i><br />
+
+<div class="refs">8 <span class="wsnb">p. m.</span>&mdash;Campfire circle at park headquarters. Archeological story of the Southwest followed by Ceremonial dances by Navajo Indians at about 9 <span class="wsnb">p. m.</span></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<b><i>Things to Do&mdash;Not on Regular Schedule</i></b><br /><br />
+
+<div class="refs">Museum&mdash;Open from 8 <span class="wsnb">a. m.</span> to 5:30 <span class="wsnb">p. m.</span> A splendid collection of material from the cliff ruins and other sections of the Southwest.</div>
+
+<div class="refs">Community building&mdash;A display of cut wild flowers. Porch, with comfortable chairs, overlooks Spruce Tree Ruin. Open at all times.</div>
+
+<div class="refs">Spruce Tree Ruin&mdash;Below park headquarters. May be visited at your leisure without guide. Ranger on duty in this ruin for information.</div>
+
+<div class="refs">Nature trail&mdash;The path to Spruce Tree Ruin has been prepared with a series of signs explaining the flora and rock formations.</div>
+
+<div class="refs">Horseback trips&mdash;Splendid trails lead in all directions. Large, unexcavated ruins, magnificent canyons and mesas off the beaten path unfold the charm of this primitive
+region. Rates are very reasonable.</div>
+
+<div class="refs">Hikes&mdash;To any section of the park can be arranged for with the park naturalist. If sufficient numbers enroll for such hikes, a naturalist guide will be provided.</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<b><i>Accommodations</i></b><br /><br />
+
+<div class="refs">At park headquarters, 20 miles from entrance. <span class="smcaps">Spruce Tree Lodge</span>&mdash;Cabins, tents,
+meals, beverages, campers' supplies, and curios. <span class="smcaps">Free Government campground</span>&mdash;Firewood
+and water furnished.</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg_43]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <div class="caption3">AREAS ADMINISTERED BY THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE</div><br />
+     <a href="images/np-map_lg.png"><img src="images/np-map_sm.png" width="700" height="491" border="0" alt="NPS Locations Map" title="NPS Locations Map" /></a><br /><br />
+    <span class="smaller">[Click on map to view larger version.]</span>
+    <p>&nbsp;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="tech_notes">
+<div class="caption2">Transcriber's Notes</div>
+
+
+<p>With the exception of the following items and the placement of several
+captions from below to above the illustrations, the text presented here
+matches the printed booklet which may include some inconsistancies with
+modern usage that were left unchanged:</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">A. Footnote Consolidation</div>
+
+<p>Pages 40-41 - Footnotes moved to the end of Reference
+section.</p>
+
+<a name="typos"></a>
+<div class="caption3">B. Typographical Corrections</div>
+<div class="notes">
+     1. Page iii  - missing period after "<a href="#feet"><span class="typos">(4,192 feet)</span></a>"<br />
+     2. Page iv - missing period after "<a href="#visitors"><span class="typos">Visitors</span></a>"<br />
+     3. Page 2   - comma moved out of quotes <a href="#comma"><span class="typos">"The Mesa Verde region",</span></a><br />
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, by Anonymous
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MESA VERDE NATIONAL PARK, COLORADO ***
+
+***** This file should be named 35936-h.htm or 35936-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/9/3/35936/
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Tom Cosmas and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/35936-h/images/coverpage.png b/35936-h/images/coverpage.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9719403
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936-h/images/coverpage.png
diff --git a/35936-h/images/doi_logo.png b/35936-h/images/doi_logo.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..26ad5f1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936-h/images/doi_logo.png
diff --git a/35936-h/images/far_vw_hs.png b/35936-h/images/far_vw_hs.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..20ba1ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936-h/images/far_vw_hs.png
diff --git a/35936-h/images/hq_area.png b/35936-h/images/hq_area.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ed47d9b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936-h/images/hq_area.png
diff --git a/35936-h/images/naturalist.png b/35936-h/images/naturalist.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..990eb86
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936-h/images/naturalist.png
diff --git a/35936-h/images/np-map_lg.png b/35936-h/images/np-map_lg.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..72fcfea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936-h/images/np-map_lg.png
diff --git a/35936-h/images/np-map_sm.png b/35936-h/images/np-map_sm.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9c07056
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936-h/images/np-map_sm.png
diff --git a/35936-h/images/pack_n_sdl.png b/35936-h/images/pack_n_sdl.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a3e03e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936-h/images/pack_n_sdl.png
diff --git a/35936-h/images/road_map.png b/35936-h/images/road_map.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6211571
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936-h/images/road_map.png
diff --git a/35936-h/images/road_map_lg.png b/35936-h/images/road_map_lg.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ef80aae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936-h/images/road_map_lg.png
diff --git a/35936-h/images/sp_tr_hs.png b/35936-h/images/sp_tr_hs.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e83e27
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936-h/images/sp_tr_hs.png
diff --git a/35936-h/images/sun_tmpl.png b/35936-h/images/sun_tmpl.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..656f58b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936-h/images/sun_tmpl.png
diff --git a/35936-h/images/yucca.png b/35936-h/images/yucca.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..61bf530
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936-h/images/yucca.png
diff --git a/35936.txt b/35936.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bdf41e4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2604 @@
+Project Gutenberg's Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, by Anonymous
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado
+
+Author: Anonymous
+
+Release Date: April 22, 2011 [EBook #35936]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MESA VERDE NATIONAL PARK, COLORADO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Tom Cosmas and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                              Mesa Verde
+
+                              [COLORADO]
+
+                             National Park
+
+
+
+               United States Department of the Interior
+                   _Harold L. Ickes, Secretary_
+
+                         NATIONAL PARK SERVICE
+                   _Arno B. Cammerer, Director_
+
+
+
+                       [Illustration: DOI Logo]
+
+
+
+                             UNITED STATES
+                      GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
+                           WASHINGTON: 1937
+
+
+
+ +----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+ |+--------------------------------------------------------------------+|
+ ||                             Events                                 ||
+ ||                                                                    ||
+ ||                    OF HISTORICAL IMPORTANCE                        ||
+ |+--------------------------------------------------------------------+|
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ || 1st century[1] | The earliest occupation of Cliff Palace cave was  ||
+ ||    B.C. or     |   probably before, or immediately following, the  ||
+ ||      A.D.      |   beginning of the Christian era. These earliest  ||
+ ||                |   occupants, known to scientists as Basket        ||
+ ||                |   Makers, were the first agricultural Indians of  ||
+ ||                |   the Southwest.                                  ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||  4th to 7th[1] | By the beginning of the fourth century A.D., the  ||
+ ||   centuries    |   early agriculturists were developing the art of ||
+ ||      A.D.      |   pottery making. Later, their semisubterranean   ||
+ ||                |   homes were spread widely over the Mesa Verde.   ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||     7th to     | During the three or four centuries preceding 1000 ||
+ ||     10th[1]    |   A.D., the Pueblo Culture on Mesa Verde was      ||
+ ||    centuries   |   developing from modest beginnings toward its    ||
+ ||      A.D.      |   classical stage, which culminated in the        ||
+ ||                |   building of the great cliff dwelling.           ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1066      | Earliest date established for large Mesa Verde    ||
+ ||                |   cliff dwellings (Beam section from Mug House.)  ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||    1073-1273   | Construction of Cliff Palace.                     ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1276      | Beginning of 24-year drought, an important factor ||
+ ||                |   in forcing the cliff dwellers from the Mesa     ||
+ ||                |   Verde.                                          ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1776      | Expedition of Padre Silvestre Velez de Escalante  ||
+ ||                |   to southwestern Colorado. Party camped on the   ||
+ ||                |   Mancos River near the base of the Mesa Verde.   ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1859      | Ascent of the north escarpment of Mesa Verde by   ||
+ ||                |   Capt. J. N. Macomb, of the United States Army,  ||
+ ||                |   and members of his party of geologists.         ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1874      | Discovery of the ruins in the Mancos Canyon by    ||
+ ||                |   W. H. Jackson, United States Geological Survey. ||
+ ||                |   Party harrassed by Ute Indians.                 ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1888      | Discovery of Cliff Palace and other major ruins   ||
+ ||                |   by Richard Wetherill and Charlie Mason.         ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1891      | First organized archeological expedition to Mesa  ||
+ ||                |   Verde, under direction of Baron G. Nordenskioeld.||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1906      | Mesa Verde National Park created June 29.         ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1907      | Excavation of Spruce Tree House by Dr. J. Walter  ||
+ ||                |   Fewkes, of Smithsonian Institution.             ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1909      | Excavation of Cliff Palace.                       ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1911      | Excavation and repair of Balcony House by Jesse   ||
+ ||                |   L. Nusbaum.                                     ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1913      | First entrance road completed. First automobile in||
+ ||                |   Spruce Tree Camp. Extension of park boundaries  ||
+ ||                |   to include notable ruins and archeological      ||
+ ||                |   remains.                                        ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1914      | Construction of first wagon road from Spruce Tree ||
+ ||                |   Camp to principal cliff dwellings.              ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1915      | Sun Temple excavated by Dr. Fewkes.               ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1916      | Far View House excavated by Dr. Fewkes.           ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1917      | First Government-constructed trails to Spring     ||
+ ||                |   House and Soda Canyon.                          ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1918      | First camp accommodations established at Spruce   ||
+ ||                |    Tree Camp.                                     ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1919      | Square Tower House excavated.                     ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1921      | Establishment of superintendent's office and home ||
+ ||                |   at park headquarters.                           ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1925      | First unit of park museum constructed by donated  ||
+ ||                |   funds.                                          ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1926      | Excavation in Step House Cave and discovery of    ||
+ ||                |   its occupation by Basket Maker III people more  ||
+ ||                |   than 3 centuries in advance of cliff dweller    ||
+ ||                |   occupation.                                     ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1928      | Exclusive jurisdiction of park tendered to the    ||
+ ||                |   United States and accepted by act of Congress   ||
+ ||                |   April 25.                                       ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1934      | Completion of deep water well (4,192 feet).       ||
+ ||                |                                                   ||
+ ||      1936      | Addition to park museum completed.                ||
+ |+--------------------------------------------------------------------+|
+ +----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+                         RULES AND REGULATIONS
+
+
+                              . Briefed .
+
+
+A complete copy of the rules and regulations for governing the park
+may be seen at the office of the superintendent.
+
++Automobiles.+--Secure automobile permit, fee $1 per car. Speed
+limit 35 miles per hour on entrance highway, 20 miles per hour in
+headquarters area and on ruin roads. Drive carefully; free wheeling is
+prohibited within the park.
+
++Fires.+--Confine fires to designated places. Extinguish completely
+before leaving camp, even for temporary absences. Do not guess your
+fire is out--KNOW IT.
+
++Firewood.+--Use only the wood that is stacked and marked "firewood"
+near your campsite. By all means do not use your ax on any standing
+tree or strip bark from the junipers.
+
++Grounds.+--Burn all combustible rubbish before leaving your camp.
+Do not throw papers, cans, or other refuse on the ground or over the
+canyon rim. Use the incinerators which are placed for this purpose.
+
++Hiking.+--Do not venture away from the headquarters area unless
+accompanied by a guide or after first having secured permission from a
+duly authorized park officer.
+
++Hunting.+--Hunting is prohibited within the park. This area is a
+sanctuary for all wildlife.
+
++Noise.+--Be quiet in camp after others have gone to bed. Many
+people come here for rest.
+
++Park Rangers.+--The rangers are here to help and advise you as well
+as to enforce regulations. When in doubt, ask a ranger.
+
++Ruins and Structures.+--Do not mark, disturb, or injure in any way
+the ruins or any of the buildings, signs, or other properties within
+the park.
+
++Trees, Flowers, and Animals.+--Do not carve initials upon or pull
+the bark from any logs or trees. Flowers may not be picked unless
+written permission is obtained from the superintendent or park
+naturalist. Do not harm or frighten any of the wild animals or birds
+within the park. We wish to protect them for your enjoyment.
+
++Visitors.+--Register and secure permit at the park entrance.
+Between travel seasons, registration and permit are arranged for at
+park headquarters.
+
+
+
+
+                               Contents
+
+
+                                                            Page
+
+ The Ruins   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   3
+     Spruce Tree House   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   4
+     Cliff Palace  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   8
+     Balcony House   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  11
+     Square Tower House  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  12
+     Oak Tree House  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  15
+     Sun Set House   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  15
+     Sun Temple  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  15
+     New Fire-House Group  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  19
+     Cedar Tree Tower  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  21
+     Far View House, a Mesa Verde Pueblo   . . . . . . . . .  21
+     Earth Lodge A   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  25
+     Unexcavated Ruins   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  25
+
+ Dates for Mesa Verde Ruins Established by Tree-Ring
+     Chronology    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  26
+
+ Discoveries of Recent Years   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  27
+
+ Prehistoric Inhabitants of the Mesa Verde   . . . . . . . .  28
+
+ Fauna and Flora   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  32
+
+ How to Reach the Park   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  34
+     By Automobile   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  34
+     By Railroad   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  34
+
+ Motor Transportation    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  35
+
+ Administration  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  36
+
+ Educational Service   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  37
+     Guided Trips to the Ruins   . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  37
+     Campfire Talks   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
+     Park Museum  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
+     Reference Library  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
+
+ Free Public Camp Grounds     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
+
+ Horseback and Hiking Trips   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
+
+ Hospital and Medical Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
+
+ Accommodations and Expenses  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
+
+ References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
+
+
+   [Illustration:  _Grant photo._
+        COMPETENT RANGER NATURALISTS ACCOMPANY VISITORS TO THE RUINS]
+
+
+
+
+                              MESA VERDE
+
+                            _National Park_
+
+
+                 . SEASON FROM MAY 15 TO OCTOBER 15 .
+
+
+The mesa verde, or green mesa, so-called because its juniper and pinon
+trees give it a verdant tone, is 15 miles long by 8 miles wide. Rising
+abruptly from the valley on the north side, its top slopes gradually
+southward to the high cliffs bordering the canyon of the Mancos River
+on the south. Into this valley open a number of large high-walled
+canyons through which occasionally, in times of heavy rain, raging
+torrents of water flow into the Mancos. In the shelter of the caves
+that have been eroded in the sides of these canyons are some of the
+best-preserved cliff dwellings in America, built many centuries ago by
+a tribe of peace-loving Indians who prized the security offered by the
+almost inaccessible caves. In order to preserve these cliff dwellings
+Mesa Verde National Park was created, but they are not the only
+attractions in the area. In the winter the park is closed to travel by
+deep snow, but in the early spring the blanket of snow is replaced by
+a mantle of flowers that change with the seasons, and to the story of
+the prehistoric inhabitants is added an absorbing story of nature that
+is peculiar to this mesa and canyon country.
+
+"The Mesa Verde region", writes Arthur Chapman, "has many attractions
+besides its ruins. It is a land of weird beauty. The canyons which
+seam the mesa, all of which lead toward the distant Mancos River, are,
+in many cases, replicas of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. While the
+summer days are warm, the nights are cool, and the visitor should
+bring plenty of wraps besides the clothing and shoes necessary for the
+work of climbing around among the trails. It is a country for active
+footwork, just as it was in the days of the cliff dwellers themselves.
+But when one has spent a few days among the cedars and pinon pines of
+the Mesa Verde, well named Green Table by the Spaniards of early days,
+he becomes an enthusiast and will be found among those who return
+again and again to this most unique of national parks to study its
+mysteries and its beauties from all angles."
+
+The northern edge of the mesa terminates in a precipitous bluff,
+averaging 2,000 feet above the Montezuma Valley. The general slope of
+the surface is to the south, and as the main entrance highway meanders
+back and forth in heading each smaller canyon, many times skirting the
+very brink of the great northern fault line, tremendous expanses of
+diversified terrain are brought into view, first in Colorado and Utah,
+then in Arizona and New Mexico.
+
+A new scenic road approximately 1 mile in length branches from the
+main highway at a point 10.2 miles beyond the entrance checking
+station and ascends to the crest of Park Point, the highest part of
+the Mesa Verde National Park, which attains an elevation of 8,572 feet
+above sea level.
+
+From this majestic prominence the great Montezuma Valley, dotted with
+artificial lakes and fertile fields, appears as from an airplane,
+while to the north are seen the Rico Mountains and the Lone Cone of
+Colorado, and to the east, the La Plata Mountains. To the west the La
+Sals, the Blues, and Bears Ears, of Utah, dominate the horizon. Some
+of these landmarks are more than 115 miles distant. Southward numerous
+deep canyons, in which the more important cliff dwellings are found,
+subdivide the Mesa Verde into many long, narrow tonguelike mesas. The
+dark purplish canyon of the Mancos River is visible in the middle
+foreground, and beyond, above the jagged outline of the mesa to the
+south, the Navajo Reservation, surrounded by the deep-blue Carrizos of
+Arizona and the Lukachukai and Tunichas of New Mexico.
+
+In the midst of this great mountain-enclosed, sandy plain, which, seen
+from the mesa, resembles a vast inland sea surrounded by dark,
+forbidding mountains, rises Ship Rock (45 miles distant), a great,
+jagged shaft of igneous rock, 1,860 feet high, which appears for all
+the world like a great "windjammer" under full sail. Toward evening
+the illusion is perfect.
+
+The distance from Park Point to Spruce Tree Camp, the park
+headquarters, is 10.5 miles. The entire road from the park entrance to
+headquarters, 20 miles, is gravel surfaced and oil treated, full
+double width, and cars may pass at any point thereon.
+
+Although there are hundreds of cliff dwellings within the Mesa Verde
+National Park, the more important are located in Rock, Long, Wickiup,
+Navajo, Spruce, Soda, Moccasin, and tributary canyons. Surface ruins
+of a different type are widely distributed over the narrow mesas
+separating the numerous canyons. A vast area surrounding the park
+contains more or less important ruins of these early inhabitants, most
+important and easiest of access from the park being the Aztec Ruins
+and Chaco Canyon National Monuments, New Mexico; the Yucca House
+National Monument, Colorado; and the Hovenweep National Monument,
+Colorado-Utah.
+
+   [Illustration: ROAD MAP OF MESA VERDE NATIONAL PARK,
+                  SHOWING IMPORTANT RUINS ON CHAPIN MESA ONLY]
+
+
+
+
+                              THE RUINS
+
+
+Although the Spaniards were in the Mesa Verde region as early as 1765
+and the Americans as early as 1859, it was not until 1872 that the
+first settlement was made. In that year the Mancos Valley, lying at
+the foot of the Mesa Verde, was settled, but because of the fact that
+the mesa itself was a stronghold of the warlike Ute Indians, many
+years passed before the cliff dwellings were discovered.
+
+The ruins in the Mancos Canyon were discovered as early as 1874 when
+W. H. Jackson, who led a Government party, found there many small
+dwellings broken down by the weather. The next year he was followed by
+Prof. W. H. Holmes, later chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
+who drew attention to the remarkable stone towers also found in this
+region. Had either of the explorers followed up the side canyons of
+the Mancos they would have then discovered ruins which, in the words
+of Baron Gustav Nordenskioeld, the talented Swedish explorer, are "so
+magnificent that they surpass anything of the kind known in the United
+States."
+
+The largest cliff ruin, known as Cliff Palace, was discovered by
+Richard Wetherill and Charlie Mason while hunting cattle one December
+day in 1888. Coming to the edge of a small canyon they first caught
+sight of a village under the overhanging cliff on the opposite side,
+placed like a picture in its rocky frame. In their enthusiasm they
+thought it was a palace. With the same enthusiasm the visitors of
+today involuntarily express their pleasure and surprise as they first
+view this spectacular ruin.
+
+Later these two men explored this ruin and gave it the name of Cliff
+Palace, an unfortunate designation, for it is in no respect a palace,
+but a community house, containing more than 200 living rooms, former
+abodes of families, and 23 ceremonial rooms or kivas. They also
+discovered other community dwellings, one of which was called Spruce
+Tree House, from a large spruce tree, since cut down, growing in front
+of it. This had eight ceremonial rooms and probably housed 300
+inhabitants.
+
+The findings of these two ruins did not complete the discoveries of
+ancient buildings in the Mesa Verde; many other ruins were found by
+the Wetherill brothers and other early explorers. They mark the oldest
+and most congested region of the park, but the whole number of
+archeological sites may reach into the thousands.
+
+Only a few of the different types of ruins that have already been
+excavated, repaired, and made accessible to the visitor are considered
+herein. This excavation and repair was the work of the late Dr. J.
+Walter Fewkes, formerly chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
+with the exception of Balcony House, which was done by Jesse L.
+Nusbaum. Hundreds of sites await scientific investigation, being
+accessible now only on foot or horseback.
+
+
+                           SPRUCE TREE HOUSE
+
+Spruce Tree House, located in a large cave just across Spruce Tree
+Canyon from the museum, has been made readily accessible by a short
+winding trail. This is the only excavated cliff dwelling in the park
+that may be visited without going on a conducted tour, and is open to
+the public at all times. A ranger is always on duty to protect the
+ruin from vandalism and to give information to the visitors.
+
+   [Illustration: SPRUCE TREE HOUSE, A COMMUNITY DWELLING OF 114 ROOMS]
+
+                         GENERAL DESCRIPTION
+
+The total length of Spruce Tree House is 216 feet, and its greatest
+width is 89 feet. During the excavation of the ruin in 1907, Dr.
+Fewkes counted 8 ceremonial rooms, or kivas, and 114 rooms that had
+been used for living, storage, and other purposes. At least 14 seemed
+to have been storage and burial rooms so that probably not more than
+100 were used as dwellings. If it is considered that a family occupied
+each room, the population would have been large, but it is doubtful if
+all of the rooms were occupied at one time. An average of 2 or 3
+persons to the room, making a total of not more than 300 for the
+entire village, would no doubt be a fair estimate.
+
+Two hundred feet north of Spruce Tree House the canyon comes to an
+abrupt box end. A splendid spring flows from the base of the sandstone
+cliff, and it was to this spring that the cliff-dweller women went for
+water carrying it back to their homes in their big water jars. At the
+south end of the cave a trail, consisting of small toeholds cut in the
+cliff, led to the mesa top above. This trail was used by the men as
+they went to their mesa-top fields, where they raised corn, beans, and
+squash, and by the hunters as they went in search of deer and mountain
+sheep that lived in the forests above.
+
+                             LIVING ROOMS
+
+The rooms of Spruce Tree House are divided into two groups by a court
+or street running from the front to the back of the cave, at a point
+just south of the center of the village. The majority of the rooms are
+north of this street, and some of the walls show the finest work in
+the entire structure. The stones were well shaped and smoothed; the
+mud mortar was carefully worked into the crevices and compressed with
+thin stone wedges. Over many of the walls was spread a thin coat of
+reddish plaster, often decorated with paintings. These rooms, standing
+as when they were constructed 700 years ago, are mute evidence of the
+cleverness of the masons who built them.
+
+Spruce Tree House has more walls that reach the top of the cave than
+any other ruin in the park. All through the central part the walls
+were three stories high, the top of the cave serving as the roof of
+the upper rooms. One-and two-story structures usually required a
+ceiling of heavy rafters, running lengthwise of the rooms. These were
+covered with a crosswise layer of small poles and withes as a support
+for an average 3-inch floor of clay. Very often a small hatchway was
+left in one corner of the ceiling. A short ladder leaning in the corner
+of the lower room gave access to the room above.
+
+Very few of the houses were equipped with fire pits. Most of the
+cooking was done in the open courts. Small fire pits can be found
+along the walls and in the corners of the courts and passageways.
+
+                       CEREMONIAL ROOMS OR KIVAS
+
+Spruce Tree House has eight of the circular, subterranean rooms that
+were set aside for ceremonial purposes. Similar rooms are still in use
+in the present day Pueblo Indian villages and are known as kivas.
+
+Usually the kiva roofs have collapsed, but in Square Tower House two
+kivas have the original roofs almost intact. Following the plan of
+these original roofs, three of the kivas in Spruce Tree House have
+been reroofed. Details of construction may be noted by descending the
+ladder into one of these restored kivas.
+
+Kivas in the Mesa Verde are always underground and generally circular
+in shape. The average diameter is 12 to 13 feet and the depth is such
+that the roof would clear a man's head. At a point about 3 feet above
+the floor is a narrow ledge running entirely around the room. This
+ledge is known as the banquette and its exact use is unknown. On this
+ledge were built six stone buttresses or pilasters, 2 to 3 feet in
+height, which served as roof supports. Short beams were placed from
+pilaster to pilaster around the room, and additional series of beams
+were laid to span the angles formed by the lower series. Normally five
+or six sets of beams extended this cribwork almost to the ground
+level. Horizontal beams were then placed across the top and the whole
+structure was covered with bark and earth. A small square hole in the
+center of the roof provided an entrance which also served for a smoke
+vent.
+
+On the south side of the kiva the banquette is wider between two of
+the pilasters than anywhere else around the room. This deep recess is
+often referred to as an altar, although its exact use is not known.
+Just back of the wall of this deep recess is a vertical shaft that
+leads down to meet a horizontal shaft that opens into the kiva just
+above the floor. This is the ventilator shaft. The fire, burning in
+the small pit in the center of the room, sent the smoke up through the
+hole in the roof, and the fresh air was drawn down through the
+ventilator shaft. Between the ventilator and the fire pit a small
+wall, known as the "deflector", was constructed to keep the fresh air
+current from blowing on the fire.
+
+Two or three feet from the fire pit, and in a straight line with the
+ventilator shaft, the deep recess, the deflector, and the fire pit is
+a small hole in the floor of the kiva. This hole is usually about 3
+inches in diameter and from 4 to 6 inches deep; its walls and bottom
+often covered with a smooth layer of mud. In the present-day kivas
+this hole is known as the "sipapu", and is considered to be the
+symbolic entrance to the underworld. The kiva was a combination
+ceremonial, club, and work room for the men. Even in the present-day
+villages the women are rarely ever allowed to enter the kivas because
+of the fact that the men take almost entire charge of the religious
+work. It is believed that each clan had its own kiva. It may be noted
+that in almost every case the kiva is surrounded by a group of living
+rooms. The members of the clan no doubt lived in these rooms and the
+men held their ceremonies in the adjoining kiva. Two of the kivas in
+Spruce Tree House have side entrances that lead to nearby rooms. These
+rooms may have been the homes of the priests, or dressing rooms for
+them.
+
+                          DATE OF OCCUPATION
+
+Twenty-one of the roof beams in Spruce Tree House have been dated by
+tree-ring chronology. These dates show that the houses were
+constructed during the years between 1230 A.D. and 1274 A.D. In 1276
+A.D. a 24-year period of drought began that caused the cliff dwellers
+to move to regions where there was a more permanent supply of water.
+In those same regions are the homes of the modern Pueblo Indians and
+no doubt some of these people are the descendants of the cliff
+dwellers.
+
+
+                             CLIFF PALACE
+
+Cliff Palace lies in an eastern spur of Cliff Canyon under the roof of
+an enormous cave that arches 50 to 100 feet above it. The floor of the
+cave is elevated about 200 feet above the bottom of the canyon and is
+just under the rim of the mesa. The entrance of the cave faces west,
+toward a great promontory upon which stands Sun Temple.
+
+The total length of the cave is over 300 feet and its greatest depth
+is just under 100 feet. The vaulted roof is so high that the cave is
+always light and airy, offering a perfect home site to the cliff
+dwellers who were seeking protection from the elements as well as from
+their enemies.
+
+Fortunately, the configuration of the cliffs above the ruin makes it
+possible to get a fine bird's-eye view from the rim of the mesa. Views
+obtained from the heads of the two trails are most striking and give
+an idea of the setting and size of the building before it is entered
+for closer inspection. The most spectacular view of Cliff Palace is
+from Sun Temple, across the canyon. This is the only spot from which
+the entire ruin may be seen.
+
+                             LIVING ROOMS
+
+Cliff Palace is the largest known cliff dwelling. Dr. Fewkes, who
+excavated the ruin in 1909, placed the number of living rooms at
+slightly more than 200. Very few of the walls reached the top of the
+cave because of its great height, but many of the structures were as
+high as two and three stories. Near the south end of the ruin is the
+tallest structure, a four-story tower that reaches the cave roof.
+Ground space appropriate for building purposes was at a premium in the
+cave. To provide for an increasing population, second-, third-, and
+even fourth-story rooms were superimposed on the original
+single-story structures which predominated in the initial
+cliff-dweller occupation of this site.
+
+When the cliff dwellers started building in the cave they were
+confronted with the problem of an uneven floor. The floor of the cave
+slanted from the back to the front and was covered with huge, angular
+boulders that had fallen from the cave roof. This problem the cliff
+dweller solved by erecting terraces and filling in the irregular
+places. The open spaces between the boulders were excellent for kivas,
+as there was not a great deal of excavation necessary. After the kiva
+walls were built the extra space was filled in with trash and dirt.
+When the flat kiva roof was added a level court resulted. Around this
+court the homes were constructed, often on the rough surfaces of the
+big boulders. Because of the uneven floor and the terracing that was
+necessary, six distinct terrace levels resulted.
+
+                                KIVAS
+
+Twenty-two kivas are located in the cave and another, lying about 50
+feet from the western end, and thought to have been used by men living
+in the cave, brings the total to 23. Twenty of these conform to the
+plan of the typical Mesa Verde kiva, but three seem to be of a
+different type. These three, instead of being round, are square with
+rounded corners. The banquette is missing as well as the pilasters or
+roof supports.
+
+                             STORAGE ROOMS
+
+Because of the fact that the inhabitants of Cliff Palace were forced
+to store enough corn each fall to last until the next harvest a great
+many storage rooms were constructed. Any small nook or cranny that was
+too small for a home was utilized for that purpose. Far back in the
+cave a number were constructed of large, thin sandstone slabs. These
+slabs were placed on end to form small rectangular rooms. When the
+door slabs were in place and all of the crevices were well chinked
+with mud the grain was safe from the rodents. High up under the roof
+of the cave, at the back, was a long narrow shelf that was also
+utilized for storage space. A wall was built along the front of the
+ledge to the cave roof, and the space back of the wall was divided
+into 14 small storage rooms. A ladder on the roof of one of the houses
+below gave access to the ledge.
+
+                              PAINTINGS
+
+In the third floor room of the four-story tower is the finest painting
+yet found in the Mesa Verde. The entire inner surface of the four
+walls was covered with bright red designs on a white background. The
+designs are similar to those found on cliff-dweller pottery. The white
+color was obtained by mixing finely ground gypsum with water to form
+a smooth paste; the red was obtained by treating hematite, or red
+ochre, in the same manner.
+
+                            THE ROUND TOWER
+
+The outstanding structure in Cliff Palace is the two-story round tower
+that stands just south of the center of the cave. Every stone in this
+tower is rounded to conform to the curvature of the walls and the
+graceful taper toward the top makes it one of the finest examples of
+masonry work in the region. When the early explorers first entered
+this tower the only object found was the most beautiful stone ax they
+ever discovered. Whether this tower was a home or whether it was
+constructed for some special purpose is a matter of conjecture.
+
+                          POSSIBLE POPULATION
+
+Because of the fact that Cliff Palace is the largest of all cliff
+dwellings, its population is of special interest. A close inspection
+of the rooms in the ruin shows that they are smaller, on the average,
+than the rooms in any of the other large cliff dwellings. When judged
+from our modern standards, it is difficult to imagine more than a
+couple of people living in each one. Our modern ideas, however, will
+not help us in understanding the people who once lived in Cliff
+Palace.
+
+More than anything else the cliff dwellers desired security from their
+enemies. Their next desire was safety from the elements. When it is
+considered that these were the motivating influences, it can easily be
+understood that such minor matters as space and comfort would receive
+little consideration. Since the inhabitants were an easy-going,
+peace-loving group it can be imagined that crowded living conditions
+would not be objectionable. In addition it must be considered that the
+rooms were used principally as sleeping quarters. All activities were
+carried on in the open courts and on the terraced roof tops. Even the
+cooking was done over open fires outside the houses.
+
+An average of two to the room would give a population of 400; an
+average of three would place 600 in the cave. If every room were
+occupied at one time and if the average of two or three to the room is
+not too high, it would seem that a total population of 500 would not
+be too great for Cliff Palace.
+
+
+                            BALCONY HOUSE
+
+Balcony House lies in Soda Canyon about 2-1/2 miles southeast of
+Spruce Tree Camp, and is reached by a continuation of the Cliff Palace
+Road. It is one of the most picturesque of the accessible ruins in the
+park and occupies a better position for defense than most of the other
+ruins on the mesa. A few defenders could have repelled a large
+attacking force. Additional precautions have been taken at the south
+end of the ruin for the strengthening of its defenses, where the only
+means of reaching it is through a fortified narrow cleft. The south
+part of the ledge was walled up to a height of about 15 feet, the
+lower part of the wall closing the cleft being pierced by a narrow
+tunnel. Through this tunnel a man may creep on hands and knees from
+the cliff dwelling to the south part of the ledge, which affords a
+footing, with a precipice to the left and the cliff to the right, for
+about 100 paces. The ledge here terminates in the perpendicular wall
+of the canyon. The ruined walls of a defensive structure, built to cut
+off approach on this side, may still be traced.
+
+At the north end of the ruin the foundation gave the builders
+considerable trouble, but the difficulties were skillfully overcome. A
+supporting wall was erected on a lower ledge, to form a stable
+foundation for the outer wall of the upper rooms, where the higher
+ledge was too narrow or abrupt for building purposes.
+
+South of the rooms fronted by this wall is a small open court, bounded
+at the back by a few very regular and well-preserved rooms which rise
+to the roof of the cave. The poles supporting the floors of these
+upper-story rooms project about 2 feet to provide support for a
+balcony. Split poles, laid parallel with the front wall, were covered
+at right angles with rods of cedar bast and generously plastered with
+clay to form the floor of the balcony, which served as a means of
+outside communication between the rooms of the upper story. A low,
+thick parapet wall built on the edge of the precipice encloses the
+canyon side of the northern court.
+
+The funds for the excavation and repair of Balcony House in 1911 were
+largely furnished by the Colorado Cliff Dwellers Society, an
+organization founded and directed by Mrs. Gilbert McClurg, of Colorado
+Springs, Colo. The original purpose of this society was to stimulate
+interest in legislation for the preservation and protection of the
+prehistoric remains of the Mesa Verde. This society advanced the
+creation of Mesa Verde National Park in 1906.
+
+
+                          SQUARE TOWER HOUSE
+
+Square Tower House Ruin is situated in an eastern spur of Navajo
+Canyon, opposite a great bluff called Echo Cliff. An ancient approach
+to the ruin from the canyon rim is visible to the south of the
+dwelling. Footholes for ascent and descent had been cut in the cliff
+by the Indians which enabled them to reach the level on which the ruin
+is situated. The footpath now used by visitors parallels the ancient
+trail. Along the top of the talus this pathway splits into an upper
+and lower branch. The former, hugging the cliff, passes through the
+"Eye of the Needle"; the latter is lower down on the talus and is used
+by the stouter and older visitors.
+
+The Square Tower House cave is shallow, its back wall perpendicular,
+with roof slightly overhanging. At the extreme eastern end of the ruin
+the vertical cliff suddenly turns at right angles, forming an angle in
+which, high above the main ruin, there still remain walls of rooms. To
+these rooms, which are tucked away just under the canyon rim, with
+only their front walls visible, the name "Crow's Nest" is given. Logs,
+with their ends resting in notches cut in the rock actually support
+walls of masonry, as seen in the angle of this cliff. This is a
+well-known method of cliff-house construction.
+
+This ruin measures about 138 feet from its eastern to its western end.
+There are no streets or passageways as at Spruce Tree House and Cliff
+Palace. The rooms are continuous and compactly constructed, the walls
+being united from one end of the cave to the other, excepting for the
+spaces above the kivas. The absence of a cave recess to the rear of
+the ruin is significant as it allowed the cliff to be used as the back
+wall of rooms. Rooms in Square Tower House do not differ radically
+from those of Spruce Tree House and other cliff dwellings. They have
+smaller windows, door openings, and supports of balconies. The
+rectangular rooms were constructed above the ground; the circular
+rooms were subterranean. The former were devoted to secular and the
+latter to ceremonial purposes.
+
+                              THE TOWER
+
+The tower is, of course, the most conspicuous as well as the most
+interesting architectural feature of the ruin, being visible for a
+long distance as one approaches Square Tower House. Its foundation
+rests on a large boulder situated in the eastern section of the cave
+floor. This tower has three walls constructed of masonry, the fourth
+being the perpendicular rear wall of the cave. The masonry of the
+tower stands about 35 feet above the foundation, but the foundation
+boulder on which it stands increases its height over 5 feet.
+
+On a projecting rock on the west side above the tower is the wall of a
+small, inaccessible room which may have been used as a lookout or as
+an eagle house.
+
+The lowest story of the tower is entered from plaza B, and on the east
+side there are three openings, situated one over another, indicating
+the first, second, and third stories, but on the south side of the
+tower there are only two doorways. The roof of the lowest room is
+practically intact, showing good workmanship, but about half of its
+floor is destroyed. The upper walls of the second-story room have the
+original plaster, reddish dado below and white above. Although the
+third and fourth stories are destitute of floors, they are plastered.
+
+                                KIVAS
+
+Some of the best preserved circular ceremonial chambers (kivas) in the
+Southwest are to be seen in Square Tower House. The majority of the
+kivas belong to the pure type, distinguished by mural pilasters
+supporting a vaulted roof.
+
+Kiva A is particularly instructive on account of the good preservation
+of its roof. Its greatest diameter is 13 feet 6 inches; or, measuring
+inside the banquettes, 11 feet 1 inch. The interior is well plastered
+with many layers of brown plaster. The pilasters are six in number,
+one of which is double. Two depressions are visible in the smooth
+floor, in addition to a fireplace and a sipapu. These suggest ends of
+a ladder, but no remains of a ladder were found in the room.
+
+Kiva B is the largest ceremonial chamber in Square Tower House,
+measuring 16 feet 9 inches in diameter over all. This kiva is not only
+one of the best preserved, but also one of the most instructive in
+Square Tower House, since half of the roof, with the original
+cribbing, is still in place, extending completely around the
+periphery. It has six pilasters and as many banquettes. Where the
+plaster had not fallen, it was found to have several layers.
+
+   [Illustration: SUN TEMPLE, A MYSTERIOUS FORM OF RUIN]
+
+                             PETROGLYPHS
+
+The perpendicular cliff back of Square Tower House has several
+different forms of incised petroglyphs. From the fact that these
+usually occur on  the cliff above the kiva roofs, they may be regarded
+as connected in some way with a religious symbolism. A few petroglyphs
+are also found on stones set in the walls of the rooms.
+
+
+                            OAK TREE HOUSE
+
+The ruin formerly called Willow House, but now known as Oak Tree
+House, lies on the north side of Fewkes Canyon, in a symmetrical cave
+and has an upper and a lower part. The two noteworthy features of Oak
+Tree House are the kivas and the remnant of the wall of a circular
+room made of sticks plastered with adobe but destitute of stone
+masonry.
+
+Oak Tree House has seven kivas and may be called a large cliff
+dwelling. One of the kivas has a semicircular ground plan with a
+rectangular room on the straight side. There are no pilasters or
+banquettes in this kiva. The floor of another kiva was almost wholly
+occupied by a series of grinding bins, indicating a secondary use. The
+excavation work on Oak Tree House has not yet been completed, but a
+small collection of specimens at one end of the ruin shows the nature
+of the objects thus far found.
+
+
+                            SUN SET HOUSE
+
+Looking across Cliff Canyon from Sun Point one can see the fine ruin
+called Sun Set House, formerly known as Community House. This ruin,
+like many other cliff dwellings, has an upper and a lower house, the
+former being relatively larger than is usually the case. Although Sun
+Set House is accessible, it has never been excavated.
+
+
+                              SUN TEMPLE
+
+The cliff houses considered in the preceding pages are habitations.
+There are also specialized buildings on the Mesa Verde which were
+never inhabited but were used for other purposes. Two of these
+presumably were devoted solely to ceremonial purposes and are known as
+Sun Temple and Fire Temple.
+
+Sun Temple is situated west of Cliff Palace, on the promontory formed
+by the confluence of Cliff and Fewkes Canyons. Up to the year 1915 the
+site of Sun Temple was a mound of earth and stones, all showing
+artificial working or the pecking of primitive stone hammers. This
+mound had a circular depression in the middle and its surface was
+covered with trees and bushes. No high walls projected above the
+ground nor was there any intimation of the size or character of the
+buried building. It was believed to be a pueblo or communal
+habitation. Excavation of this mound brought into view one of the most
+unusual buildings in the park.
+
+Sun Temple is a type of ruin hitherto unknown in the park. The
+building excavated shows excellent masonry and is the most mysterious
+form yet discovered in a region rich in prehistoric remains. Although
+at first there was some doubt as to the use of this building, it was
+early recognized that it was not constructed for habitation, and it is
+now believed that it was intended for the performance of rites and
+ceremonies; the first of its type devoted to religious purposes yet
+recognized in the Southwest.
+
+The ruin was purposely constructed on a commanding promontory in the
+neighborhood of large inhabited cliff houses. It sets somewhat back
+from the edge of the canyon, but near enough to make it clearly
+visible from all sides, especially the neighboring mesas. It must have
+presented an imposing appearance rising on top of a point high above
+inaccessible, perpendicular cliffs. No better place could have been
+chosen for a religious building in which the inhabitants of many cliff
+dwellings could gather and together perform their great ceremonial
+dramas.
+
+The ground plan of the ruin has the form of the letter D. The building
+is in two sections, the larger of which, taken separately, is also
+D-shaped. This is considered the original building. The addition
+enlarging it is regarded as an annex. The south wall, which is
+straight and includes both the original building and the annex, is
+131.7 feet long. The ruin is 64 feet wide.
+
+There are about 1,000 feet of walls in the whole building. These walls
+average 4 feet in thickness, and are double, enclosing a central core
+of rubble and adobe. They are uniformly well made.
+
+The fine masonry, the decorated stones that occur in it, and the unity
+of plan stamp Sun Temple as the highest example of Mesa Verde
+architecture.
+
+The walls were constructed of the sandstone of the neighborhood. Many
+stone hammers and pecking stones were found in the vicinity.
+
+                            THE SUN SYMBOL
+
+On the upper surface of a large rock protruding from the base of the
+southwest corner of the building a peculiar depression, surrounded by
+radiating ridges, was found. To primitive minds, this may have
+appeared as a symbol of the sun and, therefore, deemed an object of
+great significance, to be protected as a shrine. This natural
+impression may have prompted Dr. Fewkes in the naming of this ruin.
+
+                        ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES
+
+There are three circular rooms in Sun Temple which from their form may
+be identified as ceremonial in function, technically called kivas. Two
+of these, free from other rooms, are situated in the plaza that
+occupies the central part of the main building, and one is embedded in
+rooms of the so-called "annex." Adjoining the last mentioned, also
+surrounded by rooms, is a fourth circular chamber which is not a kiva.
+This room, found to be almost completely filled with spalls or broken
+stones, perhaps originally served as an elevated tower or lookout.
+
+The kiva that is situated in the west section of Sun Temple has a
+ventilator stack attached to the south side, recalling the typical
+ventilator of a Mesa Verde cliff kiva, and there are indications of
+the same structure in the two circular chambers in the court. These
+kivas, however, have no banquettes or pilasters to support a vaulted
+roof, and no fragments of roof beams were found in the excavations
+made at Sun Temple. East of Sun Temple, where formerly there was only
+a mound of stone and earth, there were found the remains of a low
+circular structure of undetermined use.
+
+Most of the peripheral rooms of Sun Temple open into adjoining rooms,
+a few into the central court, but none has external openings. Some of
+the rooms are without lateral entrances, as if it were intended to
+enter them through a hatch in the roof.
+
+Not only pits indicative of the stone tools by which the stones
+forming the masonry of Sun Temple were dressed appear on all the rocks
+used in its construction, but likewise many bear incised symbols.
+Several of these still remain in the walls of the building; others
+have been set in cement near the outer wall of the eastern kiva. It is
+interesting to record that some of the stones of which the walls were
+constructed were probably quarried on the mesa top not far from the
+building, but as the surface of the plateau is now forested, the
+quarries themselves are hidden in accumulated soil and are difficult
+to discover.
+
+                                 AGE
+
+Sun Temple is believed to be among the latest constructed of all the
+aboriginal buildings in the park, probably contemporaneous with late
+building activities in Balcony House, Spruce Tree House, and Cliff
+Palace.
+
+Because of the absence of timbers or roof beams it is impossible to
+tell when Sun Temple was begun, how long it took for its construction,
+or when it was deserted. There are indications that its walls may
+never have been completed, and from the amount of fallen stones there
+can hardly be a doubt that when it was abandoned they had been carried
+up in some places at least 6 feet above their present level. The top
+of the wall had been worn down at any rate 6 feet in the interval
+between the time it was abandoned and the date of excavation of the
+mound. No one can tell the length of this interval in years.
+
+We have, however, knowledge of the lapse of time, because the mound
+had accumulated enough soil on its surface to support growth of large
+trees. Near the summit of the highest wall in the annex there grew a
+juniper tree of great antiquity, alive and vigorous when excavation
+work was begun. This tree undoubtedly sprouted after the desertion of
+the building and grew after a mound had developed from fallen walls.
+Its roots penetrated into the adjacent rooms and derived nourishment
+from the soil filling them.
+
+Necessarily, when these roots were cut off the tree was killed. It was
+then cut off about a foot above the ground, the stump remaining. A
+cross section of this stump was examined by Gordon Parker, supervisor
+of the Montezuma National Forest, who found that it had 360 annual
+rings without allowing for decayed heartwood which would add a few
+more years to its age.
+
+It is not improbable that this tree began to grow on the top of the
+Sun Temple mound shortly after the year 1540, when Coronado first
+entered New Mexico. How long an interval elapsed for crumbling walls
+to form the mound in which it grew, and how much earlier the
+foundations of the ruined walls were laid, no one can tell. A
+conservative guess of 350 years for the interval between construction
+and the time the cedar began to sprout would carry the antiquity of
+Sun Temple back to about 1200 A.D.
+
+                         UNITY OF CONSTRUCTION
+
+The argument that appeals most strongly to many in supporting the
+theory that Sun Temple was a ceremonial building is the unity shown in
+its construction. A preconceived plan existed in the minds of the
+builders before they began work on the main building. Sun Temple was
+not constructed haphazardly, nor was its form due to addition of one
+clan after another, each adding rooms to a preexisting nucleus. There
+is no indication of patching one building to another, so evident at
+Cliff Palace and other large cliff dwellings. The construction of the
+recess in the south wall, situated exactly, to an inch, midway in its
+length, shows it was planned from the beginning.
+
+We can hardly believe that one clan could have been numerous enough to
+construct a house so large and massive. Its walls are too extensive;
+the work of dressing the stones too great. The construction of Sun
+Temple presumably represents the cooperative efforts of many clans
+from adjacent cliff dwellings uniting in a common purpose. Such a
+united effort represents a higher state of sociological development
+than a loosely connected population of a cliff dwelling.
+
+                               BUILDERS
+
+On the theory that this building was erected by people from several
+neighboring cliff dwellings for ceremonies held in common, we may
+suppose that the builders came daily from their dwellings in Cliff
+Palace and other houses and returned at night, after they had finished
+work, to their homes. The trails down the sides of the cliffs which
+the workmen used are still to be seen. The place was frequented by
+many people, but there is no evidence that any one clan dwelt near
+this mysterious building during its construction.
+
+The argument that cliff dwellers in the neighborhood built Sun Temple
+and that incoming aliens had nothing to do with its construction seems
+very strong. The architectural differences between it and Cliff Palace
+are not objections, for the architectural form of Sun Temple may be
+regarded as a repetition, in the open, of a form of building that
+developed in a cliff house; the rounded north wall conforms with the
+rear of a cave and the straight south wall reproduces the front of a
+cliff dwelling. The recess midway in the south wall of Sun Temple
+could be likened without forcing the comparison to a similar recess
+which occurs at the main entrance into Cliff Palace.
+
+Sun Temple was not built by an alien people, but by the cliff dwellers
+as a specialized building mainly for religious purposes, and, so far
+as known, is the first of its type recognized in the Mesa Verde area.
+
+
+                         NEW FIRE-HOUSE GROUP
+
+                             FIRE TEMPLE
+
+Fire Temple is one of the most remarkable cliff houses in the park, if
+not in the whole Southwest. It is situated in a shallow cave in the
+north wall of Fewkes Canyon, near its head, and can readily be seen
+from the road along the southwest rim of the canyon. This ruin was
+formerly called Painted House, but when it was excavated in May 1920
+evidence was obtained that it was a specialized building and not a
+habitation. The facts brought to light point to the theory that it was
+consecrated to the fire cult, one of the most ancient forms of
+worship.
+
+The ruin is rectangular in form, almost completely filling the whole
+of its shallow cave, and the walls of the rooms extend to the roof. A
+ground plan shows a central court 50 feet long and about 25 feet
+broad, flanked at each end with massive-walled buildings two stories
+high. The walls of these rooms are well constructed, plastered red and
+white within and on the side turned to the court. The white plaster is
+adorned with symbolic figures. The beams used in the construction of
+the ceiling of the lower room are missing, but the walls show clearly
+that the structure was formerly two stories high. No beams were used
+in the construction of the floors, the lower story having been filled
+in with fragments of rocks on which was plastered a good adobe floor.
+
+The court or plaza was bounded by a low wall on the south side, the
+buildings enclosing the east and west ends, where there was a
+banquette. The north side of the court was formed by the solid rocks
+of the cliff, but on the lower part a narrow masonry wall had been
+laid up about head high, projecting from the cliff a foot and less on
+the top. The wall was formerly plastered red below and white above,
+triangular figures and zigzag markings recalling symbols of lightning
+on the line of the junction of the red and white surfaces.
+
+In the center of the court on a well-hardened adobe floor there is a
+circular walled fire pit containing an abundance of ashes, and on
+either side of it are foundations of small rectangular structures. The
+function of the rectangular enclosures, lying one on each side of the
+fire pit, is unknown. The middle room of the lowest tier of rooms just
+west of the main court has a number of painted symbols and zoormorphic
+figures upon its walls. These paintings, in red, still remain in a
+fair state of preservation, and consist of five symbols, supposedly of
+fire, and many pictures of mountain sheep and other animals.
+
+Just west of Fire Temple there is a group of rooms which were
+evidently habitations, since household utensils were found in them.
+One of these rooms has in the floor a vertical shaft which opens
+outside the house walls like a ventilator. The former use of this
+structure is unknown. Although the Fire Temple was not inhabited,
+there were undoubtedly dwellings nearby.
+
+                            NEW FIRE HOUSE
+
+A hundred feet east of the Fire Temple there are two low caves, one
+above the other. This cliff dwelling is called New Fire House. The
+rooms in the lower cave were fitted for habitation, consisting of two,
+possibly three, circular ceremonial rooms and a few secular rooms; but
+the upper cave is destitute of the former. The large rooms of the
+upper house look like granaries for the storage of provisions,
+although possibly they also were inhabited. In the rear of the large
+rooms identified as granaries was found a small room with a
+well-preserved human skeleton accompanied with mortuary pottery. One
+of these mortuary offerings is a fine mug made of black and white ware
+beautifully decorated. In the rear of the cave were three
+well-constructed grinding bins, their metates still in place.
+
+The upper house is now approached from the lower by foot holes in the
+cliff and a ladder. Evidences of a secondary occupation of one of the
+kivas in the lower house appear in a wall of crude masonry without
+mortar, part of a rectangular room built diagonally across the kiva.
+The plastering on the rear walls of the lower house is particularly
+well preserved. One of the kivas, has, in place of a deflector and
+ventilator shaft, a small rectangular walled enclosure surrounded by a
+wall, recalling structures on the floor of the kivas of Sun Temple.
+The meaning of this departure from the prescribed form of ventilator
+is not apparent.
+
+
+                           CEDAR TREE TOWER
+
+Hidden in the timber about one-half mile east of the main entrance
+highway, and 1 mile north of Park Headquarters, stands a prehistoric
+tower. This ruin has been named Cedar Tree Tower because of the
+ancient juniper tree that grows adjacent to the north wall. The
+excavation of the tower and the area about its base led to the
+discovery that although it appeared to stand alone there were two
+subterranean rooms connected with its base. The larger of these rooms
+is a kiva, typical of the Mesa Verde cliff dwelling. Communication
+between kiva and tower was by means of a subterranean passage. This
+passage bifurcates, one branch opening through the tower floor, the
+other into a small square room. In the middle of the solid rock floor
+of the tower a circular hole, or _sipapu_, symbolic of the entrance to
+the underworld, had been drilled.
+
+The masonry is excellent and the massive character and workmanship of
+the walls indicate some important use. No living rooms were found
+adjacent to the tower. The walls of the tower are uniformly two feet
+in width and they still stand to the height of 12 feet.
+
+
+                  FAR VIEW HOUSE, A MESA VERDE PUEBLO
+
+Archeological investigations have shown that the inhabitants of the
+Mesa Verde built compact pueblo-style structures on the open mesa land
+separating the deep canyons. Lacking natural protection of the caves
+and cliffs of the canyons, a closely knit and compact structure was
+necessary for defensive purposes. Not having to conform to the
+irregular contours of the cave as in the cliff-house type, the
+structure assumed a roughly rectangular shape in the open, with the
+kivas within protected by the adjacent outside living and storage
+rooms. The roofed-over kivas formed small open courts within the
+higher outside walls. Structurally, there is but little difference
+between the cliff house and the pueblo; undoubtedly they belong to the
+same culture and period.
+
+   [Illustration: A MESA VERDE SURFACE RUIN. FAR VIEW HOUSE]
+
+Four and a half miles north of Spruce Tree Camp the park road passes
+near 16 major and many minor mounds. This is the so-called Mummy Lake
+group, a misnomer, since the walled depression at the crest of the
+slope above the group was never used as a reservoir, also since
+mummies are never found where the least dampness occurs. In the spring
+of the year water is still conducted to the depression by the drainage
+ditches which the early cowmen in the park constructed in their
+efforts to impound sufficient water for their stock.
+
+The first unit of this group to be excavated was named Far View House
+because of the wonderful panorama of diversified terrain that is
+visible in Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona from the walls of the
+ruin. At the beginning of the work, this mound appeared very much as
+any of the other adjacent major mounds, no sign of standing wall
+appearing above the even contour of the ruin. Heavy growths of
+sagebrush covered the whole area. Three months' time was devoted to
+the excavation in revealing the rectangular pueblo, 100 by 113 feet in
+size, now seen. The slow crumbling of the heavy dirt-covered roofs and
+the walls, together with the annual deposit of wind-blown sand from
+the San Juan country early each spring, gradually filled the rooms to
+the level of the standing walls, after which destructive elements and
+forces can little change the contour of any ruin.
+
+The external features of Far View House are apparent as we approach
+its walls; mounting to the top of the highest wall we can best observe
+the general plan. This pueblo is rectangular in shape, consisting of
+concentrated rooms with a court surrounded by a wall annexed to the
+south side. On its southeast corner, a little less than 100 feet away,
+lies the cemetery from which have been taken a number of skeletons
+with their offerings of food bowls and other objects, such as was the
+custom of these people to deposit in the graves of their dead.
+
+At its highest point on the north wall the pueblo had three stories,
+but on the southern side there was but a single story. This building
+was terraced, one tier of rooms above another. In the corner of the
+interior of the highest room may still be seen the ancient fireplaces
+and stones for grinding corn, set in their original positions as used
+by the former inhabitants. There are no external windows or passages,
+except on the south side where midway in length is a recess in which
+was placed a ladder in order to be hidden from view. The inhabitants
+evidently used the roof of the lowest terrace for many occupations. A
+bird's-eye view shows that all the rooms, now roofless, fall into two
+groups.
+
+In the center of this mass of rooms is a kiva 32 feet in diameter, and
+around it are three smaller kivas. The size of the large kiva is
+noteworthy. In the cliff dwellings the kivas were necessarily small
+because of the limited floor space, but in the surface villages, where
+unlimited space was available, they were often large. This arrangement
+of one large kiva and several small ones is common. It might indicate
+that each clan had a small kiva of its own but that in the major
+ceremonies, when all of the clans worked together, the large
+ceremonial room was used. The structural details of the large kiva are
+identical with those of the smaller ones. The only variation is in
+the size.
+
+The rooms surrounding these circular ones vary somewhat in form but
+are, as a rule, rectangular, the shapes of those near the kivas being
+triangular to fill the necessary spaces. The contents of the
+rectangular rooms show that they were living rooms. Artifacts were
+found and indications of various industries as well as marks of smoke
+from their fireplaces appear on the walls. From the nature of this
+evidence there is no doubt that Far View House was once inhabited by
+the people living the same way as those who used the cliff dwellings.
+
+The court added to the pueblo on its south side is enclosed by a low
+wall. Here were probably performed, in ancient times, the many
+religious dances and festivals.
+
+Far View House is but one of the 16 pueblos in the Mummy Lake group,
+and at the period of maximum development could have housed a large
+population. To the north and east, where the two branches of Soda
+Canyon join, another large village or group has been located, and one
+can almost trace the trail across the west fork of Soda Canyon to the
+neighboring village and imagine the dusky visitors going from one to
+the other in prehistoric times. Each narrow tonguelike mesa of the
+Mesa Verde has its ruins of either isolated pueblo structures, or
+adjacent groups, denoting the widespread distribution of the mesa
+pueblo builders.
+
+Pottery is the best index as to the chronological sequence of the
+ruins in the Southwest, and in examining the pottery of some of the
+mesa-type pueblos it is found that some contain pottery antedating
+that of the cliff-house culture, while others contain similar types.
+Undoubtedly, they were simultaneously inhabited, in part at least, and
+the transitory period was of long duration; but the period in
+prehistoric time when they were built and later deserted has not been
+determined. We cannot say from data now at hand when this took place,
+documentary history affording no help.
+
+The aborigines who lived near these ruins when discovered in 1874 were
+Utes, a Shoshonean stock who disclaimed all knowledge of the people
+who constructed these buildings. They avoided them as uncanny and even
+now can only with difficulty be induced to enter them. They have dim
+legends of conflicts between the earliest Utes and cliff dwellers.
+Unfortunately, however, such legendary evidence is not reliable, as
+the general mythology of these people has been much distorted due to
+foreign contacts and the passage of time.
+
+                   OTHER RUINS NEAR FAR VIEW HOUSE
+
+During the season of 1922 excavation and repair work in the vicinity
+of Far View House was carried on simultaneously. Among the ruins
+excavated were Pipe Shrine House, One Clan House, Far View Tower, and
+Megalithic House.
+
+
+                             EARTH LODGE A
+
+In 1922 one of the Late Basket Maker pit houses was excavated on the
+mesa above Square Tower House. This structure is known as Earth Lodge
+A. Although it once had a mud and pole roof almost as high as a man's
+head, nothing now remains but the underground part of the house. None
+of these pit houses have ever been found that have not been burned,
+and only a few pieces of charcoal remain as evidence of the former
+roof. The pit is 30 inches deep and 18 feet in diameter. In the center
+is a fire pit. In the floor are also four holes, forming a large
+square, in which the roof supports once stood. The walls of the pit
+were formerly plastered with a thick layer of mud, but only a few
+patches of this remain. Around the edge of the room, at floor level,
+were a number of small storage bins made of thin stone slabs. No side
+entrance was located during excavation. In some of the pit houses
+evidence has shown that entrance was often made by means of a ladder
+through the smokehole in the roof.
+
+This was a typical home of the Lake Basket Makers who were living in
+this region when the Pueblo Indians arrived about 700 A. D. These pit
+houses passed out of existence as soon as the masonry wall was
+perfected.
+
+
+                           UNEXCAVATED RUINS
+
+Of all the ruins in Mesa Verde National Park only 28 have been named
+and only 30 excavated. No survey of the unexcavated sites has been
+made, and the total number of ruins is unknown. Several hundred cliff
+dwellings have been discovered, and new ones will probably be found in
+the more remote canyons. The surface pueblos outnumber the cliff
+dwellings, and a careful search would reveal many that are now hidden
+by a thick growth of underbrush. The earth lodges of the Late Basket
+Makers are so common that hundreds will be brought to light by careful
+search. Dozens of them can be located in a half-hour walk over any of
+the mesas.
+
+
+
+
+                DATES FOR MESA VERDE RUINS ESTABLISHED
+                    BY THE TREE-RING CHRONOLOGY[2]
+
+
+Dr. A. E. Douglass, director of Steward Observatory, University of
+Arizona, established the tree-ring chronology for dating Southwestern
+ruins. This chronology is based upon the facts that solar changes
+affect our weather and weather in turn the trees of the arid
+Southwest, as else-where, and that such affects are recorded in the
+variation of tree-ring growth during wet and dry years. Thus the
+tree-ring record of living trees has been extended into the past by
+arranging beams from historic pueblos in their proper sequence so that
+the inner rings of one match the outer rings of its predecessor, and
+in turn match the rings of the living trees. After completing the
+series from living trees and pueblos, of known dates, the record has
+been continued through the cross-sections of prehistoric beams of fir
+and pine that were chopped with the stone axes. The continuation of
+this chronology is only limited by the finding of earlier beams than
+those used in the established chronology.
+
+The National Geographic Society tree-ring expedition took, in all, 49
+beam sections from ruins within Mesa Verde National Park. During 1932
+and 1933 further tree-ring research was carried on in this area and
+additional dates have been secured. Presuming that the year of cutting
+the timber was the year of actual use in construction, the following
+dates have been established for the major cliff dwellings:
+
+ Mug House, A. D. 1066             Long House, A. D. 1204-11
+ Cliff Palace, A. D. 1073-1273     Square Tower House, A. D. 1204-46
+ Oak Tree House, A. D. 1112-84     Spruce Tree House, A. D. 1230-74
+ Spring House, A. D. 1115          New Fire House, A. D. 1259
+ Hemenway House, A. D. 1171        Ruin No. 16, A. D. 1261
+ Balcony House, A. D. 1190-1272    Buzzard House, A. D. 1273
+
+Since considerable tree-ring material from these ruins remains yet to
+be examined, the dates given above are not final. On the basis of
+present evidence, Cliff Palace, the largest and most complex cliff
+house within the park, shows an occupancy of 200 years.
+
+It is an interesting fact that all of the dates fall just short of the
+beginning of the great drought, which the tree-ring chronology shows
+commenced in 1276 and extended to 1299, a period of 24 years.
+
+
+
+
+                      DISCOVERIES OF RECENT YEARS
+
+
+In 1923 Roy Henderson and A. B. Hardin discovered the largest and
+finest watchtower that had yet been found. The tower was circular, 25
+feet in height and 11 feet in diameter. Loopholes at various levels
+commanded the approach from every exposed quarter.
+
+During the winter of 1924 the north refuse space of Spruce Tree House
+was excavated. Two child burials were found, one partially mummified,
+the other skeletal only. With one was found a mug, a ladle, a digging
+stick, and two ring baskets that had held food. Several corrugated
+jars were found, together with miscellaneous material. A layer of
+turkey droppings a foot thick indicated the space had been used as a
+turkey pen.
+
+During January and February of 1926, when snow was available as a
+water supply, excavations were carried on in Step House Cave, by
+Superintendent Jesse L. Nusbaum. In 1891 Nordenskioeld had found many
+fine burials in this cave and it had suffered greatly from pothunting.
+The cliff dweller refuse at the south end of the cave had not been
+thoroughly cleaned out, however, and it was under this layer of trash
+that the important discovery was made. Three of the Late Basket Maker
+pit houses were found, giving the first evidence that these people had
+used the caves before the cliff dwellers. Very few artifacts were
+found because of the earlier pothunting. In 1926 also a low, deep cave
+opposite Fire Temple was excavated, and a small amount of Basket Maker
+material found. Most interesting were two tapered cylinders of
+crystallized salt that still bore the imprint of the molder's hands.
+While bracing a slipping boulder in Cliff Palace, Fred Jeep found, in
+1916, a sandal of the Early Basket Maker type that indicates a former
+occupancy of the cave by the first group of Agricultural Indians in
+this region.
+
+In 1927 Bone Awl House was excavated. A series of unusually fine bone
+awls was found that suggested the name for the ruin. Much
+miscellaneous material was also found. Another small cliff dwelling
+nearby was cleaned out. One baby mummy and an adult burial were found,
+as well as some pottery and bone and stone tools. This ruin is reached
+by a spectacular series of 104 footholds that the cliff dwellers had
+cut in the almost perpendicular canyon wall.
+
+During March of 1928 and the winter of 1929 restricted excavations
+were conducted in ruins 11 to 19, inclusive, on the west side of
+Wetherill Mesa.
+
+Several burials were found, all in poor condition because of dampness.
+Outstanding was an unusual bird pendant of hematite with crystal eyes
+set into drilled sockets with pinon gum. Forty-two bowls were
+reconstructed from the sherds found.
+
+In the summer of 1929 Mr. and Mrs. Harold S. Gladwin and associates of
+Gila Pueblo, Globe, Ariz., assisted by Deric Nusbaum, conducted an
+archeological survey of small-house ruins on Chapin Mesa and in the
+canyon heads along the North Rim. The survey covered 250 sites. One
+hundred sherds were collected from each site and studied to identify
+the pottery types, the sequence of their development, and their
+relationship to pottery types of other southwestern archeological
+areas.
+
+The forest fire of 1934 revealed many hitherto unknown ruins. Two
+splendid watchtowers were found on the west cliff of Rock Canyon. In a
+small area at the head of Long Canyon 10 new Early Pueblo ruins were
+located and no doubt scores of others will be found upon more careful
+search. In the heads of the small canyons many dams and terraces were
+noted.
+
+In the stabilization program that was carried on in 1934-35 a number
+of artifacts were found. A certain amount of debris had to be moved in
+order that the weakened walls and slipping foundations might be
+strengthened and varied finds resulted. Axes, bone awls, sandals,
+pottery, planting sticks, and similar articles were most common, but a
+few burials were also found.
+
+In August 1934 the undisturbed skeleton of an old woman was found on
+the bare floor of a small ruin just across the canyon from the public
+campgrounds. This skeleton, of particular importance because of fusion
+of the spinal column, had apparently remained exposed and undisturbed
+through more than seven centuries.
+
+Because of the fact that no detailed, comprehensive survey has ever
+been made of the archeological resources of the park, the findings of
+new ruins, artifacts, and human remains are more or less regularly
+reported at the park museum.
+
+
+
+
+            PREHISTORIC INHABITANTS OF THE MESA VERDE
+
+
+The so-called "Mesa Verde cliff dwellers" were not the first of the
+prehistoric southwestern cultures, nor were they the first human
+occupants of the natural caves that abound in the area of the park.
+Centuries before the cliff-dweller culture with its complex social
+organizations, agriculture, and highly developed arts of masonry,
+textiles, and ceramics, it is thought that small groups of primitive
+Mongoloid hunters crossed from the north-eastern peninsula of Asia to
+the western coast of Alaska. The Bering Strait, with but 60 miles of
+water travel, offered the safest and easiest route.
+
+Just when these migrations to the east had their origin and how long
+they continued cannot definitely be said, but it is thought the
+earliest Mongoloid hunters were in northwestern America about twelve
+to fifteen thousand years ago. When Columbus "discovered" America the
+continent was inhabited from Alaska to the Strait of Magellan and from
+the Pacific to the Atlantic coasts.
+
+For perhaps several thousand years following the first migrations
+little of great significance developed. There undoubtedly was
+cultural progress, but it was slow, and in the long perspective of
+time its evidences are hardly discernible. With the knowledge and
+benefits of agriculture, which was probably developed first in Mexico,
+hunting gave way to husbandry, nomadism to sedentary life, and there
+followed a great period of change and advancement. The introduction of
+corn or Indian maize into what is now the southwestern United States
+may be called the antecedent condition for all advanced cultures of
+the area.
+
+Evidence has not yet been established that the first of the
+maize-growing Indians of the Southwest were permanent occupants of the
+Mesa Verde. Nevertheless, in the Cliff Palace cave, well below the
+horizon or floor level of the cliff dwellers, archeologists have found
+a yucca fiber sandal of a distinctive type which is associated only
+with the first agricultural civilization. From this evidence it would
+be reasonable to assume that the caves of Mesa Verde at least offered
+temporary shelter, if not permanent homes, to the people of this
+period.
+
+The earliest culture so far definitely identified as having permanent
+habitation on the Mesa Verde is the Basket Maker III or the Second
+Agricultural Basket Maker first found in Step House cave on the west
+side of the park below the debris of the latter cliff-house
+occupation. Recent excavations and archeological surveys furnish
+conclusive evidence that the second agricultural people were most
+numerous in the area now included in this national park, and they
+constructed their roughly circular subterranean rooms not only in the
+sandy floor of the caves but also in the red soil on the comparatively
+level mesas separating the numerous canyons. Late Basket Maker House
+A, formerly known as Earth Lodge A, is an example of this early type
+of structure. Up to this time excavations have failed to uncover a
+single house structure of this type not destroyed by fire.
+
+These early inhabitants made basketry, excelled in the art of weaving,
+and it is believed were the first of the southwestern cultures to
+invent fired pottery. The course of this invention can be traced from
+the crude sun-dried vessel tempered with shredded cedar bark to the
+properly tempered and durable fired vessel.
+
+Then followed a long development in house structure, differing
+materially from this earlier type. Horizontal masonry replaced the
+cruder attempts of house-wall construction; rectangular or squarish
+forms replaced the somewhat circular earlier type; and gradually the
+single-room structures were grouped into ever-enlarging units which
+assumed varying forms of arrangement as the development progressed.
+The art of pottery making improved concurrently with the more complex
+house structure. This later period represents the intermediate era of
+development from the crude Late Basket Maker dwellings to the
+remarkable structures of the "Cliff House Culture."
+
+During this period of transition new people penetrated the area. The
+Basket Makers throughout the course of their development were
+consistently a long-headed group. The appearance of an alien group is
+recorded through the finding of skeletons with broad or round skulls
+and a deformed occiput. These new people, the Pueblos, took over,
+changed, and adapted to their own needs the material culture of the
+earlier inhabitants.
+
+The Pueblos were not content with the crude buildings and earth lodges
+that sufficed as homes during the earlier periods. For their
+habitations they shaped stones into regular forms, sometimes
+ornamenting them with designs, and laid them in mud mortar, one on
+another. Their masonry has resisted the destructive forces of the
+elements for centuries.
+
+The arrangement of houses in a cliff dwelling the size of Cliff Palace
+is characteristic and is intimately associated with the distribution
+of the social divisions of its former inhabitants.
+
+The population was composed of a number of units, possibly clans, each
+of which had its more or less distinct social organization, as
+indicated in the arrangement of the rooms. The rooms occupied by a
+clan were not necessarily connected, and generally neighboring rooms
+were distinguished from one another by their uses. Thus, each clan had
+its men's room, which is called the "kiva." Each clan had also a
+number of rooms, which may be styled the living rooms, and other
+enclosures for granaries. The corn was ground into meal in another
+room containing the metate set in a stone bin or trough. Sometimes the
+rooms had fireplaces, although these were generally in the plazas or
+on the housetops. All these different rooms, taken together,
+constituted the houses that belonged to one clan.
+
+The conviction that each kiva denotes a distinct social unit, as a
+clan or a family, is supported by a general similarity in the masonry
+of the kiva walls and that of adjacent houses ascribed to the same
+clan. From the number of these rooms it would appear that there were
+at least 23 social units or clans in Cliff Palace.
+
+Apparently there is no uniformity or prearranged plan in the
+distribution of the kivas. As religious belief and custom prescribed
+that these rooms should be subterranean, the greatest number were
+placed in front of the rectangular buildings where it was easiest to
+construct them. When necessary, because of limited space or other
+conditions, kivas were also built far back in the cave and enclosed by
+a double wall of masonry, with the walls being spaced about two and a
+half to three feet apart. The section between the walls was then
+backfilled with earth or rubble to the level of the kiva roof. In
+that way the ceremonial structure was artificially made subterranean,
+as their beliefs required.
+
+In addition to their ability as architects and masons, the cliff
+dwellers excelled in the art of pottery making and as agriculturists.
+Their decorated pottery--a black design on pearly white
+background--will compare favorably with pottery of the other cultures
+of the prehistoric Southwest.
+
+As their sense of beauty was keen, their art, though primitive, was
+true; rarely realistic, generally symbolic. Their decoration of cotton
+fabrics and ceramic work might be called beautiful, even when judged
+by our own standards. They fashioned axes, spear points, and rude
+tools of stone; they wove sandals, and made attractive basketry.
+
+The staple product of the cliff dwellers was corn; they also planted
+beans and squash. This limited selection was perhaps augmented by
+pinon nuts, yucca fruit, and other indigenous products found in
+abundance. Nevertheless, successful agriculture on the semiarid
+plateau of the Mesa Verde must have been dependent upon hard work and
+diligent efforts. Without running streams irrigation was impossible
+and success depended upon the ability of the farmer to save the crop
+through the dry period of June and early July.
+
+Rain at the right time was the all-important problem, and so
+confidently did they believe that they were dependent upon the gods to
+make the rain fall and the corn grow that their prayers for rain
+probably developed into their most important ceremonies.
+
+From Dr. A. E. Douglass's tree-ring chronology the earliest date so
+far established for the Mesa Verde cliff dwellings is 1066 A.D. and
+the latest date 1274 A.D. While it should not be imagined that these
+are the all-inclusive dates representing the total time of the
+cliff-dweller culture, it is interesting to note that this same
+tree-ring story tells us that a great drought commenced in 1276 and
+extended for a 24-year period to 1299. It may logically be presumed
+that the prehistoric population was gradually forced to withdraw from
+the area as the drought continued and to establish itself near more
+favorable sources of water supply.
+
+The so-called "Aztec ruin", which is situated on the banks of the
+Animas River in northwestern New Mexico, substantiates this hypothesis
+of the voluntary desertion of the cliff dwellings. In this ruin is
+found unmistakable evidence of a secondary occupation which has been
+definitely identified as a Mesa Verde settlement.
+
+It is thought that certain of the present-day Pueblo Indians are
+descendants, in part at least, of the cliff dwellers. Many of these
+Indian towns or pueblos still survive in the States of New Mexico and
+Arizona, the least modified of which are the villages of the Hopi,
+situated not far from the Grand Canyon National Park.
+
+
+
+
+                           FAUNA AND FLORA
+
+
+The fauna and flora of Mesa Verde should be particularly interesting
+to visitors. A combination of desert types from the lower arid country
+and mountain types, usually associated with regions of greater
+rainfall, occur here. The desert types are highly specialized to cope
+with their environment, particularly the plant and smaller animal
+life.
+
+Rocky Mountain mule deer are perhaps the only big game to be found
+abundantly in the park. They are often seen. Their numbers in the
+park, however, vary greatly according to the season. It is hoped to
+reintroduce the native species of Rocky Mountain bighorn as soon as
+range sufficient for the needs of this species has been added to the
+park. Occasionally a black bear is reported.
+
+Cougars, or mountain lions, and bobcats are part of the wildlife of
+the park and, strange to say, are occasionally seen in broad daylight.
+In other national parks these animals are rarely seen even by rangers.
+Coyotes and foxes are not as numerous as they once were on the mesa.
+As a result of the reduction of the predators, many of the smaller
+animals, such as rabbits, porcupines, and prairie dogs, have greatly
+increased. Rock and ground squirrels and the Colorado chipmunk are
+present in great numbers.
+
+More than 200 varieties of birds have been recorded. The species range
+from the majestic golden eagle, the largest bird, down to a variety of
+dainty humming birds.
+
+Game birds are represented by the dusky grouse. No wild turkeys are
+now to be found in the park, although it is believed that they were
+once here. The cliff dwellers domesticated the turkey, and their
+bones, feathers, and droppings are found in all the ruins. At present
+the reintroduction of wild turkeys to Mesa Verde is under
+consideration.
+
+   [Illustration: A YUCCA PLANT IN FRUIT (YUCCA BACCATA)]
+
+Among the interesting animal residents of Mesa Verde are the reptiles.
+The lizards are represented by the horned lizard, the western spotted
+or earless lizard, the collared lizard, the striped race runner, utas,
+rock swifts, and sagebrush swifts. Among the snakes are found the bull
+snake, the smooth green snake, the western striped racer, the rock
+snake, and the prairie rattlesnake. The latter, the only poisonous
+species on the Mesa Verde, lives among the rocks in the lower canyons.
+
+Mesa Verde receives considerably more rainfall than true desert areas,
+and vegetation typical of the upper sonoran or transition zone is
+moderately luxuriant. This heavy cover of vegetation accounts for its
+name, which means "Green Tableland." The dense forest consists of
+pinon pine, juniper, Douglas fir, and western yellow pine. The
+north-facing slopes and moist canyons contain quaking aspen and box
+elders, with willows and cottonwoods growing along the Mancos River.
+The heavy covering of scrub oak and mountain mahogany over the higher
+elevations of the park makes this region a most colorful one during
+the fall months.
+
+Among the fruit-bearing shrubs and trees are the service berry, choke
+cherry, Oregon grape, and elderberry.
+
+An abundance of wild flowers, varying in color with the growing
+season, include principally the Mariposa lily, Indian paint brush,
+pentstemon, lupine, wild sweet pea, and a great variety of the
+compositae family.
+
+
+
+
+                         HOW TO REACH THE PARK
+
+
+                            BY AUTOMOBILE
+
+Mesa Verde National Park may be reached by automobile from Denver,
+Colorado Springs, Pueblo, and other Colorado points. Through Pueblo
+one road leads to the park by way of Canon City, from where one may
+look down into the Royal Gorge, the deepest canyon in the world
+penetrated by a railroad and river. This road passes through Salida
+and on through Gunnison and Montrose, and then south through Ouray,
+Silverton, and Durango. This route passes through some of Colorado's
+most magnificent mountain scenery. Another road leads south from
+Pueblo through Walsenburg, across La Veta Pass, on through Alamosa,
+Del Norte, Pagosa Springs, and Durango, crossing Wolf Creek Pass en
+route. Both roads lead west from Durango to Mancos and on into the
+park.
+
+Motorists coming from Utah turn southward from Green River or
+Thompsons, crossing the Colorado River at Moab, proceeding southward
+to Monticello, thence eastward to Cortez, Colo., and the park.
+
+From Arizona and New Mexico points, Gallup, on the National Old Trails
+Road, is easily reached. The auto road leads north from Gallup through
+the Navajo Indian Reservation and a corner of the Ute Indian
+Reservation. At Shiprock Indian Agency, 98 miles north of Gallup, the
+San Juan River is crossed.
+
+
+                             BY RAILROAD
+
+Mesa Verde National Park is approached by rail both from the north and
+from the south: From the north via the Denver & Rio Grande Western
+Railroad main transcontinental line through Grand Junction, and branch
+lines through Montrose or Durango; from the south via the main
+transcontinental line of the Santa Fe Railroad through Gallup, N. Mex.
+
+The lines of the Denver & Rio Grande Western System traverse some of
+the most magnificent scenery of the Rocky Mountain region, a fact
+which gives the journey to Mesa Verde zestful travel flavor. Two
+main-line routes are provided to the Grand Junction gateway.
+
+The Royal Gorge Route goes through the Grand Canyon of the Arkansas,
+now spanned by an all-steel suspension bridge, 1,053 feet above the
+tracks in the Royal Gorge. This route crosses Tennessee Pass
+(altitude, 10,240 feet) and follows the Eagle River to its junction
+with the Colorado River at Dotsero, thence to Grand Junction.
+
+Service was inaugurated in June 1934 via the new James Peak Route of
+the D. & R. G. W., utilizing the Moffat Tunnel (altitude at apex,
+9,239 feet), 6.2-mile bore which pierces the Continental Divide 50
+miles west of Denver. This route follows the Colorado River from
+Fraser, high on the west slope of the continent, through Byers Canyon,
+Red Gorge, Gore Canyon, and Red Canyon, thence over the Dotsero
+Cut-off to Dotsero, where it joins the Royal Gorge Route. The new line
+saves 175 miles in the distance from Denver to Grand Junction.
+
+
+
+
+                         MOTOR TRANSPORTATION
+
+
+The Rio Grande Motor Way, Inc., of Grand Junction, Colo., from June 15
+to September 15, operates a daily motor service from Grand Junction,
+Delta, Montrose, Ouray, Silverton, Durango, and Mancos, Colo., to
+Spruce Tree Lodge in Mesa Verde National Park. This motor bus leaves
+Grand Junction at 6:45 a.m., via the scenic Chief Ouray Highway,
+stopping en route at other places mentioned, crossing beautiful Red
+Mountain Pass (altitude, 11,025 feet), arriving at Spruce Tree Lodge
+at 7 p.m. The stage leaves the park at 7 a.m., when there are
+passengers, arriving at Grand Junction at 5:40 p.m. The round trip
+fare between Grand Junction and the park is $18.65.
+
+Entrance to Mesa Verde from the south through Gallup, N. Mex., via the
+Navajo and Southern Ute Indian Reservations, is growing constantly in
+convenience and popularity. Hunter Clarkson, Inc., with headquarters
+at El Navajo Hotel, in Gallup, operates two-day round trip light sedan
+service, leaving Gallup at 8 a.m. and returning to Gallup at 6 p.m.
+the second day. This service permits the visiting of ruins in the
+park, in accordance with regular schedules, on the afternoon of the
+first day and on the morning of the second. The round trip fare per
+person (360 miles) is $25. A minimum of two passengers is required.
+Fare for children, five and under twelve, is $12.50. Meals and hotel
+accommodations en route or at the park are not included. El Navajo
+Hotel, operated by Fred Harvey, offers excellent overnight
+accommodations at Gallup.
+
+The Cannon Ball Stage operates bus service from Gallup, via Shiprock
+and Farmington, to Durango, where arrangements may be made with the
+Rio Grande Motor Way, Inc., for transportation to and from the park.
+
+The Cannon Ball Stage bus leaves Gallup each day at 11:30 a.m.,
+arriving at Durango at 4:45 p.m. Returning it leaves Durango at 8 a.m.
+and arrives at Gallup at 1 p.m. The fare from Gallup to Durango is $6
+one way and $10.80 for the round trip. The round trip fare to the park
+from Durango via the Rio Grande Motor Way, Inc., is $7.50.
+
+
+
+
+                            ADMINISTRATION
+
+
+The Mesa Verde National Park is under the exclusive control of the
+National Park Service of the Department of the Interior, which is
+authorized to make rules and regulations and to establish such service
+as it may deem necessary for the care and management of the park and
+the preservation from injury or spoliation of the ruins and other
+remains of prehistoric man within the limits of the reservation.
+
+The National Park Service is represented in the actual administration
+of the park by a superintendent, who is assisted in the protection and
+interpretation of its natural and prehistoric features by a
+well-trained staff. The present superintendent is Jesse L. Nusbaum,
+and his post-office address is Mesa Verde National Park, Colo.
+
+The park season extends from May 15 to October 15, complete lodging
+and food accommodations and automobile stage service being available
+from June 15 to September 15. Informal lodging and meal accommodations
+are provided during the remainder of the park season.
+
+   [Illustration: HEADQUARTERS AREA]
+
+Exclusive jurisdiction over the park was ceded to the United States by
+act of the Colorado Legislature approved May 2, 1927, and accepted by
+Congress by act approved April 25, 1928. There is a United States
+Commissioner at park headquarters.
+
+Telegrams sent prepaid to Mancos, Colo., will be phoned to addressee
+at park office. The post-office address for parties within the park is
+Mesa Verde National Park, Colo.
+
+
+
+
+                         EDUCATIONAL SERVICE
+
+
+Educational service, carefully planned to provide each visitor with an
+opportunity to interpret and appreciate the features of the Mesa
+Verde, is provided, without charge, by the Government. This service is
+directed by the park naturalist, who is assisted by a group of ranger
+naturalists.
+
+
+                       GUIDED TRIPS TO THE RUINS
+
+During the season visitors are accompanied from the park museum to the
+various ruins by competent ranger naturalists. These men, well trained
+in the social and biological sciences, make it their duty to help the
+visitor understand the natural and archeological features of the Mesa
+Verde. Because of the need of protecting the ruins and the somewhat
+devious trails by which they are reached, no one will be allowed to
+enter any ruin except Spruce Tree House unless accompanied by a ranger
+naturalist.
+
+
+                            CAMPFIRE TALKS
+
+Each evening at 8 o'clock informal talks are given at the campfire
+circle near park headquarters. The superintendent, the park
+naturalist, and members of the educational staff give talks on the
+archeology of the region. Visiting scientists, writers, lecturers, and
+noted travelers often contribute to the evening's entertainment. After
+the talks six of the best singers and dancers among the Navajo Indians
+employed in the park can usually be persuaded, by modest voluntary
+contributions on the part of the visitors, to give some of their songs
+and dances.
+
+
+                              PARK MUSEUM
+
+The park museum houses very important and comprehensive collections of
+excavated cliff-dweller and basket maker material, as well as
+restricted collections of arts and crafts of modern Indians of the
+Southwest. These collections have been assembled through the conduct
+of excavations within the park and through loan or gift of materials
+by park friends or cooperating institutions. This material is arranged
+in a definite chronological order.
+
+By following through from the earliest culture to those of the present
+time a clear and concise picture of the former material cultures of
+the Mesa Verde and surrounding regions may be obtained.
+
+One room has been set aside for natural history exhibits exemplifying
+the geology, fauna, and flora of this peculiar mesa-canyon country.
+
+
+                          REFERENCE LIBRARY
+
+A part of the museum is given over to an excellent reference library
+and reading room. This library consists of books on archeology and
+related natural history subjects pertaining to this interesting
+region. Visitors have access to these books on application to the
+museum assistant who is in charge. These books may not be removed from
+the reading room.
+
+
+
+
+                        FREE PUBLIC CAMPGROUNDS
+
+
+The new public campgrounds are located in the pinons and junipers on
+the rim of Spruce Canyon only a few hundred feet from Spruce Tree
+Lodge and park headquarters. Individual party campsites have been
+cleared, and a protecting screen of shrubbery contributes to their
+privacy. Each site is provided with a fireplace, a table with seats,
+and a large level place for a tent. Good water has been piped to
+convenient places, and cut wood is provided without charge. Toilet
+facilities, showers, and laundry tubs are also provided. A ranger is
+detailed for duty in the campgrounds.
+
++Leave your campsite clean when you have finished with it.+
+
++Do not drive cars on, or walk over, the shrubbery.+
+
+The campground facilities at Mesa Verde have been greatly improved and
+expanded through the work of the Civilian Conservation Corps.
+
+Provisions for campers are obtainable at reasonable prices in any of
+the nearby towns. Groceries, gas, and oil can also be purchased at
+Spruce Tree Lodge.
+
+
+
+
+                      HORSEBACK AND HIKING TRIPS
+
+
+Visitors who view the Mesa Verde from the automobile roads gain but an
+inkling of the weird beauty and surprises that this area holds for the
+more adventurous. Horseback and hiking trips along the rim rocks and
+into the canyons lead to spectacular ruins not seen from any of the
+roads. Such great ruins as Spring House, Long House, Kodak House, Jug
+House, Mug House, and Step House, as well as all of the ruins in the
+more remote canyons, can be reached by trail only. Each turn of the
+trail reveals entrancing vistas of rugged canyons, sheer cliffs, great
+caves, hidden ruins, distant mountains, tree-covered mesas, and open
+glades.
+
+In making these trips it is important that the hiker prepare himself
+with proper footwear, as the trails are very precipitous in places.
+
+
+
+
+                     HOSPITAL AND MEDICAL SERVICE
+
+
+There is an excellent hospital at park headquarters where medical and
+surgical service is provided to care for all emergency cases. Prices
+are regulated by the Secretary of the Interior.
+
+
+
+
+                      ACCOMMODATIONS AND EXPENSES
+
+
+At Spruce Tree Lodge, situated among the pinons and junipers
+over-looking Spruce, Spruce Tree, and Navajo Canyons, cottages may be
+rented at prices ranging from $1.25 to $2 a person per day and
+comfortable floored tents at 50 cents to $1 per day. Meals table
+d'hote are served at the following reasonable prices: Breakfast, 50
+cents to $1; luncheon, 55 cents to 85 cents; and dinner, 75 cents to
+$1.15. A la carte service is also available. Children: No charge under
+3; half rates from 3 to 8. The official season for Spruce Tree Lodge
+is from June 15 to September 15.
+
+The company also operates, for visitors who do not care to use their
+own cars or are without private transportation, automobile service to
+various ruins for $1 each round trip. A special evening trip to Park
+Point to see the spectacular sunset from the highest point in the park
+is $1.50 per person.
+
+                     OUT-OF-SEASON ACCOMMODATIONS
+
+From May 15 to June 15 and from September 15 to October 15, cabins may
+be rented from the caretaker of Spruce Tree Lodge at the regular
+rates. Meals, with breakfast 50 cents, and luncheon and dinner 75
+cents, may be had at the Government dining hall. In nearby towns, less
+than an hour's drive from park headquarters, accommodations are also
+obtainable.
+
+                    PACK AND SADDLE ACCOMMODATIONS
+
+Saddle horses, especially trained for mountain work, may be rented
+from the Mesa Verde Pack & Saddle Co. For short trips the rental is $1
+for the first hour and 50 cents for each additional hour. For short
+1-day trips for three persons or more the cost is $3.50 each; two
+persons $4 each; one person $6. Longer 1-day trips for experienced
+riders are available at $2 per person more than the rate for the
+shorter 1-day trips. All prices include guide service, and a slicker,
+canteen, and lunch bag are provided with each horse. Arrangements
+should be made the evening before the trip is taken.
+
+   [Illustration: A PARTY OFF FOR THE LESS-FREQUENTED TRAILS]
+
+                              PACK TRIPS
+
+Nonscheduled pack trips to the more remote sections of the park may be
+arranged (2 days' notice is required) at prices ranging from $9 a day
+each for parties of five or more to $15 a day for one person. This
+includes a guide-cook and furnishes each person with one saddle horse,
+one pack horse, bed, tent, canteen, slicker, and subsistence for the
+trip. Three days is the minimum time for which these trips can be
+arranged.
+
+
+
+
+                              REFERENCES[3]
+
+
+ CHAPIN, F. H. The Land of the Cliff Dwellers.[4] W. B. Clarke & Co.,
+     Boston, Mass. 1892. 187 pages.
+
+ DOUGLASS, DR. ANDREW ELLICOTT. The Secret of the Southwest Solved by
+     the Talkative Tree Rings, in National Geographic Magazine,
+     December 1929.[4]
+
+ FARIS, JOHN T. Roaming the Rockies. Farrar & Rinehart, Inc., New
+     York. 1930. Illustrated. 333 pages. Mesa Verde on pp. 193-203.
+
+ FEWKES, J. WALTER:
+
+   Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Spruce Tree House.[4]
+     (Bureau of American Ethnology Bull. 41, 1909. 57 pages,
+     illustrated.) (Out of print.)
+
+   Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Cliff Palace.[4]
+     (Bureau of American Ethnology Bull. 51, 1911. 82 pages,
+     illustrated.) (Out of print.)
+
+   Excavation and Repair of Sun Temple, Mesa Verde National Park.[4]
+     (Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 1916. 32
+     pages, illustrated.) (Out of print.)
+
+   A Prehistoric Mesa Verde Pueblo and Its People.[4] (Report of the
+     Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 1917. 26 pages.) (Out of
+     print.)
+
+   Prehistoric Villages, Castles, and Towers of Southwestern
+     Colorado.[4] (Bureau of American Ethnology Bull. 70. 1919. 79
+     pages text, 33 plates.)
+
+ GILLMOR, FRANCES, and WETHERILL, LOUISA Wade. Traders to the
+     Navahos.[4] Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston and New York. 1934.
+     Illustrated, 265 pages. Describes discovery of cliff dwellings by
+     Wetherill brothers.
+
+ HOLMES, WILLIAM H. Report on Ancient Ruins in Southwestern Colorado
+     Examined During Summers of 1875 and 1876. (Geological and
+     Geographical Survey of the Territories (Hayden), Tenth Report,
+     1876, pp. 381-408, illustrated.)
+
+ ICKES, ANNA WILMARTH. Mesa Land.[4] Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston and
+     New York, 1933. Illustrated. 228 pages. Southwest in general. Mesa
+     Verde, pp. 100-101.
+
+ INGERSOLL, ERNEST. Reprint, first article. Mancos River Ruins, New
+     York Tribune. Nov. 3, 1874; in Indian Notes, vol. 5, no. 2, April
+     1928, pp. 183-206, Museum of American Indian, Heye Foundation, New
+     York.[4]
+
+ JACKSON, W. H. The Pioneer Photographer.[4] World Book Co., 1929.
+
+ JEFFERS, LE ROY. The Call of the Mountains. 282 pages, illustrated.
+     Dodd, Mead & Co., 1922. Mesa Verde on pp. 96-111.
+
+ KANE, J. F. Picturesque America. 1935. 256 pp., illustrated.
+     Published by Frederick Gumbrecht, Brooklyn, N. Y. Mesa Verde on
+     pp. 121-124.
+
+ KIDDER, ALFRED VINCENT:
+
+   An introduction to the Study of Southwestern Archaeology.[4] 300
+     pages, illustrated. Yale University Press, 1924. Mesa Verde on pp.
+     58-68.
+
+   Beautiful America--Our National Parks. 1924. 160 pages pictorial
+     views. Beautiful America Publishing Corporation, New York City.
+     Mesa Verde views pp. 58-68.
+
+ MILLS, ENOS A. Your National Parks. 1917. 532 pages, illustrated.
+     Mesa Verde National Park on pp. 161-174; 488-490.
+
+ MORRIS, ANN AXTELL. Digging in the Southwest.[4] Doubleday Doran
+     Co., 1933. Readable account of the trade secrets of a southwestern
+     archeologist.
+
+ NORDENSKIOeLD, G. The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde.[4] 1893. 171
+     pages, illustrated.
+
+ NUSBAUM, DERIC. Deric in Mesa Verde.[4] 1926. Illustrated. G. P.
+     Putnam's Sons. Knickerbocker Press.
+
+ ROLFE, MARY A. Our National Parks.[4] Book One. A supplementary
+     reader on the national parks for the fifth and sixth grade
+     students. Benj. H. Sanborn & Co. 1927. Illustrated. Mesa Verde on
+     pp. 221-234.
+
+ YARD, ROBERT STERLING:
+
+   The Top of the Continent. 1917. 244 pages, illustrated. Mesa Verde
+     National Park on pp. 44-62.
+
+   The Book of the National Parks. 1926. 444 pages, illustrated. Mesa
+     Verde National Park on pp. 284-304.
+
+
+                               WHAT TO DO
+
+
++Things to See on Way from Park Entrance to Headquarters+
+
+ 3.5 miles--Top of first grade--Mancos Valley and La Plata Mountains.
+
+ 5 miles--Knife Edge Road--Montezuma Valley and Sleeping Ute Mountain.
+
+ 10.5 miles--Scenic road to Park Point, highest elevation within Mesa
+     Verde National Park, 8,572 feet above sea level; 2,200 feet above
+     the Montezuma Valley. Views into four States--Colorado, New
+     Mexico, Arizona, and Utah.
+
+ 16 miles--Pueblo III ruins on top of mesa--Far View House Ruin, Pipe
+     Shrine House Ruin, Far View Tower Ruin.
+
+ 18.5 miles--Cedar Tree Tower Ruin--road branches off to left.
+
+ 20 miles--Park headquarters. Park ranger will meet visitors' cars and
+     give information.
+
+
++Things to Do While on the Mesa Verde+
+
+ _Motor caravans to ruins--Daily. Use your own car. No charge for
+     ranger service_
+
+ 8 a.m.--Earth Lodge A, Square Tower House, Little Long House, Sun
+     Point, Fire Temple, Sun Temple. Return 11:15 a.m. Distance
+     6 1/2 miles.
+
+ 10 a.m.--A shortened trip of morning route to accommodate late
+     comers. Return 11:15 a.m.
+
+ 1:30 p.m.--Cliff Palace, Rim Drive, Balcony House. Return 4:15 p.m.
+     Distance 7 miles.
+
+ 3 p.m.--A shortened trip of the 1:30 route to accommodate late
+     comers. Does not go through Cliff Palace but views this ruin from
+     the top of the mesa. Return 4:30 p.m.
+
+ _Motor caravan to park point--Daily. Use your own car_
+
+ 6:30 or 7 p.m.--Departure is timed to arrive at Park Point to view
+     colorful sunset. Ranger in charge will discuss the flora, geology,
+     and scenic points. Distance 21 miles.
+
+ _Campfire lecture--Daily_
+
+ 8 p.m.--Campfire circle at park headquarters. Archeological story of
+     the Southwest followed by Ceremonial dances by Navajo Indians at
+     about 9 p.m.
+
+
++Things to Do--Not on Regular Schedule+
+
+ Museum--Open from 8 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. A splendid collection of
+     material from the cliff ruins and other sections of the Southwest.
+
+ Community building--A display of cut wild flowers. Porch, with
+     comfortable chairs, overlooks Spruce Tree Ruin. Open at all times.
+
+ Spruce Tree Ruin--Below park headquarters. May be visited at your
+     leisure without guide. Ranger on duty in this ruin for
+     information.
+
+ Nature trail--The path to Spruce Tree Ruin has been prepared with a
+     series of signs explaining the flora and rock formations.
+
+ Horseback trips--Splendid trails lead in all directions. Large,
+     unexcavated ruins, magnificent canyons and mesas off the beaten
+     path unfold the charm of this primitive region. Rates are very
+     reasonable.
+
+ Hikes--To any section of the park can be arranged for with the park
+     naturalist. If sufficient numbers enroll for such hikes, a
+     naturalist guide will be provided.
+
+
++Accommodations+
+
+ At park headquarters, 20 miles from entrance. SPRUCE TREE
+     LODGE--Cabins, tents, meals, beverages, campers' supplies,
+     and curios. FREE GOVERNMENT CAMPGROUND--Firewood and water
+     furnished.
+
+
+   [Illustration: AREAS ADMINISTERED BY THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE]
+
+
+     *     *     *     *     *     *     *
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+   [1] Approximate dating. Exact dating by the methods
+          of tree-ring chronology is yet to be accomplished.
+
+   [2] The Secret of the Southwest Solved by Talkative Tree Rings,
+          by A. E. Douglass: National Geographic Magazine.
+          December 1929.
+
+   [3] For complete bibliography apply at the park museum or
+          write to the Superintendent, Mesa Verde National Park.
+
+   [4] Copies in Mesa Verde Museum Library.
+
+
+     *     *     *     *     *     *     *
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+
+With the exception of the following items, the text presented here
+matches the printed booklet which may include some inconsistancies
+with modern usage that were left unchanged:
+
+A. Rearranged Text:
+    Footnotes moved to the end of the text.
+
+B. Typographical Corrections:
+    Page ii  - missing period after "(4,192 feet)"
+    Page iii - missing period after "Visitors"
+    Page 2   - comma moved out of quotes "The Mesa Verde region",
+
+C. Emphasis Notation:
+    _Text_  Italics
+    +Text+  Bold + Italics
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, by Anonymous
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MESA VERDE NATIONAL PARK, COLORADO ***
+
+***** This file should be named 35936.txt or 35936.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/9/3/35936/
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Tom Cosmas and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/35936.zip b/35936.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..05b4574
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35936.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c77950a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #35936 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/35936)