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+Project Gutenberg's Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, by Anonymous
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado
+
+Author: Anonymous
+
+Release Date: April 22, 2011 [EBook #35936]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MESA VERDE NATIONAL PARK, COLORADO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Tom Cosmas and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Mesa Verde
+
+ [COLORADO]
+
+ National Park
+
+
+
+ United States Department of the Interior
+ _Harold L. Ickes, Secretary_
+
+ NATIONAL PARK SERVICE
+ _Arno B. Cammerer, Director_
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: DOI Logo]
+
+
+
+ UNITED STATES
+ GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
+ WASHINGTON: 1937
+
+
+
+ +----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+ |+--------------------------------------------------------------------+|
+ || Events ||
+ || ||
+ || OF HISTORICAL IMPORTANCE ||
+ |+--------------------------------------------------------------------+|
+ || | ||
+ || 1st century[1] | The earliest occupation of Cliff Palace cave was ||
+ || B.C. or | probably before, or immediately following, the ||
+ || A.D. | beginning of the Christian era. These earliest ||
+ || | occupants, known to scientists as Basket ||
+ || | Makers, were the first agricultural Indians of ||
+ || | the Southwest. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 4th to 7th[1] | By the beginning of the fourth century A.D., the ||
+ || centuries | early agriculturists were developing the art of ||
+ || A.D. | pottery making. Later, their semisubterranean ||
+ || | homes were spread widely over the Mesa Verde. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 7th to | During the three or four centuries preceding 1000 ||
+ || 10th[1] | A.D., the Pueblo Culture on Mesa Verde was ||
+ || centuries | developing from modest beginnings toward its ||
+ || A.D. | classical stage, which culminated in the ||
+ || | building of the great cliff dwelling. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1066 | Earliest date established for large Mesa Verde ||
+ || | cliff dwellings (Beam section from Mug House.) ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1073-1273 | Construction of Cliff Palace. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1276 | Beginning of 24-year drought, an important factor ||
+ || | in forcing the cliff dwellers from the Mesa ||
+ || | Verde. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1776 | Expedition of Padre Silvestre Velez de Escalante ||
+ || | to southwestern Colorado. Party camped on the ||
+ || | Mancos River near the base of the Mesa Verde. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1859 | Ascent of the north escarpment of Mesa Verde by ||
+ || | Capt. J. N. Macomb, of the United States Army, ||
+ || | and members of his party of geologists. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1874 | Discovery of the ruins in the Mancos Canyon by ||
+ || | W. H. Jackson, United States Geological Survey. ||
+ || | Party harrassed by Ute Indians. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1888 | Discovery of Cliff Palace and other major ruins ||
+ || | by Richard Wetherill and Charlie Mason. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1891 | First organized archeological expedition to Mesa ||
+ || | Verde, under direction of Baron G. Nordenskiöld.||
+ || | ||
+ || 1906 | Mesa Verde National Park created June 29. ||
+ || | ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1907 | Excavation of Spruce Tree House by Dr. J. Walter ||
+ || | Fewkes, of Smithsonian Institution. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1909 | Excavation of Cliff Palace. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1911 | Excavation and repair of Balcony House by Jesse ||
+ || | L. Nusbaum. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1913 | First entrance road completed. First automobile in||
+ || | Spruce Tree Camp. Extension of park boundaries ||
+ || | to include notable ruins and archeological ||
+ || | remains. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1914 | Construction of first wagon road from Spruce Tree ||
+ || | Camp to principal cliff dwellings. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1915 | Sun Temple excavated by Dr. Fewkes. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1916 | Far View House excavated by Dr. Fewkes. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1917 | First Government-constructed trails to Spring ||
+ || | House and Soda Canyon. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1918 | First camp accommodations established at Spruce ||
+ || | Tree Camp. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1919 | Square Tower House excavated. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1921 | Establishment of superintendent's office and home ||
+ || | at park headquarters. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1925 | First unit of park museum constructed by donated ||
+ || | funds. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1926 | Excavation in Step House Cave and discovery of ||
+ || | its occupation by Basket Maker III people more ||
+ || | than 3 centuries in advance of cliff dweller ||
+ || | occupation. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1928 | Exclusive jurisdiction of park tendered to the ||
+ || | United States and accepted by act of Congress ||
+ || | April 25. ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1934 | Completion of deep water well (4,192 feet). ||
+ || | ||
+ || 1936 | Addition to park museum completed. ||
+ |+--------------------------------------------------------------------+|
+ +----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+ RULES AND REGULATIONS
+
+
+ · Briefed ·
+
+
+A complete copy of the rules and regulations for governing the park
+may be seen at the office of the superintendent.
+
++Automobiles.+--Secure automobile permit, fee $1 per car. Speed
+limit 35 miles per hour on entrance highway, 20 miles per hour in
+headquarters area and on ruin roads. Drive carefully; free wheeling is
+prohibited within the park.
+
++Fires.+--Confine fires to designated places. Extinguish completely
+before leaving camp, even for temporary absences. Do not guess your
+fire is out--KNOW IT.
+
++Firewood.+--Use only the wood that is stacked and marked "firewood"
+near your campsite. By all means do not use your ax on any standing
+tree or strip bark from the junipers.
+
++Grounds.+--Burn all combustible rubbish before leaving your camp.
+Do not throw papers, cans, or other refuse on the ground or over the
+canyon rim. Use the incinerators which are placed for this purpose.
+
++Hiking.+--Do not venture away from the headquarters area unless
+accompanied by a guide or after first having secured permission from a
+duly authorized park officer.
+
++Hunting.+--Hunting is prohibited within the park. This area is a
+sanctuary for all wildlife.
+
++Noise.+--Be quiet in camp after others have gone to bed. Many
+people come here for rest.
+
++Park Rangers.+--The rangers are here to help and advise you as well
+as to enforce regulations. When in doubt, ask a ranger.
+
++Ruins and Structures.+--Do not mark, disturb, or injure in any way
+the ruins or any of the buildings, signs, or other properties within
+the park.
+
++Trees, Flowers, and Animals.+--Do not carve initials upon or pull
+the bark from any logs or trees. Flowers may not be picked unless
+written permission is obtained from the superintendent or park
+naturalist. Do not harm or frighten any of the wild animals or birds
+within the park. We wish to protect them for your enjoyment.
+
++Visitors.+--Register and secure permit at the park entrance.
+Between travel seasons, registration and permit are arranged for at
+park headquarters.
+
+
+
+
+ Contents
+
+
+ Page
+
+ The Ruins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
+ Spruce Tree House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
+ Cliff Palace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
+ Balcony House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
+ Square Tower House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
+ Oak Tree House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
+ Sun Set House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
+ Sun Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
+ New Fire-House Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
+ Cedar Tree Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
+ Far View House, a Mesa Verde Pueblo . . . . . . . . . 21
+ Earth Lodge A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
+ Unexcavated Ruins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
+
+ Dates for Mesa Verde Ruins Established by Tree-Ring
+ Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
+
+ Discoveries of Recent Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
+
+ Prehistoric Inhabitants of the Mesa Verde . . . . . . . . 28
+
+ Fauna and Flora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
+
+ How to Reach the Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
+ By Automobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
+ By Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
+
+ Motor Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
+
+ Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
+
+ Educational Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
+ Guided Trips to the Ruins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
+ Campfire Talks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
+ Park Museum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
+ Reference Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
+
+ Free Public Camp Grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
+
+ Horseback and Hiking Trips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
+
+ Hospital and Medical Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
+
+ Accommodations and Expenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
+
+ References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
+
+
+ [Illustration: _Grant photo._
+ COMPETENT RANGER NATURALISTS ACCOMPANY VISITORS TO THE RUINS]
+
+
+
+
+ MESA VERDE
+
+ _National Park_
+
+
+ · SEASON FROM MAY 15 TO OCTOBER 15 ·
+
+
+The mesa verde, or green mesa, so-called because its juniper and piñon
+trees give it a verdant tone, is 15 miles long by 8 miles wide. Rising
+abruptly from the valley on the north side, its top slopes gradually
+southward to the high cliffs bordering the canyon of the Mancos River
+on the south. Into this valley open a number of large high-walled
+canyons through which occasionally, in times of heavy rain, raging
+torrents of water flow into the Mancos. In the shelter of the caves
+that have been eroded in the sides of these canyons are some of the
+best-preserved cliff dwellings in America, built many centuries ago by
+a tribe of peace-loving Indians who prized the security offered by the
+almost inaccessible caves. In order to preserve these cliff dwellings
+Mesa Verde National Park was created, but they are not the only
+attractions in the area. In the winter the park is closed to travel by
+deep snow, but in the early spring the blanket of snow is replaced by
+a mantle of flowers that change with the seasons, and to the story of
+the prehistoric inhabitants is added an absorbing story of nature that
+is peculiar to this mesa and canyon country.
+
+"The Mesa Verde region", writes Arthur Chapman, "has many attractions
+besides its ruins. It is a land of weird beauty. The canyons which
+seam the mesa, all of which lead toward the distant Mancos River, are,
+in many cases, replicas of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. While the
+summer days are warm, the nights are cool, and the visitor should
+bring plenty of wraps besides the clothing and shoes necessary for the
+work of climbing around among the trails. It is a country for active
+footwork, just as it was in the days of the cliff dwellers themselves.
+But when one has spent a few days among the cedars and piñon pines of
+the Mesa Verde, well named Green Table by the Spaniards of early days,
+he becomes an enthusiast and will be found among those who return
+again and again to this most unique of national parks to study its
+mysteries and its beauties from all angles."
+
+The northern edge of the mesa terminates in a precipitous bluff,
+averaging 2,000 feet above the Montezuma Valley. The general slope of
+the surface is to the south, and as the main entrance highway meanders
+back and forth in heading each smaller canyon, many times skirting the
+very brink of the great northern fault line, tremendous expanses of
+diversified terrain are brought into view, first in Colorado and Utah,
+then in Arizona and New Mexico.
+
+A new scenic road approximately 1 mile in length branches from the
+main highway at a point 10.2 miles beyond the entrance checking
+station and ascends to the crest of Park Point, the highest part of
+the Mesa Verde National Park, which attains an elevation of 8,572 feet
+above sea level.
+
+From this majestic prominence the great Montezuma Valley, dotted with
+artificial lakes and fertile fields, appears as from an airplane,
+while to the north are seen the Rico Mountains and the Lone Cone of
+Colorado, and to the east, the La Plata Mountains. To the west the La
+Sals, the Blues, and Bears Ears, of Utah, dominate the horizon. Some
+of these landmarks are more than 115 miles distant. Southward numerous
+deep canyons, in which the more important cliff dwellings are found,
+subdivide the Mesa Verde into many long, narrow tonguelike mesas. The
+dark purplish canyon of the Mancos River is visible in the middle
+foreground, and beyond, above the jagged outline of the mesa to the
+south, the Navajo Reservation, surrounded by the deep-blue Carrizos of
+Arizona and the Lukachukai and Tunichas of New Mexico.
+
+In the midst of this great mountain-enclosed, sandy plain, which, seen
+from the mesa, resembles a vast inland sea surrounded by dark,
+forbidding mountains, rises Ship Rock (45 miles distant), a great,
+jagged shaft of igneous rock, 1,860 feet high, which appears for all
+the world like a great "windjammer" under full sail. Toward evening
+the illusion is perfect.
+
+The distance from Park Point to Spruce Tree Camp, the park
+headquarters, is 10.5 miles. The entire road from the park entrance to
+headquarters, 20 miles, is gravel surfaced and oil treated, full
+double width, and cars may pass at any point thereon.
+
+Although there are hundreds of cliff dwellings within the Mesa Verde
+National Park, the more important are located in Rock, Long, Wickiup,
+Navajo, Spruce, Soda, Moccasin, and tributary canyons. Surface ruins
+of a different type are widely distributed over the narrow mesas
+separating the numerous canyons. A vast area surrounding the park
+contains more or less important ruins of these early inhabitants, most
+important and easiest of access from the park being the Aztec Ruins
+and Chaco Canyon National Monuments, New Mexico; the Yucca House
+National Monument, Colorado; and the Hovenweep National Monument,
+Colorado-Utah.
+
+ [Illustration: ROAD MAP OF MESA VERDE NATIONAL PARK,
+ SHOWING IMPORTANT RUINS ON CHAPIN MESA ONLY]
+
+
+
+
+ THE RUINS
+
+
+Although the Spaniards were in the Mesa Verde region as early as 1765
+and the Americans as early as 1859, it was not until 1872 that the
+first settlement was made. In that year the Mancos Valley, lying at
+the foot of the Mesa Verde, was settled, but because of the fact that
+the mesa itself was a stronghold of the warlike Ute Indians, many
+years passed before the cliff dwellings were discovered.
+
+The ruins in the Mancos Canyon were discovered as early as 1874 when
+W. H. Jackson, who led a Government party, found there many small
+dwellings broken down by the weather. The next year he was followed by
+Prof. W. H. Holmes, later chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
+who drew attention to the remarkable stone towers also found in this
+region. Had either of the explorers followed up the side canyons of
+the Mancos they would have then discovered ruins which, in the words
+of Baron Gustav Nordenskiöld, the talented Swedish explorer, are "so
+magnificent that they surpass anything of the kind known in the United
+States."
+
+The largest cliff ruin, known as Cliff Palace, was discovered by
+Richard Wetherill and Charlie Mason while hunting cattle one December
+day in 1888. Coming to the edge of a small canyon they first caught
+sight of a village under the overhanging cliff on the opposite side,
+placed like a picture in its rocky frame. In their enthusiasm they
+thought it was a palace. With the same enthusiasm the visitors of
+today involuntarily express their pleasure and surprise as they first
+view this spectacular ruin.
+
+Later these two men explored this ruin and gave it the name of Cliff
+Palace, an unfortunate designation, for it is in no respect a palace,
+but a community house, containing more than 200 living rooms, former
+abodes of families, and 23 ceremonial rooms or kivas. They also
+discovered other community dwellings, one of which was called Spruce
+Tree House, from a large spruce tree, since cut down, growing in front
+of it. This had eight ceremonial rooms and probably housed 300
+inhabitants.
+
+The findings of these two ruins did not complete the discoveries of
+ancient buildings in the Mesa Verde; many other ruins were found by
+the Wetherill brothers and other early explorers. They mark the oldest
+and most congested region of the park, but the whole number of
+archeological sites may reach into the thousands.
+
+Only a few of the different types of ruins that have already been
+excavated, repaired, and made accessible to the visitor are considered
+herein. This excavation and repair was the work of the late Dr. J.
+Walter Fewkes, formerly chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
+with the exception of Balcony House, which was done by Jesse L.
+Nusbaum. Hundreds of sites await scientific investigation, being
+accessible now only on foot or horseback.
+
+
+ SPRUCE TREE HOUSE
+
+Spruce Tree House, located in a large cave just across Spruce Tree
+Canyon from the museum, has been made readily accessible by a short
+winding trail. This is the only excavated cliff dwelling in the park
+that may be visited without going on a conducted tour, and is open to
+the public at all times. A ranger is always on duty to protect the
+ruin from vandalism and to give information to the visitors.
+
+ [Illustration: SPRUCE TREE HOUSE, A COMMUNITY DWELLING OF 114 ROOMS]
+
+ GENERAL DESCRIPTION
+
+The total length of Spruce Tree House is 216 feet, and its greatest
+width is 89 feet. During the excavation of the ruin in 1907, Dr.
+Fewkes counted 8 ceremonial rooms, or kivas, and 114 rooms that had
+been used for living, storage, and other purposes. At least 14 seemed
+to have been storage and burial rooms so that probably not more than
+100 were used as dwellings. If it is considered that a family occupied
+each room, the population would have been large, but it is doubtful if
+all of the rooms were occupied at one time. An average of 2 or 3
+persons to the room, making a total of not more than 300 for the
+entire village, would no doubt be a fair estimate.
+
+Two hundred feet north of Spruce Tree House the canyon comes to an
+abrupt box end. A splendid spring flows from the base of the sandstone
+cliff, and it was to this spring that the cliff-dweller women went for
+water carrying it back to their homes in their big water jars. At the
+south end of the cave a trail, consisting of small toeholds cut in the
+cliff, led to the mesa top above. This trail was used by the men as
+they went to their mesa-top fields, where they raised corn, beans, and
+squash, and by the hunters as they went in search of deer and mountain
+sheep that lived in the forests above.
+
+ LIVING ROOMS
+
+The rooms of Spruce Tree House are divided into two groups by a court
+or street running from the front to the back of the cave, at a point
+just south of the center of the village. The majority of the rooms are
+north of this street, and some of the walls show the finest work in
+the entire structure. The stones were well shaped and smoothed; the
+mud mortar was carefully worked into the crevices and compressed with
+thin stone wedges. Over many of the walls was spread a thin coat of
+reddish plaster, often decorated with paintings. These rooms, standing
+as when they were constructed 700 years ago, are mute evidence of the
+cleverness of the masons who built them.
+
+Spruce Tree House has more walls that reach the top of the cave than
+any other ruin in the park. All through the central part the walls
+were three stories high, the top of the cave serving as the roof of
+the upper rooms. One-and two-story structures usually required a
+ceiling of heavy rafters, running lengthwise of the rooms. These were
+covered with a crosswise layer of small poles and withes as a support
+for an average 3-inch floor of clay. Very often a small hatchway was
+left in one corner of the ceiling. A short ladder leaning in the corner
+of the lower room gave access to the room above.
+
+Very few of the houses were equipped with fire pits. Most of the
+cooking was done in the open courts. Small fire pits can be found
+along the walls and in the corners of the courts and passageways.
+
+ CEREMONIAL ROOMS OR KIVAS
+
+Spruce Tree House has eight of the circular, subterranean rooms that
+were set aside for ceremonial purposes. Similar rooms are still in use
+in the present day Pueblo Indian villages and are known as kivas.
+
+Usually the kiva roofs have collapsed, but in Square Tower House two
+kivas have the original roofs almost intact. Following the plan of
+these original roofs, three of the kivas in Spruce Tree House have
+been reroofed. Details of construction may be noted by descending the
+ladder into one of these restored kivas.
+
+Kivas in the Mesa Verde are always underground and generally circular
+in shape. The average diameter is 12 to 13 feet and the depth is such
+that the roof would clear a man's head. At a point about 3 feet above
+the floor is a narrow ledge running entirely around the room. This
+ledge is known as the banquette and its exact use is unknown. On this
+ledge were built six stone buttresses or pilasters, 2 to 3 feet in
+height, which served as roof supports. Short beams were placed from
+pilaster to pilaster around the room, and additional series of beams
+were laid to span the angles formed by the lower series. Normally five
+or six sets of beams extended this cribwork almost to the ground
+level. Horizontal beams were then placed across the top and the whole
+structure was covered with bark and earth. A small square hole in the
+center of the roof provided an entrance which also served for a smoke
+vent.
+
+On the south side of the kiva the banquette is wider between two of
+the pilasters than anywhere else around the room. This deep recess is
+often referred to as an altar, although its exact use is not known.
+Just back of the wall of this deep recess is a vertical shaft that
+leads down to meet a horizontal shaft that opens into the kiva just
+above the floor. This is the ventilator shaft. The fire, burning in
+the small pit in the center of the room, sent the smoke up through the
+hole in the roof, and the fresh air was drawn down through the
+ventilator shaft. Between the ventilator and the fire pit a small
+wall, known as the "deflector", was constructed to keep the fresh air
+current from blowing on the fire.
+
+Two or three feet from the fire pit, and in a straight line with the
+ventilator shaft, the deep recess, the deflector, and the fire pit is
+a small hole in the floor of the kiva. This hole is usually about 3
+inches in diameter and from 4 to 6 inches deep; its walls and bottom
+often covered with a smooth layer of mud. In the present-day kivas
+this hole is known as the "sipapu", and is considered to be the
+symbolic entrance to the underworld. The kiva was a combination
+ceremonial, club, and work room for the men. Even in the present-day
+villages the women are rarely ever allowed to enter the kivas because
+of the fact that the men take almost entire charge of the religious
+work. It is believed that each clan had its own kiva. It may be noted
+that in almost every case the kiva is surrounded by a group of living
+rooms. The members of the clan no doubt lived in these rooms and the
+men held their ceremonies in the adjoining kiva. Two of the kivas in
+Spruce Tree House have side entrances that lead to nearby rooms. These
+rooms may have been the homes of the priests, or dressing rooms for
+them.
+
+ DATE OF OCCUPATION
+
+Twenty-one of the roof beams in Spruce Tree House have been dated by
+tree-ring chronology. These dates show that the houses were
+constructed during the years between 1230 A.D. and 1274 A.D. In 1276
+A.D. a 24-year period of drought began that caused the cliff dwellers
+to move to regions where there was a more permanent supply of water.
+In those same regions are the homes of the modern Pueblo Indians and
+no doubt some of these people are the descendants of the cliff
+dwellers.
+
+
+ CLIFF PALACE
+
+Cliff Palace lies in an eastern spur of Cliff Canyon under the roof of
+an enormous cave that arches 50 to 100 feet above it. The floor of the
+cave is elevated about 200 feet above the bottom of the canyon and is
+just under the rim of the mesa. The entrance of the cave faces west,
+toward a great promontory upon which stands Sun Temple.
+
+The total length of the cave is over 300 feet and its greatest depth
+is just under 100 feet. The vaulted roof is so high that the cave is
+always light and airy, offering a perfect home site to the cliff
+dwellers who were seeking protection from the elements as well as from
+their enemies.
+
+Fortunately, the configuration of the cliffs above the ruin makes it
+possible to get a fine bird's-eye view from the rim of the mesa. Views
+obtained from the heads of the two trails are most striking and give
+an idea of the setting and size of the building before it is entered
+for closer inspection. The most spectacular view of Cliff Palace is
+from Sun Temple, across the canyon. This is the only spot from which
+the entire ruin may be seen.
+
+ LIVING ROOMS
+
+Cliff Palace is the largest known cliff dwelling. Dr. Fewkes, who
+excavated the ruin in 1909, placed the number of living rooms at
+slightly more than 200. Very few of the walls reached the top of the
+cave because of its great height, but many of the structures were as
+high as two and three stories. Near the south end of the ruin is the
+tallest structure, a four-story tower that reaches the cave roof.
+Ground space appropriate for building purposes was at a premium in the
+cave. To provide for an increasing population, second-, third-, and
+even fourth-story rooms were superimposed on the original
+single-story structures which predominated in the initial
+cliff-dweller occupation of this site.
+
+When the cliff dwellers started building in the cave they were
+confronted with the problem of an uneven floor. The floor of the cave
+slanted from the back to the front and was covered with huge, angular
+boulders that had fallen from the cave roof. This problem the cliff
+dweller solved by erecting terraces and filling in the irregular
+places. The open spaces between the boulders were excellent for kivas,
+as there was not a great deal of excavation necessary. After the kiva
+walls were built the extra space was filled in with trash and dirt.
+When the flat kiva roof was added a level court resulted. Around this
+court the homes were constructed, often on the rough surfaces of the
+big boulders. Because of the uneven floor and the terracing that was
+necessary, six distinct terrace levels resulted.
+
+ KIVAS
+
+Twenty-two kivas are located in the cave and another, lying about 50
+feet from the western end, and thought to have been used by men living
+in the cave, brings the total to 23. Twenty of these conform to the
+plan of the typical Mesa Verde kiva, but three seem to be of a
+different type. These three, instead of being round, are square with
+rounded corners. The banquette is missing as well as the pilasters or
+roof supports.
+
+ STORAGE ROOMS
+
+Because of the fact that the inhabitants of Cliff Palace were forced
+to store enough corn each fall to last until the next harvest a great
+many storage rooms were constructed. Any small nook or cranny that was
+too small for a home was utilized for that purpose. Far back in the
+cave a number were constructed of large, thin sandstone slabs. These
+slabs were placed on end to form small rectangular rooms. When the
+door slabs were in place and all of the crevices were well chinked
+with mud the grain was safe from the rodents. High up under the roof
+of the cave, at the back, was a long narrow shelf that was also
+utilized for storage space. A wall was built along the front of the
+ledge to the cave roof, and the space back of the wall was divided
+into 14 small storage rooms. A ladder on the roof of one of the houses
+below gave access to the ledge.
+
+ PAINTINGS
+
+In the third floor room of the four-story tower is the finest painting
+yet found in the Mesa Verde. The entire inner surface of the four
+walls was covered with bright red designs on a white background. The
+designs are similar to those found on cliff-dweller pottery. The white
+color was obtained by mixing finely ground gypsum with water to form
+a smooth paste; the red was obtained by treating hematite, or red
+ochre, in the same manner.
+
+ THE ROUND TOWER
+
+The outstanding structure in Cliff Palace is the two-story round tower
+that stands just south of the center of the cave. Every stone in this
+tower is rounded to conform to the curvature of the walls and the
+graceful taper toward the top makes it one of the finest examples of
+masonry work in the region. When the early explorers first entered
+this tower the only object found was the most beautiful stone ax they
+ever discovered. Whether this tower was a home or whether it was
+constructed for some special purpose is a matter of conjecture.
+
+ POSSIBLE POPULATION
+
+Because of the fact that Cliff Palace is the largest of all cliff
+dwellings, its population is of special interest. A close inspection
+of the rooms in the ruin shows that they are smaller, on the average,
+than the rooms in any of the other large cliff dwellings. When judged
+from our modern standards, it is difficult to imagine more than a
+couple of people living in each one. Our modern ideas, however, will
+not help us in understanding the people who once lived in Cliff
+Palace.
+
+More than anything else the cliff dwellers desired security from their
+enemies. Their next desire was safety from the elements. When it is
+considered that these were the motivating influences, it can easily be
+understood that such minor matters as space and comfort would receive
+little consideration. Since the inhabitants were an easy-going,
+peace-loving group it can be imagined that crowded living conditions
+would not be objectionable. In addition it must be considered that the
+rooms were used principally as sleeping quarters. All activities were
+carried on in the open courts and on the terraced roof tops. Even the
+cooking was done over open fires outside the houses.
+
+An average of two to the room would give a population of 400; an
+average of three would place 600 in the cave. If every room were
+occupied at one time and if the average of two or three to the room is
+not too high, it would seem that a total population of 500 would not
+be too great for Cliff Palace.
+
+
+ BALCONY HOUSE
+
+Balcony House lies in Soda Canyon about 2½ miles southeast of
+Spruce Tree Camp, and is reached by a continuation of the Cliff Palace
+Road. It is one of the most picturesque of the accessible ruins in the
+park and occupies a better position for defense than most of the other
+ruins on the mesa. A few defenders could have repelled a large
+attacking force. Additional precautions have been taken at the south
+end of the ruin for the strengthening of its defenses, where the only
+means of reaching it is through a fortified narrow cleft. The south
+part of the ledge was walled up to a height of about 15 feet, the
+lower part of the wall closing the cleft being pierced by a narrow
+tunnel. Through this tunnel a man may creep on hands and knees from
+the cliff dwelling to the south part of the ledge, which affords a
+footing, with a precipice to the left and the cliff to the right, for
+about 100 paces. The ledge here terminates in the perpendicular wall
+of the canyon. The ruined walls of a defensive structure, built to cut
+off approach on this side, may still be traced.
+
+At the north end of the ruin the foundation gave the builders
+considerable trouble, but the difficulties were skillfully overcome. A
+supporting wall was erected on a lower ledge, to form a stable
+foundation for the outer wall of the upper rooms, where the higher
+ledge was too narrow or abrupt for building purposes.
+
+South of the rooms fronted by this wall is a small open court, bounded
+at the back by a few very regular and well-preserved rooms which rise
+to the roof of the cave. The poles supporting the floors of these
+upper-story rooms project about 2 feet to provide support for a
+balcony. Split poles, laid parallel with the front wall, were covered
+at right angles with rods of cedar bast and generously plastered with
+clay to form the floor of the balcony, which served as a means of
+outside communication between the rooms of the upper story. A low,
+thick parapet wall built on the edge of the precipice encloses the
+canyon side of the northern court.
+
+The funds for the excavation and repair of Balcony House in 1911 were
+largely furnished by the Colorado Cliff Dwellers Society, an
+organization founded and directed by Mrs. Gilbert McClurg, of Colorado
+Springs, Colo. The original purpose of this society was to stimulate
+interest in legislation for the preservation and protection of the
+prehistoric remains of the Mesa Verde. This society advanced the
+creation of Mesa Verde National Park in 1906.
+
+
+ SQUARE TOWER HOUSE
+
+Square Tower House Ruin is situated in an eastern spur of Navajo
+Canyon, opposite a great bluff called Echo Cliff. An ancient approach
+to the ruin from the canyon rim is visible to the south of the
+dwelling. Footholes for ascent and descent had been cut in the cliff
+by the Indians which enabled them to reach the level on which the ruin
+is situated. The footpath now used by visitors parallels the ancient
+trail. Along the top of the talus this pathway splits into an upper
+and lower branch. The former, hugging the cliff, passes through the
+"Eye of the Needle"; the latter is lower down on the talus and is used
+by the stouter and older visitors.
+
+The Square Tower House cave is shallow, its back wall perpendicular,
+with roof slightly overhanging. At the extreme eastern end of the ruin
+the vertical cliff suddenly turns at right angles, forming an angle in
+which, high above the main ruin, there still remain walls of rooms. To
+these rooms, which are tucked away just under the canyon rim, with
+only their front walls visible, the name "Crow's Nest" is given. Logs,
+with their ends resting in notches cut in the rock actually support
+walls of masonry, as seen in the angle of this cliff. This is a
+well-known method of cliff-house construction.
+
+This ruin measures about 138 feet from its eastern to its western end.
+There are no streets or passageways as at Spruce Tree House and Cliff
+Palace. The rooms are continuous and compactly constructed, the walls
+being united from one end of the cave to the other, excepting for the
+spaces above the kivas. The absence of a cave recess to the rear of
+the ruin is significant as it allowed the cliff to be used as the back
+wall of rooms. Rooms in Square Tower House do not differ radically
+from those of Spruce Tree House and other cliff dwellings. They have
+smaller windows, door openings, and supports of balconies. The
+rectangular rooms were constructed above the ground; the circular
+rooms were subterranean. The former were devoted to secular and the
+latter to ceremonial purposes.
+
+ THE TOWER
+
+The tower is, of course, the most conspicuous as well as the most
+interesting architectural feature of the ruin, being visible for a
+long distance as one approaches Square Tower House. Its foundation
+rests on a large boulder situated in the eastern section of the cave
+floor. This tower has three walls constructed of masonry, the fourth
+being the perpendicular rear wall of the cave. The masonry of the
+tower stands about 35 feet above the foundation, but the foundation
+boulder on which it stands increases its height over 5 feet.
+
+On a projecting rock on the west side above the tower is the wall of a
+small, inaccessible room which may have been used as a lookout or as
+an eagle house.
+
+The lowest story of the tower is entered from plaza B, and on the east
+side there are three openings, situated one over another, indicating
+the first, second, and third stories, but on the south side of the
+tower there are only two doorways. The roof of the lowest room is
+practically intact, showing good workmanship, but about half of its
+floor is destroyed. The upper walls of the second-story room have the
+original plaster, reddish dado below and white above. Although the
+third and fourth stories are destitute of floors, they are plastered.
+
+ KIVAS
+
+Some of the best preserved circular ceremonial chambers (kivas) in the
+Southwest are to be seen in Square Tower House. The majority of the
+kivas belong to the pure type, distinguished by mural pilasters
+supporting a vaulted roof.
+
+Kiva A is particularly instructive on account of the good preservation
+of its roof. Its greatest diameter is 13 feet 6 inches; or, measuring
+inside the banquettes, 11 feet 1 inch. The interior is well plastered
+with many layers of brown plaster. The pilasters are six in number,
+one of which is double. Two depressions are visible in the smooth
+floor, in addition to a fireplace and a sipapu. These suggest ends of
+a ladder, but no remains of a ladder were found in the room.
+
+Kiva B is the largest ceremonial chamber in Square Tower House,
+measuring 16 feet 9 inches in diameter over all. This kiva is not only
+one of the best preserved, but also one of the most instructive in
+Square Tower House, since half of the roof, with the original
+cribbing, is still in place, extending completely around the
+periphery. It has six pilasters and as many banquettes. Where the
+plaster had not fallen, it was found to have several layers.
+
+ [Illustration: SUN TEMPLE, A MYSTERIOUS FORM OF RUIN]
+
+ PETROGLYPHS
+
+The perpendicular cliff back of Square Tower House has several
+different forms of incised petroglyphs. From the fact that these
+usually occur on the cliff above the kiva roofs, they may be regarded
+as connected in some way with a religious symbolism. A few petroglyphs
+are also found on stones set in the walls of the rooms.
+
+
+ OAK TREE HOUSE
+
+The ruin formerly called Willow House, but now known as Oak Tree
+House, lies on the north side of Fewkes Canyon, in a symmetrical cave
+and has an upper and a lower part. The two noteworthy features of Oak
+Tree House are the kivas and the remnant of the wall of a circular
+room made of sticks plastered with adobe but destitute of stone
+masonry.
+
+Oak Tree House has seven kivas and may be called a large cliff
+dwelling. One of the kivas has a semicircular ground plan with a
+rectangular room on the straight side. There are no pilasters or
+banquettes in this kiva. The floor of another kiva was almost wholly
+occupied by a series of grinding bins, indicating a secondary use. The
+excavation work on Oak Tree House has not yet been completed, but a
+small collection of specimens at one end of the ruin shows the nature
+of the objects thus far found.
+
+
+ SUN SET HOUSE
+
+Looking across Cliff Canyon from Sun Point one can see the fine ruin
+called Sun Set House, formerly known as Community House. This ruin,
+like many other cliff dwellings, has an upper and a lower house, the
+former being relatively larger than is usually the case. Although Sun
+Set House is accessible, it has never been excavated.
+
+
+ SUN TEMPLE
+
+The cliff houses considered in the preceding pages are habitations.
+There are also specialized buildings on the Mesa Verde which were
+never inhabited but were used for other purposes. Two of these
+presumably were devoted solely to ceremonial purposes and are known as
+Sun Temple and Fire Temple.
+
+Sun Temple is situated west of Cliff Palace, on the promontory formed
+by the confluence of Cliff and Fewkes Canyons. Up to the year 1915 the
+site of Sun Temple was a mound of earth and stones, all showing
+artificial working or the pecking of primitive stone hammers. This
+mound had a circular depression in the middle and its surface was
+covered with trees and bushes. No high walls projected above the
+ground nor was there any intimation of the size or character of the
+buried building. It was believed to be a pueblo or communal
+habitation. Excavation of this mound brought into view one of the most
+unusual buildings in the park.
+
+Sun Temple is a type of ruin hitherto unknown in the park. The
+building excavated shows excellent masonry and is the most mysterious
+form yet discovered in a region rich in prehistoric remains. Although
+at first there was some doubt as to the use of this building, it was
+early recognized that it was not constructed for habitation, and it is
+now believed that it was intended for the performance of rites and
+ceremonies; the first of its type devoted to religious purposes yet
+recognized in the Southwest.
+
+The ruin was purposely constructed on a commanding promontory in the
+neighborhood of large inhabited cliff houses. It sets somewhat back
+from the edge of the canyon, but near enough to make it clearly
+visible from all sides, especially the neighboring mesas. It must have
+presented an imposing appearance rising on top of a point high above
+inaccessible, perpendicular cliffs. No better place could have been
+chosen for a religious building in which the inhabitants of many cliff
+dwellings could gather and together perform their great ceremonial
+dramas.
+
+The ground plan of the ruin has the form of the letter D. The building
+is in two sections, the larger of which, taken separately, is also
+D-shaped. This is considered the original building. The addition
+enlarging it is regarded as an annex. The south wall, which is
+straight and includes both the original building and the annex, is
+131.7 feet long. The ruin is 64 feet wide.
+
+There are about 1,000 feet of walls in the whole building. These walls
+average 4 feet in thickness, and are double, enclosing a central core
+of rubble and adobe. They are uniformly well made.
+
+The fine masonry, the decorated stones that occur in it, and the unity
+of plan stamp Sun Temple as the highest example of Mesa Verde
+architecture.
+
+The walls were constructed of the sandstone of the neighborhood. Many
+stone hammers and pecking stones were found in the vicinity.
+
+ THE SUN SYMBOL
+
+On the upper surface of a large rock protruding from the base of the
+southwest corner of the building a peculiar depression, surrounded by
+radiating ridges, was found. To primitive minds, this may have
+appeared as a symbol of the sun and, therefore, deemed an object of
+great significance, to be protected as a shrine. This natural
+impression may have prompted Dr. Fewkes in the naming of this ruin.
+
+ ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES
+
+There are three circular rooms in Sun Temple which from their form may
+be identified as ceremonial in function, technically called kivas. Two
+of these, free from other rooms, are situated in the plaza that
+occupies the central part of the main building, and one is embedded in
+rooms of the so-called "annex." Adjoining the last mentioned, also
+surrounded by rooms, is a fourth circular chamber which is not a kiva.
+This room, found to be almost completely filled with spalls or broken
+stones, perhaps originally served as an elevated tower or lookout.
+
+The kiva that is situated in the west section of Sun Temple has a
+ventilator stack attached to the south side, recalling the typical
+ventilator of a Mesa Verde cliff kiva, and there are indications of
+the same structure in the two circular chambers in the court. These
+kivas, however, have no banquettes or pilasters to support a vaulted
+roof, and no fragments of roof beams were found in the excavations
+made at Sun Temple. East of Sun Temple, where formerly there was only
+a mound of stone and earth, there were found the remains of a low
+circular structure of undetermined use.
+
+Most of the peripheral rooms of Sun Temple open into adjoining rooms,
+a few into the central court, but none has external openings. Some of
+the rooms are without lateral entrances, as if it were intended to
+enter them through a hatch in the roof.
+
+Not only pits indicative of the stone tools by which the stones
+forming the masonry of Sun Temple were dressed appear on all the rocks
+used in its construction, but likewise many bear incised symbols.
+Several of these still remain in the walls of the building; others
+have been set in cement near the outer wall of the eastern kiva. It is
+interesting to record that some of the stones of which the walls were
+constructed were probably quarried on the mesa top not far from the
+building, but as the surface of the plateau is now forested, the
+quarries themselves are hidden in accumulated soil and are difficult
+to discover.
+
+ AGE
+
+Sun Temple is believed to be among the latest constructed of all the
+aboriginal buildings in the park, probably contemporaneous with late
+building activities in Balcony House, Spruce Tree House, and Cliff
+Palace.
+
+Because of the absence of timbers or roof beams it is impossible to
+tell when Sun Temple was begun, how long it took for its construction,
+or when it was deserted. There are indications that its walls may
+never have been completed, and from the amount of fallen stones there
+can hardly be a doubt that when it was abandoned they had been carried
+up in some places at least 6 feet above their present level. The top
+of the wall had been worn down at any rate 6 feet in the interval
+between the time it was abandoned and the date of excavation of the
+mound. No one can tell the length of this interval in years.
+
+We have, however, knowledge of the lapse of time, because the mound
+had accumulated enough soil on its surface to support growth of large
+trees. Near the summit of the highest wall in the annex there grew a
+juniper tree of great antiquity, alive and vigorous when excavation
+work was begun. This tree undoubtedly sprouted after the desertion of
+the building and grew after a mound had developed from fallen walls.
+Its roots penetrated into the adjacent rooms and derived nourishment
+from the soil filling them.
+
+Necessarily, when these roots were cut off the tree was killed. It was
+then cut off about a foot above the ground, the stump remaining. A
+cross section of this stump was examined by Gordon Parker, supervisor
+of the Montezuma National Forest, who found that it had 360 annual
+rings without allowing for decayed heartwood which would add a few
+more years to its age.
+
+It is not improbable that this tree began to grow on the top of the
+Sun Temple mound shortly after the year 1540, when Coronado first
+entered New Mexico. How long an interval elapsed for crumbling walls
+to form the mound in which it grew, and how much earlier the
+foundations of the ruined walls were laid, no one can tell. A
+conservative guess of 350 years for the interval between construction
+and the time the cedar began to sprout would carry the antiquity of
+Sun Temple back to about 1200 A.D.
+
+ UNITY OF CONSTRUCTION
+
+The argument that appeals most strongly to many in supporting the
+theory that Sun Temple was a ceremonial building is the unity shown in
+its construction. A preconceived plan existed in the minds of the
+builders before they began work on the main building. Sun Temple was
+not constructed haphazardly, nor was its form due to addition of one
+clan after another, each adding rooms to a preexisting nucleus. There
+is no indication of patching one building to another, so evident at
+Cliff Palace and other large cliff dwellings. The construction of the
+recess in the south wall, situated exactly, to an inch, midway in its
+length, shows it was planned from the beginning.
+
+We can hardly believe that one clan could have been numerous enough to
+construct a house so large and massive. Its walls are too extensive;
+the work of dressing the stones too great. The construction of Sun
+Temple presumably represents the cooperative efforts of many clans
+from adjacent cliff dwellings uniting in a common purpose. Such a
+united effort represents a higher state of sociological development
+than a loosely connected population of a cliff dwelling.
+
+ BUILDERS
+
+On the theory that this building was erected by people from several
+neighboring cliff dwellings for ceremonies held in common, we may
+suppose that the builders came daily from their dwellings in Cliff
+Palace and other houses and returned at night, after they had finished
+work, to their homes. The trails down the sides of the cliffs which
+the workmen used are still to be seen. The place was frequented by
+many people, but there is no evidence that any one clan dwelt near
+this mysterious building during its construction.
+
+The argument that cliff dwellers in the neighborhood built Sun Temple
+and that incoming aliens had nothing to do with its construction seems
+very strong. The architectural differences between it and Cliff Palace
+are not objections, for the architectural form of Sun Temple may be
+regarded as a repetition, in the open, of a form of building that
+developed in a cliff house; the rounded north wall conforms with the
+rear of a cave and the straight south wall reproduces the front of a
+cliff dwelling. The recess midway in the south wall of Sun Temple
+could be likened without forcing the comparison to a similar recess
+which occurs at the main entrance into Cliff Palace.
+
+Sun Temple was not built by an alien people, but by the cliff dwellers
+as a specialized building mainly for religious purposes, and, so far
+as known, is the first of its type recognized in the Mesa Verde area.
+
+
+ NEW FIRE-HOUSE GROUP
+
+ FIRE TEMPLE
+
+Fire Temple is one of the most remarkable cliff houses in the park, if
+not in the whole Southwest. It is situated in a shallow cave in the
+north wall of Fewkes Canyon, near its head, and can readily be seen
+from the road along the southwest rim of the canyon. This ruin was
+formerly called Painted House, but when it was excavated in May 1920
+evidence was obtained that it was a specialized building and not a
+habitation. The facts brought to light point to the theory that it was
+consecrated to the fire cult, one of the most ancient forms of
+worship.
+
+The ruin is rectangular in form, almost completely filling the whole
+of its shallow cave, and the walls of the rooms extend to the roof. A
+ground plan shows a central court 50 feet long and about 25 feet
+broad, flanked at each end with massive-walled buildings two stories
+high. The walls of these rooms are well constructed, plastered red and
+white within and on the side turned to the court. The white plaster is
+adorned with symbolic figures. The beams used in the construction of
+the ceiling of the lower room are missing, but the walls show clearly
+that the structure was formerly two stories high. No beams were used
+in the construction of the floors, the lower story having been filled
+in with fragments of rocks on which was plastered a good adobe floor.
+
+The court or plaza was bounded by a low wall on the south side, the
+buildings enclosing the east and west ends, where there was a
+banquette. The north side of the court was formed by the solid rocks
+of the cliff, but on the lower part a narrow masonry wall had been
+laid up about head high, projecting from the cliff a foot and less on
+the top. The wall was formerly plastered red below and white above,
+triangular figures and zigzag markings recalling symbols of lightning
+on the line of the junction of the red and white surfaces.
+
+In the center of the court on a well-hardened adobe floor there is a
+circular walled fire pit containing an abundance of ashes, and on
+either side of it are foundations of small rectangular structures. The
+function of the rectangular enclosures, lying one on each side of the
+fire pit, is unknown. The middle room of the lowest tier of rooms just
+west of the main court has a number of painted symbols and zoormorphic
+figures upon its walls. These paintings, in red, still remain in a
+fair state of preservation, and consist of five symbols, supposedly of
+fire, and many pictures of mountain sheep and other animals.
+
+Just west of Fire Temple there is a group of rooms which were
+evidently habitations, since household utensils were found in them.
+One of these rooms has in the floor a vertical shaft which opens
+outside the house walls like a ventilator. The former use of this
+structure is unknown. Although the Fire Temple was not inhabited,
+there were undoubtedly dwellings nearby.
+
+ NEW FIRE HOUSE
+
+A hundred feet east of the Fire Temple there are two low caves, one
+above the other. This cliff dwelling is called New Fire House. The
+rooms in the lower cave were fitted for habitation, consisting of two,
+possibly three, circular ceremonial rooms and a few secular rooms; but
+the upper cave is destitute of the former. The large rooms of the
+upper house look like granaries for the storage of provisions,
+although possibly they also were inhabited. In the rear of the large
+rooms identified as granaries was found a small room with a
+well-preserved human skeleton accompanied with mortuary pottery. One
+of these mortuary offerings is a fine mug made of black and white ware
+beautifully decorated. In the rear of the cave were three
+well-constructed grinding bins, their metates still in place.
+
+The upper house is now approached from the lower by foot holes in the
+cliff and a ladder. Evidences of a secondary occupation of one of the
+kivas in the lower house appear in a wall of crude masonry without
+mortar, part of a rectangular room built diagonally across the kiva.
+The plastering on the rear walls of the lower house is particularly
+well preserved. One of the kivas, has, in place of a deflector and
+ventilator shaft, a small rectangular walled enclosure surrounded by a
+wall, recalling structures on the floor of the kivas of Sun Temple.
+The meaning of this departure from the prescribed form of ventilator
+is not apparent.
+
+
+ CEDAR TREE TOWER
+
+Hidden in the timber about one-half mile east of the main entrance
+highway, and 1 mile north of Park Headquarters, stands a prehistoric
+tower. This ruin has been named Cedar Tree Tower because of the
+ancient juniper tree that grows adjacent to the north wall. The
+excavation of the tower and the area about its base led to the
+discovery that although it appeared to stand alone there were two
+subterranean rooms connected with its base. The larger of these rooms
+is a kiva, typical of the Mesa Verde cliff dwelling. Communication
+between kiva and tower was by means of a subterranean passage. This
+passage bifurcates, one branch opening through the tower floor, the
+other into a small square room. In the middle of the solid rock floor
+of the tower a circular hole, or _sipapu_, symbolic of the entrance to
+the underworld, had been drilled.
+
+The masonry is excellent and the massive character and workmanship of
+the walls indicate some important use. No living rooms were found
+adjacent to the tower. The walls of the tower are uniformly two feet
+in width and they still stand to the height of 12 feet.
+
+
+ FAR VIEW HOUSE, A MESA VERDE PUEBLO
+
+Archeological investigations have shown that the inhabitants of the
+Mesa Verde built compact pueblo-style structures on the open mesa land
+separating the deep canyons. Lacking natural protection of the caves
+and cliffs of the canyons, a closely knit and compact structure was
+necessary for defensive purposes. Not having to conform to the
+irregular contours of the cave as in the cliff-house type, the
+structure assumed a roughly rectangular shape in the open, with the
+kivas within protected by the adjacent outside living and storage
+rooms. The roofed-over kivas formed small open courts within the
+higher outside walls. Structurally, there is but little difference
+between the cliff house and the pueblo; undoubtedly they belong to the
+same culture and period.
+
+ [Illustration: A MESA VERDE SURFACE RUIN. FAR VIEW HOUSE]
+
+Four and a half miles north of Spruce Tree Camp the park road passes
+near 16 major and many minor mounds. This is the so-called Mummy Lake
+group, a misnomer, since the walled depression at the crest of the
+slope above the group was never used as a reservoir, also since
+mummies are never found where the least dampness occurs. In the spring
+of the year water is still conducted to the depression by the drainage
+ditches which the early cowmen in the park constructed in their
+efforts to impound sufficient water for their stock.
+
+The first unit of this group to be excavated was named Far View House
+because of the wonderful panorama of diversified terrain that is
+visible in Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona from the walls of the
+ruin. At the beginning of the work, this mound appeared very much as
+any of the other adjacent major mounds, no sign of standing wall
+appearing above the even contour of the ruin. Heavy growths of
+sagebrush covered the whole area. Three months' time was devoted to
+the excavation in revealing the rectangular pueblo, 100 by 113 feet in
+size, now seen. The slow crumbling of the heavy dirt-covered roofs and
+the walls, together with the annual deposit of wind-blown sand from
+the San Juan country early each spring, gradually filled the rooms to
+the level of the standing walls, after which destructive elements and
+forces can little change the contour of any ruin.
+
+The external features of Far View House are apparent as we approach
+its walls; mounting to the top of the highest wall we can best observe
+the general plan. This pueblo is rectangular in shape, consisting of
+concentrated rooms with a court surrounded by a wall annexed to the
+south side. On its southeast corner, a little less than 100 feet away,
+lies the cemetery from which have been taken a number of skeletons
+with their offerings of food bowls and other objects, such as was the
+custom of these people to deposit in the graves of their dead.
+
+At its highest point on the north wall the pueblo had three stories,
+but on the southern side there was but a single story. This building
+was terraced, one tier of rooms above another. In the corner of the
+interior of the highest room may still be seen the ancient fireplaces
+and stones for grinding corn, set in their original positions as used
+by the former inhabitants. There are no external windows or passages,
+except on the south side where midway in length is a recess in which
+was placed a ladder in order to be hidden from view. The inhabitants
+evidently used the roof of the lowest terrace for many occupations. A
+bird's-eye view shows that all the rooms, now roofless, fall into two
+groups.
+
+In the center of this mass of rooms is a kiva 32 feet in diameter, and
+around it are three smaller kivas. The size of the large kiva is
+noteworthy. In the cliff dwellings the kivas were necessarily small
+because of the limited floor space, but in the surface villages, where
+unlimited space was available, they were often large. This arrangement
+of one large kiva and several small ones is common. It might indicate
+that each clan had a small kiva of its own but that in the major
+ceremonies, when all of the clans worked together, the large
+ceremonial room was used. The structural details of the large kiva are
+identical with those of the smaller ones. The only variation is in
+the size.
+
+The rooms surrounding these circular ones vary somewhat in form but
+are, as a rule, rectangular, the shapes of those near the kivas being
+triangular to fill the necessary spaces. The contents of the
+rectangular rooms show that they were living rooms. Artifacts were
+found and indications of various industries as well as marks of smoke
+from their fireplaces appear on the walls. From the nature of this
+evidence there is no doubt that Far View House was once inhabited by
+the people living the same way as those who used the cliff dwellings.
+
+The court added to the pueblo on its south side is enclosed by a low
+wall. Here were probably performed, in ancient times, the many
+religious dances and festivals.
+
+Far View House is but one of the 16 pueblos in the Mummy Lake group,
+and at the period of maximum development could have housed a large
+population. To the north and east, where the two branches of Soda
+Canyon join, another large village or group has been located, and one
+can almost trace the trail across the west fork of Soda Canyon to the
+neighboring village and imagine the dusky visitors going from one to
+the other in prehistoric times. Each narrow tonguelike mesa of the
+Mesa Verde has its ruins of either isolated pueblo structures, or
+adjacent groups, denoting the widespread distribution of the mesa
+pueblo builders.
+
+Pottery is the best index as to the chronological sequence of the
+ruins in the Southwest, and in examining the pottery of some of the
+mesa-type pueblos it is found that some contain pottery antedating
+that of the cliff-house culture, while others contain similar types.
+Undoubtedly, they were simultaneously inhabited, in part at least, and
+the transitory period was of long duration; but the period in
+prehistoric time when they were built and later deserted has not been
+determined. We cannot say from data now at hand when this took place,
+documentary history affording no help.
+
+The aborigines who lived near these ruins when discovered in 1874 were
+Utes, a Shoshonean stock who disclaimed all knowledge of the people
+who constructed these buildings. They avoided them as uncanny and even
+now can only with difficulty be induced to enter them. They have dim
+legends of conflicts between the earliest Utes and cliff dwellers.
+Unfortunately, however, such legendary evidence is not reliable, as
+the general mythology of these people has been much distorted due to
+foreign contacts and the passage of time.
+
+ OTHER RUINS NEAR FAR VIEW HOUSE
+
+During the season of 1922 excavation and repair work in the vicinity
+of Far View House was carried on simultaneously. Among the ruins
+excavated were Pipe Shrine House, One Clan House, Far View Tower, and
+Megalithic House.
+
+
+ EARTH LODGE A
+
+In 1922 one of the Late Basket Maker pit houses was excavated on the
+mesa above Square Tower House. This structure is known as Earth Lodge
+A. Although it once had a mud and pole roof almost as high as a man's
+head, nothing now remains but the underground part of the house. None
+of these pit houses have ever been found that have not been burned,
+and only a few pieces of charcoal remain as evidence of the former
+roof. The pit is 30 inches deep and 18 feet in diameter. In the center
+is a fire pit. In the floor are also four holes, forming a large
+square, in which the roof supports once stood. The walls of the pit
+were formerly plastered with a thick layer of mud, but only a few
+patches of this remain. Around the edge of the room, at floor level,
+were a number of small storage bins made of thin stone slabs. No side
+entrance was located during excavation. In some of the pit houses
+evidence has shown that entrance was often made by means of a ladder
+through the smokehole in the roof.
+
+This was a typical home of the Lake Basket Makers who were living in
+this region when the Pueblo Indians arrived about 700 A. D. These pit
+houses passed out of existence as soon as the masonry wall was
+perfected.
+
+
+ UNEXCAVATED RUINS
+
+Of all the ruins in Mesa Verde National Park only 28 have been named
+and only 30 excavated. No survey of the unexcavated sites has been
+made, and the total number of ruins is unknown. Several hundred cliff
+dwellings have been discovered, and new ones will probably be found in
+the more remote canyons. The surface pueblos outnumber the cliff
+dwellings, and a careful search would reveal many that are now hidden
+by a thick growth of underbrush. The earth lodges of the Late Basket
+Makers are so common that hundreds will be brought to light by careful
+search. Dozens of them can be located in a half-hour walk over any of
+the mesas.
+
+
+
+
+ DATES FOR MESA VERDE RUINS ESTABLISHED
+ BY THE TREE-RING CHRONOLOGY[2]
+
+
+Dr. A. E. Douglass, director of Steward Observatory, University of
+Arizona, established the tree-ring chronology for dating Southwestern
+ruins. This chronology is based upon the facts that solar changes
+affect our weather and weather in turn the trees of the arid
+Southwest, as else-where, and that such affects are recorded in the
+variation of tree-ring growth during wet and dry years. Thus the
+tree-ring record of living trees has been extended into the past by
+arranging beams from historic pueblos in their proper sequence so that
+the inner rings of one match the outer rings of its predecessor, and
+in turn match the rings of the living trees. After completing the
+series from living trees and pueblos, of known dates, the record has
+been continued through the cross-sections of prehistoric beams of fir
+and pine that were chopped with the stone axes. The continuation of
+this chronology is only limited by the finding of earlier beams than
+those used in the established chronology.
+
+The National Geographic Society tree-ring expedition took, in all, 49
+beam sections from ruins within Mesa Verde National Park. During 1932
+and 1933 further tree-ring research was carried on in this area and
+additional dates have been secured. Presuming that the year of cutting
+the timber was the year of actual use in construction, the following
+dates have been established for the major cliff dwellings:
+
+ Mug House, A. D. 1066 Long House, A. D. 1204-11
+ Cliff Palace, A. D. 1073-1273 Square Tower House, A. D. 1204-46
+ Oak Tree House, A. D. 1112-84 Spruce Tree House, A. D. 1230-74
+ Spring House, A. D. 1115 New Fire House, A. D. 1259
+ Hemenway House, A. D. 1171 Ruin No. 16, A. D. 1261
+ Balcony House, A. D. 1190-1272 Buzzard House, A. D. 1273
+
+Since considerable tree-ring material from these ruins remains yet to
+be examined, the dates given above are not final. On the basis of
+present evidence, Cliff Palace, the largest and most complex cliff
+house within the park, shows an occupancy of 200 years.
+
+It is an interesting fact that all of the dates fall just short of the
+beginning of the great drought, which the tree-ring chronology shows
+commenced in 1276 and extended to 1299, a period of 24 years.
+
+
+
+
+ DISCOVERIES OF RECENT YEARS
+
+
+In 1923 Roy Henderson and A. B. Hardin discovered the largest and
+finest watchtower that had yet been found. The tower was circular, 25
+feet in height and 11 feet in diameter. Loopholes at various levels
+commanded the approach from every exposed quarter.
+
+During the winter of 1924 the north refuse space of Spruce Tree House
+was excavated. Two child burials were found, one partially mummified,
+the other skeletal only. With one was found a mug, a ladle, a digging
+stick, and two ring baskets that had held food. Several corrugated
+jars were found, together with miscellaneous material. A layer of
+turkey droppings a foot thick indicated the space had been used as a
+turkey pen.
+
+During January and February of 1926, when snow was available as a
+water supply, excavations were carried on in Step House Cave, by
+Superintendent Jesse L. Nusbaum. In 1891 Nordenskiöld had found many
+fine burials in this cave and it had suffered greatly from pothunting.
+The cliff dweller refuse at the south end of the cave had not been
+thoroughly cleaned out, however, and it was under this layer of trash
+that the important discovery was made. Three of the Late Basket Maker
+pit houses were found, giving the first evidence that these people had
+used the caves before the cliff dwellers. Very few artifacts were
+found because of the earlier pothunting. In 1926 also a low, deep cave
+opposite Fire Temple was excavated, and a small amount of Basket Maker
+material found. Most interesting were two tapered cylinders of
+crystallized salt that still bore the imprint of the molder's hands.
+While bracing a slipping boulder in Cliff Palace, Fred Jeep found, in
+1916, a sandal of the Early Basket Maker type that indicates a former
+occupancy of the cave by the first group of Agricultural Indians in
+this region.
+
+In 1927 Bone Awl House was excavated. A series of unusually fine bone
+awls was found that suggested the name for the ruin. Much
+miscellaneous material was also found. Another small cliff dwelling
+nearby was cleaned out. One baby mummy and an adult burial were found,
+as well as some pottery and bone and stone tools. This ruin is reached
+by a spectacular series of 104 footholds that the cliff dwellers had
+cut in the almost perpendicular canyon wall.
+
+During March of 1928 and the winter of 1929 restricted excavations
+were conducted in ruins 11 to 19, inclusive, on the west side of
+Wetherill Mesa.
+
+Several burials were found, all in poor condition because of dampness.
+Outstanding was an unusual bird pendant of hematite with crystal eyes
+set into drilled sockets with piñon gum. Forty-two bowls were
+reconstructed from the sherds found.
+
+In the summer of 1929 Mr. and Mrs. Harold S. Gladwin and associates of
+Gila Pueblo, Globe, Ariz., assisted by Deric Nusbaum, conducted an
+archeological survey of small-house ruins on Chapin Mesa and in the
+canyon heads along the North Rim. The survey covered 250 sites. One
+hundred sherds were collected from each site and studied to identify
+the pottery types, the sequence of their development, and their
+relationship to pottery types of other southwestern archeological
+areas.
+
+The forest fire of 1934 revealed many hitherto unknown ruins. Two
+splendid watchtowers were found on the west cliff of Rock Canyon. In a
+small area at the head of Long Canyon 10 new Early Pueblo ruins were
+located and no doubt scores of others will be found upon more careful
+search. In the heads of the small canyons many dams and terraces were
+noted.
+
+In the stabilization program that was carried on in 1934-35 a number
+of artifacts were found. A certain amount of debris had to be moved in
+order that the weakened walls and slipping foundations might be
+strengthened and varied finds resulted. Axes, bone awls, sandals,
+pottery, planting sticks, and similar articles were most common, but a
+few burials were also found.
+
+In August 1934 the undisturbed skeleton of an old woman was found on
+the bare floor of a small ruin just across the canyon from the public
+campgrounds. This skeleton, of particular importance because of fusion
+of the spinal column, had apparently remained exposed and undisturbed
+through more than seven centuries.
+
+Because of the fact that no detailed, comprehensive survey has ever
+been made of the archeological resources of the park, the findings of
+new ruins, artifacts, and human remains are more or less regularly
+reported at the park museum.
+
+
+
+
+ PREHISTORIC INHABITANTS OF THE MESA VERDE
+
+
+The so-called "Mesa Verde cliff dwellers" were not the first of the
+prehistoric southwestern cultures, nor were they the first human
+occupants of the natural caves that abound in the area of the park.
+Centuries before the cliff-dweller culture with its complex social
+organizations, agriculture, and highly developed arts of masonry,
+textiles, and ceramics, it is thought that small groups of primitive
+Mongoloid hunters crossed from the north-eastern peninsula of Asia to
+the western coast of Alaska. The Bering Strait, with but 60 miles of
+water travel, offered the safest and easiest route.
+
+Just when these migrations to the east had their origin and how long
+they continued cannot definitely be said, but it is thought the
+earliest Mongoloid hunters were in northwestern America about twelve
+to fifteen thousand years ago. When Columbus "discovered" America the
+continent was inhabited from Alaska to the Strait of Magellan and from
+the Pacific to the Atlantic coasts.
+
+For perhaps several thousand years following the first migrations
+little of great significance developed. There undoubtedly was
+cultural progress, but it was slow, and in the long perspective of
+time its evidences are hardly discernible. With the knowledge and
+benefits of agriculture, which was probably developed first in Mexico,
+hunting gave way to husbandry, nomadism to sedentary life, and there
+followed a great period of change and advancement. The introduction of
+corn or Indian maize into what is now the southwestern United States
+may be called the antecedent condition for all advanced cultures of
+the area.
+
+Evidence has not yet been established that the first of the
+maize-growing Indians of the Southwest were permanent occupants of the
+Mesa Verde. Nevertheless, in the Cliff Palace cave, well below the
+horizon or floor level of the cliff dwellers, archeologists have found
+a yucca fiber sandal of a distinctive type which is associated only
+with the first agricultural civilization. From this evidence it would
+be reasonable to assume that the caves of Mesa Verde at least offered
+temporary shelter, if not permanent homes, to the people of this
+period.
+
+The earliest culture so far definitely identified as having permanent
+habitation on the Mesa Verde is the Basket Maker III or the Second
+Agricultural Basket Maker first found in Step House cave on the west
+side of the park below the debris of the latter cliff-house
+occupation. Recent excavations and archeological surveys furnish
+conclusive evidence that the second agricultural people were most
+numerous in the area now included in this national park, and they
+constructed their roughly circular subterranean rooms not only in the
+sandy floor of the caves but also in the red soil on the comparatively
+level mesas separating the numerous canyons. Late Basket Maker House
+A, formerly known as Earth Lodge A, is an example of this early type
+of structure. Up to this time excavations have failed to uncover a
+single house structure of this type not destroyed by fire.
+
+These early inhabitants made basketry, excelled in the art of weaving,
+and it is believed were the first of the southwestern cultures to
+invent fired pottery. The course of this invention can be traced from
+the crude sun-dried vessel tempered with shredded cedar bark to the
+properly tempered and durable fired vessel.
+
+Then followed a long development in house structure, differing
+materially from this earlier type. Horizontal masonry replaced the
+cruder attempts of house-wall construction; rectangular or squarish
+forms replaced the somewhat circular earlier type; and gradually the
+single-room structures were grouped into ever-enlarging units which
+assumed varying forms of arrangement as the development progressed.
+The art of pottery making improved concurrently with the more complex
+house structure. This later period represents the intermediate era of
+development from the crude Late Basket Maker dwellings to the
+remarkable structures of the "Cliff House Culture."
+
+During this period of transition new people penetrated the area. The
+Basket Makers throughout the course of their development were
+consistently a long-headed group. The appearance of an alien group is
+recorded through the finding of skeletons with broad or round skulls
+and a deformed occiput. These new people, the Pueblos, took over,
+changed, and adapted to their own needs the material culture of the
+earlier inhabitants.
+
+The Pueblos were not content with the crude buildings and earth lodges
+that sufficed as homes during the earlier periods. For their
+habitations they shaped stones into regular forms, sometimes
+ornamenting them with designs, and laid them in mud mortar, one on
+another. Their masonry has resisted the destructive forces of the
+elements for centuries.
+
+The arrangement of houses in a cliff dwelling the size of Cliff Palace
+is characteristic and is intimately associated with the distribution
+of the social divisions of its former inhabitants.
+
+The population was composed of a number of units, possibly clans, each
+of which had its more or less distinct social organization, as
+indicated in the arrangement of the rooms. The rooms occupied by a
+clan were not necessarily connected, and generally neighboring rooms
+were distinguished from one another by their uses. Thus, each clan had
+its men's room, which is called the "kiva." Each clan had also a
+number of rooms, which may be styled the living rooms, and other
+enclosures for granaries. The corn was ground into meal in another
+room containing the metate set in a stone bin or trough. Sometimes the
+rooms had fireplaces, although these were generally in the plazas or
+on the housetops. All these different rooms, taken together,
+constituted the houses that belonged to one clan.
+
+The conviction that each kiva denotes a distinct social unit, as a
+clan or a family, is supported by a general similarity in the masonry
+of the kiva walls and that of adjacent houses ascribed to the same
+clan. From the number of these rooms it would appear that there were
+at least 23 social units or clans in Cliff Palace.
+
+Apparently there is no uniformity or prearranged plan in the
+distribution of the kivas. As religious belief and custom prescribed
+that these rooms should be subterranean, the greatest number were
+placed in front of the rectangular buildings where it was easiest to
+construct them. When necessary, because of limited space or other
+conditions, kivas were also built far back in the cave and enclosed by
+a double wall of masonry, with the walls being spaced about two and a
+half to three feet apart. The section between the walls was then
+backfilled with earth or rubble to the level of the kiva roof. In
+that way the ceremonial structure was artificially made subterranean,
+as their beliefs required.
+
+In addition to their ability as architects and masons, the cliff
+dwellers excelled in the art of pottery making and as agriculturists.
+Their decorated pottery--a black design on pearly white
+background--will compare favorably with pottery of the other cultures
+of the prehistoric Southwest.
+
+As their sense of beauty was keen, their art, though primitive, was
+true; rarely realistic, generally symbolic. Their decoration of cotton
+fabrics and ceramic work might be called beautiful, even when judged
+by our own standards. They fashioned axes, spear points, and rude
+tools of stone; they wove sandals, and made attractive basketry.
+
+The staple product of the cliff dwellers was corn; they also planted
+beans and squash. This limited selection was perhaps augmented by
+piñon nuts, yucca fruit, and other indigenous products found in
+abundance. Nevertheless, successful agriculture on the semiarid
+plateau of the Mesa Verde must have been dependent upon hard work and
+diligent efforts. Without running streams irrigation was impossible
+and success depended upon the ability of the farmer to save the crop
+through the dry period of June and early July.
+
+Rain at the right time was the all-important problem, and so
+confidently did they believe that they were dependent upon the gods to
+make the rain fall and the corn grow that their prayers for rain
+probably developed into their most important ceremonies.
+
+From Dr. A. E. Douglass's tree-ring chronology the earliest date so
+far established for the Mesa Verde cliff dwellings is 1066 A.D. and
+the latest date 1274 A.D. While it should not be imagined that these
+are the all-inclusive dates representing the total time of the
+cliff-dweller culture, it is interesting to note that this same
+tree-ring story tells us that a great drought commenced in 1276 and
+extended for a 24-year period to 1299. It may logically be presumed
+that the prehistoric population was gradually forced to withdraw from
+the area as the drought continued and to establish itself near more
+favorable sources of water supply.
+
+The so-called "Aztec ruin", which is situated on the banks of the
+Animas River in northwestern New Mexico, substantiates this hypothesis
+of the voluntary desertion of the cliff dwellings. In this ruin is
+found unmistakable evidence of a secondary occupation which has been
+definitely identified as a Mesa Verde settlement.
+
+It is thought that certain of the present-day Pueblo Indians are
+descendants, in part at least, of the cliff dwellers. Many of these
+Indian towns or pueblos still survive in the States of New Mexico and
+Arizona, the least modified of which are the villages of the Hopi,
+situated not far from the Grand Canyon National Park.
+
+
+
+
+ FAUNA AND FLORA
+
+
+The fauna and flora of Mesa Verde should be particularly interesting
+to visitors. A combination of desert types from the lower arid country
+and mountain types, usually associated with regions of greater
+rainfall, occur here. The desert types are highly specialized to cope
+with their environment, particularly the plant and smaller animal
+life.
+
+Rocky Mountain mule deer are perhaps the only big game to be found
+abundantly in the park. They are often seen. Their numbers in the
+park, however, vary greatly according to the season. It is hoped to
+reintroduce the native species of Rocky Mountain bighorn as soon as
+range sufficient for the needs of this species has been added to the
+park. Occasionally a black bear is reported.
+
+Cougars, or mountain lions, and bobcats are part of the wildlife of
+the park and, strange to say, are occasionally seen in broad daylight.
+In other national parks these animals are rarely seen even by rangers.
+Coyotes and foxes are not as numerous as they once were on the mesa.
+As a result of the reduction of the predators, many of the smaller
+animals, such as rabbits, porcupines, and prairie dogs, have greatly
+increased. Rock and ground squirrels and the Colorado chipmunk are
+present in great numbers.
+
+More than 200 varieties of birds have been recorded. The species range
+from the majestic golden eagle, the largest bird, down to a variety of
+dainty humming birds.
+
+Game birds are represented by the dusky grouse. No wild turkeys are
+now to be found in the park, although it is believed that they were
+once here. The cliff dwellers domesticated the turkey, and their
+bones, feathers, and droppings are found in all the ruins. At present
+the reintroduction of wild turkeys to Mesa Verde is under
+consideration.
+
+ [Illustration: A YUCCA PLANT IN FRUIT (YUCCA BACCATA)]
+
+Among the interesting animal residents of Mesa Verde are the reptiles.
+The lizards are represented by the horned lizard, the western spotted
+or earless lizard, the collared lizard, the striped race runner, utas,
+rock swifts, and sagebrush swifts. Among the snakes are found the bull
+snake, the smooth green snake, the western striped racer, the rock
+snake, and the prairie rattlesnake. The latter, the only poisonous
+species on the Mesa Verde, lives among the rocks in the lower canyons.
+
+Mesa Verde receives considerably more rainfall than true desert areas,
+and vegetation typical of the upper sonoran or transition zone is
+moderately luxuriant. This heavy cover of vegetation accounts for its
+name, which means "Green Tableland." The dense forest consists of
+piñon pine, juniper, Douglas fir, and western yellow pine. The
+north-facing slopes and moist canyons contain quaking aspen and box
+elders, with willows and cottonwoods growing along the Mancos River.
+The heavy covering of scrub oak and mountain mahogany over the higher
+elevations of the park makes this region a most colorful one during
+the fall months.
+
+Among the fruit-bearing shrubs and trees are the service berry, choke
+cherry, Oregon grape, and elderberry.
+
+An abundance of wild flowers, varying in color with the growing
+season, include principally the Mariposa lily, Indian paint brush,
+pentstemon, lupine, wild sweet pea, and a great variety of the
+compositae family.
+
+
+
+
+ HOW TO REACH THE PARK
+
+
+ BY AUTOMOBILE
+
+Mesa Verde National Park may be reached by automobile from Denver,
+Colorado Springs, Pueblo, and other Colorado points. Through Pueblo
+one road leads to the park by way of Canon City, from where one may
+look down into the Royal Gorge, the deepest canyon in the world
+penetrated by a railroad and river. This road passes through Salida
+and on through Gunnison and Montrose, and then south through Ouray,
+Silverton, and Durango. This route passes through some of Colorado's
+most magnificent mountain scenery. Another road leads south from
+Pueblo through Walsenburg, across La Veta Pass, on through Alamosa,
+Del Norte, Pagosa Springs, and Durango, crossing Wolf Creek Pass en
+route. Both roads lead west from Durango to Mancos and on into the
+park.
+
+Motorists coming from Utah turn southward from Green River or
+Thompsons, crossing the Colorado River at Moab, proceeding southward
+to Monticello, thence eastward to Cortez, Colo., and the park.
+
+From Arizona and New Mexico points, Gallup, on the National Old Trails
+Road, is easily reached. The auto road leads north from Gallup through
+the Navajo Indian Reservation and a corner of the Ute Indian
+Reservation. At Shiprock Indian Agency, 98 miles north of Gallup, the
+San Juan River is crossed.
+
+
+ BY RAILROAD
+
+Mesa Verde National Park is approached by rail both from the north and
+from the south: From the north via the Denver & Rio Grande Western
+Railroad main transcontinental line through Grand Junction, and branch
+lines through Montrose or Durango; from the south via the main
+transcontinental line of the Santa Fe Railroad through Gallup, N. Mex.
+
+The lines of the Denver & Rio Grande Western System traverse some of
+the most magnificent scenery of the Rocky Mountain region, a fact
+which gives the journey to Mesa Verde zestful travel flavor. Two
+main-line routes are provided to the Grand Junction gateway.
+
+The Royal Gorge Route goes through the Grand Canyon of the Arkansas,
+now spanned by an all-steel suspension bridge, 1,053 feet above the
+tracks in the Royal Gorge. This route crosses Tennessee Pass
+(altitude, 10,240 feet) and follows the Eagle River to its junction
+with the Colorado River at Dotsero, thence to Grand Junction.
+
+Service was inaugurated in June 1934 via the new James Peak Route of
+the D. & R. G. W., utilizing the Moffat Tunnel (altitude at apex,
+9,239 feet), 6.2-mile bore which pierces the Continental Divide 50
+miles west of Denver. This route follows the Colorado River from
+Fraser, high on the west slope of the continent, through Byers Canyon,
+Red Gorge, Gore Canyon, and Red Canyon, thence over the Dotsero
+Cut-off to Dotsero, where it joins the Royal Gorge Route. The new line
+saves 175 miles in the distance from Denver to Grand Junction.
+
+
+
+
+ MOTOR TRANSPORTATION
+
+
+The Rio Grande Motor Way, Inc., of Grand Junction, Colo., from June 15
+to September 15, operates a daily motor service from Grand Junction,
+Delta, Montrose, Ouray, Silverton, Durango, and Mancos, Colo., to
+Spruce Tree Lodge in Mesa Verde National Park. This motor bus leaves
+Grand Junction at 6:45 a.m., via the scenic Chief Ouray Highway,
+stopping en route at other places mentioned, crossing beautiful Red
+Mountain Pass (altitude, 11,025 feet), arriving at Spruce Tree Lodge
+at 7 p.m. The stage leaves the park at 7 a.m., when there are
+passengers, arriving at Grand Junction at 5:40 p.m. The round trip
+fare between Grand Junction and the park is $18.65.
+
+Entrance to Mesa Verde from the south through Gallup, N. Mex., via the
+Navajo and Southern Ute Indian Reservations, is growing constantly in
+convenience and popularity. Hunter Clarkson, Inc., with headquarters
+at El Navajo Hotel, in Gallup, operates two-day round trip light sedan
+service, leaving Gallup at 8 a.m. and returning to Gallup at 6 p.m.
+the second day. This service permits the visiting of ruins in the
+park, in accordance with regular schedules, on the afternoon of the
+first day and on the morning of the second. The round trip fare per
+person (360 miles) is $25. A minimum of two passengers is required.
+Fare for children, five and under twelve, is $12.50. Meals and hotel
+accommodations en route or at the park are not included. El Navajo
+Hotel, operated by Fred Harvey, offers excellent overnight
+accommodations at Gallup.
+
+The Cannon Ball Stage operates bus service from Gallup, via Shiprock
+and Farmington, to Durango, where arrangements may be made with the
+Rio Grande Motor Way, Inc., for transportation to and from the park.
+
+The Cannon Ball Stage bus leaves Gallup each day at 11:30 a.m.,
+arriving at Durango at 4:45 p.m. Returning it leaves Durango at 8 a.m.
+and arrives at Gallup at 1 p.m. The fare from Gallup to Durango is $6
+one way and $10.80 for the round trip. The round trip fare to the park
+from Durango via the Rio Grande Motor Way, Inc., is $7.50.
+
+
+
+
+ ADMINISTRATION
+
+
+The Mesa Verde National Park is under the exclusive control of the
+National Park Service of the Department of the Interior, which is
+authorized to make rules and regulations and to establish such service
+as it may deem necessary for the care and management of the park and
+the preservation from injury or spoliation of the ruins and other
+remains of prehistoric man within the limits of the reservation.
+
+The National Park Service is represented in the actual administration
+of the park by a superintendent, who is assisted in the protection and
+interpretation of its natural and prehistoric features by a
+well-trained staff. The present superintendent is Jesse L. Nusbaum,
+and his post-office address is Mesa Verde National Park, Colo.
+
+The park season extends from May 15 to October 15, complete lodging
+and food accommodations and automobile stage service being available
+from June 15 to September 15. Informal lodging and meal accommodations
+are provided during the remainder of the park season.
+
+ [Illustration: HEADQUARTERS AREA]
+
+Exclusive jurisdiction over the park was ceded to the United States by
+act of the Colorado Legislature approved May 2, 1927, and accepted by
+Congress by act approved April 25, 1928. There is a United States
+Commissioner at park headquarters.
+
+Telegrams sent prepaid to Mancos, Colo., will be phoned to addressee
+at park office. The post-office address for parties within the park is
+Mesa Verde National Park, Colo.
+
+
+
+
+ EDUCATIONAL SERVICE
+
+
+Educational service, carefully planned to provide each visitor with an
+opportunity to interpret and appreciate the features of the Mesa
+Verde, is provided, without charge, by the Government. This service is
+directed by the park naturalist, who is assisted by a group of ranger
+naturalists.
+
+
+ GUIDED TRIPS TO THE RUINS
+
+During the season visitors are accompanied from the park museum to the
+various ruins by competent ranger naturalists. These men, well trained
+in the social and biological sciences, make it their duty to help the
+visitor understand the natural and archeological features of the Mesa
+Verde. Because of the need of protecting the ruins and the somewhat
+devious trails by which they are reached, no one will be allowed to
+enter any ruin except Spruce Tree House unless accompanied by a ranger
+naturalist.
+
+
+ CAMPFIRE TALKS
+
+Each evening at 8 o'clock informal talks are given at the campfire
+circle near park headquarters. The superintendent, the park
+naturalist, and members of the educational staff give talks on the
+archeology of the region. Visiting scientists, writers, lecturers, and
+noted travelers often contribute to the evening's entertainment. After
+the talks six of the best singers and dancers among the Navajo Indians
+employed in the park can usually be persuaded, by modest voluntary
+contributions on the part of the visitors, to give some of their songs
+and dances.
+
+
+ PARK MUSEUM
+
+The park museum houses very important and comprehensive collections of
+excavated cliff-dweller and basket maker material, as well as
+restricted collections of arts and crafts of modern Indians of the
+Southwest. These collections have been assembled through the conduct
+of excavations within the park and through loan or gift of materials
+by park friends or cooperating institutions. This material is arranged
+in a definite chronological order.
+
+By following through from the earliest culture to those of the present
+time a clear and concise picture of the former material cultures of
+the Mesa Verde and surrounding regions may be obtained.
+
+One room has been set aside for natural history exhibits exemplifying
+the geology, fauna, and flora of this peculiar mesa-canyon country.
+
+
+ REFERENCE LIBRARY
+
+A part of the museum is given over to an excellent reference library
+and reading room. This library consists of books on archeology and
+related natural history subjects pertaining to this interesting
+region. Visitors have access to these books on application to the
+museum assistant who is in charge. These books may not be removed from
+the reading room.
+
+
+
+
+ FREE PUBLIC CAMPGROUNDS
+
+
+The new public campgrounds are located in the piñons and junipers on
+the rim of Spruce Canyon only a few hundred feet from Spruce Tree
+Lodge and park headquarters. Individual party campsites have been
+cleared, and a protecting screen of shrubbery contributes to their
+privacy. Each site is provided with a fireplace, a table with seats,
+and a large level place for a tent. Good water has been piped to
+convenient places, and cut wood is provided without charge. Toilet
+facilities, showers, and laundry tubs are also provided. A ranger is
+detailed for duty in the campgrounds.
+
++Leave your campsite clean when you have finished with it.+
+
++Do not drive cars on, or walk over, the shrubbery.+
+
+The campground facilities at Mesa Verde have been greatly improved and
+expanded through the work of the Civilian Conservation Corps.
+
+Provisions for campers are obtainable at reasonable prices in any of
+the nearby towns. Groceries, gas, and oil can also be purchased at
+Spruce Tree Lodge.
+
+
+
+
+ HORSEBACK AND HIKING TRIPS
+
+
+Visitors who view the Mesa Verde from the automobile roads gain but an
+inkling of the weird beauty and surprises that this area holds for the
+more adventurous. Horseback and hiking trips along the rim rocks and
+into the canyons lead to spectacular ruins not seen from any of the
+roads. Such great ruins as Spring House, Long House, Kodak House, Jug
+House, Mug House, and Step House, as well as all of the ruins in the
+more remote canyons, can be reached by trail only. Each turn of the
+trail reveals entrancing vistas of rugged canyons, sheer cliffs, great
+caves, hidden ruins, distant mountains, tree-covered mesas, and open
+glades.
+
+In making these trips it is important that the hiker prepare himself
+with proper footwear, as the trails are very precipitous in places.
+
+
+
+
+ HOSPITAL AND MEDICAL SERVICE
+
+
+There is an excellent hospital at park headquarters where medical and
+surgical service is provided to care for all emergency cases. Prices
+are regulated by the Secretary of the Interior.
+
+
+
+
+ ACCOMMODATIONS AND EXPENSES
+
+
+At Spruce Tree Lodge, situated among the piñons and junipers
+over-looking Spruce, Spruce Tree, and Navajo Canyons, cottages may be
+rented at prices ranging from $1.25 to $2 a person per day and
+comfortable floored tents at 50 cents to $1 per day. Meals table
+d'hote are served at the following reasonable prices: Breakfast, 50
+cents to $1; luncheon, 55 cents to 85 cents; and dinner, 75 cents to
+$1.15. A la carte service is also available. Children: No charge under
+3; half rates from 3 to 8. The official season for Spruce Tree Lodge
+is from June 15 to September 15.
+
+The company also operates, for visitors who do not care to use their
+own cars or are without private transportation, automobile service to
+various ruins for $1 each round trip. A special evening trip to Park
+Point to see the spectacular sunset from the highest point in the park
+is $1.50 per person.
+
+ OUT-OF-SEASON ACCOMMODATIONS
+
+From May 15 to June 15 and from September 15 to October 15, cabins may
+be rented from the caretaker of Spruce Tree Lodge at the regular
+rates. Meals, with breakfast 50 cents, and luncheon and dinner 75
+cents, may be had at the Government dining hall. In nearby towns, less
+than an hour's drive from park headquarters, accommodations are also
+obtainable.
+
+ PACK AND SADDLE ACCOMMODATIONS
+
+Saddle horses, especially trained for mountain work, may be rented
+from the Mesa Verde Pack & Saddle Co. For short trips the rental is $1
+for the first hour and 50 cents for each additional hour. For short
+1-day trips for three persons or more the cost is $3.50 each; two
+persons $4 each; one person $6. Longer 1-day trips for experienced
+riders are available at $2 per person more than the rate for the
+shorter 1-day trips. All prices include guide service, and a slicker,
+canteen, and lunch bag are provided with each horse. Arrangements
+should be made the evening before the trip is taken.
+
+ [Illustration: A PARTY OFF FOR THE LESS-FREQUENTED TRAILS]
+
+ PACK TRIPS
+
+Nonscheduled pack trips to the more remote sections of the park may be
+arranged (2 days' notice is required) at prices ranging from $9 a day
+each for parties of five or more to $15 a day for one person. This
+includes a guide-cook and furnishes each person with one saddle horse,
+one pack horse, bed, tent, canteen, slicker, and subsistence for the
+trip. Three days is the minimum time for which these trips can be
+arranged.
+
+
+
+
+ REFERENCES[3]
+
+
+ CHAPIN, F. H. The Land of the Cliff Dwellers.[4] W. B. Clarke & Co.,
+ Boston, Mass. 1892. 187 pages.
+
+ DOUGLASS, DR. ANDREW ELLICOTT. The Secret of the Southwest Solved by
+ the Talkative Tree Rings, in National Geographic Magazine,
+ December 1929.[4]
+
+ FARIS, JOHN T. Roaming the Rockies. Farrar & Rinehart, Inc., New
+ York. 1930. Illustrated. 333 pages. Mesa Verde on pp. 193-203.
+
+ FEWKES, J. WALTER:
+
+ Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Spruce Tree House.[4]
+ (Bureau of American Ethnology Bull. 41, 1909. 57 pages,
+ illustrated.) (Out of print.)
+
+ Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Cliff Palace.[4]
+ (Bureau of American Ethnology Bull. 51, 1911. 82 pages,
+ illustrated.) (Out of print.)
+
+ Excavation and Repair of Sun Temple, Mesa Verde National Park.[4]
+ (Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 1916. 32
+ pages, illustrated.) (Out of print.)
+
+ A Prehistoric Mesa Verde Pueblo and Its People.[4] (Report of the
+ Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 1917. 26 pages.) (Out of
+ print.)
+
+ Prehistoric Villages, Castles, and Towers of Southwestern
+ Colorado.[4] (Bureau of American Ethnology Bull. 70. 1919. 79
+ pages text, 33 plates.)
+
+ GILLMOR, FRANCES, and WETHERILL, LOUISA Wade. Traders to the
+ Navahos.[4] Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston and New York. 1934.
+ Illustrated, 265 pages. Describes discovery of cliff dwellings by
+ Wetherill brothers.
+
+ HOLMES, WILLIAM H. Report on Ancient Ruins in Southwestern Colorado
+ Examined During Summers of 1875 and 1876. (Geological and
+ Geographical Survey of the Territories (Hayden), Tenth Report,
+ 1876, pp. 381-408, illustrated.)
+
+ ICKES, ANNA WILMARTH. Mesa Land.[4] Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston and
+ New York, 1933. Illustrated. 228 pages. Southwest in general. Mesa
+ Verde, pp. 100-101.
+
+ INGERSOLL, ERNEST. Reprint, first article. Mancos River Ruins, New
+ York Tribune. Nov. 3, 1874; in Indian Notes, vol. 5, no. 2, April
+ 1928, pp. 183-206, Museum of American Indian, Heye Foundation, New
+ York.[4]
+
+ JACKSON, W. H. The Pioneer Photographer.[4] World Book Co., 1929.
+
+ JEFFERS, LE ROY. The Call of the Mountains. 282 pages, illustrated.
+ Dodd, Mead & Co., 1922. Mesa Verde on pp. 96-111.
+
+ KANE, J. F. Picturesque America. 1935. 256 pp., illustrated.
+ Published by Frederick Gumbrecht, Brooklyn, N. Y. Mesa Verde on
+ pp. 121-124.
+
+ KIDDER, ALFRED VINCENT:
+
+ An introduction to the Study of Southwestern Archaeology.[4] 300
+ pages, illustrated. Yale University Press, 1924. Mesa Verde on pp.
+ 58-68.
+
+ Beautiful America--Our National Parks. 1924. 160 pages pictorial
+ views. Beautiful America Publishing Corporation, New York City.
+ Mesa Verde views pp. 58-68.
+
+ MILLS, ENOS A. Your National Parks. 1917. 532 pages, illustrated.
+ Mesa Verde National Park on pp. 161-174; 488-490.
+
+ MORRIS, ANN AXTELL. Digging in the Southwest.[4] Doubleday Doran
+ Co., 1933. Readable account of the trade secrets of a southwestern
+ archeologist.
+
+ NORDENSKIÖLD, G. The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde.[4] 1893. 171
+ pages, illustrated.
+
+ NUSBAUM, DERIC. Deric in Mesa Verde.[4] 1926. Illustrated. G. P.
+ Putnam's Sons. Knickerbocker Press.
+
+ ROLFE, MARY A. Our National Parks.[4] Book One. A supplementary
+ reader on the national parks for the fifth and sixth grade
+ students. Benj. H. Sanborn & Co. 1927. Illustrated. Mesa Verde on
+ pp. 221-234.
+
+ YARD, ROBERT STERLING:
+
+ The Top of the Continent. 1917. 244 pages, illustrated. Mesa Verde
+ National Park on pp. 44-62.
+
+ The Book of the National Parks. 1926. 444 pages, illustrated. Mesa
+ Verde National Park on pp. 284-304.
+
+
+ WHAT TO DO
+
+
++Things to See on Way from Park Entrance to Headquarters+
+
+ 3.5 miles--Top of first grade--Mancos Valley and La Plata Mountains.
+
+ 5 miles--Knife Edge Road--Montezuma Valley and Sleeping Ute Mountain.
+
+ 10.5 miles--Scenic road to Park Point, highest elevation within Mesa
+ Verde National Park, 8,572 feet above sea level; 2,200 feet above
+ the Montezuma Valley. Views into four States--Colorado, New
+ Mexico, Arizona, and Utah.
+
+ 16 miles--Pueblo III ruins on top of mesa--Far View House Ruin, Pipe
+ Shrine House Ruin, Far View Tower Ruin.
+
+ 18.5 miles--Cedar Tree Tower Ruin--road branches off to left.
+
+ 20 miles--Park headquarters. Park ranger will meet visitors' cars and
+ give information.
+
+
++Things to Do While on the Mesa Verde+
+
+ _Motor caravans to ruins--Daily. Use your own car. No charge for
+ ranger service_
+
+ 8 a.m.--Earth Lodge A, Square Tower House, Little Long House, Sun
+ Point, Fire Temple, Sun Temple. Return 11:15 a.m. Distance
+ 6 1/2 miles.
+
+ 10 a.m.--A shortened trip of morning route to accommodate late
+ comers. Return 11:15 a.m.
+
+ 1:30 p.m.--Cliff Palace, Rim Drive, Balcony House. Return 4:15 p.m.
+ Distance 7 miles.
+
+ 3 p.m.--A shortened trip of the 1:30 route to accommodate late
+ comers. Does not go through Cliff Palace but views this ruin from
+ the top of the mesa. Return 4:30 p.m.
+
+ _Motor caravan to park point--Daily. Use your own car_
+
+ 6:30 or 7 p.m.--Departure is timed to arrive at Park Point to view
+ colorful sunset. Ranger in charge will discuss the flora, geology,
+ and scenic points. Distance 21 miles.
+
+ _Campfire lecture--Daily_
+
+ 8 p.m.--Campfire circle at park headquarters. Archeological story of
+ the Southwest followed by Ceremonial dances by Navajo Indians at
+ about 9 p.m.
+
+
++Things to Do--Not on Regular Schedule+
+
+ Museum--Open from 8 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. A splendid collection of
+ material from the cliff ruins and other sections of the Southwest.
+
+ Community building--A display of cut wild flowers. Porch, with
+ comfortable chairs, overlooks Spruce Tree Ruin. Open at all times.
+
+ Spruce Tree Ruin--Below park headquarters. May be visited at your
+ leisure without guide. Ranger on duty in this ruin for
+ information.
+
+ Nature trail--The path to Spruce Tree Ruin has been prepared with a
+ series of signs explaining the flora and rock formations.
+
+ Horseback trips--Splendid trails lead in all directions. Large,
+ unexcavated ruins, magnificent canyons and mesas off the beaten
+ path unfold the charm of this primitive region. Rates are very
+ reasonable.
+
+ Hikes--To any section of the park can be arranged for with the park
+ naturalist. If sufficient numbers enroll for such hikes, a
+ naturalist guide will be provided.
+
+
++Accommodations+
+
+ At park headquarters, 20 miles from entrance. SPRUCE TREE
+ LODGE--Cabins, tents, meals, beverages, campers' supplies,
+ and curios. FREE GOVERNMENT CAMPGROUND--Firewood and water
+ furnished.
+
+
+ [Illustration: AREAS ADMINISTERED BY THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE]
+
+
+ * * * * * * *
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+ [1] Approximate dating. Exact dating by the methods
+ of tree-ring chronology is yet to be accomplished.
+
+ [2] The Secret of the Southwest Solved by Talkative Tree Rings,
+ by A. E. Douglass: National Geographic Magazine.
+ December 1929.
+
+ [3] For complete bibliography apply at the park museum or
+ write to the Superintendent, Mesa Verde National Park.
+
+ [4] Copies in Mesa Verde Museum Library.
+
+
+ * * * * * * *
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+
+With the exception of the following items, the text presented here
+matches the printed booklet which may include some inconsistancies
+with modern usage that were left unchanged:
+
+A. Rearranged Text:
+ Footnotes moved to the end of the text.
+
+B. Typographical Corrections:
+ Page ii - missing period after "(4,192 feet)"
+ Page iii - missing period after "Visitors"
+ Page 2 - comma moved out of quotes "The Mesa Verde region",
+
+C. Emphasis Notation:
+ _Text_ Italics
+ +Text+ Bold + Italics
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, by Anonymous
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MESA VERDE NATIONAL PARK, COLORADO ***
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