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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:04:46 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:04:46 -0700 |
| commit | fbbbba642d5700746d484a90c781d7480967a7fb (patch) | |
| tree | 1bec6d98ac8317f8120534539536ece43d7c1928 /35925-h | |
Diffstat (limited to '35925-h')
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diff --git a/35925-h/35925-h.htm b/35925-h/35925-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..50f5f2f --- /dev/null +++ b/35925-h/35925-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,21540 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= + "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume X Slice VI - Foraminifera to Fox, Edward. + </title> + + <style type="text/css"> + + body { margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%; text-align: justify; } + p { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;} + p.c { margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;} + p.noind { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 0; } + + h2,h3 { text-align: center; } + hr { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; 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vertical-align: top;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 10, Slice 6, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 6 + "Foraminifera" to "Fox, Edward" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 20, 2011 [EBook #35925] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME X SLICE VI<br /><br /> +Foraminifera to Fox, Edward</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">FORAMINIFERA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">FORT LEE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">FORBACH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">FORT MADISON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">FORTROSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">FORBES, ARCHIBALD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">FORT SCOTT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">FORBES, DAVID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">FORT SMITH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">FORBES, DUNCAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">FORTUNA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">FORBES, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">FORTUNATIANUS, ATILIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">FORBES, JAMES DAVID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">FORTUNATUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">FORBES, SIR JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">FORTUNATUS, VENANTIUS HONORIUS CLEMENTIANUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">FORBES</a> (town)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">FORTUNE, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">FORBES-ROBERTSON, JOHNSTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">FORTUNY, MARIANO JOSE MARIA BERNARDO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">FORBIN, CLAUDE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">FORT WAYNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">FORCELLINI, EGIDIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">FORT WILLIAM</a> (Ontario, Canada)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">FORCHHAMMER, JOHANN GEORG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">FORT WILLIAM</a> (Scotland)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">FORCHHAMMER, PETER WILHELM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">FORT WORTH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">FORCHHEIM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">FORTY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">FORUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">FORD, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">FORUM APPII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">FORD, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">FORUM CLODII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">FORD, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">FORUM TRAIANI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">FORDE, FRANCIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">FOSBROKE, THOMAS DUDLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">FORDHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">FOSCARI, FRANCESCO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">FORDUN, JOHN OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">FOSCOLO, UGO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">FORECLOSURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">FOSS, EDWARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">FOREIGN OFFICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">FOSSANO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">FORELAND, NORTH and SOUTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">FOSSANUOVA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">FORESHORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">FOSSE WAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">FORESTALLING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">FOSSICK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">FOREST LAWS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">FOSSOMBRONE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">FORESTS AND FORESTRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">FOSSOMBRONI, VITTORIO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">FOREY, ÉLIE FRÉDÉRIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">FORFAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">FORFARSHIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">FOSTER, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">FORFEITURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">FORGERY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">FORGET-ME-NOT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">FORGING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">FOSTORIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">FORK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">FOTHERGILL, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">FORKEL, JOHANN NIKOLAUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">FOTHERINGHAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">FORLÌ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">FOUCAULT, JEAN BERNARD LÉON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">FORLIMPOPOLI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">FOUCHÉ, JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">FORLORN HOPE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">FOUCHER, SIMON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">FORM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">FOUCQUET, JEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">FORMALIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">FOUGÈRES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">FORMAN, ANDREW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">FOUILLÉE, ALFRED JULES EMILE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">FORMAN, SIMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">FOULD, ACHILLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">FORMERET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">FOULIS, ANDREW and ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">FORMEY, JOHANN HEINRICH SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">FOULLON, JOSEPH FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">FORMIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">FOUNDATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">FORMIC ACID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">FOUNDATIONS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">FORMOSA</a> (territory of Argentine)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">FOUNDING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">FORMOSA</a> (Taiwan)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">FOUNDLING HOSPITALS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">FORMOSUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">FOUNTAIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">FORMULA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">FOUNTAINS ABBEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">FORNER, JUAN BAUTISTA PABLO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">FOUQUÉ, FERDINAND ANDRÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">FORRES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">FOUQUÉ, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH KARL DE LA MOTTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">FORREST, EDWIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">FOUQUET, NICOLAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">FORREST, SIR JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, ANTOINE QUENTIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">FORREST, NATHAN BEDFORD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">FOURCHAMBAULT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">FORSKÅL, PETER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">FORSSELL, HANS LUDVIG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">FOURIER, FRANÇOIS CHARLES MARIE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">FORST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">FOURIER, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">FORSTER, FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">FOURIER'S SERIES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">FÖRSTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">FOURMIES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">FOURMONT, ÉTIENNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">FORSTER, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">FOURNET, JOSEPH JEAN BAPTISTE XAVIER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">FORSTER, JOHN COOPER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">FOURNIER, PIERRE SIMON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">FOURNIER L’HÉRITIER, CLAUDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">FORSYTH, PETER TAYLOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">FOURTOU, MARIE FRANÇOIS OSCAR BARDY DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">FORTALEZA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">FOUSSA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">FORT AUGUSTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">FOWEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">FORT DODGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">FOWL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">FORT EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">FOWLER, CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN</a> (English lawyer)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">FOWLER, EDWARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN</a> (English statesman)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">FOWLER, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">FORTEVIOT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">FOWLER, SIR JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">FORT GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">FOWLER, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">FORTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">FOX, CHARLES JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">FOX, EDWARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">FORTLAGE, KARL</a></td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page628" id="page628"></a>628</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">FORAMINIFERA,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> in zoology, a subdivision of Protozoa, +the name selected for this enormous class being that given by +A. D’Orbigny in 1826 to the shells characteristic of the majority +of the species. He regarded them as minute Cephalopods, +whose chambers communicated by pores (foramina). Later +on their true nature was discovered by F. Dujardin, working +on living forms, and he referred them to his Rhizopoda, characterized +by pseudopodia given off from the sarcode (protoplasm) +as organs of prehension and locomotion. W.B. Carpenter +in 1862 differentiated the group nearly in its present limits as +“Reticularia”; and since then it has been rendered more natural +by the removal of a number of simple forms (mostly freshwater) +with branching but not reticulate pseudopods, to Filosa, a +distinct subclass, now united with Lobosa into the restricted +class of Rhizopoda.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:358px; height:274px" src="images/img628.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1A.</span>—<i>Lieberkühnia</i>, with reticulate pseudopodia.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Anatomy.</i>—Protista Sarcodina, with simple protoplasmic +bodies of <i>granular surface</i>, emitting processes which branch +and <i>anastomose freely</i>, either from the whole surface or from +one or more elongated processes (“stylopods”); nucleus one +or more (not yet demonstrated in some little known simple +forms), usually in genetic relation to granules or strands of +matter of similar composition, the “chromidia” scattered through +the protoplasm; body naked, or provided with a permanent +investment (shell or test), membranous, gelatinous, arenaceous +(of compacted or cemented granules), calcareous, or very rarely +(in deep sea forms) siliceous, sometimes freely perforated, but +<i>never latticed</i>; opening by one or more permanent apertures +(“pylomes”) or crevices between compacted sand-granules, +often very complex; reproduction by fission (only in simplest +naked forms), or by brood formation; in the latter case one +mode of brood formation (A) eventuates in amoebiform embryos, +the other (B) in flagellate zoospores which are exogamous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page629" id="page629"></a>629</span> +gametes, pairing but not with those of their own brood; the +coupled cell (“zygote”) when mature in the shelled species gives +rise to a very small primitive test-chamber or “microsphere.” The +adult microspheric animal gives rise to the amoebiform brood +which have a larger primitive test (“megalosphere”); and megalospheric +forms appear to reproduce by the A type a series of +similar forms before a B brood of gametes is finally borne, to +pair and reproduce the microspheric type, which is consequently +rare.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:469px; height:283px" src="images/img629a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 1B.</span>—<i>Protomyxa aurantiaca</i>, Haeck. (After Haeckel.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>1</i>, Adult, containing two diatom +frustules, and three Tintinnid +ciliates, with a large Dinoflagellate +just caught by the +expanded reticulate pseudopodia.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>2</i>, Adult encysted and segmented.</p> + +<p><i>3</i>, Flagellate zoospore just freed +from cyst.</p> + +<p><i>4</i>, Zoospore which has passed +into the amoeboid state.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:468px; height:1053px" src="images/img629b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—<i>Allogromiidea.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>1</i>, <i>Diplophrys archeri</i>, Barker.<br /> + + <i>a</i>, Nucleus.<br /> + <i>b</i>, Contractile vacuoles.<br /> + <i>c</i>, The yellow oil-like body. +Moor pools, Ireland.</p> + +<p><i>2</i>, <i>Allogromia oviformis</i>, Duj.<br /> + + <i>a</i>, The numerous nuclei; near +these the elongated bodies +represent ingested diatoms. +Freshwater. Figs. 2, 3, 11, +12 belong to Rhizopoda +Filosa, and are included +here to show the characteristic +<i>filose</i> pseudopodia in +contrast with the reticulate +spread of the others.</p> + +<p><i>3</i>, <i>Shepheardella taeniiformis</i>, +Siddall (<i>Quart. Jour. Micr. +Sci.</i>, 1880).<br /> + + Marine. The protoplasm is +retracted at both ends into +the tubular case.<br /> + + <i>a</i>. Nucleus.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>5</i>, <i>Shepheardella taeniiformis</i>; +with pseudopodia fully +expanded.</p> + +<p><i>6-10</i>, Varying appearance of the +nucleus as it is carried along +in the streaming protoplasm +within the tube.</p> + +<p><i>11</i>, <i>Amphitrema wrightianum</i>, +Archer, showing membranous +shell encrusted with foreign +particles. Moor pools, Ireland.</p> + +<p><i>12</i>, <i>Diaphorophodon mobile</i>, +Archer.<br /> + + <i>a</i>. Nucleus. Moor pools, Ireland.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The shells require special study. In the lowest forms they +are membranous, sometimes encrusted with sand-grains, always +very simple, the only complication being the doubling of the +pylome in <i>Diplophrys</i> (fig. 2, <i>1</i>), <i>Shepheardella</i> (fig. 2, <i>3-5</i>), +<i>Amphitrema</i> (fig. 2, <i>11</i>), <i>Diaphorophodon</i> (fig. 2, <i>12</i>). The marine +shells are, as we have seen, of cemented particles, or calcareous, +glassy, and regularly perforated, or again calcareous, but porcellanous +and rarely perforate. These characters have been used +as a guide to classification; but some sandy forms have so large +a proportion of calcareous cement that they might well be +called encrusted calcareous genera, and are also not very constant +in respect of the character of perforation. The porcellanous +genera, however, form a compact group, the replacement of the +shell by silica in forms dwelling in the red clay of the ocean +abysses, where calcium carbonate is soluble, not really making +any difficulty. Moreover, the shells of this group show a deflected +process or neck of the embryonic chamber (“camptopyle”) at +least in the megalospheric forms, whereas when such a neck +exists in other groups it is straight. The opening of the shell +is called the pylome. This may be a mere hole where the lateral +walls of the body end, or there may be a diaphragmatic ingrowth +so as to narrow the entrance. It may be a simple rounded +opening, oblong or tri-multi-radiate, or branching (fig. 4, <i>1</i>); +or replaced by a number of coarse pores (“ethmopyle”) (fig. +3, <i>5a</i>). Again, it may lie at the end of a narrowed tube +(“stylopyle”), which in <i>Lagena</i> (fig. 3, <i>9</i>) may project outwards +(“ectoselenial”), or inwards (“entoselenial”). In most groups +the stylopyle is straight; but in the majority of the porcellanous +shells it is bent down on the side of the shell, and constitutes +the “flexopyle” of A. Kemna, which being a hybrid term +should be replaced by “camptopyle.” The animal usually forms +a simple shell only after it has attained a certain size, and this +“embryonic chamber” cannot grow further. In <i>Spirillina</i> +and <i>Ammodiscus</i> there is no pylomic end-wall, and the shell +continues to grow as a spiral tube; in <i>Cornuspira</i> (fig. 3, <i>1</i>) +there is a slight constriction indicating the junction of a small +embryonic chamber with a camptopyle, but the rest of the shell +is a simple flat spiral of several turns. In the majority at least +one chamber follows the first, with its own pylome at the distal +end. This second chamber may rest on the first, so that the part +on which it rests serves as a party-wall bounding the front of +the newer chamber as well as the back of the older; and this +state prevails for all added chambers in such cases. In the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page630" id="page630"></a>630</span> +highest vitreous shells, however, each chamber has its complete +“proper wall”; while a “supplementary skeleton,” a deposit +of shelly matter, binds the chambers together into a compact +whole. In all cases the protoplasm from the pylome may +deposit additional matter on the outside of the shell, so as to +produce very characteristic sculpturing of the surface.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:462px; height:759px" src="images/img630a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Various forms of Calcareous Foraminifera.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>1</i>, <i>Cornuspira</i>.</p> +<p><i>2</i>, <i>Spiroloculina</i>.</p> +<p><i>3</i>, <i>Triloculina</i>.</p> +<p><i>4</i>, <i>Biloculina</i>.</p> +<p><i>5</i>, <i>Peneroplis</i>.</p> +<p><i>6</i>, <i>Orbiculina</i> (cyclical).</p> +<p><i>7</i>, <i>Orbiculina</i> (young).</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>8</i>, <i>Orbiculina</i> (spiral).</p> +<p><i>9</i>, <i>Lagena</i>.</p> +<p><i>10</i>, <i>Nodosaria</i>.</p> +<p><i>11</i>, <i>Cristellaria</i>.</p> +<p><i>12</i>, <i>Globigerina</i>.</p> +<p><i>13</i>, <i>Polymorphina</i>.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>14</i>, <i>Textularia</i>.</p> +<p><i>15</i>, <i>Discorbina</i>.</p> +<p><i>16</i>, <i>Polystomella</i>.</p> +<p><i>17</i>, <i>Planorbulina</i>.</p> +<p><i>18</i>, <i>Rotalia</i>.</p> +<p><i>19</i>, <i>Nonionina</i>.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:314px; height:373px" src="images/img630b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Modifications of <i>Peneroplis</i>. +<i>1</i>, <i>Dendritina</i>; <i>2</i>, <i>Eu-Peneroplis</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Compound or “polythalamic” shells derive their general +form largely from the relations of successive chambers in size, +shape and direction. This is well shown in the porcellanous +<i>Miliolidae</i>. If we call the straight line uniting the two ends of a +chamber the “polar axis,” we find that successive chambers +have their pylomes at alternate poles; but they lie on different +meridians. In <i>Spiroloculina</i> (fig. 3, <i>2</i>) the divergence between +the meridians is 180°, and the chambers are strongly incurved, +so that the whole shell forms a flat spiral, of nearly circular +outline. In the majority, however, the chambers are crescentic +in section, their transverse prolongations being termed “alary” +outgrowths, so that successive chambers overlap; when under +this condition the angle of successive meridians is still 180° +we have the form <i>Biloculina</i> (fig. 3, <i>4</i>), or with the alary extensions +completely enveloping, <i>Uniloculina</i>; when the angle is 120° +we have <i>Triloculina</i>, or 144°, <i>Quinqueloculina</i>. Again in <i>Peneroplis</i> +(figs. 3, <i>5</i>, and 4) the shell begins as a flattened shell which +tends to straighten out with further growth and additional +chambers. In some forms (<i>Spirolina</i>, fig. 22, <i>3</i>) the chambers +have a nearly circular transverse section, and the adult shell is +thus crozier-shaped. In others (which may have the same sculpture, +and are scarcely distinguishable as species) the chambers +are short and wide, +drawn out at right +angles to the axis, but +in the plane of the +spiral, and the growing +shell becomes fan-shaped +or “flabelliform” +(figs. 3, <i>5</i>, 4, <i>2</i>). +This widening may go +on till the outer chambers +form the greater +part of a circle, as in +<i>Orbiculina</i> (fig. 3, <i>6-8</i>) +where, moreover, each +large chamber is subdivided +by incomplete +vertical bulkheads into +a tier of chamberlets; +each chamberlet has a +distinct pylomic pore +opening to the outside +or to those of the next +outer zone. In <i>Orbitolites</i> (figs. 5, 6) we have a centre on a +somewhat Milioline type; and after a few chambers in spiral +succession, complete circles of chambers are formed. In the +larger forms the new zones are of greater height, and horizontal +bulkheads divide +the chamberlets +into vertical tiers, +each with its own +pylomic pore.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:410px; height:278px" src="images/img630c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Shell of simple type of <i>Orbitolites</i>, showing primordial +chamber <i>a</i>, and circumambient chamber <i>b</i>, surrounded by successive +rings of chamberlets connected by circular galleries which open at +the margin by pores.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:352px; height:349px" src="images/img630d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Animal of simple type of <i>Orbitolites</i>, +showing primordial segment <i>a</i>, and +circumambient segment <i>b</i>, surrounded by +annuli of sub-segments connected by radial +and circular stolon-processes.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Cheilostomellidae +(fig. 3, <i>13</i>) reproduce +among +perforate vitreous +genera what we +have already seen +in the <i>Miliolida</i>: +<i>Orbitoides</i> (fig. 10, <i>2</i>) +and <i>Cycloclypeus</i>, +among the Nummulite +group, with +a very finely perforate +wall, recall +the porcellanous +<i>Orbiculina</i> and +<i>Orbitolites</i>.</p> + +<p>In flat spiral +forms (figs. 22, <i>1, 7</i>; +3, <i>2, 16, 19</i>, &c.) all the chambers may be freely exposed; or the +successive chambers be wider transversely than their predecessors +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page631" id="page631"></a>631</span> +and overlap by “alary extensions,” becoming “nautiloid”; in +extreme cases only the +last turn or whorl is +seen (fig. 11). When +the spiral axis is conical +the shell may be “rotaloid,” +the larger lower +chambers partially concealing +the upper +smaller ones (fig. 3, <i>12, +15, 17, 18</i>); or they +may leave, as in <i>Patellina</i>, +a wide central +conical cavity—which, +in this genus, is finally +occupied by later +formed “supplementary” +chambers. When +the successive chambers +are disposed around a +longitudinal central +axis they may be said +to “alternate” like the leaves of a plant. If the arrangement +is distichous we get such forms as <i>Polymorphina</i>, <i>Textularia</i> +and <i>Frondicularia</i> (fig. 3, <i>13, 14</i>), if tristichous, <i>Tritaxia</i>. Such +an arrangement may coexist with a spiral twist of the axis for +at least part of its course, as in the crozier-shaped <i>Spiroplecta</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:326px; height:344px" src="images/img631a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Section of <i>Rotalia beccarii</i>, +showing the canal system, <i>a, b, c</i>, in the +substance of the intermediate skeleton; +<i>d</i>, tubulated chamber-wall.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:425px; height:268px" src="images/img631b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Internal cast of <i>Polystomella craticulata</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Retral processes, proceeding + from the posterior margin + of one of the segments.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, <i>b</i>¹, Smooth anterior margin of + the same segment.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, <i>c</i>¹, Stolons connecting successive + segments and uniting + themselves with the diverging + branches of the + meridional canals.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>d</i>, <i>d</i>¹, <i>d</i>², Three turns of one of + the spiral canals.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, <i>e</i>¹, <i>e</i>², Three of the meridional + canals.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, <i>f</i>¹, <i>f</i>², Their diverging + branches.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:467px; height:276px" src="images/img631c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—<i>Operculina</i> laid open, to show its internal structure.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Marginal cord seen in cross + section at a’.</p> +<p><i>b, b</i>, External walls of the chambers.</p> +<p><i>c, c</i>, Cavities of the chambers.</p> +<p><i>c</i>′, <i>c</i>′, Their alar prolongations.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>d, d</i>, Septa divided at d’, d’, and + at d”, so as to lay open the + interseptal canals, the + general distribution of + which is seen in the septa + <i>e, e</i>; the lines radiating + from <i>e, e</i> point to the + secondary pores.</p> +<p><i>g, g</i>, Non-tubular columns.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Two phenomena interfere with the ready availability of the +characters of form for classificatory ends—dimorphism and +multiformity.</p> + +<p><i>Dimorphism.</i>—The majority of foraminiferal shells show two +types, the rarer with a much smaller central chamber than that +of the more frequent. The chambers are called microsphere +and megalosphere, the forms in which they occur microsphaeric +and megalosphaeric forms, respectively. We shall study below +their relation to the reproductive cycle.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:424px; height:178px" src="images/img631d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—<i>1</i>, Piece of Nummulitic Limestone from the Pyrenees, +showing Nummulites laid open by fracture through the median +plane; <i>2</i>, vertical section of <i>Nummulite</i>; <i>3</i>, <i>Orbitoides</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:397px; height:210px" src="images/img631e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—Vertical section of portion of <i>Nummulites</i>, showing the +investment of the earlier whorls by the alar prolongations of the +later.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Marginal cord.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Chamber of outer whorl.</p> +<p><i>c, c</i>, Whorl invested by <i>a</i>.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, One of the chambers of the + fourth whorl from the + margin.</p> +<p><i>e, e</i>′, Marginal portions of the enclosed + whorls.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>f</i>, Investing portion of the + outer whorl.</p> +<p><i>g, g</i>, Spaces left between the investing + portions of successive + whorls.</p> +<p><i>h, h</i>, Sections of the partitions + dividing these.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:288px; height:197px" src="images/img631f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>—Internal surface of wall +of two chambers, <i>a, a</i>, of <i>Nummulites</i>, +showing the orifices of its minute +tubuli.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>b, b</i>, The septa containing canals.</p> +<p><i>c, c</i>, Extensions of these canals in the + intermediate skeleton.</p> +<p><i>d, d</i>, Larger pores.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Multiformity.</i>—Many of the Polythalamia show different +types of chamber-succession at different ages. We have noted +this phenomenon in such crozier forms as <i>Peneroplis</i>, as well as +in discoid forms; it is very frequent. Thus the microspheric +<i>Biloculina</i> form the first few chambers in quinqueloculine +succession. The microspheric forms attain to a greater size +when adult than the megalospheric; and in <i>Orbitolites</i> the +microsphere has a straight +outlet, orthostyle, instead +of the deflected camptostyle +one, so general in +porcellanous types; and +the spiral succession is continued +for more turns before +reaching the fan-shaped +and finally cyclic stage. +<i>Globigerina</i>, whose chambers +are nearly spherical, +is sometimes seen to be +enclosed in a spherical test, +perforate, but without a +pylome, and known as +<i>Orbulina</i>; the chambered +Globigerina-shell is +attached at first inside the +wall of the <i>Orbulina</i>, but ultimately disappears. The ultimate +fate of the <i>Orbulina</i> shell is unknown; but it obviously marks +a turning-point in the life-cycle.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:254px; height:268px" src="images/img632a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—Internal cast of two +chambers, <i>a, a</i>, of <i>Nummulites</i>, the +radial canals between them passing +into <i>b</i>, marginal plexus.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Protoplasmic Body and Reproduction.</i>—The protoplasm is not +differentiated into ecto- and endosarc, although it is often denser +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page632" id="page632"></a>632</span> +in the central part within the shell, and clearer in the pseudopodial +ramifications and the layer (or stalk in the monothalamic forms) +from which it is given off. In pelagic forms like <i>Globigerina</i> the +external layer is almost if not quite identical in structure with the +extracapsular protoplasm of Radiolaria (<i>q.v.</i>), being differentiated +into granular strands traversing a clear jelly, rich in large vacuoles +(alveoli), and uniting outside the jelly to form the basal layer of the +pseudopods; these again are radiolarian in character. Hence E.R. +Lankester justly enough compares the shell here to the central +capsule of the Radiolarian, though the comparison must not be +pushed too far. The cytoplasm +contains granules of +various kinds, and the internal +protoplasm is sometimes +pigmented. The Chrysomonad +Flagellate, <i>Zooxanthella</i>, +so abundant in its +resting state—the so-called +“yellow cells”—in the extracapsular +protoplasm of +Radiolaria (<i>q.v.</i>) also occurs +in the outer protoplasm of +many Foraminifera, not only +pelagic but also bottom-dwellers, +such as <i>Orbitolites</i>.</p> + +<p>The nucleus is single in the +Nuda and Allogromidia and +in the megalospheric forms +of higher Foraminifera; but +microspheric forms when +adult contain many simple +similar nuclei. The nucleus +in every case gives off +granules and irregular masses (“chromidia”) of similar reactions, +which play an important part in reproduction. During +the maturation of the microsphere the nuclei disappear; and the +cytoplasm breaks up into a large number of zoospores, each +of which is soon provided with a single nucleus, whether entirely +derived from the parent-nucleus or from the coalescence of chromidia, +or from both these sources is still uncertain. These zoospores are +amoeboid; they soon secrete a shell and reveal themselves as +megalospheres, the original state of the megalospheric forms. In +the adult megalosphere the solitary nucleus disappears and is replaced +by hosts of minute vesicular nuclei, formed by the concentration +of chromidia. Each nucleus aggregates around it a proper +zone of dense protoplasm; by two successive mitotic divisions each +mass becomes quadri-nucleate, and splits up into four biflagellate, +uninucleate zoospores. These are pairing-cells or gametes, though +they will not pair with members of the same brood. In the zygote +resulting from pairing two nuclei soon fuse into one; but this again +divides into two; an embryonic shell is secreted, and this is the +microspheric type, which is multinuclear from the first. F. +Schaudinn compares the nuclei of the adult Foraminifera with the +(vegetative) meganucleus of Infusora (<i>q.v.</i>) and the chromidial mass +with the micronucleus, whose chief function is reproductive.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:405px; height:188px" src="images/img632b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>—Vertical section of tubulated chamber-walls, <i>a, a</i>, of +<i>Nummulites</i>. <i>b, b</i>, Marginal cord; <i>c</i>, cavity of chamber; <i>d, d</i>, non-tubulated +columns.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Since megalospheric forms are by far the most abundant, it seems +probable that under most conditions they also give rise to megalospheric +young like themselves; and that the production of zoospores, +pairing to pass into the microspheric form, is only occasional, and +possibly seasonal. This life-history we owe to the researches of +Schaudinn and J.J. Lister.</p> + +<p>In several species (notably <i>Patellina</i>) plastogamy, the union of +the cytoplasmic bodies without nuclear fusion, has been noted, as +a prelude to the resolution of the conjoined protoplasm into uninucleate +amoebulae.</p> + +<p><i>Calcituba</i>, a porcellanous type, which after forming the embryonic +chamber with its deflected pylome grows into branching stems, +may fall apart into sections, or the protoplasm may escape and +break up into small amoebulae. Of the reproduction of the simplest +forms we know little. In <i>Mikrogromia</i> the cell undergoes fission +within the test, and on its completion the daughter-cells may +emerge as biflagellate zoospores.</p> + +<p>The sandy shells are a very interesting series. In <i>Astrorhiza</i> the +sand grains are loosely agglutinated, without mineral cement; +they leave numerous pores for the exit of the protoplasm, and there +are no true pylomes. In other forms the union of the grains by a +calcareous or ferruginous cement necessitates the existence of +distinct pylomes. Many of the species reproduce the varieties of +form found in calcareous tests; some are finely perforated, others +not. Many of the larger ones have their walls thickened internally +and traversed by complex passages; this structure is called <i>labyrinthic</i> +(fig. 19, <i>g, h</i>). The shell of <i>Endothyra</i>, a form only known to +us by its abundance in Carboniferous and Triassic strata, is largely +composed of calcite and is sometimes perforated.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:428px; height:201px" src="images/img632c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—<i>Cycloclypeus</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p>It is noteworthy that though of similar habitat each species selects +its own size or sort of sand, some utilizing the siliceous spicules of +sponges. Despite the roughness of the materials, they are often +so laid as to yield a perfectly smooth inner wall; and sometimes +the outer wall may be as simple. As we can find no record of a +deflected stylopyle to the primitive chamber of the polythalamous +Arenacea, it is safe to conclude that they have no close alliance with +the Porcellanea.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Classification.</i></p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>I. <span class="sc">Nuda.</span>—Protoplasmic body without any pellicle or shell save +in the resting encysted condition, sometimes forming +colonial aggregates by coalescence of pseudopods (<i>Myxodictyum</i>), +or even plasmodia (<i>Protomyxa</i>). Brood cells at +first uniflagellate or amoeboid from birth. Fresh-water +and marine genera <i>Protogenes</i> (Haeckel), <i>Biomyxa</i> (Leidy), +<i>Myxodictyum</i> (Haeckel), <i>Protomyxa</i> (Haeckel) (fig. 1B).<br /><br /> + + This group of very simple forms includes many of +Haeckel’s Monera, defined as “cytodes,” masses of protoplasm +without a nucleus. A nucleus (or nuclei) has, +however, been demonstrated by improved methods of +staining in so many that it is probable that this distinction +will fall to the ground.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:293px; height:295px" src="images/img632d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>—<i>Heterostegina</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p>II. <span class="sc">Allogromidiaceae</span> (figs. 1A, <i>2</i>).—Protoplasmic body protected +in adult state by an imperforate test with one or two +openings (pylomes) for the exit of the stylopod; test +simple, gelatinous, membranous, sometimes incrusted with +foreign bodies, +never calcareous +nor arenaceous; +reproduction by +fission alone +known. Fresh-water +or marine +genera <i>Allogromia</i> +(Rhumbl.), <i>Myxotheca</i> +(Schaud.), +<i>Lieberkühnia</i> (Cl. +& L.) (fig. 1A), +<i>Shepheardella</i> +(Siddall) (fig. 2, +<i>3-10</i>), <i>Diplophrys</i> +(Barker), <i>Amphitrema</i> +(Arch.) (fig. +2, <i>11</i>), Diaphorophodon +(Arch.) (fig. +2, <i>12</i>), are possibly +Filosa. This +group differs from the preceding in its simple test, but, +like it, includes many fresh-water species, which possess +contractile vacuoles.</p> + +<p>III. <span class="sc">Astrorhizidiaceae.</span>—Simple forms, rarely polythalamous +(some <i>Rhabdamminidae</i>), but often branching or radiate; +test arenaceous, loosely compacted and traversed by chinks +for pseudopodia (<i>Astrorhizidae</i>), or dense, and opening by +one or more terminal pylomes at ends of branches. Marine, +4 Fam. The test of some <i>Astrorhizidae</i> is so loose that it +falls to pieces when taken out of water. <i>Haliphysema</i> is +remarkable for its history in relation to the “gastraea +theory.” <i>Pilulina</i> has a neat globular shell of sponge-spicules +and fine sand. Genera, <i>Astrorhiza</i> (Sandahl) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page633" id="page633"></a>633</span> +(fig. 22), <i>Pilulina</i> (Carptr.) (fig. 19), <i>Saccammina</i> (Sars) +(fig. 19), <i>Rhabdammina</i> (Sars), <i>Botellina</i> (Carptr.), <i>Haliphysema</i> +(Bowerbank) (fig. 22).</p> + +<p>IV. <span class="sc">Lituolidaceae</span>.—Shell arenaceous, usually fine-grained, +definite and often polythalamic, recalling in structure +calcareous forms. <i>Lituola</i> (Lamk.) (fig. 19), <i>Endothyra</i> +(Phil.), <i>Ammodiscus</i> (Reuss), <i>Loftusia</i> (Brady), <i>Haplophragmium</i> +(Reuss) (fig. 22), <i>Thurammina</i> (Brady) (fig. 22).</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:652px; height:863px" src="images/img633a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">Modified from F. Schaudinn, in Lang’s Zoologie.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 17.—Life Cycle of <i>Polystomella crispa</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>A</i>, Young megalospheric individual.</p> +<p><i>B</i>, Adult decalcified.</p> +<p><i>C</i>, Later stage, resolving itself into two + flagellate gametes.</p> +<p><i>D</i>, Conjugation.</p> +<p><i>E</i>, Microspheric individual produced from zygote.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>F</i>, The same resolved itself into pseudopodiospores + which are growing into + new megalospheric individuals.</p> +<p><i>1</i>, Principal nucleus, and <i>2</i>, subsidiary + nuclei of megalospheric form.</p> +<p><i>3</i>, Nuclei.</p> +<p><i>4</i>, Nuclei in multiple division.</p> +<p><i>5</i>, Chromidia derived from <i>4</i>.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">V. <span class="sc">Miliolidaceae</span>.—Shells porcellanous imperforate, almost +invariably with a camptostyle leading from the embryonic +chamber; <i>Cornuspira</i> (Schultze) (fig. 3); <i>Miliola</i> (Lamk.), +including as subgenera <i>Spiroloculina</i> (d’Orb.) (figs. 3 and +22); <i>Triloculina</i> (d’Orb.) (fig. 3); <i>Biloculina</i> (d’Orb.) +(fig. 3); <i>Uniloculina</i> (d’Orb.); <i>Quinqueloculina</i> (d’Orb.); +<i>Peneroplis</i> (Montfort) (figs. 22, <i>3</i>; 3), with form <i>Dendritina</i> +(fig. 4, <i>1</i>); <i>Orbiculina</i> (Lamk.) (fig. 3, 6-8); <i>Orbitolites</i> +(Lamk.) (figs. 5, 6); <i>Vertebralina</i> (d’Orb.) (fig. 22); +<i>Squamulina</i> (Sch.) (fig. 22); <i>Calcituba</i> (Schaudinn).</p> + +<p>VI. <span class="sc">Textulariadaceae</span>.—Shells perforate, vitreous or (in the +larger forms) arenaceous, in two or three alternating ranks +(distichous or tristichous). <i>Textularia</i> (Defrance) (fig. +21).</p> + +<p>VII. <span class="sc">Cheilostomellaceae</span>.—Shells vitreous, thin, the chambers +doubling forwards and backwards as in <i>Miliolidae</i>. <i>Cheilostomella</i> +(Reuss).</p> + +<p>VIII. <span class="sc">Lagenidaceae</span>.—Shells vitreous, often sculptured, mono- +or polythalamic, finely perforate; chambers flask-shaped, +with a protruding or an inturned stylopyle; <i>Lagena</i> +(Walker & Boys) (fig. 4, <i>9</i>); <i>Nodosaria</i> (Lamk.) (figs. +23, <i>4</i>; 4, <i>10</i>); <i>Polymorphina</i> (d’Orb.) (fig. 4, <i>13</i>); +<i>Cristellaria</i> (Lamk.) (fig. 4, <i>11</i>); <i>Frondicularia</i> (Def.) +(fig. 23, <i>3</i>).</p> + +<p>IX. <span class="sc">Globigerinidaceae</span>.—Shells vitreous, coarsely perforated; +chambers few spheroidal rapidly increasing in size; +arranged in a trochoid or nautiloid spiral. <i>Globigerina</i> +(Lamk.) (23, <i>6</i>; 4, <i>12</i>); <i>Hastigerina</i> +(Wyville Thompson) (fig. 23, <i>5</i>); <i>Orbulina</i> +(d’Orb.) (fig. 23, <i>8</i>).</p> + +<p>X. <span class="sc">Rotalidaceae</span>.—Shells vitreous, finely +perforate; walls thick, often double, +but without an intermediate party-layer +traversed by canals; form usually +spiral or trochoid. <i>Discorbina</i> (Parker +& Jones) (fig. 4, <i>15</i>); <i>Planorbulina</i> +(d’Orb.) (fig. 4, <i>17</i>); <i>Rotalia</i> (Lamk.) +(figs. 23, <i>1, 2</i>; 7, <i>21</i>); <i>Calcarina</i> (d’Orb.) +(fig. 23, <i>10</i>); <i>Polytrema</i> (Risso) (fig. +23, <i>9</i>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:316px; height:397px" src="images/img633b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.—<i>Biloculina depressa</i> d’Orb., transverse +sections showing dimorphism. (From Lister.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>a</i>, Megalospheric shell × 50, showing uniform + growth, biloculine throughout.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Microspheric shell × 90, showing multiform + growth, quinqueloculine at first, and then + multiform.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">XI. <span class="sc">Nummulinidaceae</span>.—As in Rotalidaceae, +but with a thicker finely perforated +shell, often well developed, and a supplementary +skeleton traversed by branching +canals as an additional party-wall +between the proper chamber-walls. +<i>Nonionina</i> (d’Orb.) (fig. 4, <i>19</i>); <i>Fusulina</i> +(Fischer) (fig. 20); <i>Polystomella</i> +(Lamk.) (figs. 4, <i>16</i>; 8); <i>Operculina</i> +(d’Orb.) (fig. 9); <i>Heterostegina</i> (d’Orb.) +(fig. 16); <i>Cycloclypeus</i> (Carptr.) (fig. +15); <i>Nummulites</i> (Lamk.) (figs. 10, 11, +12, 13, 14).</p></div> + +<p>“<i>Eozoon canadense</i>,” described as a species of this +order by J.W. Dawson and Carpenter, has been +pronounced by a series of enquirers, most of whom +started with a belief in its organic structure, to be merely a complex +mineral concretion in ophicalcite, a rock composed of an +admixture of silicates (mostly serpentine and pyroxene) and +calcite.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Distribution in Vertical Space</i>.—Owing to their lack of +organs for active locomotion the Foraminifera are all crawling or +attached, with the exception of a few genera (very rich in species, +however) which float near the surface of the ocean, constituting +part of the pelagic plankton (<i>q.v.</i>). Thus the majority are +littoral or deep-sea, sometimes attached to other bodies or even +burrowing in the tests of other Foraminifera; most of the +fresh-water forms are sapropelic, inhabiting the layer of organic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page634" id="page634"></a>634</span> +débris at the surface of the bottom mud ditches of pools, ponds +and lakes. The deep-sea species below a certain depth cannot +possess a calcareous shell, for this would be dissolved; and it +is in these that we find limesalts sometimes replaced by silica.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:521px; height:752px" src="images/img634a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>—Arenaceous Foraminifera.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Exterior of <i>Saccammina</i>.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, The same laid open.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Portion of test more highly + magnified.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, <i>Pilulina</i>.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>e</i>, Portion of test more highly magnified.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Nautiloid <i>Lituola</i>, exterior.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Chambered interior.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Portion of labyrinthic chamber + wall, showing component + sand-grains.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:525px; height:293px" src="images/img634b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>—Section of <i>Fusulina</i> Limestone.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:415px; height:414px" src="images/img634c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>—Microscopic Organisms in Chalk from Gravesend. +<i>a, b, c, d</i>, <i>Textularia globulosa</i>; <i>e, e, e, e</i>, <i>Rotalia aspera</i>; <i>f</i>, <i>Textularia +aculeata</i>; <i>g</i>, <i>Planularia hexas</i>; <i>h</i>, <i>Navicula</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The pelagic floating genera are also specially modified. Their +shell is either thin or extended many times by long slender +tapering spines, and the protoplasm outside has the same +character as that of the Radiolaria (<i>q.v.</i>), being differentiated +into jelly containing enormous vacuoles and traversed by +reticulate strands of granular protoplasm. These coalesce +into a peripheral zone from which protrude the pseudopods, +here rather radiate than reticulate. Most genera and +most species are cosmopolitan; but local differences are often +marked. Foraminifera abound in the shore sands and the +crevices of coral reefs. The membranous shelled forms decay +without leaving traces. The sandy or calcareous shells of dead +Foraminifera constitute a large proportion of littoral sand, +both below and above tide marks; and, as shown in the boring +on Funafuti, enter largely into the constituents of coral rock. +They may accumulate in the mud of the bottom to constitute +Foraminiferal ooze. The source of these shells in the latter +case is double: (1) shells of bottom-dwellers accumulate on the +spot; (2) shells of dead plankton forms sink down in a continuous +shower, to form a layer at the bottom of the ocean, during which +process the spines are dissolved by the sea-water. Thus is +formed an ooze known as “Globigerina-ooze,” being formed +largely of that genus and its ally <i>Hastigerina</i>; below 3000 fathoms +even the tests themselves are dissolved. Casts of their bodies +in glauconite (a green ferrous silicate, whose composition has +not yet been accurately determined) are, however, frequently left. +Glauconitic casts of perforate shells, notably <i>Globigerina</i>, have +been found in Lower Cambrian (<i>e.g.</i> Hollybush Sandstone), +and the shells themselves in Siberian limestones of that age. +It is only when we pass into the Silurian Wenlock limestone +that sandy shells make their appearance. Above this horizon +Foraminifera are more abundant as constituents, partial or +principal of calcareous rocks, the genus <i>Endothyra</i> being indeed +almost confined to Carboniferous beds. The genus <i>Fusulina</i> +(fig. 20) and <i>Saccammina</i> (fig. 19) give their names (from their +respective abundance) to two limestones of the Carboniferous +series. Porcellanous shells become abundant only from the +Lias upwards. The glauconitic grains of the Greensand formations +are chiefly foraminiferal casts. Chalk is well known to +consist largely of foraminiferal shells, mostly vitreous, like +the north Atlantic globigerina ooze. In the Maestricht chalk +more littoral conditions prevailed, and we find such large-sized +species as <i>Orbitoides</i> (vitreous) and <i>Orbitolites</i> (porcellanous; +figs. 5, 6), &c. In the Eocene Tertiaries the Calcaire Grossier of +the Paris basin is mainly composed of Miliolid forms. Nummulites +occur in English beds and in the Paris basin; but the +great beds of these, forming reef-like masses of limestone, occur +farther south, extending from the Pyrenees through the southern +and eastern Alps to Egypt, Sinai, and on to north India. The +peculiar structure occurring in the Lower Laurentian limestone, +as well as other limestones of Archean age described as a Nummulitaceous +genus, “<i>Eozoon</i>,” by Carpenter and Dawson, and +abundantly illustrated in the 9th edition of his encyclopaedia, +is now universally regarded as of inorganic origin. “Looking +at the almost universal diffusion of existing Foraminifera and +the continuous accumulation of their shells over vast areas of +the ocean-bottom, they are certainly doing more than any other +group of organisms to separate carbonate of lime from its solution +in sea-water, so as to restore to the solid crust of the earth what +is being continuously withdrawn from it by solution of the +calcareous materials of the land above sea-level.” (E.R. Lankester, +“Protozoa,” <i>Ency. Brit.</i> 9th ed.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page635" id="page635"></a>635</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:480px; height:1049px" src="images/img635a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>—Imperforata.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> +<p><i>1</i>, <i>Spiroloculina planulata</i>, Lamarck, showing five “coils”; porcellanous.</p> + +<p><i>2</i>, Young ditto, with shell dissolved and protoplasm stained so as to show the seven +nuclei n.</p> + +<p><i>3</i>, <i>Spirolina</i> (<i>Peneroplis</i>); a sculptured imperfectly coiled shell; porcellanous.</p> + +<p><i>4</i>, <i>Vertebralina</i>, a simple shell consisting of chambers succeeding one another in a +straight line; porcellanous.</p> + +<p><i>5, 6</i>, <i>Thurammina papillata</i>, Brady, a sandy form. 5 is broken open so as to show +an inner chamber; recent. × 25.</p> + +<p><i>7</i>, <i>Haplophragmium canariensis</i>, a sandy form; recent.</p> + +<p><i>8</i>, Nucleated reproductive bodies (bud-spores) of <i>Haliphysema</i>.</p> + +<p><i>9</i>, <i>Squamulina laevis</i>, M. Schultze; × 40; a simple porcellanous Miliolide.</p> + +<p><i>10</i>, Protoplasmic core removed after treatment with weak chromic acid from the shell +of <i>Haliphysema tumanovitzii</i>, Bow. n, Vesicular nuclei, stained with haematoxylin. +(After Lankester.)</p> + +<p><i>11</i>, <i>Haliphysema tumanovitzii</i>; × 25 diam.; living specimen, showing the wine-glass-shaped +shell built up of sand-grains and sponge-spicules, and the abundant protoplasm +p, issuing from the mouth of the shell and spreading partly over its projecting +constituents.</p> + +<p><i>12</i>, Shell of <i>Astrorhiza limicola</i>, Sand.; × <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span>; showing the branching of the test on +some of the rays usually broken away in preserved specimens (original).</p> + +<p><i>13</i>, Section of the shell of <i>Marsipella</i>, showing thick walls built of sand-grains.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:477px; height:1050px" src="images/img635b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>—Perforata.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p><i>1</i>, Spiral arrangement of simple chambers of a Reticularian shell, as in small <i>Rotalia</i>.</p> + +<p><i>2</i>, Ditto, with double septal walls, and supplemental shell-substance (shaded), as in +large <i>Rotalia</i>.</p> + +<p><i>3</i>, Diagram to show the mode in which successively-formed chambers may completely +embrace their predecessors, as in <i>Frondicularia</i>.</p> + +<p><i>4</i>, Diagram of a simple straight series of non-embracing chambers, as in <i>Nodosaria</i>.</p> + +<p><i>5</i>, <i>Hastigerina murrayi</i>, Wyv. Thomson, <i>a</i>, Bubbly (vacuolated) protoplasm, enclosing +<i>b</i>, the perforated <i>Globigerina</i>-like shell (conf. central capsule of Radiolaria). +From the peripheral protoplasm project, not only fine pseudopodia, but hollow spines of +calcareous matter, which are set on the shell, and have an axis of active protoplasm. +Pelagic; drawn in the living state.</p> + +<p><i>6</i>, <i>Globigerina bulloides</i>, d’Orb., showing the punctiform perforations of the shell and +the main aperture.</p> + +<p><i>7</i>, Fragment of the shell of <i>Globigerina</i>, seen from within, and highly magnified, <i>a</i>, +Fine perforations in the inner shell substances; <i>b</i>, outer (secondary) shell substance. +Two coarser perforations are seen in section, and one lying among the smaller.</p> + +<p><i>8</i>, <i>Orbulina universa</i>, d’Orb. Pelagic example, with adherent radiating calcareous +spines (hollow), and internally a small <i>Globigerina</i> shell. It is probably a developmental +phase of <i>Globigerina</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>Orbulina</i> shell; <i>b</i>, <i>Globigerina</i> shell.</p> + +<p><i>9</i>, <i>Polytrema miniaceum</i>, Lin.; × 12. Mediterranean. Example of a branched +adherent calcareous perforate Recticularian.</p> + +<p><i>10</i>, <i>Calcarina spengleri</i>, Gmel.; × 10. Tertiary, Sicily. Shell dissected so as to +show the spiral arrangement of the chambers, and the copious secondary shell substance. +<i>a</i>², <i>a</i>³, <i>a</i><span class="sp">4</span>, Chambers of three successive coils in section, showing the thin primary wall +(finely tubulate) of each; <i>b, b, b, b</i>, perforate surfaces of the primary wall of four tiers +of chambers, from which the secondary shell substance has been cleared away; <i>c</i>′, <i>c</i>′, +secondary or intermediate shell substance in section, showing coarse canals; <i>d</i>, section +of secondary shell substance at right angles to <i>c</i>′; <i>e</i>, tubercles of secondary shell substance +on the surface; <i>f, f</i>, club-like processes of secondary shell substance.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page636" id="page636"></a>636</span></p> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Historical.</i>—The Foraminifera were discovered as we have +seen by A. d’Orbigny. C.E. Ehrenberg added a large number +of species, but it was to F. Dujardin in 1835 that we owe the +recognition of their true zoological position and the characters +of the living animal. W.B. Carpenter and W.C. Williamson +in England contributed largely to the study of the shell, the +latter being the first to call attention to its multiform character +in the development of a single species, and to utilize the method +of thin sections, which has proved so fertile in results. W.K. +Parker and H.B. Brady, separately, and in collaboration, +described an enormous number of forms in a series of papers, +as well as in the monograph by the latter of the Foraminifera +of the “Challenger” expedition. Munier-Chalmas and Schlumberger +brought out the fact of dimorphism in the group, which +was later elucidated and incorporated in the full cytological +study of the life-cycle of Foraminifera by J.J. Lister and F. +Schaudinn, independently, but with concurrent results.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—The chief recent books are: F. Chapman, <i>The +Foraminifera</i> (1902), and J.J. Lister, “The Foraminifera,” in E.R. +Lankester’s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i> (1903), in which full bibliographies +will be found. For a final résumé of the long controversy on Eozoon, +see George P. Merrill in <i>Report of the U.S. National Museum</i> (1906), +p. 635. Other classifications of the Foraminifera will be found by +G.H. Theodor Eimer and C. Fickert in <i>Zeitschr. für wissenschaftliche +Zoologie</i>, lxv. (1899), p. 599, and L. Rhumbler in <i>Archiv für Protistenkunde</i>, +iii. (1903-1904); the account of the reproduction is based on +the researches of J.J. Lister, summarized in the above-cited work, +and of F. Schaudinn, in <i>Arbeiten des kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamts</i>, +xix. (1903). We must also cite W.B. Carpenter, W.K. Parker and +T. Rymer Jones, <i>Introduction to the Study of the Foraminifera</i> (Ray +Society) (1862); W.B. Carpenter, “Foraminifera,” in <i>Ency. Brit.</i>, +9th ed.; W.C. Williamson, <i>On the Recent Foraminifera of Great +Britain</i> (Ray Society), (1858); H.B. Brady, “The Foraminifera,” +in <i>Challenger Reports</i>, ix. (1884); A. Kemna, in <i>Ann. de la soc. +royale zoologique et malacologique de Belgique</i>, xxxvii. (1902), p. 60; +xxxix. (1904), p. 7.</p> + +<p><i>Appendix.</i>—The <span class="sc">Xenophyophoridae</span> are a small group of bottom-dwelling +Sarcodina which show a certain resemblance to arenaceous +Foraminifera, though observations in the living state show that the +character of the pseudopodia is lacking. The multinucleate protoplasm +is contained in branching tubes, aggregated into masses of +definite form, bounded by a common wall of foreign bodies (sponge +spicules, &c.) cemented into a membrane. The cytoplasm contains +granules of BaSO<span class="su">4</span> and pellets of faecal matter. All that is known +of reproduction is the resolution of the pellets into uninucleate cells. +(F.E. Schultze, <i>Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition</i>, +vol. xi., 1905, pt. i.)</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. Ha.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORBACH,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a town of Germany in the imperial province of +Alsace-Lorraine, on an affluent of the Rossel, and on the railway +from Metz to Saarbrücken, 5½ m. S.W. of the latter. Pop. +(1905) 8193. It has a Protestant and a Roman Catholic (Gothic) +church, a synagogue and a Progymnasium. Its industries +include the manufacture of tiles, pasteboard wares and gardening +implements, while there are coal mines in the vicinity. After +the battle on the neighbouring heights of Spicheren (6th of August +1870), in which the French under General Frossard were defeated +by the Germans under General von Glümer, the town was occupied +by the German troops, and at the conclusion of the war annexed +to Germany. On the Schlossberg near the town are the ruins +of the castle of the counts of Forbach, a branch of the counts of +Saarbrücken.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Besler, <i>Geschichte des Schlosses, der Herrschaft und der Stadt +Forbach</i> (1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1817-1875), Scottish +divine, was born at Edinburgh on the 6th of June 1817. He +was the second son of John Henry Forbes, Lord Medwyn, a +judge of the court of session, and grandson of Sir William +Forbes of Pitsligo. He studied first at the Edinburgh Academy, +then for two years under the Rev. Thomas Dale, the poet, in +Kent, passed one session at Glasgow University in 1833, and, +having chosen the career of the Indian civil service, completed +his studies with distinction at Haileybury College. In 1836 +he went to Madras and secured early promotion, but in consequence +of ill-health he was obliged to return to England. He +then entered Brasenose College, Oxford, where in 1841 he obtained +the Boden Sanskrit scholarship, and graduated in 1844. He +was at Oxford during the early years of the movement known +as Puseyism, and was powerfully influenced by association with +Newman, Pusey and Keble. This led him to resign his Indian +appointment. In 1844 he was ordained deacon and priest in +the English Church, and held curacies at Aston, Rowant and +St Thomas’s, Oxford; but being naturally attracted to the +Episcopal Church of his native land, then recovering from long +depression, he removed in 1846 to Stonehaven, the chief town +of Kincardineshire. The same year, however, he was appointed +to the vicarage of St Saviour’s, Leeds, a church founded to preach +and illustrate Tractarian principles. In 1848 Forbes was called +to succeed Bishop Moir in the see of Brechin. He removed +the episcopal residence to Dundee, where he resided till his death, +combining the pastoral charge of the congregation with the duties +of the see. When he came to Dundee the churchmen were +accustomed owing to their small numbers to worship in a room +over a bank. Through his energy several churches were built, +and among them the pro-cathedral of St Paul’s. He was prosecuted +in the church courts for heresy, the accusation being founded +on his primary charge, delivered and published in 1857, in which +he set forth his views on the Eucharist. He made a powerful +defence of the charge, and was acquitted with “a censure and +an admonition.” Keble wrote in his defence, and was present +at his trial at Edinburgh. Forbes was a good scholar, a scientific +theologian and a devoted worker, and was much beloved. He +died at Dundee on the 8th of October 1875.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Principal works: <i>A Short Explanation of the Nicene Creed</i> (1852); +<i>An Explanation of the Thirty-nine Articles</i> (2 vols., 1867 and 1868); +<i>Commentary on the Seven Penitential Psalms</i> (1847); <i>Commentary +on the Canticles</i> (1853). See Mackey’s <i>Bishop Forbes, a Memoir</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORBES, ARCHIBALD<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1838-1900), British war correspondent, +the son of a Presbyterian minister in Morayshire, was born on +the 17th of April 1838, and was educated at Aberdeen University. +Entering the Royal Dragoons as a private, he gained, while in +the service, considerable practical experience of military life +and affairs. Being invalided from his regiment, he settled in +London, and became a journalist. When the Franco-German +War broke out in 1870, Forbes was sent to the front as war +correspondent to the <i>Morning Advertiser</i>, and in this capacity +he gained valuable information as to the plans of the Parisians +for withstanding a siege. Transferring his services to the <i>Daily +News</i>, his brilliant feats in the transmission of intelligence drew +world-wide attention to his despatches. He was with the +German army from the beginning of the campaign, and he afterwards +witnessed the rise and fall of the Commune. Forbes +afterwards proceeded to Spain, where he chronicled the outbreak +of the second Carlist War; but his work here was interrupted +by a visit to India, where he spent eight months upon a mission +of investigation into the Bengal famine of 1874. Then he returned +to Spain, and followed at various times the Carlist, the Republican +and the Alfonsist forces. As representative of the <i>Daily News</i>, +he accompanied the prince of Wales in his tour through India +in 1875-1876. Forbes went through the Servian campaign of +1876, and was present at all the important engagements. In +the Russo-Turkish campaign of 1877 he achieved striking journalistic +successes at great personal risk. Attached to the Russian +army, he witnessed most of the principal operations, and remained +continuously in the field until attacked by fever. His +letters, together with those of his colleagues, MacGahan and +Millet, were republished by the <i>Daily News</i>. On recovering +from his fever, Forbes proceeded to Cyprus, in order to witness +the British occupation. The same year (1878) he went to India, +and in the winter accompanied the Khyber Pass force to Jalalabad. +He was present at the taking of Ali Musjid, and marched with +several expeditions against the hill tribes. Burma was Forbes’s +next field of adventure, and at Mandalay, the capital, he had +several interesting interviews with King Thibaw. He left Burma +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page637" id="page637"></a>637</span> +hurriedly for South Africa, where, in consequence of the disaster +of Isandlwana, a British force was collecting for the invasion +of Zululand. He was present at the victory of Ulundi, and +his famous ride of 120 m. in fifteen hours, by which he was enabled +to convey the first news of the battle to England, remains one +of the finest achievements in journalistic enterprise. Forbes +subsequently delivered many lectures on his war experiences +to large audiences. His closing years were spent in literary +work. He had some years before published a military novel +entitled <i>Drawn from Life</i>, and a volume on his experiences of +the war between France and Germany. These were now followed +by numerous publications, including <i>Glimpses through the +Cannon Smoke</i> (1880); <i>Souvenirs of some Continents</i> (1885); +<i>William I. of Germany: a Biography</i> (1888); <i>Havelock</i>, in the +“English Men of Action” Series (1890); <i>Barracks, Bivouacs, +and Battles</i> (1891); <i>The Afghan Wars</i>, 1839-80 (1892); <i>Czar +and Sultan</i> (1895); <i>Memories and Studies of War and Peace</i> +(1895), in many respects autobiographic; and <i>Colin Campbell, +Lord Clyde</i> (1896). He died on the 30th of March 1900.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORBES, DAVID<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1828-1876), British mineralogist, metallurgist +and chemist, brother of Edward Forbes (<i>q.v.</i>), was born +on the 6th of September 1828, at Douglas, Isle of Man, and +received his early education there and at Brentwood in Essex. +When a boy of fourteen he had already acquired a remarkable +knowledge of chemistry. This subject he studied at the university +of Edinburgh, and he was still young when he was appointed +superintendent of the mining and metallurgical works at Espedal +in Norway. Subsequently he became a partner in the firm of +Evans & Askin, nickel-smelters, of Birmingham, and in that +capacity during the years 1857-1860 he visited Chile, Bolivia +and Peru. Besides reports for the Iron and Steel Institute, of +which, during the last years of his life, he was foreign secretary, +he wrote upwards of 50 papers on scientific subjects, among +which are the following: “The Action of Sulphurets on +Metallic Silicates at High Temperatures,” <i>Rep. Brit. Assoc.</i>, +1855, pt. ii. p. 62; “The Relations of the Silurian and Metamorphic +Rocks of the south of Norway,” <i>ib.</i> p. 82; “The Causes +producing Foliation in Rocks,” <i>Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> xi., 1855; +“The Chemical Composition of the Silurian and Cambrian +Limestones,” <i>Phil. Mag.</i> xiii. pp. 365-373, 1857; “The Geology +of Bolivia and Southern Peru,” <i>Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> xvii. pp. +7-62, 1861; “The Mineralogy of Chile,” <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1865; +“Researches in British Mineralogy,” <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1867-1868. +His observations on the geology of South America were given +in a masterly essay, and these and subsequent researches threw +much light on igneous and metamorphic phenomena and on +the resulting changes in rock-formations. He also contributed +important articles on chemical geology to the <i>Chemical News</i> +and <i>Geological Magazine</i> (1867 and 1868). In England he was +a pioneer in microscopic petrology. He was elected F.R.S. in +1858. He died in London on the 5th of December 1876.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Obituary by P.M. Duncan in <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i>, vol. +xxxiii., 1877, p. 41; and by J. Morris in <i>Geol. Mag.</i>, 1877, p. 45.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORBES, DUNCAN<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span>, <span class="sc">of Culloden</span> (1685-1747), Scottish +statesman, was born at Bunchrew or at Culloden near Inverness +on the 10th of November 1685. After he had completed his +studies at the universities of Edinburgh and Leiden, he was +admitted advocate at the Scottish bar in 1709. His own talents +and the influence of the Argyll family secured his rapid advancement, +which was still further helped by his loyalty to the +Hanoverian cause at the period of the rebellion in 1715. In +1722 Forbes was returned member for Inverness, and in 1725 +he succeeded Dundas of Arniston as lord advocate. He inherited +the patrimonial estates on the death of his brother in 1734, and +in 1737 he attained to the highest legal honours in Scotland, +being made lord president of the court of session. As lord +advocate, he had laboured to improve the legislation and revenue +of the country, to extend trade and encourage manufactures, +and no less to render the government popular and respected in +Scotland. In the proceedings which followed the memorable +Porteous mob, for example, when the government brought +in a bill for disgracing the lord provost of Edinburgh, for fining +the corporation, and for abolishing the town-guard and city-gate, +Forbes both spoke and voted against the measure as an unwarranted +outrage on the national feeling. As lord president +also he carried out some useful legal reforms; and his term of +office was characterized by quick and impartial administration +of the law.</p> + +<p>The rebellion of 1745 found him at his post, and it tried all +his patriotism. Some years before (1738) he had repeatedly +and earnestly urged upon the government the expediency of +embodying Highland regiments, putting them under the command +of colonels whose loyalty could be relied upon, but officering +them with the native chieftains and cadets of old families in the +north. “If government,” said he, “pre-engages the Highlanders +in the manner I propose, they will not only serve well against +the enemy abroad, but will be hostages for the good behaviour +of their relations at home; and I am persuaded that it will be +absolutely impossible to raise a rebellion in the Highlands.” In +1739, with Sir Robert Walpole’s approval, the original (1730) +six companies (locally enlisted) of the Black Watch were formed +into the famous “Forty-second” regiment of the line. The +credit given to the earl of Chatham in some histories for this +movement is an error; it rests really with Forbes and his friend +Lord Islay, afterwards 3rd duke of Argyll (see the <i>Autobiography</i> +of the 8th duke of Argyll, vol. i. p. 8 sq., 1906).</p> + +<p>On the first rumour of the Jacobite rising Forbes hastened +to Inverness, and through his personal influence with the chiefs +of Macdonald and Macleod, those two powerful western clans +were prevented from taking the field for Charles Edward; the +town itself also he kept loyal and well protected at the commencement +of the struggle, and many of the neighbouring proprietors +were won over by his persuasions. His correspondence with +Lord Lovat, published in the Culloden papers, affords a fine +illustration of his character, in which the firmness of loyal +principle and duty is found blended with neighbourly kindness +and consideration. But at this critical juncture of affairs, the +apathy of the government interfered considerably with the +success of his negotiations. Advances of arms and money arrived +too late, and though Forbes employed all his own means and +what money he could borrow on his personal security, his resources +were quite inadequate to the emergency. It is doubtful +whether these advances were ever fully repaid. Part was doled +out to him, after repeated solicitations that his credit might be +maintained in the country; but it is evident he had fallen into +disgrace in consequence of his humane exertions to mitigate +the impolitic severities inflicted upon his countrymen after +their disastrous defeat at Culloden. The ingratitude of the +government, and the many distressing circumstances connected +with the insurrection, sunk deep into the mind of Forbes. He +never fairly rallied from the depression thus caused, and after a +period of declining health he died on the 10th of December 1747.</p> + +<p>Forbes was a patriot without ostentation or pretence, a true +Scotsman with no narrow prejudice, an accomplished and even +erudite scholar without pedantry, a man of genuine piety without +asceticism or intolerance. His country long felt his influence +through her reviving arts and institutions; and the example +of such a character in that coarse and venal age, and among a +people distracted by faction, political strife, and national antipathies, +while it was invaluable to his contemporaries in a man +of high position, is entitled to the lasting gratitude and veneration +of his countrymen. In his intervals of leisure he cultivated with +some success the study of philosophy, theology and biblical +criticism. He is said to have been a diligent reader of the +Hebrew Bible. His published writings, some of them of importance, +include—<i>A Letter to a Bishop, concerning some Important +Discoveries in Philosophy and Theology</i> (1732); <i>Some Thoughts +concerning Religion, natural and revealed, and the Manner of +Understanding Revelation</i> (1735); and <i>Reflections on Incredulity</i> +(2nd ed., 1750).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His correspondence was collected and published in 1815, and a +memoir of him (from the family papers) was written by Mr Hill +Burton, and published along with a <i>Life of Lord Lovat</i>, in 1847. +His statue by Roubillac stands in the Parliament House, Edinburgh.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page638" id="page638"></a>638</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">FORBES, EDWARD<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1815-1854), British naturalist, was +born at Douglas, in the Isle of Man, on the 12th of February +1815. While still a child, when not engaged in reading, or in +the writing of verses and drawing of caricatures, he occupied +himself with the collecting of insects, shells, minerals, fossils, +plants and other natural history objects. From his fifth to his +eleventh year, delicacy of health precluded his attendance at +any school, but in 1828 he became a day scholar at Athole +House Academy in Douglas. In June 1831 he left the Isle of +Man for London, where he studied drawing. In October, however, +having given up all idea of making painting his profession, +he returned home; and in the following month he matriculated +as a student of medicine in the university of Edinburgh. His +vacation in 1832 he spent in diligent work on the natural history +of the Isle of Man. In 1833 he made a tour in Norway, the +botanical results of which were published in Loudon’s <i>Magazine +of Natural History</i> for 1835-1836. In the summer of 1834 he +devoted much time to dredging in the Irish Sea; and in the +succeeding year he travelled in France, Switzerland and Germany.</p> + +<p>Born a naturalist, and having no relish for the practical +duties of a surgeon, Forbes in the spring of 1836 abandoned the +idea of taking a medical degree, resolving to devote himself +to science and literature. The winter of 1836-1837 found him +at Paris, where he attended the lectures at the Jardin des Plantes +on natural history, comparative anatomy, geology and mineralogy. +Leaving Paris in April 1837, he went to Algiers, and there +obtained materials for a paper on land and freshwater Mollusca, +published in the <i>Annals of Natural History</i>, vol. ii. p. 250. In +the autumn of the same year he registered at Edinburgh as a +student of literature; and in 1838 appeared his first volume, +<i>Malacologia Monensis</i>, a synopsis of the species of Manx Mollusca. +During the summer of 1838 he visited Styria and Carniola, and +made extensive botanical collections. In the following autumn +he read before the British Association at Newcastle a paper on +the distribution of terrestrial Pulmonifera in Europe, and was +commissioned to prepare a similar report with reference to the +British Isles. In 1841 was published his <i>History of British +Star-fishes</i>, embodying extensive observations and containing +120 illustrations, inclusive of humorous tail-pieces, all designed +by the author. On the 17th of April of the same year Forbes, +accompanied by his friend William Thompson, joined at Malta +H.M. surveying ship “Beacon,” to which he had been appointed +naturalist by her commander Captain Graves. From that date +until October 1842 he was employed in investigating the botany, +zoology and geology of the Mediterranean region. The results +of these researches were made known in his “Report on the +Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea, presented to the +British Association in 1843,” and in <i>Travels in Lycia</i>, published +in conjunction with Lieut. (afterwards Admiral) T.A.B. Spratt +in 1847. In the former treatise he discussed the influence of +climate and of the nature and depth of the sea bottom upon +marine life, and divided the Aegean into eight biological zones; +his conclusions with respect to bathymetrical distribution, +however, have naturally been modified to a considerable extent +by the more recent explorations of the deep seas.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the year 1842 Forbes, whom family +misfortunes had now thrown upon his own resources, sought +and obtained the curatorship of the museum of the Geological +Society of London. To the duties of that post he added in 1843 +those of the professorship of botany at King’s College. In +November 1844 he resigned the curatorship of the Geological +Society, and became palaeontologist to the Geological Survey +of Great Britain. Two years later he published in the <i>Memoirs +of the Geological Survey</i>, i. 336, his important essay “On the +Connexion between the distribution of the existing Fauna and +Flora of the British Isles, and the Geological Changes which +have affected their Area, especially during the epoch of the +Northern Drift.” It is therein pointed out that, in accordance +with the theory of their origin from various specific centres, the +plants of Great Britain may be divided into five well-marked +groups: the W. and S.W. Irish, represented in the N. of Spain, +the S.E. Irish and S.W. English, related to the flora of the Channel +Isles and the neighbouring part of France; the S.E. English, +characterized by species occurring on the opposite French coast; +a group peculiar to mountain summits, Scandinavian in type; +and, lastly, a general or Germanic flora. From a variety of arguments +the conclusion is drawn that the greater part of the +terrestrial animals and flowering plants of the British Islands +migrated thitherward, over continuous land, at three distinct +periods, before, during and after the glacial epoch. On this +subject Forbes’s brilliant generalizations are now regarded as +only partially true (see C. Reid’s <i>Origin of the British Flora</i>, 1899). +In the autumn of 1848 Forbes married the daughter of General +Sir C. Ashworth; and in the same year was published his +<i>Monograph of the British Naked-eyed Medusae</i> (Ray Society). +The year 1851 witnessed the removal of the collections of the +Geological Survey from Craig’s Court to the museum in Jermyn +Street, and the appointment of Forbes as professor of natural +history to the Royal School of Mines just established in conjunction +therewith. In 1852 was published the fourth and +concluding volume of Forbes and S. Hanley’s <i>History of British +Mollusca</i>; also his <i>Monograph of the Echinodermata of the +British Tertiaries</i> (Palaeontographical Soc.).</p> + +<p>In 1853 Forbes held the presidency of the Geological Society +of London, and in the following year he obtained the fulfilment +of a long-cherished wish in his appointment to the professorship +of natural history in the university of Edinburgh, vacant by +the death of R. Jameson, his former teacher. Since his return +from the East in 1842, the determination and arrangement of +fossils, frequent lectures, and incessant literary work, including +the preparation of his palaeontological memoirs, had precluded +Forbes from giving that attention to the natural history pursuits +of his earlier life which he had earnestly desired. It seemed that +at length he was to find leisure to reduce to order his stores of +biological information. He lectured at Edinburgh, in the +summer session of 1854, and in September of that year he occupied +the post of president of the geological section at the Liverpool +meeting of the British Association. But he was taken ill just +after he had commenced his winter’s course of lectures in +Edinburgh, and after not many days’ illness he died at Wardie, +near Edinburgh, on the 18th of November 1854.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Literary Gazette</i> (November 25, 1854); <i>Edinburgh New Philosophical +Journal</i> (New Ser.), (1855); <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> (May +1855); G. Wilson and A. Geikie, <i>Memoir of Edward Forbes</i> (1861), +in which, pp. 575-583, is given a list of Forbes’s writings. See also +<i>Literary Papers</i>, edited by Lovell Reeve (1855). The following +works were issued posthumously: “On the Tertiary Fluviomarine +Formation of the Isle of Wight” (<i>Geol. Survey</i>), edited by R.A.C. +Godwin-Austen (1856); “The Natural History of the European +Seas,” edited and continued by R.A.C. Godwin-Austen (1859).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORBES, JAMES DAVID<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1809-1868), Scottish physicist, +was the fourth son of Sir William Forbes, 7th baronet of Pitsligo, +and was born at Edinburgh on the 20th of April 1809. He entered +the university of Edinburgh in 1825, and soon afterwards began +to contribute papers to the <i>Edinburgh Philosophical Journal</i> +anonymously under the signature “Δ.” At the age of nineteen +he became a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in +1832 he was elected to the Royal Society of London. A year later +he was appointed professor of natural philosophy in Edinburgh +University, in succession to Sir John Leslie and in competition +with Sir David Brewster, and during his tenure of that office, +which he did not give up till 1860, he not only proved himself +an active and efficient teacher, but also did much to improve +the internal conditions of the university. In 1859 he was appointed +successor to Brewster in the principalship of the United +College of St Andrews, a position which he held until his death +at Clifton on the 31st of December 1868.</p> + +<p>As a scientific investigator he is best known for his researches +on heat and on glaciers. Between 1836 and 1844 he published +in the <i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed.</i> four series of “Researches on Heat,” +in the course of which he described the polarization of heat by +tourmaline, by transmission through a bundle of thin mica +plates inclined to the transmitted ray, and by reflection from the +multiplied surfaces of a pile of mica plates placed at the polarizing +angle, and also its circular polarization by two internal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page639" id="page639"></a>639</span> +reflections in rhombs of rock-salt. His work won him the Rumford +medal of the Royal Society in 1838, and in 1843 he received its +Royal medal for a paper on the “Transparency of the Atmosphere +and the Laws of Extinction of the Sun’s Rays passing through it.” +In 1846 he began experiments on the temperature of the earth +at different depths and in different soils near Edinburgh, which +yielded determinations of the thermal conductivity of trap-tufa, +sandstone and pure loose sand. Towards the end of his life +he was occupied with experimental inquiries into the laws of +the conduction of heat in bars, and his last piece of work was +to show that the thermal conductivity of iron diminishes with +increase of temperature. His attention was directed to the +question of the flow of glaciers in 1840 when he met Louis +Agassiz at the Glasgow meeting of the British Association, and +in subsequent years he made several visits to Switzerland and +also to Norway for the purpose of obtaining accurate data. His +observations led him to the view that a glacier is an imperfect +fluid or a viscous body which is urged down slopes of a certain +inclination by the mutual pressure of its parts, and involved +him in some controversy with Tyndall and others both as to +priority and to scientific principle. Forbes was also interested +in geology, and published memoirs on the thermal springs of +the Pyrenees, on the extinct volcanoes of the Vivarais (Ardêche), +on the geology of the Cuchullin and Eildon hills, &c. In addition +to about 150 scientific papers, he wrote <i>Travels through the Alps +of Savoy and Other Parts of the Pennine Chain, with Observations +on the Phenomena of Glaciers</i> (1843); <i>Norway and its Glaciers</i> +(1853); <i>Occasional Papers on the Theory of Glaciers</i> (1859); <i>A Tour +of Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa</i> (1855). He was also the author +(1852) of the “Dissertation on the Progress of Mathematical +and Physical Science,” published in the 8th edition of the +<i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Forbes’s Life and Letters</i>, by Principal Shairp, Professor P.G. +Tait and A. Adams-Reilly (1873); <i>Professor Forbes and his Biographers</i>, +by J. Tyndall (1873).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORBES, SIR JOHN<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1787-1861), British physician, was born +at Cuttlebrae, Banffshire, in 1787. He attended the grammar +school at Aberdeen, and afterwards entered Marischal College. +After serving for nine years as a surgeon in the navy, he graduated +M.D. at Edinburgh in 1817, and then began to practise in +Penzance, whence he removed to Chichester in 1822. He took +up his residence in London in 1840, and in the following year +was appointed physician to the royal household. He was +knighted in 1853, and died on the 13th of November 1861 at +Whitchurch in Berkshire. Sir John Forbes was better known +as an author and editor than as a practical physician. His +works include the following:—<i>Original Cases ... illustrating +the Use of the Stethoscope and Percussion in the Diagnosis of +Diseases of the Chest</i> (1824); <i>Illustrations of Modern Mesmerism</i> +(1845); <i>A Physician’s Holiday</i> (1st ed., 1849); <i>Memorandums +made in Ireland in the Autumn of 1852</i> (2 vols., 1853); <i>Sightseeing +in Germany and the Tyrol in the Autumn of 1855</i> (1856). +He was joint editor with A. Tweedie and J. Conolly of <i>The +Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine</i> (4 vols., 1833-1835); and in +1836 he founded the <i>British and Foreign Medical Review</i>, which, +after a period of prosperity, involved its editor in pecuniary +loss, and was discontinued in 1847, partly in consequence of +the advocacy in its later numbers of doctrines obnoxious to +the profession.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORBES,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a municipal town of Ashburnham county, New +South Wales, Australia, 289 m. W. by N. from Sydney, on the +Lachlan river, and with a station on the Great Western railway. +Pop. (1901) 4313. Its importance as a commercial centre is due +to its advantageous position between the northern and southern +markets. It has steam-sawing and flour-mills, breweries and +wool-scouring establishments; while the surrounding country +produces good quantities of cereals, lucerne, wine and fruit.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORBES-ROBERTSON, JOHNSTON<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1853-  ), English +actor, was the son of John Forbes-Robertson of Aberdeen, an +art critic. He was educated at Charterhouse, and studied at +the Royal Academy schools with a view to becoming a painter. +But though he kept up his interest in that art, in 1874 he turned +to the theatre, making his first appearance in London as Chastelard, +in <i>Mary, Queen of Scots</i>. He studied under Samuel Phelps, from +whom he learnt the traditions of the tragic stage. He played +with the Bancrofts and with John Hare, supported Miss Mary +Anderson in both England and America, and also acted at +different times with Sir Henry Irving. His refined and artistic +style, and beautiful voice and elocution made him a marked +man on the English stage, and in Pinero’s <i>The Profligate</i> at the +Garrick theatre (1889), under Hare’s management, he established +his position as one of the most individual of London actors. +In 1895 he started under his own management at the Lyceum +with Mrs Patrick Campbell, producing <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, <i>Hamlet</i>, +<i>Macbeth</i> and also some modern plays; his impersonation as +Hamlet was especially fine, and his capacity as a romantic +actor was shown to great advantage also in John Davidson’s +<i>For the Crown</i> and in Maeterlinck’s <i>Pelléas and Mélisande</i>. In +1900 he married the actress Gertrude Elliott, with whom, as his +leading lady, he appeared at various theatres, producing in +subsequent years <i>The Light that Failed</i>, Madeleine Lucette +Riley’s <i>Mice and Men</i>, and G. Bernard Shaw’s <i>Caesar and +Cleopatra</i>, Jerome K. Jerome’s <i>Passing of the Third Floor Back</i>, +&c. His brothers, Ian Robertson (b. 1858) and Norman Forbes +(b. 1859), had also been well-known actors from about 1878 +onwards.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORBIN, CLAUDE DE<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1656-1733), French naval commander, +was born in Provence, of a family of high standing, in 1656. +High-spirited and ungovernable in his boyhood, he ran away +from his home, and through the influence of an uncle entered +the navy, serving his first campaign in 1675. For a short time +he quitted the navy and entered the army, but soon returned to +his first choice. He made under D’Estrées the American campaign, +and under Duquesne that of Algiers in 1683, on all occasions +distinguishing himself by his impetuous courage. The most +remarkable episode of his life was his mission to Siam. During +the administration of the Greek adventurer Phaulcon in that +country, the project was formed of introducing the Christian +religion and European civilization, and the king sent an embassy +to Louis XIV. In response a French embassy was sent out, +Forbin accompanying the chevalier de Chaumont with the +rank of major. When Chaumont returned to France, Forbin +was induced to remain in the service of the Siamese king, and +accepted, though with much reluctance, the posts of grand +admiral, general of all the king’s armies and governor of Bangkok. +His position, however, was soon made untenable by the jealousy +and intrigues of the minister Phaulcon; and at the end of two +years he left Siam, reaching France in 1688. He was afterwards +fully engaged in active service, first with Jean Bart in the war +with England, when they were both captured and taken to +Plymouth. They succeeded in making their escape and were +soon serving their country again. Forbin was wounded at the +battle of La Hogue, and greatly distinguished himself at the +battle of Lagos. He served under D’Estrées at the taking of +Barcelona, was sent ambassador to Algiers, and in 1702 took a +brilliant part in the Mediterranean in the War of the Spanish +Succession. In 1706 he took command of a squadron at Dunkirk, +and captured many valuable prizes from the Dutch and the +English. In 1708 he was entrusted with the command of the +squadron which was to convey the Pretender to Scotland; but +so effectually were the coasts guarded by Byng that the expedition +failed, and returned to Dunkirk. Forbin was now beginning +to be weighed down with the infirmities of age and the toils of +service, and in 1710 he retired to a country house near Marseilles. +There he spent part of his time in writing his memoirs, published +in 1730, which are full of interest and are written in a graphic +and attractive style. Forbin died on the 4th of March 1733.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORCELLINI, EGIDIO<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1688-1768), Italian philologist, was +born at Fener in the district of Treviso and belonged to a very +poor family. He went to the seminary at Padua in 1704, studied +under Facciolati, and in due course attained to the priesthood. +From 1724 to 1731 he held the office of rector of the seminary +at Ceneda, and from 1731 to 1765 that of father confessor in +the seminary of Padua. The remaining years of his life were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page640" id="page640"></a>640</span> +mainly spent in his native village. He died at Padua in 1768 +before the completion of the great work on which he had long +co-operated with Facciolati. This was the vast <i>Latin Lexicon</i> +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Facciolati</a></span>), which has formed the basis of all similar +works that have since been published. He was engaged with his +Herculean task for nearly 35 years, and the transcription of the +manuscript by Luigi Violato occupied eight years more.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORCHHAMMER, JOHANN GEORG<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1794-1865), Danish +mineralogist and geologist, was born at Husum, Schleswig, on +the 24th of July 1794, and died at Copenhagen on the 14th of +December 1865. After studying at Kiel and Copenhagen from +1815 to 1818, he joined Oersted and Lauritz Esmarch in their +mineralogical exploration of Bornholm, and took a considerable +share in the labours of the expedition. In 1820 he obtained +his doctor’s degree by a chemical treatise <i>De mangano</i>, and +immediately after set out on a journey through England, Scotland +and the Faeroe Islands. In 1823 he was appointed lecturer +at Copenhagen University on chemistry and mineralogy; in +1829 he obtained a similar post in the newly established polytechnic +school; and in 1831 he was appointed professor of +mineralogy in the university, and in 1848 became curator of the +geological museum. From 1835 to 1837 he made many contributions +to the geological survey of Denmark. On the death of +H.C. Oersted in 1851, he succeeded him as director of the +polytechnic school and secretary of the Academy of Sciences. +In 1850 he began with J. Steenstrup and Worsaae various +anthropological publications which gained a high reputation. +As a public instructor Forchhammer held a high place and contributed +potently to the progress of his favourite studies in his +native country. He interested himself in such practical questions +as the introduction of gas into Copenhagen, the establishment +of the fire-brigade at Rosenberg and the boring of artesian wells.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his more important works are—<i>Loerebog i de enkelte +Radicalers Chemi</i> (1842); <i>Danmarks geognostiske Forhold</i> (1835); +<i>Om de Bornholmske Kulformationer</i> (1836); <i>Dit myere Kridt i Danmark</i> +(1847); <i>Bidrag til Skildringen af Danmarks geographiske +Forhold</i> (1858). A list of his contributions to scientific periodicals, +Danish, English and German, will be found in the <i>Catalogue of +Scientific Papers</i> published by the Royal Society of London. One +of the most interesting and most recent is “On the Constitution of +Sea Water at Different Depths and in Different Latitudes,” in the +<i>Proceedings of the Roy. Soc.</i> xii. (1862-1863).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORCHHAMMER, PETER WILHELM<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1801-1894), German +classical archaeologist, was born at Husum in Schleswig on the +23rd of October 1801. He was educated at the Lübeck gymnasium +and the university of Kiel, with which he was connected for +nearly 65 years. In 1830-1834 and 1838-1840 he travelled in +Italy, Greece, Asia Minor and Egypt. In 1843 he was appointed +professor of philology at Kiel and director of the archaeological +museum founded by himself in co-operation with Otto Jahn. +He died on the 8th of January 1894. Forchhammer was a +democrat in the best sense of the word, and from 1871 to 1873 +represented the progressive party of Schleswig-Holstein in the +German Reichstag. His published works deal chiefly with +topography and ancient mythology. His travels had convinced +him that a full and comprehensive knowledge of classical +antiquity could only be acquired by a thorough acquaintance +with Greek and Roman monuments and works of art, and a +detailed examination of the topographical and climatic conditions +of the chief localities of the ancient world. These principles +are illustrated in his <i>Hellenika. Griechenland. Im Neuen das +Alte</i> (1837), which contains his theory of the origin and explanation +of the Greek myths, which he never abandoned, in spite of +the attacks to which it was subjected. According to him, the +myths arose from definite local (especially atmospheric and +aquatic) phenomena, and represented the annually recurring +processes of nature as the acts of gods and heroes; thus, in +<i>Achill</i> (1853), the Trojan War is the winter conflict of the elements +in that district. Other similar short treatises are: <i>Die Gründung +Roms</i> (1868); <i>Daduchos</i> (1875), on the language of the myths +and mythical buildings; <i>Die Wanderungen der Inachostochter +Io</i> (1880); <i>Prolegomena zur Mythologie als Wissenschaft und +Lexikon der Mythensprache</i> (1891). Amongst his topographical +works mention may be made of: <i>Topographie von Athen</i> (1841); +<i>Beschreibung der Ebene von Troja</i> (1850), a commentary on a +map of the locality executed by T.A. Spratt (see <i>Journal of +the Royal Geographical Society</i>, xii., 1842); <i>Topographia Thebarum +Heptapylarum</i> (1854); <i>Erklärung der Ilias</i> (1884), on +the basis of the topographical and physical peculiarities of the +plain of Troy. His <i>Demokratenbüchlein</i> (1849), in the main a +discussion of the Aristotelian theory of the state, and <i>Die +Athener und Sokrates</i> (1837), in which, contrary to the almost +universal opinion, he upheld the procedure of the Athenians +as perfectly legal and their verdict as a perfectly just one, also +deserve notice.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a full list of his works see the obituary notice by E. Alberti in +C. Bursian’s <i>Biographisches Jahrbuch für Altertumskunde</i>, xx. (1897); +also J. Sass in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, and A. Hoeck and +L.C. Pertsch, <i>P.W. Forchhammer</i> (1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORCHHEIM,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, +near the confluence of the Wiesent and the Regnitz, 16 m. S.S.E. +of Bamberg. Pop. (1905) 8417. It has four Roman Catholic +churches, including the Gothic Collegiate church and a Protestant +church. Among the other public buildings are the +progymnasium and an orphanage. The industries of the town +include spinning and weaving, bleaching and dyeing, bone and +glue works, brewing and paper-making. The spacious château +occupies the site of the Carolingian palace which was destroyed +in 1246.</p> + +<p>Forchheim is of very early origin, having been the residence +of the Carolingian sovereigns, including Charlemagne, in the +9th century. Consequently many diets were held here, and +here also Conrad I. and Louis the Child were chosen German +kings. The town was given by the emperor Henry II. in 1007 +to the bishopric of Bamberg, and, except for a short period +during the 11th century, it remained in the possession of the +bishops until 1802, when it was ceded to Bavaria. In August +1796 a battle took place near Forchheim between the French +and the Austrians. The fortifications of the town were dismantled +in 1838.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Hübsch, <i>Chronik der Stadt Forchheim</i> (Nüremberg, 1867).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1852-1901), English sculptor, +was born in London. He received some education as a painter +in Antwerp and as a sculptor in Munich under Professor Wagmüller, +but was mainly self-taught. His first contribution to +the Royal Academy, in 1875, was a bust of his wife, and in +portraiture he may be said to have achieved his greatest success. +His busts are always extremely refined and show his sitters at +their best. Those (in bronze) of his fellow-artists Arthur Hacker +(1894), Briton Riviere and Sir W.Q. Orchardson (1895), Sir +L. Alma Tadema (1896), Sir Hubert von Herkomer and Sir +John Millais (1897), and of A.J. Balfour are all striking likenesses, +and are equalled by that in marble of Sir Frederick Bramwell +(for the Royal Institution) and by many more. He gained +the open competition for the statue of Sir Rowland Hill, erected +in 1882 outside the Royal Exchange, and followed it in 1883 +with “Henry Irving as Hamlet,” now in the Guildhall art +gallery. This seated statue, good as it is, was soon surpassed +by those of Dr Dale (1898, in the city museum, Birmingham) +and Professor Huxley (1900), but the colossal memorial statue +of Queen Victoria (1901), for Manchester, was less successful. +The standing statue of W.E. Gladstone (1894, for the City Liberal +Club, London) is to be regarded as one of Ford’s better portrait +works. The colossal “General Charles Gordon,” camel-mounted, +for Chatham, “Lord Strathnairn,” an equestrian group for +Knightsbridge, and the “Maharajah of Mysore” (1900) comprise +his larger works of the kind. A beautiful nude recumbent +statue of Shelley (1892) upon a cleverly-designed base, which is +not quite impeccable from the point of view of artistic taste, +is at University College, Oxford, and a simplified version was +presented by him to be set up on the shore of Viareggio, where +the poet’s body was washed up. Ford’s ideal work has great +charm and daintiness; his statue “Folly” (1886) was bought +by the trustees of the Chantrey Fund, and was followed by other +statues or statuettes of a similar order: “Peace” (1890), which +secured his election as an associate of the Royal Academy, +“Echo” (1895), on which he was elected full member, “The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page641" id="page641"></a>641</span> +Egyptian Singer” (1889), “Applause” (1893), “Glory to the +Dead” (1901) and “Snowdrift” (1902). Ford’s influence on +the younger generation of sculptors was considerable and of +good effect. His charming disposition rendered him extremely +popular, and when he died a monument was erected to his +memory (C. Lucchesi, sculptor, J.W. Simpson, architect) in +St John’s Wood, near to where he dwelt.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sculpture</a></span>; also M.H. Spielmann, <i>British Sculpture and +Sculptors of To-day</i> (London, 1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORD, JOHN<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1586-<i>c.</i> 1640), English dramatist, was baptized +on the 17th of April 1586 at Ilsington in north Devon. He came +of a good family; his father was in the commission of the peace +and his mother was a sister of Sir John Popham, successively +attorney-general and lord chief justice. The name of John +Ford appears in the university register of Oxford as matriculating +at Exeter College in 1601. Like a cousin and namesake (to whom, +with other members of the society of Gray’s Inn, he dedicated +his play of <i>The Lover’s Melancholy</i>), the future dramatist entered +the profession of the law, being admitted of the Middle Temple +in 1602; but he seems never to have been called to the bar. +Four years afterwards he made his first appearance as an author +with an elegy called <i>Fame’s Memorial, or the Earl of Devonshire +deceased</i>, and dedicated to the widow of the earl (Charles Blount, +Lord Mountjoy, “coronized,” to use Ford’s expression, by King +James in 1603 for his services in Ireland)—a lady who would +have been no unfitting heroine for one of his own tragedies of +lawless passion, the famous Penelope, formerly Lady Rich. +This panegyric, which is accompanied by a series of epitaphs +and is composed in a strain of fearless extravagance, was, as +the author declares, written “unfee’d”; it shows that Ford +sympathized, as Shakespeare himself is supposed to have done, +with the “awkward fate” of the countess’s brother, the earl of +Essex. Who the “flint-hearted Lycia” may be, to whom the +poet seems to allude as his own disdainful mistress, is unknown; +indeed, the record of Ford’s private life is little better than a +blank. To judge, however, from the dedications, prologues and +epilogues of his various plays, he seems to have enjoyed the patronage +of the earl, afterwards duke, of Newcastle, “himself a muse” +after a fashion, and Lord Craven, the supposed husband of the +ex-queen of Bohemia. Ford’s tract of <i>Honor Triumphant, or the +Peeres Challenge</i> (printed 1606 and reprinted by the Shakespeare +Society with the <i>Line of Life</i>, in 1843), and the simultaneously published +verses <i>The Monarches Meeting, or the King of Denmarkes +Welcome into England</i>, exhibit him as occasionally meeting the +festive demands of court and nobility; and a kind of moral +essay by him, entitled <i>A Line of Life</i> (printed 1620), which +contains references to Raleigh, ends with a climax of fulsome +praise to the address of King James I. Yet at least one of Ford’s +plays (<i>The Broken Heart</i>, iii. 4) contains an implied protest +against the absolute system of government generally accepted +by the dramatists of the early Stuart reigns. Of his relations +with his brother-authors little is known; it was natural that he +should exchange complimentary verses with James Shirley, +and that he should join in the chorus of laments over the death +of Ben Jonson. It is more interesting to notice an epigram in +honour of Ford by Richard Crashaw, morbidly passionate in +one direction as Ford was in another. The lines run:</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Thou cheat’st us, Ford; mak’st one seem two by art:</p> +<p class="i05">What is Love’s Sacrifice but the Broken Heart?”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>It has been concluded that in the latter part of his life he +gratified the tendency to seclusion for which he was ridiculed +in <i>The Time Poets</i> (<i>Choice Drollery</i>, 1656) by withdrawing from +business and from literary life in London, to his native place; +but nothing is known as to the date of his death. His career +as a dramatist very probably began by collaboration with other +authors. With Thomas Dekker he wrote <i>The Fairy Knight</i> +and <i>The Bristowe Merchant</i> (licensed in 1624, but both unpublished), +with John Webster <i>A late Murther of the Sonne upon +the Mother</i> (licensed in 1624). A play entitled <i>An ill Beginning +has a good End</i>, brought on the stage as early as 1613 and attributed +to Ford, was (if his) his earliest acted play; whether +<i>Sir Thomas Overbury’s Life and untimely Death</i> (1615) was a +play is extremely doubtful; some lines of indignant regret by +Ford on the same subject are still preserved. He is also said +to have written, at dates unknown, <i>The London Merchant</i> +(which, however, was an earlier name for Beaumont and Fletcher’s +<i>Knight of the Burning Pestle</i>) and <i>The Royal Combat</i>; a tragedy +by him, <i>Beauty in a Trance</i>, was entered in the Stationers’ +Register in 1653, but never printed. These three (or four) +plays were among those destroyed by Warburton’s cook. <i>The +Queen, or the Excellency of the Sea</i>, a play of inverted passion, +containing some fine sensuous lines, printed in 1653 by Alexander +Singhe for private performance, has been recently edited by W. +Bang (<i>Materialien zur Kunde d. älteren engl. Dramas</i>, 13, Louvain, +1906), and is by him on internal evidence confidently claimed +as Ford’s. Of the plays by Ford preserved to us the dates span +little more than a decade—the earliest, <i>The Lover’s Melancholy</i>, +having been acted in 1628 and printed in 1629, the latest, <i>The +Lady’s Trial</i>, acted in 1638 and printed in 1639.</p> + +<p>When writing <i>The Lover’s Melancholy</i>, it would seem that +Ford had not yet become fully aware of the bent of his own +dramatic genius, although he was already master of his powers +of poetic expression. He was attracted towards domestic tragedy +by an irresistible desire to sound the depths of abnormal conflicts +between passion and circumstances, to romantic comedy by a +strong though not widely varied imaginative faculty, and by +a delusion that he was possessed of abundant comic humour. +In his next two works, undoubtedly those most characteristically +expressive of his peculiar strength, <i>’Tis Pity she’s a Whore</i> +(acted <i>c.</i> 1626) and <i>The Broken Heart</i> (acted <i>c.</i> 1629), both +printed in 1633 with the anagram of his name <i>Fide Honor</i>, he +had found horrible situations which required dramatic explanation +by intensely powerful motives. Ford by no means stood +alone among English dramatists in his love of abnormal subjects; +but few were so capable of treating them sympathetically, and +yet without that reckless grossness or extravagance of expression +which renders the morally repulsive aesthetically intolerable, +or converts the horrible into the grotesque. For in Ford’s +genius there was real refinement, except when the “supra-sensually +sensual” impulse or the humbler self-delusion referred +to came into play. In a third tragedy, <i>Love’s Sacrifice</i> (acted +<i>c.</i> 1630; printed in 1633), he again worked on similar materials; +but this time he unfortunately essayed to base the interest of +his plot upon an unendurably unnatural possibility—doing +homage to virtue after a fashion which is in itself an insult. +In <i>Perkin Warbeck</i> (printed 1634; probably acted a year later) +he chose an historical subject of great dramatic promise and +psychological interest, and sought to emulate the glory of the +great series of Shakespeare’s national histories. The effort is +one of the most laudable, as it was by no means one of the least +successful, in the dramatic literature of this period. <i>The Fancies +Chaste and Noble</i> (acted before 1636, printed 1638), though it +includes scenes of real force and feeling, is dramatically a failure, +of which the main idea is almost provokingly slight and feeble; +and <i>The Lady’s Trial</i> (acted 1638, printed 1639) is only redeemed +from utter wearisomeness by an unusually even pleasingness +of form. There remain two other dramatic works, of very +different kinds, in which Ford co-operated with other writers, +the mask of <i>The Sun’s Darling</i> (acted 1624, printed 1657), +hardly to be placed in the first rank of early compositions, and +<i>The Witch of Edmonton</i> (printed 1658, but probably acted about +1621), in which we see Ford as a joint writer with Dekker and +Rowley of one of the most powerful domestic dramas of the +English or any other stage.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A few notes may be added on some of the more remarkable of the +plays enumerated. A wholly baseless anecdote, condensed into a +stinging epigram by Endymion Porter, asserted that <i>The Lover’s +Melancholy</i> was stolen by Ford from Shakespeare’s papers. Undoubtedly, +the madness of the hero of this play of Ford’s occasionally +recalls Hamlet, while the heroine is one of the many, and at the same +time one of the most pleasing, parallels to Viola. But neither of +them is a copy, as Friar Bonaventura in Ford’s second play may be +said to be a copy of Friar Lawrence, whose kindly pliability he +disagreeably exaggerates, or as D’Avolos in <i>Love’s Sacrifice</i> is clearly +modelled on Iago. The plot of <i>The Lover’s Melancholy</i>, which is +ineffective because it leaves no room for suspense in the mind of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page642" id="page642"></a>642</span> +the reader, seems original; in the dialogue, on the other hand, a +justly famous passage in Act i. (the beautiful version of the story +of the nightingale’s death) is translated from Strada; while the +scheme of the tedious interlude exhibiting the various forms of +madness is avowedly taken, together with sundry comments, from +Burton’s <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>. Already in this play Ford +exhibits the singular force of his pathos; the despondent misery +of the aged Meleander, and the sweetness of the last scene, in which +his daughter comes back to him, alike go to the heart. A situation—hazardous +in spite of its comic substratum—between Thaumasta +and the pretended Parthenophil is conducted, as Gifford points out, +with real delicacy; but the comic scenes are merely stagy, notwithstanding, +or by reason of, the effort expended on them by the +author.</p> + +<p><i>’Tis Pity she’s a Whore</i> has been justly recognized as a tragedy +of extraordinary power. Mr Swinburne, in his eloquent essay on +Ford, has rightly shown what is the meaning of this tragedy, and +has at the same time indicated wherein consists its poison. He +dwells with great force upon the different treatment applied by Ford +to the characters of the two miserable lovers—brother and sister. +“The sin once committed, there is no more wavering or flinching +possible to him, who has fought so hard against the demoniac possession; +while she who resigned body and soul to the tempter, almost +at a word, remains liable to the influences of religion and remorse.” +This different treatment shows the feeling of the poet—the feeling +for which he seeks to evoke our inmost sympathy—to oscillate +between the belief that an awful crime brings with it its awful +punishment (and it is sickening to observe how the argument by +which the Friar persuades Annabella to forsake her evil courses +mainly appeals to the physical terrors of retribution), and the +notion that there is something fatal, something irresistible, and +therefore in a sense self-justified, in so dominant a passion. The +key-note to the conduct of Giovanni lies in his words at the close of +the first scene—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“All this I’ll do, to free me from the rod</p> +<p class="i05">Of vengeance; <i>else I’ll swear my fate’s my god</i>.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Thus there is no solution of the conflict between passion on the one +side, and law, duty and religion on the other; and passion triumphs, +in the dying words of “the student struck blind and mad by +passion”—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p class="i3">“O, I bleed fast!</p> +<p>Death, thou’rt a guest long look’d for; I embrace</p> +<p>Thee and thy wounds: O, my last minute comes!</p> +<p>Where’er I go, let me enjoy this grace</p> +<p>Freely to view my Annabella’s face.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">It has been observed by J.A. Symonds that “English poets have +given us the right key to the Italian temperament.... The love +of Giovanni and Annabella is rightly depicted as more imaginative +than sensual.” It is difficult to allow the appositeness of this +special illustration; on the other hand, Ford has even in this case +shown his art of depicting sensual passion without grossness of +expression; for the exception in Annabella’s language to Soranzo +seems to have a special intention, and is true to the pressure of +the situation and the revulsion produced by it in a naturally weak +and yielding mind. The entire atmosphere, so to speak, of the play +is stifling, and is not rendered less so by the underplot with Hippolita.</p> + +<p><i>’Tis Pity she’s a Whore</i> was translated into French by Maurice +Maeterlinck under the title of <i>Annabella</i>, and represented at the +Théâtre de l’Œuvre in 1894. The translator prefixes to the version +an eloquent appreciation of Ford’s genius, especially in his portraits +of women, whose fate it is to live “dans les ténèbres, les craintes et +les larmes.”</p> + +<p>Like this tragedy, <i>The Broken Heart</i> was probably founded upon +some Italian or other novel of the day; but since in the latter +instance there is nothing revolting in the main idea of the subject, +the play commends itself as the most enjoyable, while, in respect of +many excellences, an unsurpassed specimen of Ford’s dramatic +genius. The complicated plot is constructed with greater skill +than is usual with this dramatist, and the pathos of particular +situations, and of the entire character of Penthea—a woman doomed +to hopeless misery, but capable of seeking to obtain for her brother +a happiness which his cruelty has condemned her to forego—has an +intensity and a depth which are all Ford’s own. Even the lesser +characters are more pleasing than usual, and some beautiful lyrics +are interspersed in the play.</p> + +<p>Of the other plays written by Ford alone, only <i>The Chronicle Historie +of Perkin Warbeck. A Strange Truth</i>, appears to call for special +attention. A repeated perusal of this drama suggests the judgment +that it is overpraised when ranked at no great distance from Shakespeare’s +national dramas. Historical truth need not be taken +into consideration in the matter; and if, notwithstanding James +Gairdner’s essay appended to his <i>Life and Reign of Richard III.</i>, +there are still credulous persons left to think and assert that Perkin +was not an impostor, they will derive little satisfaction from Ford’s +play, which with really surprising skill avoids the slightest indication +as to the poet’s own belief on the subject. That this tragedy should +have been reprinted in 1714 and acted in 1745 only shows that the +public, as is often the case, had an eye to the catastrophe rather +than to the development of the action. The dramatic capabilities +of the subject are, however, great, and it afterwards attracted +Schiller, who, however, seems to have abandoned it in favour of +the similar theme of the Russian Demetrius. Had Shakespeare +treated it, he would hardly have contented himself with investing +the hero with the nobility given by Ford to this personage of his +play,—for it is hardly possible to speak of a personage as a <i>character</i> +when the clue to his conduct is intentionally withheld. Nor could +Shakespeare have failed to bring out with greater variety and +distinctness the dramatic features in Henry VII., whom Ford depicts +with sufficient distinctness to give some degree of individuality to +the figure, but still with a tenderness of touch which would have been +much to the credit of the dramatist’s skill had he been writing in the +Tudor age. The play is, however, founded on Bacon’s Life, of +which the text is used by Ford with admirable discretion, and on +Thomas Gainsford’s <i>True and Wonderful History of Perkin Warbeck</i> +(1618). The minor characters of the honest old Huntley, whom the +Scottish king obliges to bestow his daughter’s hand upon Warbeck, +and of her lover the faithful “Dalyell,” are most effectively drawn; +even “the men of judgment,” the adventurers who surround the +chief adventurer, are spirited sketches, and the Irishman among +them has actually some humour; while the style of the play is, as +befits a “Chronicle History,” so clear and straightforward as to +make it easy as well as interesting to read.</p> + +<p><i>The Witch of Edmonton</i> was attributed by its publisher to William +Rowley, Dekker, Ford, “&c.,” but the body of the play has been +generally held to be ascribable to Ford and Dekker only. The +subject of the play was no doubt suggested by the case of the reported +witch, Elizabeth Sawyer, who was executed in 1621. Swinburne +agrees with Gifford in thinking Ford the author of the whole of the +first act; and he is most assuredly right in considering that “there +is no more admirable exposition of a play on the English stage.” +Supposing Dekker to be chiefly responsible for the scenes dealing +with the unfortunate old woman whom persecution as a witch +actually drives to become one, and Ford for the domestic tragedy +of the bigamist murderer, it cannot be denied that both divisions +of the subject are effectively treated, while the more important part +of the task fell to the share of Ford. Yet it may be doubted whether +any such division can be safely assumed; and it may suffice to +repeat that no domestic tragedy has ever taught with more effective +simplicity and thrilling truthfulness the homely double lesson of the +folly of selfishness and the mad rashness of crime.</p> + +<p>With Dekker Ford also wrote the mask of <i>The Sun’s Darling</i>; +or, as seems most probable, they founded this production upon +<i>Phaeton</i>, an earlier mask, of which Dekker had been sole author. +Gifford holds that Dekker’s hand is perpetually traceable in the +first three acts of <i>The Sun’s Darling</i>, and through the whole of its +comic part, but that the last two acts are mainly Ford’s. If so, he +is the author of the rather forced occasional tribute on the accession +of King Charles I., of which the last act largely consists. This +mask, which furnished abundant opportunities for the decorators, +musicians and dancers, in showing forth how the seasons and their +delights are successively exhausted by a “wanton darling,” Raybright +the grandchild of the Sun, is said to have been very popular. +It is at the same time commonplace enough in conception; but +there is much that is charming in the descriptions, Jonson and +Lyly being respectively laid under contribution in the course of the +dialogue, and in one of the incidental lyrics.</p> +</div> + +<p>Ford owes his position among English dramatists to the +intensity of his passion, in particular scenes and passages where +the character, the author and the reader are alike lost in the +situation and in the sentiment evoked by it; and this gift is +a supreme dramatic gift. But his plays—with the exception of +<i>The Witch of Edmonton</i>, in which he doubtless had a prominent +share—too often disturb the mind like a bad dream which ends +as an unsolved dissonance; and this defect is a supreme dramatic +defect. It is not the rigid or the stolid who have the most reason +to complain of the insufficiency of tragic poetry such as Ford’s; +nor is it that morality only which, as Ithocles says in <i>The Broken +Heart</i>, “is formed of books and school-traditions,” which has +a right to protest against the final effect of the most powerful +creations of his genius. There is a morality which both</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> + <p class="i2">“Keeps the soul in tune,</p> +<p>At whose sweet music all our actions dance,”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and is able to physic</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> + <p class="i2">“The sickness of a mind</p> +<p>Broken with griefs.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Of that morality—or of that deference to the binding power +within man and the ruling power above him—tragedy is the +truest expounder, even when it illustrates by contrasts; but +the tragic poet who merely places the problem before us, and +bids us stand aghast with him at its cruelty, is not to be reckoned +among the great masters of a divine art.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page643" id="page643"></a>643</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The best edition of Ford is that by Gifford, with +notes and introduction, revised with additions to both text and +notes by Alexander Dyce (1869). An edition of the <i>Dramatic Works +of Massinger and Ford</i> appeared in 1840, with an introduction by +Hartley Coleridge. <i>The Best Plays of Ford</i> were edited for the +“Mermaid Series” in 1888, with an introduction by W.H. Havelock +Ellis, and reissued in 1903. A.C. Swinburne’s “Essay on Ford” +is reprinted among his <i>Essays and Studies</i> (1875). <i>Perkin Warbeck</i> +and <i>’Tis Pity</i> were translated into German by F. Bodenstedt in +1860; and the latter again by F. Blei in 1904. The probable sources +of the various plays are discussed in Emil Koeppel’s <i>Quellenstudien +zu den Dramen George Chapman’s, Philip Massinger’s und John +Ford’s</i> (1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORD, RICHARD<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1796-1858), English author of one of the +earliest and best of travellers’ <i>Handbooks</i>, was the eldest son of +Sir Richard Ford, who in 1789 was member of parliament for +East Grinstead, and for many years afterwards chief police +magistrate of London. His mother was the daughter and +heiress of Benjamin Booth, a distinguished connoisseur in art. +He was called to the bar, but never practised, and in 1830-1833 +he travelled in Spain, spending much of his time in the Alhambra +and at Seville. His first literary work (other than contributions +to the <i>Quarterly Review</i>) was a pamphlet, <i>An Historical Inquiry +into the Unchangeable Character of a War in Spain</i> (Murray, +1837), in reply to one called the <i>Policy of England towards Spain</i>, +issued under the patronage of Lord Palmerston. He spent the +winter of 1839-1840 in Italy, where he added largely to his +collection of majolica; and soon after his return he began, at +John Murray’s invitation, to write his <i>Handbook for Travellers +in Spain</i>, with which his name is chiefly associated. He died on +the 1st of September 1858, leaving a fine private collection of +pictures to his widow (d. 1910), his third wife, a daughter of Sir +A. Molesworth.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORD, THOMAS<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (b. <i>c.</i> 1580), English musician, of whose +life little more is known than that he was attached to the court +of Prince Henry, son of James I. His works also are few, but +they are sufficient to show the high stage of efficiency and musical +knowledge which the English school had attained at the beginning +of the 17th century. They consist of canons and other concerted +pieces of vocal music, mostly with lute accompaniment. The +chief collection of his works is entitled <i>Musike of Sundrie Kinds +set forth in Two Books</i>, &c. (1607), and the histories of music by +Burney and Hawkins give specimens of his art. Together with +Dowland, immortalized in one of Shakespeare’s sonnets, Ford +is the chief representative of the school which preceded Henry +Lawes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORDE, FRANCIS<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (d. 1770), British soldier, first appears in +the army list as a captain in the 39th Foot in 1746. This regiment +was the first of the king’s service to serve in India (hence its +motto <i>Primus in Indis</i>), and Forde was on duty there when in +1755 he became major, at the same time as Eyre Coote, soon to +become his rival, was promoted captain. At the express invitation +of Clive, Forde resigned his king’s commission to take the +post of second in command of the E.I. Company’s troops in +Bengal. Soon after Plassey, Forde was sent against the French +of Masulipatam. Though feebly supported by the motley +rabble of an army which Anandraz, the local ally, brought into +the field, Forde pushed ahead through difficult country and +came upon the enemy entrenched at Condore. For four days +the two armies faced one another; on the fifth both commanders +resolved on the offensive and an encounter ensued. In spite +of the want of spirit shown by Anandraz and his men, Forde in +the end succeeded in winning the battle, which was from first +to last a brilliant piece of work. Nor did he content himself +with this; on the same evening he stormed the French camp, +and his pursuit was checked only by the guns of Masulipatam +itself. The place was quickly invested on the land side, but +difficulties crowded upon Forde and his handful of men. For +fifty days little advance was made; then Forde, seeing the last +avenues of escape closing behind him, ordered an assault at +midnight on the 25th of January 1759. The Company’s troops +lost one-third of their number, but the storm was a brilliant +and astounding success. Forde received less than no reward. +The Company refused to confirm his lieut.-colonel’s commission, +and he found himself junior to Eyre Coote, his old subaltern +in the 39th Foot. Nevertheless he continued to assist Clive, +and on the 25th of November 1759 won a success comparable +to Condore at Chinsurah (or Biderra) against the Dutch. A +year later he at last received his commission, but was still +opposed by a faction of the directors which supported Coote. +Clive himself warmly supported Forde in these quarrels. In +1769, with Vansittart and Scrafton, Colonel Forde was sent out +with full powers to investigate every detail of Indian administration. +Their ship was never heard of after leaving the Cape of +Good Hope on the 27th of December.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Monographs on Condore, Masulipatam and Chinsurah will be +found in Malleson’s <i>Decisive Battles of India</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORDHAM<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span>, formerly a village of Westchester county, New +York, U.S.A., and now a part of New York City. It lies on the +mainland, along the eastern bank of the Harlem river, E. of the +northern end of Manhattan Island. It is the seat of Fordham +University (Roman Catholic), founded in 1841 as St John’s +College, and since 1846 conducted by the Society of Jesus. +In 1907 the institution was rechartered as Fordham University, +and now includes St John’s College high school and grammar +school, St John’s College, the Fordham University medical school +(all in Fordham), and the Fordham University law school (42 +Broadway, New York City). In 1907-1908 the university had +96 instructors and (exclusive of 364 students in the high school) +236 students, of whom 105 were in St John’s College, 31 in the +medical school, and 100 in the law school. In Fordham still +stands the house in which Edgar Allan Poe lived from 1844 to +1849 and in which he wrote “Annabel Lee,” “Ulalume,” &c.</p> + +<p>The hamlet of Fordham was established in 1669 by Jan Arcer +(a Dutchman, who called himself “John Archer” after coming +to America), who in that year received permission from Francis +Lovelace, colonial governor of New York, to settle sixteen +families on the mainland close by a fording-place of the Spuyten +Duyvil Creek, near where that stream enters the Harlem river. +Between 1655 and 1671 Archer bought from the Indians the +tract of land lying between Spuyten Duyvil Creek and the +Harlem river on the east and the Bronx river on the west, and +extending from the hamlet of Fordham to what is now High +Bridge. In 1671 Governor Lovelace erected this tract into the +manor of Fordham. In 1846 it was included with Morrisania +in the township of West Farms; and in 1872 with part of the +township of Yonkers was erected into the township of Kingsbridge, +which in 1874 was annexed to the city of New York, and +in 1898 became a part of the borough of the Bronx, New York +City.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORDUN, JOHN OF<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (d. <i>c.</i> 1384), Scottish chronicler. The +statement generally made that the chronicler was born at +Fordoun (Kincardineshire) has not been supported by any +direct evidence. It is certain that he was a secular priest, and +that he composed his history in the latter part of the 14th +century; and it is probable that he was a chaplain in the +cathedral of Aberdeen. The work of Fordun is the earliest +attempt to write a continuous history of Scotland. We are +informed that Fordun’s patriotic zeal was roused by the removal +or destruction of many national records by Edward III. and that +he travelled in England and Ireland, collecting material for his +history. This work is divided into five books. The first three +are almost entirely fabulous, and form the groundwork on which +Boece and Buchanan afterwards based their historical fictions, +which were exposed by Thomas Innes in his <i>Critical Essay</i> +(i. pp. 201-214). The 4th and 5th books, though still mixed +with fable, contain much valuable information, and become +more authentic the more nearly they approach the author’s own +time. The 5th book concludes with the death of King David I. +in 1153. Besides these five books, Fordun wrote part of another +book, and collected materials for bringing down the history to +a later period. These materials were used by a continuator who +wrote in the middle of the 15th century, and who is identified +with Walter Bower (<i>q.v.</i>), abbot of the monastery of Inchcolm. +The additions of Bower form eleven books, and bring down +the narrative to the death of King James I. in 1437. According +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page644" id="page644"></a>644</span> +to the custom of the time, the continuator did not hesitate to +interpolate Fordun’s portion of the work with additions of his +own, and the whole history thus compiled is known as the +<i>Scotichronicon</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first printed edition of Fordun’s work was that of Thomas +Gale in his <i>Scriptores quindecim</i> (vol. iii.), which was published in +1691. This was followed by Thomas Hearne’s (5 vols.) edition in +1722. The whole work, including Bower’s continuation, was published +by Walter Goodall at Edinburgh in 1759. In 1871 and 1872 +Fordun’s chronicle, in the original Latin and in an English translation, +was edited by William F. Skene in <i>The Historians of Scotland</i>. +The preface to this edition collects all the biographical details and +gives full bibliographical references to MSS. and editions.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORECLOSURE,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> in the law of mortgage, the extinguishment +by order of the court of a mortgagor’s equity of redemption. +In the law of equity the object of every mortgage transaction +is eventually the repayment of a debt, the mortgaged property +being incidental by way of security. Therefore, although the +day named for repayment of the loan has passed and the mortgagor’s +estate is consequently forfeited, equity steps in to +mitigate the harshness of the common law, and will decree a +reconveyance of the mortgaged property on payment of the +principal, interest and costs. This right of the mortgagor to +relief is termed his “equity of redemption.” But the right +must be exercised within a reasonable time, otherwise he will +be foreclosed his equity of redemption and the mortgagee’s +possession converted into an absolute ownership. Such foreclosure +is enforced in equity by a foreclosure action. An action +is brought by the mortgagee against the mortgagor in the +chancery division of the High Court in England, claiming that +an account may be taken of the principal and interest due to +the mortgagee, and that the mortgagor may be directed to pay +the same, with costs, by a day to be appointed by the court +and that in default thereof he may be foreclosed his equity of +redemption. English county courts have jurisdiction in foreclosure +actions where the mortgage or charge does not exceed +£500, or where the mortgage is for more than £500, but less than +that sum has been actually advanced. In a Welsh mortgage +there is no right to foreclosure. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mortgage</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOREIGN OFFICE,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> that department of the executive of the +United Kingdom which is concerned with foreign affairs. The +head of the Foreign Office is termed principal secretary of state +for foreign affairs and his office dates from 1782. Between +that date and the Revolution there had been only two secretaries +of state, whose duties were divided by a geographical division +of the globe into northern and southern departments. The +duties of the secretary of the northern department of Europe +comprised dealings with the northern powers of Europe, while +the secretary of the southern department of Europe communicated +with France, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Italy, Turkey, +and also looked after Irish and colonial business, and carried +out the work of the Home Office. In 1782 the duties of these +two secretaries were revised, the northern department becoming +the Foreign Office. The secretary for foreign affairs is the official +agent of the crown in all communications between Great Britain +and foreign powers; his intercourse is carried on either through +the representatives of foreign states in Great Britain or through +representatives of Great Britain abroad. He negotiates all +treaties or alliances with foreign states, protects British subjects +residing abroad, and demands satisfaction for any injuries they +may sustain at the hands of foreigners. He is assisted by two +under-secretaries of state (one of them a politician, the other +a permanent civil servant), three assistant under-secretaries +(civil servants), a librarian, a head of the treaty department +and a staff of clerks. The departments of the Foreign Office +are the African, American, commercial and sanitary, consular, +eastern (Europe), far eastern, western (Europe), parliamentary, +financial, librarian and keeper of the papers, treaties and registry. +In the case of important despatches and correspondence, these, +with the drafts of answers, are sent first to the permanent +under-secretary, then to the prime minister, then to the sovereign +and, lastly, are circulated among the members of the cabinet. +The salary of the secretary for foreign affairs is £5000 per annum, +that of the permanent under-secretary £2000, the parliamentary +under-secretary and the first assistant under-secretary, £1500, +and the other assistant under-secretaries £1200.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Anson, <i>Law and Custom of the Constitution</i>, part ii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORELAND, NORTH<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> and <b>SOUTH,</b> two chalk headlands on +the Kent coast of England, overlooking the Strait of Dover, +the North Foreland forming the eastern projection of the Isle +of Thanet, and the South standing 3 m. N.E. of Dover. Both +present bold cliffs to the sea, and command beautiful views over +the strait. On the North Foreland (51° 22½′ N., 1° 27′ E.) there +is a lighthouse, and on the South Foreland (51° 8½′ N., 1° 23′ E.) +there are two. There is also a Foreland on the north coast of +Devonshire, 2½ m. N.E. of Lynmouth, a fine projection of the +highlands of Exmoor Forest, overlooking the Bristol Channel, +and forming the most northerly point of the county.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORESHORE,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> that part of the seashore which lies between +high- and low-water mark at ordinary tides. In the United +Kingdom it is ordinarily and prima facie vested in the crown, +except where it may be vested in a subject by ancient grant or +charter from the crown, or by prescription. Although numerous +decisions, dating from 1795, have confirmed the prima facie +title of the crown, S.A. Moore in his <i>History of the Foreshore</i> +contends that the presumption is in favour of the subject rather +than of the crown. But a subject can establish a title by proving +an express grant from the crown or giving sufficient evidence +of user from which a grant may be presumed. The chief acts +showing title to foreshore are, taking wreck or royal fish, right +of fishing, mining, digging and taking sand, seaweed, &c., embanking +and enclosing. There is a public right of user in that +part of the foreshore which belongs to the crown, for the purpose +of navigation or fishery, but there is no right of passage over lands +adjacent to the shore, except by a particular custom. So that, +in order to make the right available, there must be a highway +or other public land giving access to the foreshore. Thus it +has been held that the public have no legal right to trespass on +land above high-water mark for the purpose of bathing in the +sea, though if they can get to it they may bathe there (<i>Blundell</i> +v. <i>Catteral</i>, 1821, 5 B. & Ad. 268). There is no right in the public +to take sand, shells or seaweed from the shore, nor, except in +certain places by local custom, have fishermen the right to use +the foreshore or the soil above it for drawing up their boats, or +for drying their nets or similar purposes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See S.A. Moore, <i>History of the Foreshore and the Law relating +thereto</i> (1888); Coulson and Forbes, <i>Law of Waters</i> (1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORESTALLING,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> in English criminal law, the offence of buying +merchandise, victual, &c., coming to market, or making any +bargain for buying the same, before they shall be in the market +ready to be sold, or making any motion for enhancing the price, +or dissuading any person from coming to market or forbearing +to bring any of the things to market, &c. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Engrossing</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOREST LAWS,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> the general term for the old English restriction +laws, dealing with forests. One of the most cherished +prerogatives of the king of England, at the time when his +power was at the highest, was that of converting any portion +of the country into a forest in which he might enjoy the +pleasures of the chase. The earliest struggles between the +king and the people testify to the extent to which this prerogative +became a public grievance, and the charter by which +its exercise was bounded (Carta de Foresta) was in substance +part of the greatest constitutional code imposed by his barons +upon King John. At common law it appears to have been the +right of the king to make a forest where he pleased, provided +that certain legal formalities were observed. The king having a +continual care for the preservation of the realm, and for the peace +and quiet of his subjects, he had therefore amongst many privileges +this prerogative, viz. to have his place of recreation +wheresoever he would appoint.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Land once afforested became +subject to a peculiar system of laws, which, as well as the formalities +required to constitute a valid afforestment, have been +carefully ascertained by the Anglo-Norman lawyers. “A forest,” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page645" id="page645"></a>645</span> +says Manwood, “is a certain territory of woody grounds and +fruitful pastures, privileged for wild beasts and fowls of forest, +chase, and warren to rest, and abide there in the safe protection +of the king, for his delight and pleasure; which territory of +ground so privileged is mered and bounded with unremovable +marks, meres and boundaries, either known by matter of record +or by prescription; and also replenished with wild beasts of +venery or chase, and with great coverts of vert, for the succour +of the said beasts there to abide: for the preservation and +continuance of which said place, together with the vert and +venison there are particular officers, laws, and privileges belonging +to the same, requisite for that purpose, and proper only to a +forest and to no other place.”<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> And the same author distinguishes +a forest, as “the highest franchise of princely pleasure,” +from the inferior franchises of chase, park and warren—named +in the order of their importance. The forest embraces all these, +and it is distinguished by having laws and courts of its own, +according to which offenders are justiceable. An offender in +a chase is to be punished by the common law; an offender in a +forest by the forest law. A chase is much the same as a park, +only the latter is enclosed, and all of them are distinguished +according to the class of wild beasts to which the privilege +extended. Thus beasts of forest (the “five wild beasts of +venery”) were the hart, the hind, the hare, the boar and the +wolf. The beasts of chase were also five, viz. the buck, the doe, +the fox, the marten and the roe. The beasts and fowls of warren +were the hare, the coney, the pheasant and the partridge.</p> + +<p>The courts of the forest were three in number, viz. the court +of attachments, swainmote and justice-seat. The court of +attachments (called also the wood-mote) is held every forty +days for the foresters to bring in their attachments concerning +any hurt done to vert or venison (<i>in viridi et venatione</i>) in the +forest, and for the verderers to receive and mark the same, but +no conviction takes place. The swainmote, held three times in +the year, is the court to which all the freeholders within the forest +owe suit and service, and of which the verderers are the judges. +In this court all offences against the forest laws may be tried, +but no judgment or punishment follows. This is reserved for +the justice-seat, held every third year, to which the rolls of +offences presented at the court of attachment, and tried at the +swainmote, are presented by verderers. The justice-seat is the +court of the chief justice in eyre, who, says Coke, “is commonly +a man of greater dignity than knowledge of the laws of the forests; +and therefore where justice-seats are to be held some other +persons whom the king shall appoint are associated with him, +who together are to determine <i>omnia placita forestae</i>.” There +were two chief justices for the forests <i>intra</i> and <i>ultra Trentam</i> +respectively. The necessary officers of a forest are a steward, +verderers, foresters, regarders, agisters and woodwards. The +verderer was a judicial officer chosen in full county by the freeholders +in the same manner as the coroner. His office was to +view and receive the attachments of the foresters, and to mark +them on his rolls. A forester was “an officer sworn to preserve +the vert and venison in the forest, and to attend upon the wild +beasts within his bailiwick.” The regarders were of the nature +of visitors: their duty was to make a regard (<i>visitatio nemorum</i>) +every third year, to inquire of all offences, and of the concealment +of such offences by any officer of the forest. The business of the +agister was to look after the pasturage of the forest, and to receive +the payments for the same by persons entitled to pasture their +cattle in the forests. Both the pasturage and the payment were +called “agistment.” The woodward was the officer who had +the care of the woods and vert and presented offences at the +court of attachment.</p> + +<p>The legal conception of a forest was thus that of a definite +territory within which the code of the forest law prevailed to +the exclusion of the common law. The ownership of the soil +might be in any one, but the rights of the proprietor were limited +by the laws made for the protection of the king’s wild beasts. +These laws, enforced by fines often arbitrary and excessive, were +a great grievance to the unfortunate owners of land within or +in the neighbourhood of the forest. The offence of “purpresture” +may be cited as an example. This was an encroachment on the +forest rights, by building a house within the forest, and it made +no difference whether the land belonged to the builder or not. +In either case it was an offence punishable by fines at discretion. +And if a man converted woodlands within the forest into arable +land, he was guilty of the offence known as “assarting,” whether +the covert belonged to himself or not.</p> + +<p>The hardships of the forest laws under the Norman kings, +and their extension to private estates by the process of afforestment, +were among the grievances which united the barons and +people against the king in the reign of John. The Great Charter +of King John contains clauses relating to the forest laws, but +no separate charter of the forest. The first charter of the forest +is that of Henry III., issued in 1217. “As an important piece +of legislation,” said Stubbs,<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> “it must be compared with the forest +assize of 1184, and with 44th, 47th and 48th clauses of the charter +of John. It is observable that most of the abuses which are +remedied by it are regarded as having sprung up since the +accession of Henry II.; but the most offensive afforestations +have been made under Richard and John. These latter are at +once disafforested; but those of Henry II. only so far as they +had been carried out to the injury of the landowners and outside +of the royal demesne.” Land which had thus been once forest +land and was afterwards disafforested was known as <i>purlieu</i>—derived +by Manwood from the French <i>pur</i> and <i>lieu</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “a place +exempt from the forest.” The forest laws still applied in a +modified manner to the purlieu. The benefit of the disafforestment +existed only for the owner of the lands; as to all other +persons the land was forest still, and the king’s wild beasts were +to “have free recourse therein and safe return to the forest, +without any hurt or destruction other than by the owners of +the lands in the purlieu where they shall be found, and that only +to hunt and chase them back again towards the forest without +any forestalling” (Manwood, <i>On the Forest Laws</i>—article +“Purlieu”).</p> + +<p>The revival of the forest laws was one of the means resorted +to by Charles I. for raising a revenue independently of parliament, +and the royal forests in Essex were so enlarged that they were +hyperbolically said to include the whole county. The 4th earl +of Southampton was nearly ruined by a decision that stripped +him of his estate near the New Forest. The boundaries of +Rockingham Forest were increased from 6 m. to 60, and +enormous fines imposed on the trespassers,—Lord Salisbury +being assessed in £20,000, Lord Westmoreland in £19,000, Sir +Christopher Hatton in £12,000 (Hallam’s <i>Constitutional History +of England</i>, c. viii.). By the statute 16 Charles I. c. 16 (1640) +the royal forests were determined for ever according to their +boundaries in the twentieth year of James, all subsequent +enlargements being annulled.</p> + +<p>The forest laws, since the Revolution, have fallen into complete +disuse.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Coke, 4 <i>Inst.</i>, 300.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Manwood’s <i>Treatise of the Forest Laws</i> (4th edition, 1717).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Documents Illustrative of English History</i>, p. 338.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORESTS AND FORESTRY.<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> Although most people know +what a forest (Lat. <i>foris</i>, “out of doors”) is, a definition of it +which suits all cases is by no means easy to give. Manwood, in +his treatise of the <i>Lawes of the Forest</i> (1598), defines a forest as +“a certain territory of woody grounds, fruitful pastures, privileged +for wild beasts and fowls of forest, chase and warren, to +rest and abide in, in the safe protection of the king, for his princely +delight and pleasure.” This primitive definition has, in modern +times, when the economic aspect of forests came more into the +foreground, given place to others, so that forest may, in a general +way, now be described as “an area which is for the most part set +aside for the production of timber and other forest produce, +or which is expected to exercise certain climatic effects, or to +protect the locality against injurious influences.”</p> + +<p>As far as conclusions can now be drawn, it is probable that +the greater part of the dry land of the earth was, at some time, +covered with forest, which consisted of a variety of trees and +shrubs grouped according to climate, soil and configuration of +the several localities. When the old trees reached their limit +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page646" id="page646"></a>646</span> +of life, they disappeared, and younger trees took their place. +The conditions for an uninterrupted regeneration of the forest +were favourable, and the result was vigorous production by the +creative powers of soil and climate. Then came man, and by +degrees interfered, until in most countries of the earth the area +under forest has been considerably reduced. The first decided +interference was probably due to the establishment of domestic +animals; men burnt the forest to obtain pasture for their flocks. +Subsequently similar measures on an ever-increasing scale were +employed to prepare the land for agricultural purposes. More +recently enormous areas of forests were destroyed by reckless +cutting and subsequent firing in the extraction of timber for +economic purposes.</p> + +<p>It will readily be understood that the distribution and character +of the now remaining forests must differ enormously (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: +<i>Distribution</i>). Large portions of the earth are still covered with +dense masses of tall trees, while others contain low scrub or grass +land, or are desert. As a general rule, natural forests consist of +a number of different species intermixed; but in some cases +certain species, called gregarious, have succeeded in obtaining +the upper hand, thus forming more or less pure forests of one +species only. The number of species differs very much. In +many tropical forests hundreds of species may be found on a +comparatively small area, in other cases the number is limited. +Burma has several thousand species of trees and shrubs, Sind +has only ten species of trees. Central Europe has about forty +species, and the greater part of northern Russia, Sweden and +Norway contains forests consisting of about half a dozen species. +Elevation above the sea acts similarly to rising latitude, but the +effect is much more rapidly produced. Generally speaking, it +may be said that the Tropics and adjoining parts of the earth, +wherever the climate is not modified by considerable elevation, +contain broad-leaved species, palms, bamboos, &c. Here most +of the best and hardest timbers are found, such as teak, mahogany +and ebony. The northern countries are rich in conifers. Taking +a section from Central Africa to North Europe, it will be found +that south and north of the equator there is a large belt of dense +hardwood forest; then comes the Sahara, then the coast of the +Mediterranean with forests of cork oak; then Italy with oak, +olive, chestnut, gradually giving place to ash, sycamore, beech, +birch and certain species of pine; in Switzerland and Germany +silver fir and spruce gain ground. Silver fir disappears in central +Germany, and the countries around the Baltic contain forests +consisting chiefly of Scotch pine, spruce and birch, to which, +in Siberia, larch must be added, while the lower parts of the +ground are stocked with hornbeam, willow, alder and poplar. +In North America the distribution is as follows: Tropical +vegetation is found in south Florida, while in north Florida it +changes into a subtropical vegetation consisting of evergreen +broad-leaved species with pines on sandy soils. On going north +in the Atlantic region, the forest becomes temperate, containing +deciduous broad-leaved trees and pines, until Canada is reached, +where larches, spruces and firs occupy the ground. Around +the great lakes on sandy soils the broad-leaved forest gives +way to pines. On proceeding west from the Atlantic region +the forest changes into a shrubby vegetation, and this into the +prairies. Farther west, towards the Pacific coast, extensive +forests are found consisting, according to latitude and elevation +above the sea, of pines, larches, fir, Thujas and Tsugas. In +Japan a tropical vegetation is found in the south, comprising +palms, figs, ebony, mangrove and others. This is followed on +proceeding north by subtropical forests containing evergreen +oaks, <i>Podocarpus</i>, tree-ferns, and, at higher elevations, <i>Cryptomeria</i> +and <i>Chamaecyparis</i>. Then follow deciduous broad-leaved +forests, and finally firs, spruces and larches. In India the character +of the forests is governed chiefly by rainfall and elevation. +Where the former is heavy evergreen forests of Guttiferae, +Dipterocarpeae, Leguminosae, Euphorbias, figs, palms, ferns, +bamboos and india-rubber trees are found. Under a less copious +rainfall deciduous forests appear, containing teak and sal +(<i>Shorea robusta</i>) and a great variety of other valuable trees. +Under a still smaller rainfall the vegetation becomes sparse, +containing acacias, <i>Dalbergia sissoo</i> and Tamarix. Where the +rainfall is very light or <i>nil</i>, desert appears. In the Himalayas, +subtropical to arctic conditions are found, the forests containing, +according to elevation, pines, firs, deodars, oaks, chestnuts, +magnolias, laurels, rhododendrons and bamboos. Australia, +again, has its own particular flora of eucalypts, of which some +two hundred species have been distinguished, as well as wattles. +Some of the eucalypts attain an enormous height.</p> + +<p><i>Utility of Forests</i>.—In the economy of man and of nature +forests are of direct and indirect value, the former chiefly through +the produce which they yield, and the latter through the influence +which they exercise upon climate, the regulation of +moisture, the stability of the soil, the healthiness and beauty +of a country and allied subjects. The <i>indirect</i> utility will be +dealt with first. A piece of land bare of vegetation is, throughout +the year, exposed to the full effect of sun and air currents, and +the climatic conditions which are produced by these agencies. +If, on the other hand, a piece of land is covered with a growth +of plants, and especially with a dense crop of forest vegetation, +it enjoys the benefit of certain agencies which modify the +effect of sun and wind on the soil and the adjoining layers of +air. These modifying agencies are as follows: (1) The crowns +of the trees intercept the rays of the sun and the falling rain; +they obstruct the movement of air currents, and reduce radiation +at night. (2) The leaves, flowers and fruits, augmented by +certain plants which grow in the shade of the trees, form a layer +of mould, or humus, which protects the soil against rapid changes +of temperature, and greatly influences the movement of water +in it. (3) The roots of the trees penetrate into the soil in all +directions, and bind it together. The effects of these agencies +have been observed from ancient times, and widely differing +views have been taken of them. Of late years, however, more +careful observations have been made at so-called parallel stations, +that is to say, one station in the middle of a forest, and another +outside at some distance from its edge, but otherwise exposed +to the same general conditions. In this way, the following +results have been obtained: (1) Forests reduce the temperature +of the air and soil to a moderate extent, and render the climate +more equable. (2) They increase the relative humidity of the +air, and reduce evaporation. (3) They tend to increase the +precipitation of moisture. As regards the actual rainfall, their +effect in low lands is <i>nil</i> or very small; in hilly countries it is +probably greater, but definite results have not yet been obtained +owing to the difficulty of separating the effect of forests from +that of other factors. (4) They help to regulate the water supply, +produce a more sustained feeding of springs, tend to reduce +violent floods, and render the flow of water in rivers more +continuous. (5) They assist in preventing denudation, erosion, +landslips, avalanches, the silting up of rivers and low lands +and the formation of sand dunes. (6) They reduce the velocity +of air-currents, protect adjoining fields against cold or dry winds, +and afford shelter to cattle, game and useful birds. (7) They +may, under certain conditions, improve the healthiness of a +country, and help in its defence. (8) They increase the beauty +of a country, and produce a healthy aesthetic influence upon +the people.</p> + +<p>The <i>direct</i> utility of forests is chiefly due to their produce, +the capital which they represent, and the work which they provide. +The principal produce of forests consists of timber and +firewood. Both are necessaries for the daily life of the people. +Apart from a limited number of broad-leaved species, the conifers +have become the most important timber trees in the economy +of man. They are found in greatest quantities in the countries +around the Baltic and in North America. In modern times +iron and other materials have, to a considerable extent, replaced +timber, while coal, lignite, and peat compete with firewood; +nevertheless wood is still indispensable, and likely to remain +so. This is borne out by the statistics of the most civilized +nations. Whereas the population of Great Britain and Ireland, +during the period 1880-1900, increased by about 20%, the imports +of timber, during the same period, increased by 45%; in other +words, every head of population in 1900 used more timber than +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page647" id="page647"></a>647</span> +twenty years earlier. Germany produced in 1880 about as much +timber as she required; in 1899 she imported 4,600,000 tons, +valued at £14,000,000, and her imports are rapidly increasing, +although the yield capacity of her own forests is much higher +now than it was formerly. Wood is now used for many purposes +which formerly were not thought of. The manufacture of the +wood pulp annually imported into Britain consumes at least +2,000,000 tons of timber. A fabric closely resembling silk +is now made of spruce wood. The variety of other, or minor, +produce yielded by forests is very great, and much of it is +essential for the well-being of the people and for various industries. +The yield of fodder is of the utmost importance in countries +subject to periodic droughts; in many places field crops could +not be grown successfully without the leaf-mould and brushwood +taken from the forests. As regards industries, attention need +only be drawn to such articles as commercial fibre, tanning +materials, dye-stuffs, lac, turpentine, resin, rubber, gutta-percha, +&c. Great Britain and Ireland alone import every year +such materials to the value of £12,000,000, half of this being +represented by rubber.</p> + +<p>The <i>capital</i> employed in forests consists chiefly of the value +of the soil and growing stock of timber. The latter is, ordinarily, +of much greater value than the former wherever a sustained +annual yield of timber is expected from a forest. In the case of +a Scotch pine forest, for instance, the value of the growing stock +is, under the above-mentioned condition, from three to five times +that of the soil. The rate of interest yielded by capital invested +in forests differs, of course, considerably according to circumstances, +but on the whole it may, under proper management, +be placed equal to that yielded by agricultural land; it is lower +than the agricultural rate on the better classes of land, but +higher on the inferior classes. Hence the latter are specially +indicated for the forest industry, and the former for the production +of agricultural crops. Forests require <i>labour</i> in a great +variety of ways, such as (1) general administration, formation, +tending and harvesting; (2) transport of produce; and (3) +industries which depend on forests for their prime material. +The labour indicated under the first head differs considerably +according to circumstances, but its amount is smaller than that +required if the land is used for agriculture. Hence forests provide +additional labour only if they are established on surplus lands. +Owing to the bulky nature of forest produce its transport forms +a business of considerable magnitude, the amount of labour +being perhaps equal to half that employed under the first head. +The greatest amount of labour is, however, required in the +working up of the raw material yielded by forests. In this +respect attention may be drawn to the chair industry in and +around High Wycombe in Buckinghamshire, where more than +20,000 workmen are employed in converting the beech, grown +on the adjoining chalk hills, into chairs and tools of many +patterns. Complete statistics for Great Britain are not available +under this head, but it may be mentioned that in Germany the +people employed in the forests amount to 2.3% of the total +population; those employed on transport of forest produce +1.1%; labourers employed on the various wood industries, +8.6%; or a total of 12%. An important feature of the work +connected with forests and their produce is that a great part of +it can be made to fit in with the requirements of agriculture; +that is to say, it can be done at seasons when field crops do not +require attention. Thus the rural labourers or small farmers +can earn some money at times when they have nothing else to +do, and when they would probably sit idle if no forest work were +obtainable.</p> + +<p>Whether, or how far, the utility of forests is brought out in a +particular country depends on its special conditions, such as +(1) the position of a country, its communications, and the control +which it exercises over other countries, such as colonies; (2) +the quantity and quality of substitutes for forest produce +available in the country; (3) the value of land and labour, and +the returns which land yields if used for other purposes; (4) +the density of population; (5) the amount of capital available +for investment; (6) the climate and configuration, especially +the geographical position, whether inland or on the border of +the sea, &c. No general rule can be laid down, showing whether +forests are required in a country, or, if so, to what extent; that +question must be answered according to the special circumstances +of each case.</p> + +<p>The subjoined table shows the forests of various European +states:—</p> +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Countries.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area of<br />Forests, in<br />Acres.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Percentage<br />of Total<br />Area of<br />Country<br />under<br />Forest.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Percentage<br />of Forest<br />Area<br />belonging<br />to the<br />State.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Forest<br />Area per<br />Head of<br />Population,<br />in Acres.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sweden</td> <td class="tcr rb">49,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">48</td> <td class="tcc rb">33</td> <td class="tcl rb">9.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Norway</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">21</td> <td class="tcc rb">28</td> <td class="tcl rb">7.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia, including Finland</td> <td class="tcr rb">518,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">40</td> <td class="tcc rb">61</td> <td class="tcl rb">5.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bosnia and Herzegovina</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,400,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">78</td> <td class="tcl rb">4.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bulgaria</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,600,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">30</td> <td class="tcc rb">30</td> <td class="tcl rb">2.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Turkey</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,200,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Servia</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,900,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">37</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rumania</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,400,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">18</td> <td class="tcc rb">40</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spain</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,200,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">17</td> <td class="tcc rb">84</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hungary</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,500,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">28</td> <td class="tcc rb">15</td> <td class="tcl rb">1.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Austria</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 7</td> <td class="tcl rb"> .9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Greece</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">80</td> <td class="tcl rb"> .85</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Luxemburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">30</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcl rb"> .82</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Switzerland</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,100,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 5</td> <td class="tcl rb"> .7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">26</td> <td class="tcc rb">34</td> <td class="tcl rb"> .6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">18</td> <td class="tcc rb">12</td> <td class="tcl rb"> .6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Italy</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,400,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">15</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 4</td> <td class="tcl rb"> .3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Denmark</td> <td class="tcr rb">600,000</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">24</td> <td class="tcl rb"> .25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Belgium</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,300,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">18</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 5</td> <td class="tcl rb"> .2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Portugal</td> <td class="tcr rb">770,000</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 3.5</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 8</td> <td class="tcl rb"> .15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Holland</td> <td class="tcr rb">560,000</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 7</td> <td class="tcc rb"> ?</td> <td class="tcl rb"> .1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 3</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> .07</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>These data exhibit considerable differences, since the percentage +of the forest area varies from 3.5 to 50, and the area +per head of population from .07 to 9.5 acres. Russia, Sweden +and Norway may as yet have more forest than they require +for their own population. On the other hand, Great Britain +and Ireland, Germany, Denmark, Portugal, Holland, and even +Belgium, France and Italy have not a sufficient forest area +to meet their own requirements; at the same time, they are +all sea-bound countries, and importation is easy, while most +of them are under the influence of moist sea winds, which reduces +to a subordinate position the importance of forests for climatic +reasons.</p> + +<p>Intimately connected with the area of forests in a country +is the state of ownership—whether they belong to the state, +corporations or to private persons. Where, apart from the +financial aspect and the supply of work, forests are not required +for the sake of their indirect effects, and where importation +from other countries is easy and assured, the government of +the country need not, as a rule, trouble itself to maintain or +acquire forests. Where the reverse conditions exist, and especially +where the cost of transport over long distances becomes +prohibitive, a wise administration will take measures to assure +the maintenance of a suitable proportion of the country under +forest. This can be done either by maintaining or constituting +a suitable area of state forests, or by exercising a certain +amount of control over corporation and even private forests. +Such measures are more called for in continental countries +than in those which are sea-bound, as is proved by the above +statistics.</p> + +<p><i>Supply of Timber</i>—<i>Imports and Exports</i>.—The following +table shows the net imports and exports of European countries +(average data, calculated from the returns of recent years).</p> + +<p>The only timber-exporting countries of Europe are Russia, +Sweden, Norway, Austria-Hungary and Rumania; all the others +either have only enough for their own consumption, or import +timber. Great Britain and Ireland import now upwards of +10,000,000 tons a year, Germany about 4,600,000 tons, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page648" id="page648"></a>648</span> +Belgium about 1,300,000 tons. Holland, France, Portugal, +Spain and Italy are all importing countries, as also are Asia +Minor, Egypt and Algeria. The west coast of Africa exports +hardwoods, and imports coniferous timber. The Cape and Natal +import considerable quantities of pine and fir wood. Australasia +exports hardwoods and some Kauri pine from New Zealand, +but imports larger quantities of light pine and fir timber. British +India and Siam export teak and small quantities of fancy woods. +The West Indies and South America export hardwoods, and +import pine and fir wood. The United States of America will +not much longer be a genuine exporting country, since they +import already almost as much timber from Canada as they +export. Canada exports considerable quantities of timber. +The Dominion has still a forest area of 1,250,000 sq. m., equal +to 38% of the total area, and giving 165 acres of forest for every +inhabitant. Although only about one-third of the forest area +can be called regular timber land, Canada possesses an enormous +forest wealth, with which she might supply permanently nearly +all other countries deficient in material, if the governing bodies +in the several provinces would only determine to stop the present +fearful waste caused by axe and fire, and to introduce a regular +system of management. As matters stand, the supplies of the +most valuable timber of Canada, the white or Weymouth pine +(<i>Pinus strobus</i>), are nearly exhausted, the great stores of spruce +in the eastern provinces are being rapidly destroyed, and the +forests of Douglas fir in the western provinces have been attacked +for export to the United States and to other countries.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Net Imports and Exports of European Countries.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb" rowspan="2">Countries.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Quantities in Tons.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Value in £ Sterling.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Imports.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Exports.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Imports.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Exports.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United Kingdom</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,004,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,540,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,600,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,820,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Belgium</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,300,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,040,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,230,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,950,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Italy</td> <td class="tcr rb">620,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,100,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spain</td> <td class="tcr rb">470,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,500,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Denmark</td> <td class="tcr rb">470,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,250,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Switzerland</td> <td class="tcr rb">204,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">480,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Holland</td> <td class="tcr rb">180,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">720,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Servia</td> <td class="tcr rb">110,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">160,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Portugal</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Greece</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">130,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rumania</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">400,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">840,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Norway</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,300,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,200,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Austria-Hungary with</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Bosnia and Herzegovina</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,996,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,400,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sweden</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,460,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,930,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia with Finland</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,890,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,440,000</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">19,283,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">17,046,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">56,890,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">32,810,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl allb">Net Imports</td> <td class="tcr allb">2,237,000</td> <td class="tcr allb"> </td> <td class="tcr allb">24,080,000</td> <td class="tcr allb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="5">These net imports are received from non-European countries.<br /> +They consist chiefly of valuable hardwoods, like teak, mahogany,<br /> +eucalypts and others.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Taking the remaining stocks of the whole earth together, it +may be said that a sufficient quantity of hardwoods is available, +but the only countries which are able to supply coniferous timber +for export on a considerable scale are Russia, Sweden, Norway, +Austria and Canada. As these countries have practically to +supply the rest of the world, and as the management of their +forests is far from satisfactory, the question of supplying light +pine and fir timber, which forms the very staff of life of the wood +industries, must become a very serious matter before many years +have passed. Unmistakable signs of the coming crisis are everywhere +visible to all who wish to see, and it is difficult to over-state +the gravity of the problem, when it is remembered, for instance, +that 87% of all the timber imported into Great Britain consists +of light pine and fir, and that most of the other importing +countries are similarly situated. In some of these countries +little or no room exists for the extension of woodland, but this +statement does not apply to Great Britain and Ireland, which +contain upwards of 12,000,000 acres of waste land, and 12,500,000 +acres of mountain and heath land used for light grazing. One-fourth +of that area, if put under forest, would produce all the +timber now imported which can be grown in Britain, that is to +say, about 95% of the total.</p> + +<p>The subjoined table shows the movements of timber within +the greater part of the British empire:—</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Net Imports and Exports into and from the British Empire.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Countries.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Annual Average<br />during the Years<br />1884-1888.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Annual Average<br />during the Years<br />1900-1903.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Net<br />Imports.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Net<br />Exports.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Net<br />Imports.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Net<br />Exports.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United Kingdom</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,000,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,540,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Australasia</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,284,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">568,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Africa</td> <td class="tcr rb">72,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">737,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">West Indies, Honduras and Guiana</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">207,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">71,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">India, Ceylon and Mauritius</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">528,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">580,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dominion of Canada</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,025,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,789,000</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">16,356,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">4,760,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">27,845,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">5,440,000</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Net Imports</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,596,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,405,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Total increase in 16 years</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,809,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Average annual increase of net</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">  imports</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">675,562</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Forest Management.</i>—In early times there was practically +no forest management. As long as the forests occupied considerable +areas, their produce was looked upon as the free gift +of nature, like air and water; men took it, used it, and even +destroyed it without let or hindrance. With the gradual increase +of population and the consequent reduction of the forest area, +proprietary ideas developed; people claimed the ownership of +certain forests, and proceeded to protect them against outsiders. +Subsequently the law of the country was called in to help in +protection, leading to the promulgation of special forest laws. +By degrees it was found that mere protection was not sufficient, +and that steps must be taken to enforce a more judicious treatment, +as well as to limit the removal of timber to what the forests +were capable of producing permanently. The teaching of natural +science and of political economy was brought to bear upon the +subject, so that now forestry has become a special science. This +is recognized in many countries, amongst which Germany stands +first, closely followed by France, Austria, Denmark and Belgium. +Of non-European countries the palm belongs to British India, +and then follow Ceylon, the Malay States, the Cape of Good +Hope and Japan. The United States of America have also +turned their attention to the subject. Most of the British +colonies are, in this respect, as yet in a backward state, and the +matter has still to be fought out in Great Britain and Ireland, +though many writers have urged the importance of the question +upon the public and the government. There can be no doubt +that all civilized countries must, sooner or later, adopt a rational +and systematic treatment of their forests.</p> + +<p>For details as to the separate countries, see the articles under +the country headings; in this article only some of the more +important countries are dealt with, in so far as the history of +their forestry is important. A few notes on Germany and France +will be given, because in these countries forest management +has been brought to highest perfection; Italy is mentioned, +because she has allowed her forests to be destroyed; and a +short description of forestry in the United Kingdom and in India +follows. A separate section is devoted to the United States.</p> + +<p><i>Germany</i> is in general well-wooded. The winters being long +and severe, an abundant supply of fuel is almost as essential +as a sufficient supply of food. This necessity has led, along +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page649" id="page649"></a>649</span> +with a passion for the chase, to the preservation of forests, and +to the establishment of an admirable system of forest cultivation, +almost as carefully conducted as field tillage. The Black Forest +stretches the whole length of the grand-duchy of Baden and part +of the kingdom of Württemberg, from the Neckar to Basel and +the Lake of Constance. The vegetation resembles that of the +Vosges; forests of spruce, silver fir, Scotch pine, and, mingled +with birches, beech and oak, are the chief woods met with. +Until comparatively recent times large quantities of timber +derived from these forests were floated down the Rhine to Holland +and also shipped to England. Now the greater part of it is used +locally for construction, or it is converted into paper pulp. In +the grand-duchy of Hesse the Odenwald range of mountains, +stretching between the Main and the Neckar, contains the chief +supply of timber. In the province of Nassau there are the large +wooded tracts of the Taunus mountain range and the Westerwald.</p> + +<p>In Rhenish Prussia valuable forests lie partly in the Eifel, +on the borders of Belgium, and on the mountains overhanging +the Upper Moselle, but they do not furnish such stately trees +as the Black Forest and the Odenwald. The Spessart, near +Aschaffenburg in Bavaria, is one of the most extensive forests +of middle Germany, containing large masses of fine oak and beech, +with plantations of coniferous trees, such as spruce, Scotch pine +and silver fir. Bavaria possesses other fine forest tracts, such +as the Baierischewald on the Bohemian frontier, the Kranzberg +near Munich, and the Frankenwald in the north of the kingdom. +North Germany has extensive forests on the Harz and Thüringian +Mountains, while in East Prussia large tracts of flat ground are +covered with Scotch pine, spruce, oak and beech.</p> + +<p>Every German state has its forest organization. In Prussia +the department is presided over by the Oberland Forstmeister +at Berlin, while each province, or part of a province, has an +Oberforstmeister, under whom a number of Oberförsters administrate +the state and communal forests. These, again, are assisted +by a lower class of officials called Försters. The Oberförsters +throughout Germany are educated at special schools of forestry, +of which in 1909 the following nine existed:</p> + +<p>In Prussia: at Eberswalde and Münden.</p> + +<p>In Bavaria: at Munich and Aschaffenburg.</p> + +<p>In Saxony: at Tharand.</p> + +<p>In Württemberg: at Tübingen.</p> + +<p>In Baden: at Carlsruhe.</p> + +<p>In Hesse: at Giessen.</p> + +<p>In the grand-duchy of Saxony: at Eisenach.</p> + +<p>The schools at Munich, Tübingen and Giessen form part of +the universities at these places; that at Carlsruhe is attached +to the technical high school; the others are academies for the +study of forestry only, but there is a tendency to transfer them +all to the universities. The subordinate staff are trained for +their work in so-called silvicultural schools, of which a large +number exist. In this way the German forests have been brought +to a high degree of productiveness, but the material derived from +them falls far short of the requirements, although the forests +occupy 26% of the total area of the country; hence the net +imports of timber amount already to 4,600,000 tons a year, and +they are steadily rising.</p> + +<p><i>France.</i>—The principal timber tree of France is the oak. The +cork oak is grown extensively in the south and in Corsica. The +beech, ash, elm, maple, birch, walnut, chestnut and poplar are all +important trees, while the silver fir and spruce form magnificent +forests in the Vosges and Jura Mountains, and the Aleppo and +maritime pines are cultivated in the south and south-west. About +one-seventh of the entire territory is still covered with wood.</p> + +<p>Forest legislation took its rise in France about the middle of +the 16th century, and the great minister Sully urged the enforcement +of restrictive forest laws. In 1669 a fixed treatment of +state forests was enacted. Duhamel in 1755 published his famous +work on forest trees. Reckless destruction of the forests, however, +was in progress, and the Revolution of 1789 gave a fresh stimulus +to the work of devastation. The usual results have followed in +the frequency and destructiveness of floods, which have washed +away the soil from the hillsides and valleys of many districts, +especially in the south, and the frequent inundations of the last +fifty years are no doubt caused by the deforesting of the sources +of the Rhone and Saône. Laws were passed in 1860 and 1864, +providing for the reforesting, “<i>reboisement</i>,” of the slopes of +mountains, and these laws take effect on private as well as +state property. Thousands of acres are annually planted in the +departments of Hautes and Basses Alpes; and during the summer +of 1875, when much injury was done by floods in the south of +France, the Durance, formerly the most dangerous in this respect +of French rivers, gave little cause for anxiety, as it is round the +head waters of this river that the chief plantations have been +formed. While tracts formerly covered with wood have been +replanted, plantations have been formed on the shifting sands +or dunes along the coast of Gascony. A forest of <i>Pinus pinaster</i>, +150 m. in length, now stretches from Bayonne to the mouth of +the Gironde, raised by means of sowing steadily continued since +1789; the cultivation of the pine, along with draining, has +transformed low marshy grounds into productive soil extending +over an area of about two million acres. The forests thus created +provide annually some 600,000 tons of pit timber for the Welsh +coal mines.</p> + +<p>The state forest department is administered by the director-general, +who has his headquarters at Paris, assisted by a board +of administration, charged with the working of the forests, +questions of rights and law, finance and plantation works.</p> + +<p>The department is supplied with officers from the forest +school at Nancy. This institution was founded in 1824, when +M. Lorentz, who had studied forestry in Germany, was appointed +its first director.</p> + +<p><i>Italy.</i>—The kingdom of Italy comprises such different climates +that within its limits we find the birch and pines of northern +Europe, and the olive, fig, manna-ash, and palm of more southern +latitudes. By the republic of Venice and the duchy of Genoa +forestal legislation was attempted at various periods from the +15th century downwards. These efforts were not successful, +as the governments were lax in enforcing the laws. In 1789 +Pius VI. issued regulations prohibiting felling without licence, +and later orders were published by his successors in the pontifical +states. In Lombardy the woods, which in 1830 reached nearly +down to Milan, have almost disappeared. The province of Como +contains only a remnant of the primitive forests, and the same +may also be said of the southern slopes of Tirol. At Ravenna +there is still a large forest of stone pine, <i>Pinus pinea</i>, though it +has been much reduced. The plains of Tuscany are adorned +with planted trees, the olive, mulberry, fig and almond. Sardinia +is rich in woods, which cover one-fifth of the area, and contain +a large amount of oak, <i>Quercus suber, robur</i> and <i>cerris</i>. In Sicily +the forests have long been felled, save the zone at the base of +Mount Etna.</p> + +<p>The destruction of woods has been gradual but persistent; +at the end of the 17th century the effects of denudation were +first felt in the destructive force given to mountain torrents +by the deforesting of the Apennines. The work of devastation +continued until a comparatively recent time.</p> + +<p>In 1867 the monastic property of Vallombrosa, Tuscany, +30 m. from Florence, was purchased by government for the +purposes of a forest academy, which was opened in 1869. As +only 4% of the total forest area belongs to the state, it is doubtful +whether much good can now be done.</p> + +<p><i>Great Britain and Ireland.</i>—The British Isles were formerly +much more extensively wooded than at present. The rapid +increase of population led to the disforesting of woodland; the +climate required the maintenance of household fires during a +great part of the year, and the increasing demand for arable +land and the extension of manufacturing industries combined +to cause the diminution of woodland. The proportion of forest +is now very small, and yields but a fraction of the required annual +supply of timber which is imported with facility from America, +northern Europe and the numerous British colonies.</p> + +<p>Owing to the nature of the climate of the British Islands, +with its abundance of atmospheric moisture and freedom from +such extremes of heat and cold as are prevalent in continental +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page650" id="page650"></a>650</span> +Europe, a great variety of trees are successfully cultivated. +In England and Ireland oak and beech are on the whole the most +plentiful trees in the low and fertile parts; in the south of +Scotland the beech and ash are perhaps most common, while +the Scotch fir and birch are characteristic of the arboreous +vegetation in the Highlands. Although few extensive forests +now exist, woods of small area, belts of planting, clumps of trees, +coppice and hedgerows, are generally distributed over the country, +constituting a mass of wood of considerable importance, giving +a clothed appearance in many parts, and affording illustrations +of skilled arboriculture not to be found in any other country.</p> + +<p>The principal state forests in England are Windsor Park, +14,000 acres; the New Forest, &c., in Hampshire, 76,000 acres; +and the Dean Forest in Gloucestershire, 22,500 acres. The total +extent of crown forests is about 125,000 acres. A large proportion +of the crown forests, having been formed with the +object of supplying timber for the navy, consists of oak. The +largest forests in Scotland are in Perthshire, Inverness-shire +and Aberdeenshire. Of these the most notable are the earl of +Mansfield’s near Scone (8000 acres), the duke of Atholl’s larch +plantations near Dunkeld (10,000 acres), and in Strathspey a +large extent of Scotch pine, partly native, partly planted, belonging +to the earl of Seafield. In the forests of Mar and Invercauld, +the native pine attains a great size, and there are also +large tracts of indigenous birch in various districts. Ireland +was at one time richly clothed with wood; this is proved by +the abundant remains of fallen trees in the bogs which occupy +a large surface of the island. In addition to the causes above +alluded to as tending to disforest England, the long unsettled state +of the country also conduced to the diminishing of the woodlands.</p> + +<p>The forests of Great Britain and Ireland, in spite of the large +imports of timber, have not been appreciably extended up to +the present time because (1) the rate at which foreign timber +has been laid down in Britain is very low, thus keeping down the +price of home-grown timber; (2) foreign timber is preferred +to home-grown material, because it is in many cases of superior +quality, while the latter comes into the market in an irregular +and intermittent manner; (3) nearly the whole of the waste +lands is private property. As regards prices, it can be shown +that the lowest point was reached about the year 1888, in consequence +of the remarkable development of means of communication, +that prices then remained fairly stationary for some years, +and that about 1894 a slow but steady rise set in, showing during +the years 1894-1904 an increase of about 20% all round. This +was due to the gradual approach of the coming crisis in the +supply of coniferous timber to the world. It can be shown +that even with present prices the growing of timber can be +made to pay, provided it is carried on in a rational and economic +manner. Improved silvicultural methods must be applied, so +as to produce a better class of timber, and the forests must be +managed according to well-arranged working plans, which provide +for a regular and sustained out-turn of timber year by year, +so as to develop a healthy and steady market for locally-grown +material. Unfortunately the private proprietors of the waste +lands are in many cases not in a financial position to plant. +Starting forests demands a certain outlay in cash, and the proprietor +must forgo the income, however small, hitherto derived +from the land until the plantations begin to yield a return. In +these circumstances the state may well be expected to help in +one or all of the following ways: (1) The equipment of forest +schools, where economic forestry, as elaborated by research, +is taught; (2) the management of the crown forests on economic +principles, so as to serve as patterns to private proprietors; +(3) advances should be made to landed proprietors who desire +to plant land, but are short of funds, just as is done in the case +of improvements of agricultural holdings; and (4) the state +might acquire surplus lands in certain parts of the country, +such as congested districts, and convert them into forests. +Action in these directions would soon lead to substantial benefits. +The income of landed proprietors would rise, a considerable +sum of money now sent abroad would remain in the country, +and forest industries would spring up, thus helping to counteract +the ever-increasing flow of people from the country into the large +towns, where only too many must join the army of the unemployed. +Even within a radius of 50 m. of London 700,000 acres +of land are unaccounted for in the official agricultural returns. +In Ireland more than 3,000,000 acres are waiting to be utilized, +and it is well worth the consideration of the Irish Land Commissioners +whether the lands remaining on their hands, when +buying and breaking up large estates, should not be converted +into state forests. Such a measure might become a useful +auxiliary in the peaceful settlement of the Irish land question. +No doubt success depends upon the probable financial results. +There are at present no British statistics to prove such success; +hence, by way of illustration, it may be stated what the results +have been in the kingdom of Saxony, which, from an industrial +point of view, is comparable with England. That country +has 432,085 acres of state forests, of which about one-eighth +are stocked with broad-leaved species, and seven-eighths with +conifers. Some of the forests are situated on low lands, but the +bulk of the area is found in the hilly parts of the country up to +an elevation of 3000 ft. above the sea. The average price realized +of late years per cubic foot of wood amounts to 5d., and yet to such +perfection has the management been brought by a well-trained +staff, that the mean annual net revenue, after meeting all +expenses, comes to 21s. an acre all round. There can be no doubt +that, under the more favourable climate of Great Britain, even +better results can be obtained, especially if it is remembered +that foreign supplies of coniferous timber must fall off, or, at +any rate, the price per cubic foot rise considerably.</p> + +<p>These things have been recognized to some extent, and a +movement has been set on foot to improve matters. The +Commissioners of Woods and a number of private proprietors +had rational working plans prepared for their forests, and +instruction in forestry has been developed. There is now a well-equipped +school of forestry connected with the university of +Oxford, while Cambridge is following on similar lines; instruction +in forestry is given at the university of Edinburgh, the Durham +College of Science, at Bangor, Cirencester and other places. +The Commissioners of Woods have purchased an estate of +12,500 acres in Scotland, which will be converted into a crown +forest, so as to serve as an example. The experience thus gained +will prove valuable should action ever be taken on the lines +suggested by a Royal Commission on Coast Erosion, Reclamation +of Tidal Lands and Afforestation, which reported on the last +subject in 1909.</p> + +<p><i>India.</i>—The history of forest administration in India is exceedingly +instructive to all who take an interest in the welfare of +the British Empire, because it places before the reader an account +of the gradual destruction of the greater part of the natural +forests, a process through which most other British colonies +are now passing, and then it shows how India emerged triumphantly +from the self-inflicted calamity. As far as information +goes, India was, in the early times, for the most part covered +with forest. Subsequently settlers opened out the country +along fertile valleys and streams, while nomadic tribes, moving +from pasture to pasture, fired alike hills and plains. This process +went on for centuries. With the advent of British rule forest +destruction became more rapid than ever, owing to the increase +of population, extension of cultivation, the multiplication of +herds of cattle, and the universal firing of the forests to produce +fresh crops of grass. Then railways came, and with their extension +the forests suffered anew, partly on account of the +increased demand for timber and firewood, and partly on +account of the fresh impetus given to cultivation along their +routes. Ultimately, when failure to meet the requirements of +public works was brought to notice, it was recognized that a +grievous mistake had been made in allowing the forests to be +recklessly destroyed. Already in the early part of the 19th +century sporadic efforts were made to protect the forests in +various parts of the country, and these continued intermittently; +but the first organized steps were taken about the year 1855, +when Lord Dalhousie was governor-general. At that time +conservators of forests existed in Bombay, Madras and Burma. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page651" id="page651"></a>651</span> +Soon afterwards other appointments followed, and in 1864 an +organized state department, presided over by the inspector-general +of forests, was established. Since then the Indian Forest +Department has steadily grown, so that it has now become of +considerable importance for the welfare of the people, as well +as for the Indian exchequer.</p> + +<p>The first duty of the department was to ascertain the position +and extent of the remaining forests, and more particularly +of that portion which still belonged to the state. Then a special +forest law was passed, which was superseded in 1878 by an improved +act, providing for the legal formation of permanent state +forests; the determination, regulation, and, if necessary, commutation +of forest rights; the protection of the forests against +unlawful acts and the punishment of forest offences; the protection +of forest produce in transit; the constitution of a staff of +forest officers, provision to invest them with suitable legal powers, +and the determination of their duties and liabilities. The officers +who administered the department in its infancy were mostly +botanists and military officers. Some of these became excellent +foresters. In order to provide a technically trained staff arrangements +were made in 1866 by Sir Dietrich Brandis, the first +inspector-general of forests, for the training of young Englishmen +at the French Forest School at Nancy and at similar institutions +in Germany. In 1876 the students were concentrated at Nancy, +and in 1885 an English forest school for India was organized +in connexion with the Royal Indian Engineering College at +Cooper’s Hill. In 1905 the school was transferred to the university +of Oxford. The imperial forest staff of India consisted in 1909 +of—officers not specially trained before entering the department, +17; officers trained in France and Germany, 23; officers trained +at Cooper’s Hill, 143—total 184.</p> + +<p>In 1878 a forest school was started at Dehra Dun, United +Provinces, for the training of natives of India as executive +officers on the provincial staff. Since then a similar school, +though on a smaller scale, has been established at Tharrawaddy +in Burma. About 500 officers of this class have been appointed. +In addition, there are about 11,000 subordinates, foresters and +forest guards, who form the protective staff. The school at +Dehra Dun has lately been converted into the Imperial Forest +College.</p> + +<p>The progress made since 1864 is really astonishing. According +to the latest available returns, the areas taken under the management +of the department are—reserved state forests, or permanent +forest estates, 91,272 sq. m.; other state forests, 141,669 sq. m.; +or a total of 232,941 sq. m., equal to 24% of the area over which +they are scattered. At present, therefore, the average charge +of each member of the controlling staff comprises 1266 sq. m.; +that of each executive officer, 446 sq. m.; and that of each +protective official, 21 sq. m. It is the intention to increase the +executive and protective staff considerably, in the same degree +as the management of the forests becomes more detailed. Of +the above-mentioned area the Forest Survey Branch, established +in 1872, has up to date surveyed and mapped about 65,000 sq. m. +From 1864 onwards efforts were made to introduce systematic +management into the forests, based upon working plans, but, +as the management had been provincialized, there was no central +or continuous control. This was remedied in 1884, when a +central Working Plans Office, under the inspector-general of +forests, was established. This officer has since then controlled +the preparation and execution of the plans, a procedure which +has led to most beneficial results. Plans referring to about +38,000 sq. m. are now (1909) in operation, and after a reasonable +lapse of time there should not be a single forest of importance +which is not worked on a well-regulated plan, and on the principle +of a sustained yield. While the danger of overworking the forests +is thus being gradually eliminated, their yield capacity is increased +by suitable silvicultural treatment and by fire protection. +Formerly most of the important forests were annually or periodically +devastated by jungle fires, sometimes lighted accidentally, +in other cases purposely. Now 38,000 sq. m. of forest are actually +protected against fire by the efforts of the department, and it is +the intention gradually to extend protection to all permanent +state forests. Grazing of cattle is of great importance in India; +at the same time it is liable to interfere seriously with the reproduction +of the forests. To meet both requirements careful and +minute arrangements have been made, according to which at +present 38,000 sq. m. are closed to grazing; 19,000 sq. m. are +closed only against the grazing of goats, sheep and camels; while +176,000 sq. m. are open to the grazing of all kinds of cattle. +The areas closed in ordinary years form a reserve of fodder in +years of drought and scarcity. During famine years they are +either opened to grazing, or grass is cut in them and transported +to districts where the cattle are in danger of starvation. The +service rendered in this way by a wise forest administration +should not be underrated, since one of the most serious calamities +of a famine—the want of cattle to cultivate the land—is thus, +if not avoided, at any rate considerably reduced. During 1907 +the government of India established a Research Institute, with +six members engaged in collecting data regarding silviculture, +forest botany, forest zoology, forest economics, working plans, +and chemistry in connexion with forest produce and production. +The institute is likely to lead to further substantial progress in +the management of the forests.</p> + +<p>The financial results of forest administration in India for the +years 1865 to 1905 show the progress made:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Period.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Mean Annual<br />Net Revenue.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Percentage of<br />Annual Increase<br />during Period.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Rupees.</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1865-1870</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,372,733</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1870-1875</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,783,248</td> <td class="tcc rb">30</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1875-1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,224,687</td> <td class="tcc rb">25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880-1885</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,385,745</td> <td class="tcc rb">52</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1885-1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">5,066,671</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890-1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,370,572</td> <td class="tcc rb">44</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895-1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,923,484</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1900-1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">9,004,367</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">12</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The highest percentage of increase occurred in the period +1880-1885. The revenue since 1886 has been considerably +increased by the annexation of Upper Burma.</p> + +<p>Apart from the net revenue, large quantities of produce are +given free of charge, or at reduced rates, to the people of the +country. Thus, in 1904-1905, the net revenue amounted to +Rs. 11,062,094, while the produce given free or at reduced rates +was valued at Rs. 3,500,661, making a total net benefit derived +from the state forests during that year of Rs. 14,562,755, or in +round figures one million pounds sterling. The out-turn during +the same year amounted to 252 million cub. ft. of timber and +fuel and 215 million bamboos. The receipts from the sale of +other forest produce came to 9 million rupees, out of a total +gross revenue of 24 million rupees.</p> + +<p>These results are highly creditable to the government of India, +which has led the way towards the introduction of rational forest +management into the British empire, thus setting an example +which has been followed more or less by various colonies. Even +the movement in the United Kingdom during late years is due +to it. Apart from India, substantial progress has been made in +Cape Colony, Ceylon, the Straits Settlements and the Federated +Malay States. Other British colonies are more backward in this +respect. Energetic action is urgently wanted, especially in +Canada and Australasia, where an enormous state property is +threatened by destruction.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—The following works of special interest may be +mentioned: W. Schlich, <i>A Manual of Forestry</i> (London) (vols. i., +ii. and iii. by W. Schlich; vols. iv. and v. by W.R. Fisher; 3rd ed. +of vol. i., 1906, of vol. ii., 1904, of vol. iii., 1905; 2nd ed. of vol. iv., +1907; 2nd ed. of vol. v., 1908); Baden-Powell, <i>Forest Law</i> (London, +1893); Brown, <i>The Forester</i> (ed. by Nisbet, Edinburgh and London, +1905); Broilliard, <i>Le Traitement des bois</i> (Paris, 1894); Huffel, +<i>Économie forestière</i> (Paris, 1904-1907); Lorey, <i>Handbuch der +Forstwissenschaft</i> (2nd ed. by Stoetzer, Tübingen, 1903); Rossmässler, +<i>Der Wald</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. Sch.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">United States</p> + +<p><i>The Forest Regions.</i>—The great treeless region east of the +Rocky Mountains separates the wooded area of the United +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page652" id="page652"></a>652</span> +States into two grand divisions, which may be called the Eastern +and the Western forests. The Eastern forest is characterized +by the predominance, on the whole, of broad-leafed trees, the +comparative uniformity of its general types over wide areas, +and its naturally unbroken distribution. In the Western forest +conifers are conspicuously predominant; the individual species +often reaches enormous and even unequalled dimensions, the +forest is frequently interrupted by treeless areas, and the transitions +from one type to another are often exceedingly abrupt. +Both divisions are botanically and commercially rich in species.</p> + +<p>The Eastern forest may conveniently be subdivided into three +members:</p> + +<p>1. The Northern forest, marked by great density and large +volume of standing timber, and a comparative immunity, in its +virgin condition, from fire. The characteristic trees are maples, +birches and beech (<i>Fagus atropunicea</i>), among the hardwoods +and white pine (<i>Pinus strobus</i>), spruce (<i>Picea rubens</i> and <i>Picea +mariana</i>) and hemlock (<i>Tsuga canadensis</i>) among conifers.</p> + +<p>2. The Southern forest is on the whole less dense than the +Northern, and more frequently burned over. Among its characteristic +trees are the longleaf (<i>Pinus palustris</i>) and other pines, +oaks, gums, bald cypress (<i>Taxodium distichum</i>) and white cedar +(<i>Chamaecyparis thyoides</i>).</p> + +<p>3. The Central Hardwood forest, which differs comparatively +little from adjacent portions of the Northern and Southern +forests except in the absence of conifers. Among its trees are +the chestnut (<i>Castanea dentata</i>), hickories, ashes and other +hardwoods already mentioned.</p> + +<p>The Western division has two members:</p> + +<p>1. The Pacific Coast forest, marked by the great size of its +trees and the vast accumulations of merchantable timber. +Among its characteristic species are the redwood (<i>Sequoia sempervirens</i>) +and the big tree (<i>S. Washingtoniana</i>), the Douglas fir +(<i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i>), sugar pine (<i>Pinus lambertiana</i>), western +hemlock (<i>Tsuga heterophylla</i>), giant arborvitae (<i>Thuja plicata</i>) +and Sitka spruce (<i>Picea sitchensis</i>).</p> + +<p>2. The Rocky Mountain forest, whose characteristic species +are the western yellow pine (<i>Pinus ponderosa</i>), Engelmann spruce +(<i>Picea engelmanni</i>) and lodgepole pine (<i>Pinus murrayana</i>). This +forest is frequently broken by treeless areas of greater or less +extent, especially towards the south, and it suffers greatly from +fire. Subarid in character, except to the north and at high +elevations, the vast mining interests of the region and its treeless +surroundings give this forest an economic value out of proportion +to the quantities of timber it contains.</p> + +<p>This distribution of the various forests is indicated on the first +of the two accompanying maps. The second map shows the +situation of the national forests hereafter mentioned.</p> + +<p>The forests of Alaska fall into two main divisions: the commercial +though undeveloped forests of the south-east coast, +which occur along the streams and on the lower slopes of the +mountains and consist chiefly of western hemlock (<i>Tsuga +heterophylla</i>), Sitka spruce (<i>Picea sitchensis</i>), yellow cedar +(<i>Chamaecyparis nootkatensis</i>) and giant arborvitae (<i>Thuja +plicata</i>), usually of large size and uninjured by fire; and the vast +interior forests, swept by severe fires, and consisting chiefly of +white and black spruces (<i>Picea canadensis</i> and <i>nigra</i>), paper birch +(<i>Betula papyrifera</i>) and aspen (<i>Populus tremuloides</i>), all of small +size but of great importance in connexion with mining. Northern +Alaska and the extreme western coast regions are entirely barren.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:855px; height:538px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img652.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2"><i>The National Forest Policy.</i>—The forest policy of the United +States may be said to have had its origin in 1799 in the enactment +of a law which authorized the purchase of timber suitable for +the use of the navy, or of land upon which such timber was +growing. It is true that laws were in force under the early +governments of Massachusetts, New Jersey and other colonies, +providing for the care and protection of forest interests in +various ways, but these laws were distinctly survivals of tendencies +acquired in Europe, and for the most part of little use. +It was not until the apparent approach of a dangerous shortage +in certain timber supplies that the first real step in forest policy +was taken by the United States. Successive laws passed from +1817 to 1831 strove to give larger effect to the original enactment, +but without permanent influence towards the preservation of the +live oak (<i>Quercus virginiana</i> Mill.), which was the object in view. +A long period of inaction followed these early measures. In +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page653" id="page653"></a>653</span> +1831 the solicitor of the treasury assumed a partial responsibility +for the care and protection of the public timber lands, and in +1855 this duty was transferred to the commissioner of the general +land office in the Department of the Interior. The effect of +these changes upon forest protection was unimportant. When, +however, at the close of the Civil War railway building in the +United States took on an unparalleled activity, the destruction +of forests by fire and the axe increased in a corresponding ratio, +and public sentiment began to take alarm. Action by several +of the states slightly preceded that of the Federal government, +but in 1876 Congress, acting under the inspiration of a memorial +from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, +authorized the appointment of an officer (Dr Franklin B. Hough) +under the commissioner of agriculture, to collect and distribute +information upon forest matters. His office became in 1880 the +division of forestry in what is now the United States Department +of Agriculture.</p> + +<p>As the railways advanced into the treeless interior, public +interest in tree-planting became keen. In 1873 Congress passed +and later amended and repealed the timber culture acts, which +granted homesteads on the treeless public lands to settlers who +planted one-fourth of their entries with trees. Though these +measures were not successful in themselves they directed attention +towards forestry. The act which repealed them in 1891 +contained a clause which lies at the foundation of the present +forest policy of the United States. By it the president was +authorized to set aside “any part of the public lands wholly or +in part covered with timber or undergrowth, whether of commercial +value or not, as public reservations, and the President +shall, by public proclamation, declare the establishment of such +reservations and the limits thereof.” Some eighteen million +acres had been proclaimed as reservations at the time when, in +1896, the National Academy of Sciences was asked by the +secretary of the interior to make an investigation and report +upon “the inauguration of a rational forest policy for the forest +lands of the United States.” Upon the recommendation of a +commission named by the Academy, President Cleveland established +more than twenty-one million acres of new reserves on +the 22nd of February 1897. His action was widely misunderstood +and attacked, but it awakened a public interest in forest +questions without which the rapid progress of forestry in the +United States since that time could never have been made.</p> + +<p>Within a few months after the proclamation of the Cleveland +reserves the present national forest policy took definite shape. +Under this policy the national government holds and manages, +in the common interest of all users of the forests or its products, +such portions of the public lands as have been set aside by +presidential proclamation in accordance with the act of 1891. +These lands are held against private acquisition under the Homestead +Act (except as to agricultural lands as hereafter mentioned), +the Timber and Stone Act, and other laws under which the +United States disposes of its unappropriated public domain, +but not against private acquisition under the Mineral Land Laws. +They are selected from lands believed to be more valuable for +forest purposes than for agriculture, and are managed with the +purpose of securing from them the best and largest possible +returns, present and future, whether in the form of water for +irrigation or power, of timber, of forage for stock, or of any other +beneficial product. The aggregate area of the reserves, or +national forests, has been steadily increased until they now +include nearly all the timber lands left of the public domain.</p> + +<p>The general lines of this policy were in part laid down by +the commission already mentioned, in its report submitted to +the secretary of the interior, May 1, 1897, and by the act of +June 4, 1897, which was largely shaped by the work of the +commission. Until this act was passed the national forests had +been in theory closed against any form of use; nor had the +possibility of securing forest preservation by wise use received +much thought from those who had favoured their creation. Such +a state of affairs could not continue. Before long public opinion +would have forced the opening to use of the resources thus +arbitrarily locked up, and in the absence of any administrative +system providing for conservative use, the national forests would +inevitably have been abolished, and the whole policy of government +forest holdings would have ceased. The act of June 4, +1897 was therefore of the first importance. This act conferred +upon the secretary of the interior general powers for the +proper management of the national forests through the general +land office of his department. It provided for the designation +and sale of dead, mature and large timber; authorized the +secretary to permit free use of timber in small quantities by +settlers, miners and residents; empowered him to “make such +rules and regulations and establish such service as will insure the +objects of such reservations, namely, to regulate their occupancy +and use and to preserve the forests thereon from destruction”; +and made violation of the act or of such rules and regulations a +misdemeanour. The statute limited the power to establish forest +reservations to the purpose of improving and protecting the forest, +securing favourable conditions of water flows, and furnishing a +continuous supply of timber for the use and necessities of citizens +of the United States. Lands found, upon due examination, +to be more valuable for other purposes than for forest uses +might be eliminated from any reservation, and all mineral lands +within the reservations were left open to private appropriation +under the mineral laws. The rights of settlers and claimants +were safeguarded, and civil and criminal jurisdiction, except so +far as the punishment of offences against the United States in +the reservations was concerned, was reserved to the States.</p> + +<p>While the administration of the national forests was entrusted +to the general land office, the same act assigned the surveying +and mapping of them to the United States Geological Survey, +which has published descriptions and maps of some of the more +important.</p> + +<p>No attempt was made in the general land office to develop +a technical forest service. There were, indeed, at the time of +passage of the act, less than ten trained foresters in the United +States, no means of training more, and very little conception +of what forestry actually meant. The purpose of the administration +was therefore mainly protection against trespass and fire, +particularly the latter. Regulations were made giving effect +to the provisions of the act of June 4, set forth above, but +in the absence of technical knowledge as to what might safely +be done, the tendency was rather to restrict than to extend the +use of the forest. Meanwhile, however, there was rapidly developing +in another branch of the government service an organization +qualified for actual forest management.</p> + +<p>One year after the passage of the act of June 4, 1897, the +division of forestry in the Department of Agriculture ceased +to be merely a bureau of information, and became an active +agency for introducing the actual practice of forestry among +private owners and for conducting the investigations upon +which a sound American forest practice could be based. The +work awakened great interest among forest owners, and exerted +a powerful educational influence upon the country at large. +The division extended its work and became (July 1, 1901) the +Bureau of Forestry. It drew into its employment for a time +nearly all the men who were preparing themselves in increasing +numbers (at first abroad, then in the newly-founded schools in +the United States) for the profession of forestry, and was soon +recognized as qualified to speak authoritatively on technical +questions connected with the administration of the national +forests. This led to a request from the secretary of the interior +for the advice of the bureau on such questions. Working plans +were accordingly undertaken for a number of the forests. The +general land office, however, was not ready to attempt active +forest management. Though some timber was sold and the +grazing of stock regulated to some extent, the main object of +the land office administration continued to be protection against +fire. Many of the regulations which it made could not be enforced.</p> + +<p>The disadvantages of dispersal of the Federal government +forest work among three separate agencies grew more and more +apparent, until, on the 1st of February 1905, control of the +63,000,000 acres of forest reserves which up to that time had +been set aside was transferred from the general land office to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page654" id="page654"></a>654</span> +the Bureau of Forestry. In recognition of its new duties the +designation of the bureau became the Forest Service.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:849px; height:842px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img654.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">Other provisions of the act which affected the transfer were +that forest supervisors and rangers should be selected, so far +as possible, from qualified citizens of the state or territory in +which each forest was situated, and that all money received +from the sale of any products or the use of any land or resources +of the national forests should be covered into the treasury and +constitute a special fund for their protection, administration, +improvement and extension. Five days later a statute gave +forest officers the power to arrest trespassers; and on the 3rd +of March the lieu land selection law was repealed. This law had +opened the way for grave abuses through the exchange of worthless +land by private owners within the forests for an equal area +of valuable timber lands outside.</p> + +<p>The law has been modified since by the change of the old +name “Forest Reserves” to “National Forests.” The act +of June 11, 1906, opened to homestead entry lands within +national forests found by examination to be chiefly valuable for +agriculture. The administration and improvement of the national +forests are now provided for directly by congressional appropriation. +The power to create national forests conferred on the +president by the act of March 1891 has been repealed for the +states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming and +Colorado, but for no others.</p> + +<p>The Forest Service began in earnest the development of all +the resources of the national forests. Mature timber was sold +wherever there was a demand for it and the permanent welfare +of the forests and protection of the streams permitted, but +always so as to prevent waste, guard against fire, protect young +growth and ensure reproduction. Regulations were adopted +which allowed small sales to be made without formality or delay, +secured for the government the full value of timber sold, and +eliminated unnecessary routine. Care was taken to safeguard +the interests of the government and provide for the maintenance +of good technical standards. The conduct of local business +was entrusted to local officers. Large transactions with general +policies were controlled from Washington, but with careful +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page655" id="page655"></a>655</span> +provision for first-hand knowledge and close touch with the work +in the field. Business efficiency and the convenience of the public +were carefully studied. In short, an organization was created +capable of handling safely, speedily and satisfactorily the complex +business of making useful a forest property of vast extent, +scattered through sixteen different states of an aggregate area +of over 1,500,000 sq. m. and with a population of 9,000,000.</p> + +<p>The growth since the 1st of July 1897 of the area of the +national forests, of the expenditures of the government for +forestry, and of the receipts from the national forests, is shown +by the statement which follows. Though the act of June 4, +1897, became effective immediately upon its passage, the fiscal +year 1899 was the first of actual administration, because the +first for which Congress made the appropriation necessary to +carry out the law.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Area of National Forests, Annual Expenditures of the Federal Government for Forestry and National Forest Administration, +and Receipts from National Forests, 1898-1909.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Fiscal<br />Year.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td> + <td class="tccm allb">Area of<br />National Forests<br />at Close of Year<br />(June 30).</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Division of Forestry<br />(Bureau of Forestry,<br />Forest Service).</td> <td class="tccm allb">General<br />Land Office.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Receipts from<br />National Forests.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Receipts from<br />National Forests,<br />per Acre.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Expenditures upon<br />National Forests,<br />per Acre.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Acres.</td> <td class="tcc rb">$</td> <td class="tcc rb">$</td> <td class="tcc rb">$</td> <td class="tcc rb">$</td> <td class="tcc rb">$</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,866,184</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,000.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,168,439</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,520.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">175,000.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,534.83</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.00016</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.0038</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,515,039</td> <td class="tcr rb">48,520.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">210,000.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">36,754.02</td> <td class="tcc rb"> .00078</td> <td class="tcc rb"> .0045</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,324,479</td> <td class="tcr rb">88,520.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">325,000.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,250.88</td> <td class="tcc rb"> .00063</td> <td class="tcc rb"> .0070</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb">51,896,357</td> <td class="tcr rb">185,440.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">300,000.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,431.87</td> <td class="tcc rb"> .00049</td> <td class="tcc rb"> .0060</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcr rb">62,211,240</td> <td class="tcr rb">291,860.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">304,135.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,838.08</td> <td class="tcc rb"> .00074</td> <td class="tcc rb"> .0054</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">62,611,449</td> <td class="tcr rb">350,000.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">375,000.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">58,436.19</td> <td class="tcc rb"> .00093</td> <td class="tcc rb"> .0072</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb">85,693,422</td> <td class="tcr rb">632,232.36<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">217,907.64<a href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">73,276.15</td> <td class="tcc rb"> .00085</td> <td class="tcc rb"> .0059</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1906</td> <td class="tcr rb">106,994,018</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,191,400.21</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">767,219.96</td> <td class="tcc rb"> .00717</td> <td class="tcc rb"> .0089</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1907</td> <td class="tcr rb">150,832,665</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,800,595.20</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,571,059.44</td> <td class="tcc rb"> .01041</td> <td class="tcc rb"> .0097</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1909</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">167,677,749</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,948,153.08</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,807,276.66</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> .00931</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> .0151</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Until 1906, the sole source of receipts was the sale of timber. +In the fiscal year 1907, however, timber sales furnished less +than half the receipts. The following statement concerning +the timber sales of the fiscal years 1904-1907 will serve to bring +out the change that followed the transfer of control to the forest +service in the midst of the fiscal year 1905:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Fiscal<br />Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Amount of<br />Timber Sold.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Amount of<br />Timber Cut.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Receipts from<br />Timber Sales.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Bd.-ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Bd.-ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">$</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">112,773,710</td> <td class="tcr rb">58,435,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">58,436.19</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb">113,661,508</td> <td class="tcr rb">68,475,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">73,270.15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1906</td> <td class="tcr rb">328,230,326</td> <td class="tcr rb">138,665,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">245,013.49</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1907</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,044,855,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">194,872,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">686,813.12</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>These figures show (1) a large excess each year in the amount +of timber sold over that cut and paid for; (2) nine times as much +timber sold at the end of the four-year period as at the beginning +and three times as much cut; and (3) a much higher price +obtained per thousand board-feet at the end of the period than +at the beginning. Each of these matters calls for comment. +The sales are of stumpage only; the government does no logging +on its own account.</p> + +<p>1. More timber is sold each year than is cut and paid for, +because many of the sales extend over several years. With +increasing sales the amount sold each year for future removal +has exceeded the amount to be removed during that year under +sales of earlier years. Large sales covering a term of years are +made because the national forests contain much overmature +timber, which needs removal, but which is frequently too inaccessible +to be saleable in small amounts. To prevent speculation +the time allowed for cutting is never more than five years, +and cutting must begin at once and be continued steadily.</p> + +<p>2. The volume of sales has increased rapidly because much +forest is ripe for the axe, the demand is strong, and control by +trained men makes it safe to cut more freely. The increase is +marked both in small and in large sales, but a score of sales for +less than $5000 are made against one for more. The total cut +is still far below the annual increment of the forests. As the +demand grows restrictions must increase in order to husband +the present supply until the next crop matures.</p> + +<p>3. The stumpage price would seem on the face of the figures +to have risen from about one dollar to more than three dollars +per thousand board-feet. The receipts, however, for any one +year are not exclusively for the timber cut in that year, since +payments are made in advance. In the year 1907 the average +price obtained was something less than $2.50 per thousand. +It is therefore true that stumpage prices have risen greatly, +although conditions new to the American lumbermen are imposed. +Full utilization of all merchantable material, care of +young growth in felling and logging, and the piling of brush, +to be subsequently burned by the forest officers if burning is +necessary, are among these conditions. Timber to be cut must +first be marked by the forest officers. Sales of more than $100 +in value are made only after public advertisement.</p> + +<p>Only the simplest forms of silviculture have as yet been +introduced. The vast area of the national forests, the comparatively +sparse population of the West, the rough and broken +character of the forests themselves, and the newness of the +problems which their management presents, make the general +application of intensive methods for the present impracticable. +Natural reproduction is secured. The selection system is most +used, often under the rough and ready method of an approximate +diameter limit, with the reservation of seed trees where needed. +The tendency, however, is strongly towards a more flexible and +effective application of the selection principle, as a better trained +field force is developed and as market conditions improve.</p> + +<p>One conspicuous achievement was the reduction of loss by +fires on the national forests. During the unusually dry season +of 1905 there were only eight fires of any importance, and the +area burned over amounted only to about .16 of 1% of the +total area. In 1900 about .12 of 1% was burned. This was +accomplished by efficient patrol, co-operation of the public, and +by preventive measures, such as piling and burning the brush +on cut-over areas.</p> + +<p>Since the beginning of 1906 the largest source of income from +the national forests was their use for grazing. Stock-raising is +one of the most important industries of the West. Formerly +cattle and sheep grazed freely on all parts of the public domain. +In the early days of the national forests the wisdom of permitting +any grazing at all upon them was sharply questioned. Unrestricted +grazing had led to friction between individuals, the +deterioration of much of the range through overstocking, and +serious injury to the forests and stream flow. The forests of +the West, however, are largely of open growth and contain +many grassy parks, the results of old fires, and many high +mountain meadows. Under proper regulations the grass and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page656" id="page656"></a>656</span> +other forage plants which they produce in great quantity can +be used without detriment to the forests themselves, and with +great benefit to the stock industry, which often can find summer +pasturage nowhere else. Except in southern California grazing +is now permitted on all national forests unless the watersheds +furnish water for domestic use; but the time of entering and +leaving, the number of head to be grazed by each applicant, and +the part of the range to be occupied are carefully prescribed. +Planted areas and cut-over areas are closed to stock until the +young growth is safe from harm, and goats are allowed only in +the brushland of the foothills.</p> + +<p>The results of regulation, in addition to the protection of +forest growth and streams, are the prevention of disputes, +improved range, better stock, stable conditions in the stock +industry, and the best use of the range in the interest of progress +and development. The first right to graze stock on the forests +is given to residents, small owners and those who have used the +range before. Thus the crowding out of the weaker by the +stronger and of the settler by the roving outsider has been +stopped. In 1906 the forest service began to impose a moderate +charge for the use of the national forest range. The following +statement shows the amount of stock grazed on the national +forests 1904-09, and the receipts for the grazing charge:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Number of<br />Cattle and Horses.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Number of<br />Sheep and Goats.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Receipts.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">$</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">610,091</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,806,722</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb">692,124</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,709,987</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1906</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,015,148</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,763,100</td> <td class="tcr rb">514,692.87</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1907</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,200,158</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,657,083</td> <td class="tcr rb">863,920.32</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1909</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,581,404</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7,819,594</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,032,185.70</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>A work of enormous magnitude which has now begun is planting +on the national forests. At present, with low stumpage prices +and incomplete utilization of forest products, clear cutting +with subsequent planting is not practicable. There are, however, +many million acres of denuded land within the national forests +which require planting. Such planting is still confined chiefly +to watersheds which supply cities and towns with water. The +first planting was done in 1892, in California. Since then +similar work has been done on city watersheds in Colorado, +Utah, Idaho and New Mexico. Other plantations are in the +Black Hills national forest, where large areas of cut-over and +burned-over land are entirely without seed trees, and in the +sandhill region of Nebraska. Up to 1908 about 2,000,000 seedlings +had been planted, on over 2000 acres—a small beginning, but +the work was entirely new and presented many hard problems.</p> + +<p>The nursery operations of the forest service are concentrated +at seven stations, located in southern California, Nebraska, +Colorado, New Mexico (2), Utah and Idaho, where stock is +raised for local planting and for shipment elsewhere. These +nurseries are small. Their annual productive capacity is between +8,000,000 and 10,000,000 seedlings. Each nursery is practically +an experimental forest-planting station, at which a large variety +of species are grown and various methods are tried.</p> + +<p>The organization of the administrative work of the national +forests is by single forests. On the 1st of January 1908 the total +number of forests was 165 with a total area of 162,023,190 acres +(on April 7, 1909, the numbers were 146 national forests in the +U.S. with 167,672,467 acres, besides two in Alaska with 26,761,626 +and one in Porto Rico with 65,950 acres). In charge of each +forest is a forest supervisor. Under the supervisors are forest +rangers and forest guards, whose duties include patrol, marking +timber and scaling logs, enforcing the regulations and conducting +some of the minor business arising from the use of the forests. +Guards are temporary employés; rangers are employed by the +year. The supervisors report directly to and receive instructions +from the central office at Washington. In this office there are +four branches—operation, grazing, silviculture and products—each +of which directs that part of the work which belongs to it, +dealing directly with the supervisor. For inspection purposes, +however, the forests are separated into six districts, in each of +which is located a chief inspector with a corps of assistants. +The inspectors are without administrative authority, but assist +by their counsel the supervisors, and through inspection reports +keep the Washington office informed of the condition of all lines +of administrative work in progress. Administrative officers +alternate frequently between field and office duties.</p> + +<p>The number of forest officers in the several grades on the 1st +of January 1908 were: 6 chief inspectors, 26 inspectors, 106 +forest supervisors, 41 deputy forest supervisors, 820 forest +rangers and 283 forest guards. The total number of employés +of the forest service on the same date, including the clerical +force, was 2034.</p> + +<p>Besides the administration of the national forests, the forest +service conducts general investigations, carries on an extensive +educational work, and co-operates with private owners who +contemplate forest management upon their own tracts. This +last work is undertaken because of the need of bringing forestry +into practice, the lack of trained foresters outside of the employ +of the government, and the lack of information as to how to +apply forestry and what returns may be obtained. Co-operation +takes the form of advice upon the ground and, on occasion, of +the making of working plans. The educational work of the service +is performed chiefly through publications, the purpose of which +is to spread very widely a knowledge of the importance of forestry +to the nation and of the principles upon which its practice rests. +The investigations which the service conducts extend from studies +of the natural distribution and classification of American forests +and of their varied silvicultural problems to statistics of lumber +production and laboratory researches which bear upon the +economical utilization of forest products. As examples of these +researches may be mentioned tests of the strength of timber, +studies of the preservative treatment of wood for various uses, +wood-pulp investigations and studies in wood chemistry.</p> + +<p><i>Forest Instruction.</i>—Most of the men now in the forest service +received their training in the United States. There are several +professional schools of forestry. The Yale Forest School, which +was opened as a department of Yale University in September +1900, offers a two-years’ graduate course with abundant field +work, and also conducts a summer school of forestry, especially +adapted to the training of forest rangers and special students, +at Milford, Pennsylvania. The university of Michigan and +Harvard University also offer a two-years’ graduate course in +forestry. The Pennsylvania State College has recently established +a four-years’ undergraduate course in forestry. The Biltmore +Forest School in North Carolina, the oldest of all these schools, +offers a one-year course in technical forestry. A large number +of the agricultural colleges give instruction in forestry. Among +these are Nebraska, Minnesota, Maine, Michigan, Washington +and Mississippi agricultural colleges, the university of Georgia and +Iowa State College. Berea College, Kentucky, deserves special +mention as a college which has done valuable work in teaching +forestry without attempting to turn out professional foresters.</p> + +<p><i>Forestry among the States.</i>—Among the states forestry has +hardly reached the stage of practical application on the ground. +New York holds 1,500,000 acres of forest land. It has a commission +to care for its forest preserve, and to protect the forest land +throughout the state from fire. The constitution of the state, +however, prohibits the cutting of timber on state land, and thus +confines the work entirely to protection of the forest and to the +planting of waste areas. Pennsylvania is at present showing +the most efficient activity in working out a forest policy. It has +state forests of 820,000 acres, a good fire law more and more +satisfactorily enforced, and eight nurseries for growing planting +material. In 1905, 160,000 white pine seedlings were set out. +It has also a school for forest rangers, to be employed on the +state forests, and it has just established a state professional +school of forestry.</p> + +<p>Twenty-six of the states have regularly appointed forest officers, +six have carried on studies of forest conditions in co-operation +with the forest service, and there is scarcely one which is not +actively interested in forestry. Laws, generally good, to prevent +damage from forest fires, have been enacted by practically all +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page657" id="page657"></a>657</span> +the states, but their enforcement has unfortunately been lax. +Public sentiment, however, is making rapid progress. Among +the best laws are those of Maine, New Hampshire, Minnesota, +New York, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin. The New York law, +for example, provides for the appointment of one or more fire-wardens +in each town of the counties in which damage by fire +is especially to be feared. In other counties supervisors of towns +are <i>ex-officio</i> fire-wardens. A chief fire-warden has general +supervision of their work. The wardens, half of the cost of whose +services is paid by the state, receive compensation only for the +time actually employed in fighting fires. They may command +the service of any citizen to assist them. Setting fire to woods +or waste lands belonging to the state or to another, if such fire +results in loss, is punishable by a fine not exceeding $250 or +imprisonment not exceeding one year, or both, and damages +are provided for the person injured. Since fire is beyond question +the most dangerous enemy of forests in the United States, the +measures taken against it are of vital importance.</p> + +<p>The following table shows the amount of forest land held by +the different states, and by the territory of Hawaii:—</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Area of State Forest Reservations, 1907.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Connecticut</td> <td class="tcr">1,360</td> <td class="tcc">acres</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hawaii</td> <td class="tcr">117,532</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Indiana</td> <td class="tcr">2,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Maryland</td> <td class="tcr">3,540</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Michigan</td> <td class="tcr">39,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Minnesota</td> <td class="tcr">42,800</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">New Jersey</td> <td class="tcr">2,474</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">New York</td> <td class="tcr">1,439,998</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Pennsylvania</td> <td class="tcr">820,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Wisconsin</td> <td class="tcr">254,072</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Forestry on Private Lands.</i>—The practice of forestry among +private owners is of old date. One of the earliest instances +was that of Jared Eliot, who, in 1730, began the systematic +cutting of timber land to supply charcoal for an iron furnace +at Old Salisbury, Connecticut. The successful planting of waste +lands with timber trees in Massachusetts dates from about ten +years later. But such examples were comparatively rare until +recent times. At present the intelligent harvesting of timber +with a view to successive crops, which is forestry, is much more +common than is usually supposed. Among farmers it is especially +frequent. It was begun among lumbermen by the late E.S. +Coe, of Bangor, Maine, who made a practice of restricting the +cut of spruce from his forests to trees 10, 12 or sometimes even +14 in. in diameter, with the result that much of his land yielded, +during his life, a second crop as plentiful as the first. Many +owners of spruce lands have followed his example, but until +very recently without improving upon it. Systematic forestry +on a large scale among lumbermen was begun in the Adirondacks +during the summer of 1898 on the lands of Dr W.S. Webb and +Hon. W.C. Whitney, of a combined area of over 100,000 acres, +under the superintendence of the then Division of Forestry. +In these forests spruce, maple, beech and birch predominate, +but the spruce alone is at present of the first commercial importance. +The treatment is a form of the selection system. Under +it a second crop of equal yield would be ripe for the axe in thirty-five +years. Spruce and pine are the only trees cut. The work +had been executed, at least up to the year 1902, with great +satisfaction to the owners and the lumbering contractors, as +well as to the decided benefit of the forest. The lumbering is +regulated by the following rules, and competent inspectors are +employed to see that they are rightly carried out: (1) No +trees shall be cut which are not marked. (2) All trees marked +shall be cut. (3) No trees shall be left lodged in the woods, and +none shall be overlooked by the skidders or haulers. (4) All +merchantable logs which are as large as 6 in. in diameter at the +small end must be utilized. (5) No stumps shall be cut more +than 6 in. higher than the stump is wide. (6) No spruce shall +be used for bridges, corduroy, skids, slides, or for any purpose +except building camps, dams or booms, unless it is absolutely +necessary on account of lack of other timber. (7) All merchantable +spruce used for skidways must be cut into logs and hauled +out. (8) Contractors must not do any unnecessary damage +to young growth in lumbering; and if any is done, they must +discharge the men who did it.</p> + +<p>These two instances of forestry have been most useful and +effective among lumbermen and other owners of forest land in +the north-east. Among those which have followed their example +are the Berlin Mills Paper Company in northern New Hampshire, +the Cleveland Cliffs Iron Company in northern Michigan, and +the Delaware and Hudson Railroad Company in New York, all +of which have employed professional foresters.</p> + +<p>The most notable instance of forestry in the south is on the +estate of George W. Vanderbilt at Biltmore, N.C. This was the +first case of systematic forestry under regular working plans in +the United States. It was begun in 1891 on about 4000 acres, +and has since been extended until it now covers about 100,000 +acres. A professional forester with a corps of trained rangers +under him is in charge of the work. The Pennsylvania Railroad +has recently employed a trained forester and several assistants +and has undertaken systematic forestry on a large scale.</p> + +<p>The effect of the work of the forest service in assisting private +owners is evidenced by the fact that down to the year 1908 +670 wood lots and timber tracts had been examined by agents +of the forest service, of which 250 were tracts over 400 acres in +extent, and planting plans had been made for 436 owners +covering a total area of 80,000 acres. Expert advice is also +given to wood lot owners upon application by many of the state +foresters.</p> + +<p><i>American Practice.</i>—The conditions under which forestry +is practised in Europe and in America differ so widely that +rules which are received as axiomatic in the one must often +be rejected in the other. Among these conditions in America +are the highly developed and specialized methods and machinery +of lumbering, the greater facilities for transportation and consequent +greater mobility of the lumber trade, the vast number +of small holdings of forest land, and the enormous supply of +low-grade wood in the timbered regions. High taxes on forest +properties, cut-over as well as virgin, notably in the north-western +pineries, and the firmly established habits of lumbermen, are +factors of great importance. From these and other considerations +it follows that such generally accepted essentials of European +methods of forestry as a sustained annual yield, a permanent +force of forest labourers, a permanent road system and the like, +are in most cases utterly inapplicable in the United States at +the present day in private forestry. Methods of forest management, +to find acceptance, must there conform as closely as possible +to existing methods of lumbering. Rules of marked simplicity, +the observance of which will yet secure the safety of the forest, +must open the way for more refined methods in the future. For +the present a periodic or irregular yield, temporary means of +transport, constantly changing crews, and an almost total +ignorance of the silvics of all but a few of the most important +trees—all combine to enforce the simplest silvicultural treatment +and the utmost concentration of purpose on the two main objects +of forestry, which are the production of a net revenue and the +perpetuation of the forest. Such concentration has been followed +in practice by complete success.</p> + +<p>The forests with which the American forester deals are rich +in species, usually endowed with abundant powers of reproduction, +and, over a large part of their range, greatly dependent for their +composition and general character upon the action of forest +fires. Of the commercially valuable trees there may be said to be, +in round numbers, a hundred out of a total forest flora of about +500 species, but many trees not yet of importance in the lumber +trade will become so hereafter, as has already happened in many +cases. The attention of the forester must usually be concentrated +upon the growth and reproduction of a single species, and +never of more than a very few. Thus the silvicultural problems +which must be solved in the practice of forestry in America are +fortunately less complicated than the presence of so many kinds +of trees in forests of such diverse types would naturally seem +to indicate.</p> + +<p>The forest fire problem is one of the most difficult with which +the American forester has to deal. It is probable that forest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page658" id="page658"></a>658</span> +fires have had more to do with the character and distribution of +forests in America than any other factor except rainfall. With +an annual range over thousands of square miles, in many portions +of the United States they occur regularly year after year on the +same ground. Trees whose thick bark or abundant seeding +gives them peculiar powers of resistance, frequently owe their +exclusive possessions of vast areas purely to the action of fire. +On the economic side fire is equally influential. The probability, +or often the practical certainty, of fire after the first cut, commonly +determines lumbermen to leave no merchantable tree standing. +Forest fires are thus the most effective barriers to the introduction +of forestry. Excessive taxation of timber land is another +of almost equal effect. Because of it lumbermen hasten to cut, +and afterwards often to abandon, lands which they cannot +afford to hold. This evil, which only the progress of public +sentiment can control, is especially prevalent in certain portions +of the white pine belt.</p> + +<p><i>Forest Associations.</i>—Public sentiment in favour of the protection +of forests is now widespread and increasingly effective +throughout the United States. As the general understanding +of the objects and methods of forestry becomes clearer, the +tendency, formerly very marked, to confound ornamental tree +planting and botanical matters with forestry proper is rapidly +growing less. At the same time, the number and activity of +associations dealing with forest matters is increasing with notable +rapidity. There are now about thirty such associations in the +United States. One of these, the Society of American Foresters, +is composed exclusively of professional foresters. The American +Forestry Association is the oldest and largest. It has been +influential in preparing the ground work of popular interest in +forestry, and especially in advocating and securing the adoption +of the federal forest reservation policy, the most important step +yet taken by the national government. It publishes as its +organ a monthly magazine called <i>Forestry and Irrigation</i>. The +Pennsylvania Forestry Association has been instrumental in +placing that state in the forefront of forest progress. Its organ +is a bi-monthly publication called <i>Forest Leaves</i>. Other states +which have associations or societies of special influence in forest +matters are California, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Colorado, +New Hampshire, Georgia and Oregon. Arbor Day, instituted +in Nebraska in 1872 as a day for shade-tree planting by farmers +who had settled on the treeless prairies, has been taken up as a +means of interesting school children in the planting of trees, +and has spread until it is now observed in every state and +territory. It continues to serve an admirable purpose.</p> + +<p><i>Lumbering.</i>—According to the census report for 1905 the +capital invested in logging operations in the United States was +$90,454,596, the number of employés engaged 146,596, and +their wages $66,990,000; sawmills represented an invested +capital of $381,621,000, and employed 223,674 persons, whose +wages were $100,311,000, while planing mills represented a +capital of $222,294,000 and employed 132,030 persons whose +wages were $66,434,000.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Product.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Output 1906.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Equivalent<br />Wood<br />Volume.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Estimated<br />Woods<br />Waste.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a></td> + <td class="tccm allb">Estimated<br />Mill<br />Waste.<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> <td class="tccm allb">Total Wood<br />Volume<br />Consumed.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Million<br />cub. ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Million<br />cub. ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Million<br />cub. ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Million<br />cub. ft.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lumber—</td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Conifers</td> <td class="tcr">30,200,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">thousand bd. ft.</td> <td class="tcr rb">2517</td> <td class="tcr rb">1173</td> <td class="tcr rb">2170</td> <td class="tcr rb">5860</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Hardwoods</td> <td class="tcr">7,300,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">thousand bd. ft.</td> <td class="tcr rb">612</td> <td class="tcr rb">577</td> <td class="tcr rb">461</td> <td class="tcr rb">1650</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Shingles</td> <td class="tcr">11,900,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">thousand bd. ft.</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">270</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pulpwood</td> <td class="tcr">2,900,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">cords</td> <td class="tcr rb">261</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">340</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wood distillation</td> <td class="tcr">1,200,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">cords</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Heading</td> <td class="tcr">146,000,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">sets</td> <td class="tcr rb">32</td> <td class="tcr rb">33</td> <td class="tcr rb">45</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Staves—</td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Tight cooperage</td> <td class="tcr">267,000,000</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">36</td> <td class="tcr rb">32</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Slack cooperage</td> <td class="tcr">1,097,000,000</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Poles</td> <td class="tcr">3,500,000</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">35</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Veneer</td> <td class="tcr">300,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">thousand bd. ft.</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Round mine timbers</td> <td class="tcr">165,000,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">cub. ft.</td> <td class="tcr rb">165</td> <td class="tcr rb">35</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hewn cross ties</td> <td class="tcr">77,500,000</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">207</td> <td class="tcr rb">503</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">710</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr bb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr allb bb">4143</td> <td class="tcr allb bb">2569</td> <td class="tcr allb bb">2838</td> <td class="tcr allb bb">9550</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>All the operations of the lumber trade in the United States are +controlled, and to no small degree determined, by the peculiar +unit of measure which has been adopted. This unit, the board-foot, +is generally defined as a board one foot long, one foot wide +and one inch thick, but in reality it is equivalent to 144 cub. in. +of manufactured lumber in any form. To purchase logs by this +measure one must first know about what each log will yield +in one-inch boards. For this purpose a scale or table is used, +which gives the contents of logs of various diameters and lengths +in board feet. Under such a standard the purchaser pays for +nothing but the saleable lumber in each log, the inevitable +waste in slabs and sawdust costing him nothing.</p> + +<p>The table at foot gives the estimated consumption of wood for +certain purposes in the United States in 1906.</p> + +<p>In addition to this amount, an immense quantity of wood is +used each year for fuel, posts and other domestic purposes, and +the total annual consumption is not less than 20 billion cub. ft.</p> + +<p>The years 1890 to 1906 were marked by rapid changes in the +rank of the important timber trees with reference to the amount +of timber cut, and a shifting of the important centres of production. +Among coniferous trees, white pine has yielded successively +to yellow pine and Douglas fir, while the scene of greatest +activity has shifted from the Northern forest to the Southern, +and from there is rapidly shifting to the Pacific Coast. The total +cut of coniferous lumber has increased steadily, but that of the +hardwoods is falling off, and in 1906 it was 15% less than in +1899, while inferior hardwoods are gradually assuming more +and more importance, and the scene of greatest activity has passed +from the middle west to the south and the Appalachian region.</p> + +<p><i>Conifers.</i>—The coniferous supply of the country is derived +from four forest regions: (1) The Northern forest; (2) the +Southern forest; (3) the Pacific Coast forest; and (4) the Rocky +Mountain forest.</p> + +<p>1. The Northern forest was long the chief source of the coniferous +lumber production in the United States. The principal +timber tree of this region is the white pine, usually known in +Europe as the Weymouth pine. It has an average height when +mature of 110 ft., with a diameter a little less than 3 ft., but the +virgin timber is approaching exhaustion. White pine was one +of the first trees to be cut extensively in the United States, and +Maine, the pine tree state, was at first the centre of production. +In 1851 the cut of white pine on the Penobscot river was 144 +million ft., that of spruce 14 million and of hemlock 11 million. +Thirty years later the pine cut had sunk to 23 million, spruce +had risen to 118 million, and hemlock had passed pine by a +million feet. Meanwhile, the centre of production had passed +from the north woods to the Lake States, and for many years +this region was the scene of the most vigorous lumbering activity +in the world. The following figures show the cut for the Lake +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page659" id="page659"></a>659</span> +States from 1873 to 1906. It is certain that the remarkable +decline in the cut of white pine which these figures show will +continue still farther.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc">1873</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,993,780,000</td> <td class="tcc">1890</td> <td class="tcc">8,597,659,352</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1874</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,751,306,000</td> <td class="tcc">1891</td> <td class="tcc">7,879,948,349</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1875</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,968,553,000</td> <td class="tcc">1892</td> <td class="tcc">8,594,222,802</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1876</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,879,046,000</td> <td class="tcc">1893</td> <td class="tcc">7,326,263,782</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1877</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,595,333,496</td> <td class="tcc">1894</td> <td class="tcc">6,821,516,412</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1878</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,629,472,759</td> <td class="tcc">1895</td> <td class="tcc">7,050,669,235</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1879</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,806,943,000</td> <td class="tcc">1896</td> <td class="tcc">5,725,763,035</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">5,651,295,000</td> <td class="tcc">1897</td> <td class="tcc">6,233,454,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1881</td> <td class="tcc rb">6,768,856,749</td> <td class="tcc">1898</td> <td class="tcc">6,155,300,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1882</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,552,150,744</td> <td class="tcc">1899</td> <td class="tcc">6,056,508,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1883</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,624,789,786</td> <td class="tcc">1900</td> <td class="tcc">5,485,261,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1884</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,935,033,054</td> <td class="tcc">1901</td> <td class="tcc">5,336,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1885</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,053,094,555</td> <td class="tcc">1902</td> <td class="tcc">5,294,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,425,368,443</td> <td class="tcc">1903</td> <td class="tcc">4,792,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1887</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,757,916,784</td> <td class="tcc">1904</td> <td class="tcc">4,220,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1888</td> <td class="tcc rb">8,388,716,460</td> <td class="tcc">1905</td> <td class="tcc">3,777,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1889</td> <td class="tcc rb">8,183,050,755</td> <td class="tcc">1906</td> <td class="tcc">3,032,000,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Second to the white pine among the coniferous lumber trees +of the Northern forest is the hemlock (<i>Tsuga canadensis</i>). It is +used chiefly for construction purposes and furnishes a comparatively +low grade of lumber.</p> + +<p>The spruce (<i>Picea rubens</i>) is used chiefly for lumber, but it +is in large and increasing demand in the manufacture of paper +pulp. For the latter purpose hemlock, poplar (<i>Populus tremuloides</i> +and <i>P. grandidentata</i>) and several other woods are also +employed, but on a smaller scale. The total consumption of +wood for paper in the United States for 1906 was 3,660,000 +cords, of which 2,500,000 was spruce. Of this, however, 720,000 +cords were imported from Canada.</p> + +<p>2. The chief product of the Southern forest is the yellow +pine. This is the collective term for the longleaf, shortleaf, +loblolly and Cuban pines. Of these the longleaf pine (<i>Pinus +palustris</i> Mill.), called pitch-pine in Europe, is the most important. +Its timber is probably superior in strength and durability to +that of any other member of the genus <i>Pinus</i>, and in addition +to its value as a timber tree it is the source of naval stores in the +United States. The average size of the mature longleaf pine is +90 ft. in height and 20 in. in diameter. Shortleaf (<i>Pinus echinata</i>) +and loblolly (<i>P. taeda</i>) are other important members of this +group. Their wood very closely resembles that of the longleaf +pine and is often difficult to distinguish from it. The trees are +also of about the same size and height. Loblolly is, however, +of more rapid growth. The total cut of yellow pine in 1906 was +11,661,000,000 board ft.; it has perhaps not yet reached its +maximum, but is certainly near it.</p> + +<p>Another important coniferous tree of the Southern forest +is the bald cypress (<i>Taxodium distichum</i>), which grows in the +swamps. The cut in 1906 was 839,000,000 board ft., a gain of +69% over 1899.</p> + +<p>3. But the great supply of coniferous timber is now on the +Pacific Coast. The Douglas fir (<i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i>), also +known as Douglas spruce, red fir and Oregon pine, is the foremost +tree in Oregon and Washington, and the redwood in California. +When mature the Douglas fir averages 200 ft. in height and 4 ft. +in diameter, and the redwood 225 ft. in height and 8 ft. in +diameter. Other important trees of the Pacific Coast are sugar +pine (<i>Pinus lambertiana</i>), western red cedar (<i>Thuja plicata</i>), +western larch (<i>Larix occidentalis</i>), Sitka spruce (<i>Picea sitchensis</i>), +western hemlock (<i>Tsuga heterophylla</i>) and western yellow +pine (<i>Pinus ponderosa</i>). These trees <span class="correction" title="amended from wil">will</span> all be of increasing +importance.</p> + +<p>Logging on the Pacific Coast is characterized by the use of +powerful machinery and by extreme skill in handling enormous +weights. This is especially true in California, where the logs +of redwood and of the big tree (<i>Sequoia Washingtoniana</i>) are +often more than 10 ft. in diameter. Logging is usually done by +wire cables operated by donkey-engines. The journey to the +mill is usually by rail. The mills are often of great size, built on +piles over tide water and so arranged that their product is +delivered directly from the saws and dry kilns to vessels moored +alongside. The products of the Pacific Coast forest make their +way over land to the markets of the central and eastern states +and into foreign markets. Among the lumber-producing states, +Washington has in seven years jumped from fifth place to first, +and its output has increased from 1,428,000,000 board ft. in +1899 to 4,305,000,000 ft. in 1906. Oregon and California have +increased their output from 734,000,000 each in 1899 to +1,605,000,000 and 1,349,000,000 ft. respectively in 1906. Of +the total output of these three states (7,259,000,000 ft.) +4,880,000,000 ft. is Douglas fir and 660,000,000 redwood.</p> + +<p>4. The important lumber trees of the Rocky Mountain forest +are the western yellow pine, the lodgepole pine, the Douglas +fir and the Engelmann spruce. The Douglas fir, here extremely +variable in size and value, reaches in this region average dimensions +of perhaps 80 ft. in height by 2 ft. in diameter, the western +yellow pine 90 ft. by 3 ft. and the Engelmann spruce 60 ft. by +2 ft. Mining, railroad and domestic uses chiefly absorb the +annual timber product, which is considerable in quantity, and +of vast importance to the local population. The lumber output +of the Rocky Mountain region is, however, increasing very +rapidly both in the north and in the south-west. One of the +largest mills in the United States is in Idaho.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following table summarizes the cut of the important coniferous +species during the years 1899-1906:</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Kind.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1899.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1904.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1906.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Per Cent Increase<br />(+) or Decrease<br />(−) since 1899.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Million<br />ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Million<br />ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Million<br />ft.</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Yellow Pine</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,659</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,533</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,661</td> <td class="tcc rb">+  20.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Douglas Fir</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,737</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,928</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,970</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 186.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">White Pine</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,742</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,333</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,584</td> <td class="tcc rb">−  40.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hemlock</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,421</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,269</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,537</td> <td class="tcc rb">+  3.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spruce</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,448</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,304</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,645</td> <td class="tcc rb">+  13.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Western Pine</td> <td class="tcr rb">944</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,279</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,387</td> <td class="tcc rb">+  46.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cypress</td> <td class="tcr rb">496</td> <td class="tcr rb">750</td> <td class="tcr rb">839</td> <td class="tcc rb">+  69.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Redwood</td> <td class="tcr rb">360</td> <td class="tcr rb">519</td> <td class="tcr rb">683</td> <td class="tcc rb">+  83.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cedar</td> <td class="tcr rb">233</td> <td class="tcr rb">223</td> <td class="tcr rb">358</td> <td class="tcc rb">+  53.7</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr allb">26,040</td> <td class="tcr allb">27,138</td> <td class="tcr allb">29,664</td> <td class="tcc allb">+  14</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p><i>Hardwoods</i>.—The hardwood supply of the country is derived +almost entirely from the eastern half of the continent, and +comes from each of the three great Eastern forest regions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following table shows the cut of the important species of +hardwoods for 1899 and 1906:</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Kind.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1899.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1906.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Per Cent<br />Increase (+)<br />or Decrease (−).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Thousand<br />Feet.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Thousand<br />Feet.</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oak</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,438,027</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,820,393</td> <td class="tcc rb">−  36.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Maple</td> <td class="tcr rb">633,466</td> <td class="tcr rb">882,878</td> <td class="tcc rb">+  39.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Poplar</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,115,242</td> <td class="tcr rb">693,076</td> <td class="tcc rb">−  37.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Red gum</td> <td class="tcr rb">285,417</td> <td class="tcr rb">453,678</td> <td class="tcc rb">+  59.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chestnut</td> <td class="tcr rb">206,688</td> <td class="tcr rb">407,379</td> <td class="tcc rb">+  97.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Basswood</td> <td class="tcr rb">308,069</td> <td class="tcr rb">376,838</td> <td class="tcc rb">+  22.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Birch</td> <td class="tcr rb">132,601</td> <td class="tcr rb">370,432</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 179.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cottonwood</td> <td class="tcr rb">415,124</td> <td class="tcr rb">263,996</td> <td class="tcc rb">−  36.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Beech</td> <td class="tcc rb">(<i>a</i>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">275,661</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Elm</td> <td class="tcr rb">456,731</td> <td class="tcr rb">224,795</td> <td class="tcc rb">−  50.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ash</td> <td class="tcr rb">269,120</td> <td class="tcr rb">214,460</td> <td class="tcc rb">−  20.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hickory</td> <td class="tcr rb">96,636</td> <td class="tcr rb">148,212</td> <td class="tcc rb">+  53.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tupelo</td> <td class="tcc rb">(<i>a</i>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,882</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Walnut</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,681</td> <td class="tcr rb">48,174</td> <td class="tcc rb">+  24.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sycamore</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,715</td> <td class="tcc rb">(<i>a</i>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">All other</td> <td class="tcr rb">208,504</td> <td class="tcr rb">87,637</td> <td class="tcc rb">−  58.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">8,634,021</td> <td class="tcr allb">7,315,491</td> <td class="tcc allb">−  15.3</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="4"><i>a</i> Not separately reported.</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>Oak, which in 1899 furnished over half the entire output, +has fallen off 36.5%. Yellow poplar, which in 1899 was second +among the hardwoods, has fallen off 38% and now occupies +third place; and elm, the great stand-by in slack cooperage, +has fallen 50.8%. On the other hand less valuable species +like maple and red gum have advanced 39 and 59% respectively.</p> + +<p>The decrease is largely due to the fact that the hardwoods +grow naturally on the better classes of soil, and in the eastern +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page660" id="page660"></a>660</span> +United States where the population has always been the densest, +and as a consequence of this, a large proportion of the original +hardwood land has been cleared up and put under cultivation. +The hardwood supply of the future must be obtained chiefly +from the Appalachian region, where the conditions are less +favourable to agriculture.</p> + +<p>In addition to the lumber cut, enormous quantities of hardwoods +are used each year for railroad ties, telephone and other +poles, piles, fence posts and fuel, and there is a great amount +of waste in the course of lumbering and manufacture.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Sargent, <i>Silva of North America</i> (Boston, 1891-1897), +<i>Manual of Trees of North America</i> (Boston, 1903); Lemmon, +<i>Handbook of West American Cone-Bearers</i> (San Francisco, 1895); +Bruncken, <i>North American Forests and Forestry</i> (New York, 1900); +Fernow, <i>Economics of Forestry</i> (New York, 1902); Pinchot, <i>The +Adirondack Spruce</i> (New York, 1898); Pinchot and Graves, <i>The +White Pine</i> (New York, 1896). See also the various publications +of the U.S. forest service, including especially the following general +works: <i>Forest Influences</i>; <i>Primer of Forestry</i>; the <i>Timber Supply +of the United States</i>; the <i>Waning Hardwood Supply</i>; <i>Forest Products +of the United States in 1906</i>; <i>Exports and Imports of Forest Products +in 1906</i>; <i>Federal and State Forest Laws</i>; <i>Regulations and Instructions +for the Use of the National Forests</i>; <i>The Use of the National Forests</i>; +also part v. of the <i>Nineteenth and of the Twenty-first Annual Reports +of the United States Geological Survey</i>, and vol. ix. of the <i>10th Census +Report on the Forests of North America</i>; and <i>Reports</i> of the State +Forestry Commissions of New York, New Hampshire, Maine, +Pennsylvania, Michigan, Ohio, &c., and of the State Geological +Surveys of New Jersey, Maryland and North Carolina.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. P.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The United States fiscal year ends June 30, and receives its +designation from the calendar year in which it terminates. Thus, +the fiscal year 1898 is the year July 1, 1897-June 30, 1898.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Administration transferred to Bureau of Forestry, February 1, +1905.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Woods waste includes tops, stumps, cull logs and butts, but does not include +defective trees left or trees used for road purposes.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Mill waste includes bark, kerf, slabs and edgings.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOREY, ÉLIE FRÉDÉRIC<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1804-1872), marshal of France, +was born at Paris on the 5th of January 1804, and entered the +army from St Cyr in 1824. He took part in the earlier Algerian +campaigns, and became captain in 1835. Four years later he +was given command of a battalion of <i>chasseurs à pied</i> and in +1844 he became colonel. At the Revolution of 1848 Cavaignac +made him a general of brigade. He took an active part in the +<i>coup d’état</i> of the 2nd of December 1851, and Napoleon III. +made him a general of division shortly afterwards. He held a +superior command in the Crimean War, and in the Italian +campaign of 1859 distinguished himself very greatly in the action +of Montebello (20th May). In 1862 Forey was placed in command +of the French expeditionary corps in Mexico, with the fullest +civil and military powers, and he crowned a successful campaign +by the capture of Mexico city in May 1863, receiving as his +reward the marshal’s bâton. From December 1863 to 1867 he +held high commands in France, but in the latter year he was +struck with paralysis and had to retire. Marshal Forey died +at Paris on the 20th of June 1872.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORFAR<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span>, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and capital +of the county of Forfarshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 12,117. +It lies at the east end of the Loch of Forfar in the valley of +Strathmore, and is 13 m. N. by E. of Dundee by road and 21¼ m. +by the Caledonian railway. It is also situated on the same +company’s main line to Aberdeen and sends off a branch to +Brechin. The principal buildings comprise the court house, +the county hall (with portraits by Raeburn, Romney, Opie and +others), the town hall, the Meffan Institute (including the free +library), the infirmary, poorhouse and the Reid hall, founded +by Peter Reid, a merchant in the burgh who also gave the public +park. The burgh unites with Montrose, Arbroath, Brechin and +Inverbervie (the Montrose group of burghs) in returning one +member to parliament. The Loch of Forfar, 1¼ m. long by ¼ m. +wide, is drained by Dean Burn, and contains pike and perch. +On a gravel bank or spit in the north-west of the lake stood +a castle which was sometimes used as a residence by Margaret, +queen of Malcolm Canmore. The staple industries are linen +and jute manufactures, but brewing, tanning, bleaching, rope-making +and iron-founding are also carried on.</p> + +<p>Forfar is at least as old as the time of Malcolm Canmore, for +the first parliament after the defeat of Macbeth met in the old +castle, which stood on a mound on the northern side of the +town. The parliaments of William the Lion, Alexander II. +and Robert II. also assembled within its walls. The town, +which was created a royal burgh by David I., was burnt down +about the middle of the 13th century. Edward I. captured the +castle on one of his incursions, but in 1307 Robert Bruce seized +it, put its defenders to the sword and then destroyed it, its site +being now marked by the town cross. Previous to the reign of +James VI. the weekly market was held on Sunday, but after +the union of the crowns parliament enacted that it should be +held on Friday. The town sided with Charles I. during the +Civil War, and Charles II. presented the Cross to it out of regard +for the loyalty shown to his father. Forfar seems to have played +a less reputable part in the persecution of witches. In 1661 a +crown commission was issued for the trial of certain miserable +creatures, some of whom were condemned to be burnt. In the +same year one John Ford for his services as a witch-finder was +admitted a burgess along with Lord Kinghorne. The witches’ +bridle, a gag to prevent them from speaking whilst being led to +execution, is still preserved in the county hall. One mile to the +E. lie the ruins of Restennet Priory, where a son of Robert +Bruce was buried. For twenty five years after the Reformation +it was used as the parish church and afterwards by the Episcopalians, +until they obtained a chapel of their own in 1822.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORFARSHIRE<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Angus</span>, an eastern county of Scotland, +bounded N. by the shires of Kincardine and Aberdeen, W. by +Perthshire, S. by the Firth of Tay and E. by the North Sea. +It has an area of 559,171 acres, or 873.7 sq. m. The island of +Rossie and the Bell Rock belong to the shire.</p> + +<p>Forfarshire is characterized by great variety of surface and +may be divided physically into four well-marked sections. In +the most northerly of these many of the rugged masses of the +Grampians are found; this belt is succeeded by Strathmore, +or the Howe of Angus, a fertile valley, from 6 to 8 m. broad, +which is a continuation of the Howe of the Mearns, and runs +south-westwards till it enters Strathearn, to the south-west of +Perth; then come the Sidlaw Hills and a number of isolated +heights, which in turn give way to the plain of the coast and the +Firth. The mountains are all in the northern division and belong +to the Binchinnin group (sometimes rather inexactly called the +Braes of Angus) of the Grampian ranges. Among the highest +masses, most of which lie on or near the confines of the bordering +counties, are Glas Maol(3502 ft.), on the summit of which the +shires of Aberdeen, Forfar and Perth meet, Cairn-na-Glasha +(3484), Fafernie (3274), Broad Cairn (3268), Creag Leacach +(3238), Tolmount (3143), Tom Buidhe (3140), Driesh (3105), +Mount Keen (3077) and Mayar (3043), while peaks of upwards of +2000 ft. are numerous. The Sidlaw Hills—the greater part of +which, however, belongs to Perthshire—are much less lofty +and of less striking appearance. They have a breadth of from +3 to 6 m., the highest points within the county being Craigowl +Hill (1493 ft.), Auchterhouse Hill (1399) and Gallow Hill (1242). +None of the rivers is navigable, and only three are of any importance. +The Isla, rising in Cairn-na-Glasha, flows southwards, +then turns S.E. and finally S.W. till it enters the Tay after a +course of 45 m. Its chief tributaries on the right are the Alyth, +Ericht and Lunan, and on the left the Newton, Melgam and +Dean. Near Bridge of Craig is the fall of Reekie Linn (70 ft.), +so named from the fact that when the stream is in flood the spray +rises in a dense cloud like smoke (<i>reek</i>). Near old Airlie Castle +are the cascades called the Slugs of Auchrannie. The North Esk, +formed by the confluence of the Lee and Mark at Invermark, +after a south-easterly course of 28 m. enters the North Sea +3 m. N. of Montrose. On the right bank it receives the West +Water and Cruick and on the left the Tarf and Luther. It gives +the title of earl of Northesk to a branch of the Carnegie family. +The South Esk rises in the Grampians near Mount Fafernie and +not far from its source forms the Falls of Bachnagairn; after +flowing towards the south-east, it bends eastwards near Tannadice +and reaches the North Sea at Montrose, the length of its course +being 48 m. Its principal affluents are the Prosen on the right +and the Noran on the left. It supplies the title of earl of Southesk +to another branch of the Carnegies. The lakes are small, the +two largest being the Loch of Forfar and the mountain-girt +Loch Lee (1 m. long by ¼ m. wide). Lintrathen (circular in shape +and about ¾ m. across), to the north of Airlie Castle, supplies +Dundee with drinking water. The glens of the Forfarshire +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page661" id="page661"></a>661</span> +Grampians are remarkable for their beauty, and several of them +for the wealth of their botanical specimens. The largest and +finest of them are Glen Isla, in which are the ruins of Forter +Castle, destroyed by Argyll in 1640, and the earl of Airlie’s +shooting-lodge of the Tulchan; Glen Clova, near the entrance +to which stands Cortachy Castle, the seat of the earl of Airlie; +Glen Esk and Glen Prosen.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology</i>.—A great earth fracture traverses this county from near +Edzell on the N.E. to Lintrathen Loch on the S.W. Between +Cortachy and the south-western boundary this fault runs in Old +Red Sandstone, but north-east of that place it forms the junction +line of Silurian and Old Red; and in a general way we may say +that on the N.W. side of the fault the metamorphosed Silurian rocks +are found, while the remainder of the county is occupied by the Old +Red Sandstone. On the margin of the disturbance the Silurian +rocks are little-altered grey and green clay slates with bands of +pebbly grit; farther towards the N.W. we find the same rocks +metamorphosed into mica schists and gneisses with pebbly quartzites. +Rising up through the schists between Carn Bannock and Mount +Battock is a great mass of granite. The Old Red Sandstone extends +from this county into Perthshire and Kincardineshire; here some +20,000 ft. of these deposits are seen; an important part being formed +of volcanic tuffs and lavas which are regularly interbedded in the +sandstones and conglomerates. North of Dundee some of the lower +beds are traversed by intrusive dolerites, and Dundee Law is probably +the remains of an old vent through which some of the contemporaneous +lavas, &c., were discharged. The Old Red Rocks have been +subjected to a good deal of folding, as may be seen along the coast. +The principal direction of strike is from N.E. to S.W. A synclinal +fold occupies Strathmore, and between Longforgan and Montrose +the northern extension of the Sidlaw Hills is an anticlinal fold. +Two fish-bearing beds occur in the county; from the lower one many +large <i>Eurypterids</i> have been obtained. The well-known paving +flags of Arbroath belong to the lower part of the formation. The +Upper Old Red Sandstone is found only in one spot about a mile +north of Arbroath. During the Glacial period the ice travelled +south-eastward across Strathmore and over the Sidlaw Hills; +abundant evidence of this transporting agent is to be seen in the +form of morainic deposits, the most striking of which is the great +transverse barrier of Glenairn in the valley of the S. Esk, half a mile +in length and about 200 ft. high. Relics of the same period are +found round the coast in the form of raised beaches at 100, 50 and +25 ft. above the present sea-level.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Climate and Agriculture</i>.—On the whole the climate is healthy +and favourable to agricultural pursuits. The mean temperature +for the year is 47.3° F., for January 38° and for July 59°. The +average annual rainfall is 34 in., the coast being considerably +drier than the uplands. In the low-lying districts of the south +the harvest is nearly as early as it is in the rest of Scotland, but +in the north it is often late. The principal wheat districts are +Strathmore and the neighbourhood of Dundee and Arbroath; +and the yield is well up to the best Scottish average. Barley, +an important crop, has increased steadily. Oats, however, +though still the leading crop, have somewhat declined. Potatoes +are mostly grown near the seaboard in the higher ground; turnips +also are largely raised. The northern belt, where it is not waste +land, has been turned into sheep walks and deer forests. The +black-faced sheep are the most common in the mountainous +country; cross-bred sheep in the lowlands. Though it is their +native county (where they date from 1808), polled Angus +are not reared so generally as in the neighbouring shire of +Aberdeen, but shorthorns are a favourite stock and Irish cattle +are imported for winter-feeding. Excepting in the vicinity of +the towns there are no dairy farms. Horses are raised successfully, +Clydesdales being the commonest breed, but the small +native garrons are now little used. Pigs also are reared. Save +perhaps in the case of the crofts, or very small holdings of +less than 10 acres, farm management is fully abreast of the +times.</p> + +<p><i>Other Industries</i>.—The staple industries are the jute and +flax manufactures. Their headquarters are in Dundee, but +they flourish also at other places. Shipbuilding is carried on at +Dundee, Arbroath and Montrose. The manufactures of jams, +confectionery, leather, machinery, soap and chemicals, are all +of great and growing value. Sandstone quarries employ many +hands and the deep-sea fisheries, of which Montrose is the centre, +are of considerable importance. The netting of salmon at the +mouth of the North Esk is also a profitable pursuit.</p> + +<p>Two railway companies serve the county. The North British, +entering from the south by the Tay Bridge, follows the coast +north-eastwards, sending off at Montrose a branch to Bervie. +The Caledonian runs up Strathmore to Forfar, whence it diverges +due east to Guthrie, where it again resumes its north-easterly +course to Dubton and Marykirk; it reaches Dundee from Perth +by the shore of the estuary of the Tay, and sends branches from +Dundee to Kirriemuir via Monikie and Forfar and to Alyth +Junction via Newtyle, while a short line from Dubton gives it +touch with Montrose.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Government</i>.—The population was 277,735 in +1891, and 284,083 in 1901, when 1303 spoke Gaelic and English, +and 13 Gaelic only. The chief towns are Arbroath (pop. in 1901, +22,398), Brechin (8941), Broughty Ferry (10,484), Carnoustie +(5204), Dundee (161,173), Forfar (11,397), Kirriemuir (4096), +Monifieth (2134) and Montrose (12,427). Forfarshire returns +one member to Parliament. It is a sheriffdom and there is a +resident sheriff-substitute at Dundee and another at Forfar, +the county town, and courts are held also at Arbroath. In +addition to numerous board schools there are secondary schools +at Dundee, Montrose, Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar and Kirriemuir, +and technical schools at Dundee and Arbroath. Many of the +elementary schools earn grants for higher education. The county +council and the Dundee and Arbroath town councils expend the +“residue” grant in subsidizing science and art and technical +schools and classes, including University College, the textile +school, the technical institute, the navigation school, and the +workshop schools at Dundee, the technical school at Arbroath, +besides cookery, dairy, dress-cutting, laundry, plumbing and +veterinary science classes at different places.</p> + +<p><i>History</i>.—In the time of the Romans the country now known +as Forfarshire was inhabited by Picts, of whose occupation +there are evidences in remains of weems, or underground houses. +Traces of Roman camps and stone forts are common, and there +are vitrified forts at Finhaven, Dumsturdy Muir, the hill of +Laws near Monifieth and at other points. Spearheads, battle-axes, +sepulchral deposits, Scandinavian bronze pins, and other +antiquarian relics testify to periods of storm and stress before +the land settled down into order, towards which the Church +was a powerful contributor. In the earliest days strife was +frequent. The battle in which Agricola defeated Galgacus is +supposed to have occurred in the Forfarshire Grampians (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> +84); the Northumbrian King Egfrith and the Pictish king +Burde fought near Dunnichen in 685, the former being slain; +conflicts with the Danes took place at Aberlemno and other +spots; Elpin king of the Scots was defeated by Aengus in the +parish of Liff in 730; at Restennet, about 835, the Picts and +Scots had a bitter encounter. In later times the principal +historical events, whether of peace or war, were more immediately +connected with burghs than with the county as a whole. There +is some doubt whether the county was named Angus, its title +for several centuries, after a legendary Scottish prince or from +the hill of Angus to the east of the church of Aberlemno. It +was early governed by hereditary earls and was made a hereditary +sheriffdom by David II. The first earl of Angus (by charter of +1389) was George Douglas, an illegitimate son of the 1st earl +of Douglas by Margaret Stuart, who was countess of Angus in +her own right. On the death of the 1st and only duke of Douglas, +who was also 13th earl of Angus, in 1761, the earldom merged +in the dukedom of Hamilton. Precisely when the shire became +known by the name of the county town has not been ascertained, +but probably the usage dates from the 16th century. Among +old castles are the roofless square tower of Red Castle at the +mouth of the Lunan; the tower of the castle of Auchinleck; +the stronghold of Inverquharity near Kirriemuir; the castle of +Finhaven; the two towers of old Edzell Castle; the ruins of +Melgund Castle, which are fairly complete; the small castle of +Newtyle, and the old square tower and gateway of the castle +of Craig.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Jervise, <i>Memorials of Angus and Mearns</i> (Edinburgh, +1895); <i>Land of the Lindsays</i> (Edinburgh, 1882); <i>Epitaphs and +Inscriptions</i> (Edinburgh, 1879); Earl of Crawford, <i>Lives of the</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page662" id="page662"></a>662</span> +<i>Lindsays</i> (London, 1835); Sir W. Fraser, <i>History of the Carnegies</i> +(Edinburgh, 1867); A.H. Millar, <i>Historical Castles and Mansions</i> +(Paisley, 1890); G. Hay, <i>History of Arbroath</i> (Arbroath, 1876); +D.D. Black, <i>History of Brechin</i> (Edinburgh, 1867).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORFEITURE<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (from “forfeit,” originally an offence, and +hence a fine exacted as a penalty for such; derived through the +O. Fr. <i>forfait</i>, from the late Lat. <i>foris factum</i>, a trespass, that +which is done <i>foris</i>, outside), in English law, the term applied +(1) to loss or liability to the loss of property in consequence of +an offence or breach of contract; (2) to the property of which +the party is deprived.</p> + +<p>Under the common law, conviction and attainder on indictment +for treason or felony was followed not only by forfeiture +of the life of the offender, but also by forfeiture of his lands and +goods. In the case of treason all the traitor’s lands of whomsoever +holden were forfeited to the king; in the case of felony +(including <i>felo-de-se</i>, or suicide), the felon’s lands escheated +(<i>exceciderunt</i>) to his immediate lord, subject to the king’s right +to waste them for a year and a day. This rule did not apply +to lands held in gavelkind in the county of Kent. The goods +of traitors and felons were forfeited to the king. The desire of +the king and his officers to realize the profits of these forfeitures +was one of the chief motives for instituting the circuits of the +king’s justices throughout England; and from time to time +conflicts arose from attempts by these justices to extend the +law of treason—under which the king levied all the forfeitures—at +the expense of felony, in which the lord of the felon benefited +by the escheats. As regards theft, the king’s rights overrode +those of the owner of the stolen property, until, in the reign of +Henry VIII., provision was made for restitution of the goods +to the owner if he prosecuted the thief to conviction. In Pepys’s +<i>Diary</i>, 21st of January 1667-1668, will be found an illustration +of the working of the old law. We find that on the suicide +of his brother-in-law, Pepys at once applied to the king personally +and obtained a grant of the brother-in-law’s estate in favour +of his widow and children should the inquest find a verdict of +<i>felo-de-se</i>. It was common practice for persons anticipating +conviction for treason or felony to assign all their property to +others to avoid the forfeiture; and in some instances the accused +refused to plead to the indictment and endured the <i>peine forte +et dure</i>, until death supervened, to avoid these consequences +of conviction. The royal rights to forfeitures arising within +particular areas were frequently granted by charter to corporations +or individuals. In 1897 the courts had to interpret such +charters granted to the town of Nottingham in 1399 and 1448. +All forfeitures and escheats with respect to conviction and +attainder for treason and felony were abolished as from the +4th of July 1870, except forfeitures consequent upon the now +disused process of outlawry, and the forfeitures included in the +penalties of praemunire.</p> + +<p>The term “forfeit” is also applied to penalties imposed by +statute for acts or omissions which are neither treasonable nor +felonious. In such statutes the forfeiture enures in favour of +the crown unless the statute indicates another destination; +and unless a particular method of enforcing the forfeiture is +indicated it is enforceable as a debt to the crown and has priority +as such. The words “forfeit and pay” are often used in imposing +a pecuniary penalty for a petty misdemeanour, and where they +are used the court dealing with the case must not only convict +the offender but adjudicate as to the forfeiture.</p> + +<p>Statutory forfeitures in some cases extend to specific chattels, +<i>e.g.</i> of a British merchant-ship when her character as such +is fraudulently dissimulated (Merch. Shipp. Act 1894, ss. 70, 76), +or of goods smuggled in contravention of the customs acts or +books introduced in violation of the copyright acts. Recognisances +are said to be forfeited when the conditions are broken +and an order of court is made for their enforcement as a crown +debt against the persons bound by them.</p> + +<p>The term “forfeiture” is now most commonly used with +reference to real property, <i>i.e.</i> with reference to the rights of +lords of the manor or lessors to determine the estate or interest +of a copyholder or lessee for breach of the customary or contractual +terms of tenure. It is also applied to express the +deprivation of a limited owner of settled property, real or personal, +for breach of the conditions by which his rights are limited; +<i>e.g.</i> by becoming bankrupt or attempting to charge or alienate +his interest. As a general rule, the courts “lean against forfeitures” +of this kind; and are astute to defeat the claim of the +superior landlord or other person seeking to enforce them. +By legislation of 1881 and 1892 there is jurisdiction to grant +relief upon terms against the forfeiture of a lease for breach of +certain classes of covenant, <i>e.g.</i> to pay rent or to insure.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORGERY<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (derived through the French from Latin <i>fabricare</i>, +to construct), in English law, “the fraudulent making or alteration +of a writing to the prejudice of another man’s right,” or +“the false making, or making <i>malo animo</i>, of any written +instrument for the purpose of fraud or deceit.” This definition, +it will be seen, comprehends all fraudulent tampering with +documents. “Not only the fabrication and false making of the +whole of a written instrument, but a fraudulent insertion, alteration +or erasure, even of a letter, in any material part of a true +instrument whereby a new operation is given to it, will amount +to forgery,—and this though it be afterwards executed by +another person ignorant of the deceit” (Russell on <i>Crimes and +Misdemeanours</i>, vol. ii.). Changing the word Dale into Sale +in a lease, so that it appears to be a lease of the manor of Sale +instead of the manor of Dale, is a forgery. And when a country +banker’s note was made payable at the house of a banker in +London who failed, it was held to be forgery to alter the name +of such London banker to that of another London banker with +whom the country banker had subsequently made his notes +payable. As to the fraud, “an intent to defraud is presumed +to exist if it appears that at the time when the false document +was made there was in existence a specific person, ascertained +or unascertained, capable of being defrauded thereby; and this +presumption is not rebutted by proof that the offender took or +intended to take measures to prevent such person from being +defrauded in fact, nor by the fact that he had or thought he had +a right to the thing to be obtained by the false document” +(Stephen’s <i>Digest of the Criminal Law</i>). Thus when a man +makes a false acceptance to a bill of exchange, and circulates it, +intending to take it up and actually taking it up before it is +presented for payment, he is guilty of forgery. Even if it be +proved as a matter of fact that no person could be defrauded +(as when A forges a cheque in B’s name on a bank from which +B had withdrawn his account), the intent to defraud will be +presumed. But it would appear that if A knew that B had +withdrawn his account, the absence of fraudulent intention +would be inferred. A general intention to cheat the public is +not the kind of fraud necessary to constitute forgery. Thus if +a quack forges a diploma of the college of surgeons, in order +to make people believe that he is a member of that body, he is +not guilty of forgery.</p> + +<p>The crime of forgery in English law has been from time to +time dealt with in an enormous number of statutes. It was +first made a statutory offence in 1562, and was punishable by +fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut off, the +nostrils slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land and perpetual +imprisonment. It was made capital, without benefit of clergy +in 1634. The most notable cases of those who have suffered +the extreme penalty of the law are those of the Rev. Dr W. +Dodd in 1777, for forging Lord Chesterfield’s name on a bond, +and Henry Fauntleroy, a partner in the banking-house of +Marsh, Sibbald & Co., for the appropriation by means of +forged instruments of money entrusted to the bank, in 1824. +“Anthony Hammond, in the title Forgery of his <i>Criminal Code</i>, +has enumerated more than 400 statutes which contain provisions +against the offence” (Sir J.T. Coleridge’s notes to Blackstone). +Blackstone notices the increasing severity of the legislature +against forgery, and says that “through the number of these +general and special provisions there is now hardly a case possible +to be conceived wherein forgery that tends to defraud, whether +in the name of a real or fictitious person, is not made a capital +crime.” These acts were consolidated in 1830. The later +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page663" id="page663"></a>663</span> +statutes, fixing penalties from penal servitude for life downwards, +were consolidated by the Forgery Act 1861. It would take too +much space to enumerate all the varieties of the offence with +their appropriate punishments. The following condensed +summary is based upon chapter xlv. of Sir J. Stephen’s <i>Digest +of the Criminal Law</i>:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. Forgeries punishable with penal servitude for life as a maximum +are—</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Forgeries of the great seal, privy seal, &c.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Forgeries of transfers of stock, India bonds, exchequer bills, +bank-notes, deeds, wills, bills of exchange, &c.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Obliterations or alterations of crossing on a cheque.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) Forgeries of registers of birth, &c., or of copies thereof and +others.</p> + +<p>2. Forgeries punishable with fourteen years’ penal servitude are—</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Forgeries of debentures.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Forgeries of documents relating to the registering of deeds, &c.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Forgeries of instruments purporting to be made by the accountant +general and other officers of the court of chancery, &c.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) Drawing bill of exchange, &c., on account of another, per +procuration or otherwise, without authority.</p> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) Obtaining property by means of a forged instrument, knowing +it to be forged, or by probate obtained on a forged will, false oath, &c.</p> + +<p>3. Forgeries punishable with seven years’ penal servitude:—Forgeries +of seals of courts, of the process of courts, of certificates, +and of documents to be used in evidence, &c.</p> +</div> + +<p>By the Merchandise Marks Acts 1887 and 1891, forgery of +trade marks is an offence punishable on conviction by indictment +with imprisonment not exceeding two years or to fine, or both, +and on conviction by summary proceedings with imprisonment +not exceeding four months or with a fine.</p> + +<p>The Forged Transfers Act 1891, made retrospective by the +Forged Transfers Act 1892, enables companies and local +authorities to make compensation by a cash payment out of +their funds for any loss arising from a transfer of their stocks, +shares or securities through a forged transfer.</p> + +<p><i>United States.</i>—Forgery is made a crime by statute in most +if not all the states, in addition to being a common law cheat. +These statutes have much enlarged the common definition of +this crime. It is also made a crime by a Federal statute (U.S. +Rev. Stat., ch. 5), which includes forgery of national banknotes, +letters patent, public bid, record, signature of a judge, land +warrants, powers of attorney, ships’ papers or custom-house +documents, certificates of naturalization, &c.; the punishment +is by fine or by imprisonment from one to fifteen years with or +without hard labour.</p> + +<p>In Illinois, fraudulently connecting together different parts +of several banknotes or other genuine instruments so as to produce +one additional note or instrument with intent to pass all +as genuine, is a forgery of each of them (Rev. Stats. 1901, ch. +38, § 108). The alleged instrument must be apparently capable +of defrauding (<i>Goodman</i> v. <i>People</i> [1907], 228, Ill. 154).</p> + +<p>In Massachusetts, forgery of any note, certificate or bill of +credit issued by the state treasurer and receiver general, or by +any other officer, for a debt of that commonwealth, or a bank +bill of any bank, is punishable by imprisonment for life or any +term of years (Rev. Laws 1902, ch. 209, §§ 4 and 5).</p> + +<p>In New York, forgery includes the false making, counterfeiting, +alteration, erasure or obliteration of a genuine instrument +(Penal Code, § 520). An officer or agent of a corporation who +with intent to defraud sells, pledges or issues a fraudulent scrip, +share certificate, is guilty of forgery in third degree. Falsely +making any instrument which purports to be issued by a corporation +bearing a pretended signature of a person falsely indicated +as an officer of the company, is forgery just as if such person +were in truth such officer (<i>id.</i> § 519). Counterfeiting railroad +tickets is forgery in the third degree. Falsely certifying that +the execution of a deed has been acknowledged is forgery (id. +§ 511). So also is the forging a fictitious name (<i>People</i> v. <i>Browne</i> +[1907], 103 N.Y. suppl. 903). Punishment for forgery in the +first degree may be twenty years, in the second degree ten years, +in the third degree five years.</p> + +<p>In Pennsylvania, fraudulently making, signing, altering, uttering +or publishing any written instrument other than bank bills, +cheques or drafts, was punishable by fine and imprisonment +“by separate or solitary confinement at labour for a term not +exceeding ten years” (L. 1860, March 31); forging bank bills, +&c., for a term not exceeding five years. Defacing, removing, +or counterfeiting brands from lumber floating in any river is +punishable by imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years +or a fine (L. 1887, May 23). Fraudulently using the registered +mark of another on lumber is punishable by fine or imprisonment +by solitary confinement for a term not exceeding three years (id.).</p> + +<p>In Tennessee, forgery may be committed by typewriting the +body of and signature to an instrument which may be the subject +of forgery (1906; <i>State</i> v. <i>Bradley</i>, 116 Tenn. 711).</p> + +<p>In Vermont, the act of 1904, p. 135, no. 115, § 24, authorizes +licensees to sell intoxicating liquors only on the written prescription +of a legally qualified physician stating that it “is given +and necessary for medicinal use.” It was held that a prescription +containing no such statement was invalid and the alteration +thereof was not forgery (1906; <i>State</i> v. <i>McManus</i>, 78 St. 433).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Pollock and Maitland, <i>History of English Law</i>; +Stephen, <i>Digest of Criminal Law</i>; <i>History of Criminal Law</i>; L.O. +Pike, <i>History of Crime in England</i>, 1873-1876; Russell, <i>On Crimes</i>; +Archbold, <i>Criminal Pleadings</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORGET-ME-NOT,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Scorpion-Grass</span> (Ger. <i>Vergissmeinnicht</i>, +Fr. <i>grémillet</i>, <i>scorpionne</i>), the name popularly applied to +the small annual or perennial herbs forming the genus <i>Myosotis</i> +of the natural order <i>Boraginaceae</i>, so called from the Greek +<span class="grk" title="mys">μῦς</span>, a mouse, and <span class="grk" title="ous">οὖς</span>, an ear, on account of the shape of the +leaves. The genus is represented in Europe, north Asia, North +America and Australia, and is characterized by oblong or linear +stem-leaves, flowers in terminal scorpioid cymes, small blue, +pink or white flowers, a five-cleft persistent calyx, a salver- or +funnel-shaped corolla, having its mouth closed by five short +scales and hard, smooth, shining nutlets. The common or true +forget-me-not, <i>M. palustris</i>, is a perennial plant growing to a +height of 6 to 18 in., with rootstock creeping, stem clothed +with lax spreading hairs, leaves light green, and somewhat +shining, buds pink, becoming blue as they expand, and corolla +rotate, broad, with retuse lobes and bright blue with a yellow +centre. The divisions of the calyx extend only about one-third +the length of the corolla, whereas in the other British species +of <i>Myosotis</i> it is deeply cleft. The forget-me-not, a favourite +with poets, and the symbol of constancy, is a frequent ornament +of brooks, rivers and ditches, and, according to an old German +tradition, received its name from the last words of a knight who +was drowned in the attempt to procure the flower for his lady. +It attains its greatest perfection under cultivation, and, as it +flowers throughout the summer, is used with good effect for +garden borders; a variety, <i>M. strigulosa</i>, is more hairy and erect, +and its flowers are smaller. In <i>M. versicolor</i> the flowers are +yellow when first open and change generally to a dull blue; +sometimes they are permanently yellowish-white. Of the species +in cultivation, <i>M. dissitiflora</i>, 6 to 8 in., with large handsome +abundant sky-blue flowers, is the best and earliest, flowering +from February onwards; it does well in light cool soils, preferring +peaty ones, and should be renewed annually from seeds or +cuttings. <i>M. rupicola</i>, or <i>M. alpestris</i>, 2 to 3 in., intense blue, +is a fine rock plant, preferring shady situations and gritty +soil; <i>M. azorica</i> (a native of the Azores) with purple, ultimately +blue flowers about half an inch across, has a similar habit but +larger flowers; <i>M. sylvatica</i>, 1 ft., blue, pink or white, used for +spring bedding, should be sown annually in August.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORGING,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> the craft of the smith, or “blacksmith,” exercised +on malleable iron and steel, in the production of works of constructive +utility and of ornament. It differs from founding +(<i>q.v.</i>) in the fact that the metal is never melted. It is essentially +a moulding process, the iron or steel being worked at a full red, +or white, heat when it is in a plastic and more or less pasty +condition. Consequently the tools used are in the main counterparts +of the shapes desired, and they mould by impact. All the +operations of forging may be reduced to a few very simple ones: +(1) Reducing or drawing down from a larger to a smaller section +(“fullering” and “swaging”); (2) enlargement of a smaller +to a larger portion (“upsetting”); (3) bending, or turning round +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page664" id="page664"></a>664</span> +to any angle of curvature; (4) uniting one piece of metal to +another (“welding”); (5) the formation of holes by punching; +and (6) severance, or cutting off. These include all the operations +that are done at the anvil. In none of these processes, the last +excepted, is the use of a sharp cutting tool involved, and therefore +there is no violence done to the fibre of the malleable metal. Nor +have the tools of the smith any sharp edges, except the cutting-off +tools or “setts.” The essential fact of the flow of the metal, +which is viscous when at a full red heat, must never be lost sight +of; and in forging wrought iron the judgment of the smith must +be exercised in arranging the direction of the fibre in a way best +calculated to secure maximum strength.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:291px; height:163px" src="images/img664a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fullering denotes the preliminary roughing-down of the material +between tools having convex edges; swaging, the completion or +finishing process between swages, or dies of definite shape, +nearly hemispherical in form. When a bar has to be reduced +<span class="sidenote">Fullering and swaging.</span> +from larger to smaller dimensions, it is laid upon a +fuller or round-faced stake, set in the anvil, or, in some +cases, on a flat face (fig. 1), and blows are dealt upon that portion +of the face which lies exactly +opposite with a fullering +tool A, grasped by a rather +loosely-fitting handle and +struck on its head by a +sledge. The position of the +piece of work is quickly +changed at brief intervals +in order to bring successive +portions under the action +of the swages until the reduction +is completed; the +upper face, and if a bottom +fuller is used the under face also, is thus left corrugated slightly. +These corrugations are then removed either by a flatter, if the surfaces +are plane (fig. 2), or by hollow swages, if the cross section is +circular (fig. 3). Spring swages (fig. 4) are frequently used instead +of separate “top and bottom tools.” Frequently swaging is practised +at once, without the preliminary detail of fullering. It is +adopted when the amount of reduction is slight, and also when a +steam hammer or other type of power hammer is available. This +process of drawing down or fullering is, when practicable, adopted in +preference to either upsetting or welding, because it is open to no +objection, and involves no risk of damage to the material, while it +improves the metal +by consolidating its +fibres. But its +limitations in anvil +work lie in the +tediousness of the +operation, when the part to be reduced is very much less in +diameter, and very much longer, than the original piece of bar. +Then there are other alternatives.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:426px; height:174px" src="images/img664b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:358px; height:64px" src="images/img664c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>If a long bar is required to have an enlargement at any portion of +its length, not very much larger in diameter than the bar, nor of +great length, upsetting is the method adopted. The part +to be enlarged is heated, the parts adjacent remaining +<span class="sidenote">Upsetting.</span> +cold, and an end is hammered, or else lifted and dropped heavily +on the anvil or on an iron plate, with the result that the heated portion +becomes both shortened and enlarged (figs. 5 and 6). This +process is only suitable for relatively short lengths, and has the disadvantage +that the fibres of wrought iron are liable to open, and so +cause weakening of the upset portion. But steel, which has no +direction of fibre, can be upset without injury; this method is +therefore commonly adopted in steel work, in power presses to an +equal extent with drawing down. The alternative to upsetting is +generally to weld a larger to a smaller bar or section, or to encircle +the bar with a ring and weld the two (fig. 7), and then to impart +any shape desired to the ring in swages.</p> + +<p>Bending is effected either by the hammer or by the simple exercise +of leverage, the heated bar being pulled round a fulcrum. It is +always, when practicable, preferable to cutting out a curved or +angular shape with a hot sett or to welding. The continuity of +<span class="sidenote">Bending.</span> +the fibre in iron is preserved by bending, and the risk of an imperfect +weld is avoided. Hence it is a simple and safe +process which is constantly being performed at the anvil. +An objection to sharp bends, or those having a small radius, is that +the fibres become extended on the outer radius, the cross section being +at the same time reduced below that of the bar itself. This is met by +imparting a preliminary amount of upsetting to the part to be bent, +sufficient to counteract the amount of reduction due to extension +of the fibres. A familiar example is seen in the corners of dip +cranks.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:405px; height:262px" src="images/img664d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The property possessed by pieces of iron or steel of uniting autogeneously +while in a condition of semi-fusion is very valuable. +When portions which differ greatly in dimensions have to +be united, welding is the only method practicable at the +<span class="sidenote">Welding.</span> +anvil. It is also generally the best to adopt when union has to be +made between pieces at right angles, or when a piece on which +much work has to be done is required at the end of a long plain bar, +as in the tension rods of cranes and other structures with eyes. +The art of welding depends chiefly on having perfectly clean joint +faces, free from scale, so that metal can unite to metal; union +would be prevented by the presence of oxide or of dirt. Also it is +essential to have a temperature sufficiently high, yet not such as to +overheat the metal. A dazzling white, at which small particles of +metal begin to drop off, is suitable for iron, but steel must not be +made so hot. A very few hammer blows suffice to effect the actual +union; if the joint be faulty, no amount of subsequent hammering +will weld it. The forms of weld-joints include the scarf (figs. 8 and +9), the butt (fig. 10), the V (fig. 11) and the glut, one form of which +is shown in fig. 12; the illustrations are of bars prepared for welding. +These forms give the smith a suitable choice for different conditions. +A convexity is imparted to the joint faces in order to favour the +expulsion of slag and dirt during the closing of the joint; these +undesirable matters become entangled between concave faces. +The ends are upset or enlarged in order to leave enough metal to be +dressed down flush, by swaging or by flattering. The proportional +lengths of the joint faces shown are those which conform to good +practice. The fluxes used for welding are numerous. Sand alone +is generally dusted on wrought iron, but +steel requires borax applied on the joint +while in the fire, and also dusted on the +joint at the anvil and on the face of the +latter itself. Electric welding is largely +taking the place of the hand process, +but machines are required to maintain +the parts in contact during the passage +of the current. Butt joints are employed, +and a large quantity of power is absorbed, but the output is immensely +greater than that of hand-made welds.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:460px; height:71px" src="images/img664e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:475px; height:63px" src="images/img664f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:207px; height:99px" src="images/img664g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>When holes are not very large they are formed by punching, +but large holes are preferably produced by bending a rod round +and welding it, so forming an eye (fig. 13). Small holes +are often punched simply as a preliminary stage in the +<span class="sidenote">Punching.</span> +formation of a larger hole by a process of drifting. A piece of work +to be punched is supported either on the anvil or on a ring of metal +termed a bolster, laid on the anvil, through which the burr, when +severed, falls. But in making small holes through a thick mass, +no burr is produced, the metal yielding sideways and forming an +enlargement or boss. Examples occur in the wrought iron stanchions +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page665" id="page665"></a>665</span> +that carry light hand railing. In such cases the hole has to be +punched from each face, meeting in the centre. Punching under +power hammers is done similarly, but occupies less time.</p> + +<p>The cutting-off or severance of material is done either on hot or +cold metal. In the first case the chisels used, “hot setts,” have +<span class="sidenote">Cutting-off.</span> +keener cutting angles than those employed for the second, +termed “cold setts.” One sett is held in a hole in the +anvil face, the “anvil chisel,” the other is handled and +struck with a sledge.</p> +</div> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: +50px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:119px; height:203px" src="images/img665a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 13.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The difference between iron and steel at the forge is that iron +possesses a very marked fibre whereas steel does not. Many +forgings therefore must be made differently according as they are +in iron or in steel. In the first the fibre must never be allowed +to run transversely to the axis of greatest tensile or bending +stress, but must be in line therewith. For this reason many +forgings, of which a common eye or loop (fig. 13) +is a typical example, that would be stamped +from a solid piece if made in steel, must be +bent round from bar and welded if in wrought +iron. Further, welding which is practically +uniformly trustworthy in wrought iron, is distrusted +in steel. The difference is due to the +very fibrous character of iron, the welding of +which gives much less anxiety to the smith +than that of steel. Welds in iron are frequently +made without any flux, those in steel never. +Though mention has only been made of iron and +steel, other alloys are forged, as those of +aluminium, delta metal, &c. But the essential operations are +alike, the differences being in temperature at which the forging +is done and nature of the fluxes used for welding. For +hardening and tempering, an important section of smith’s work, +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Annealing</a></span>.</p> + +<p><i>Die Forging.</i>—The smith operating by hand uses the above +methods only. There is, however, a large and increasing volume +of forgings produced in other ways, and comprehended under +the general terms, “die forging” or “drop forging.”</p> + +<p>Little proof is needed to show that the various operations +done at the anvil might be performed in a more expeditious +way by the aid of power-operated appliances; for the elementary +processes of reducing, and enlarging, bending, punching, &c., are +extremely simple, and the most elaborate forged work involves +only a repetition of these. The fact that the material used is +entirely plastic when raised to a white heat is most favourable +to the method of forging in matrices or dies. A white hot mass +of metal can be placed in a matrix, and stamped into shape in a +few blows under a hammer with as much ease as a medal can be +stamped in steel dies under a coining press. But much detail +is involved in the translation of the principle into practice. The +parallel between coining dies and forging dies does not go far. +The blank for the coin is prepared to such exact dimensions that +no surplus material is left over by the striking of the coin, which +is struck while cold. But the blank used in die forging is generally +a shapeless piece, taken without any preliminary preparation, +a mere lump, a piece of bar or rod, which may be square or round +irrespective of whether the ultimate forging is to be square, or +round, or flat or a combination of forms. At the verge of the +welding heat to which it is raised, and under the intensity of +the impact of hammer blows rained rapidly on the upper die, +the metal yields like lead, and flows and fills the dies.</p> + +<p>Herein lies a difference between striking a coin and moulding +a forging. A large amount of metal is squeezed out beyond the +concavity of the forging dies, and this would, if allowed to flow +over between the joints, prevent the dies from being closed on +the forging. There are two methods adopted for removing this +“fin,” or “flash” as it is termed, one being that of suppression, +applicable to circular work, the other that of stripping, applied +to almost all other cases.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:296px; height:343px" src="images/img665b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The suppression of fin means that the circular bar is rotated in the +dies (fig. 14) through a small arc, alternating between every few +blows, with the result that the fin is obliterated immediately when +formed, this being done at the same time that reduction of section +is being effected over a portion or the whole of the bar.</p> + +<p>Stripping means that when a considerable amount of fin has +been formed, it is removed by laying the forging on a die pierced +right through with an opening of the same shape and area as the +forging, and then dealing the forging a blow with the hammer. +The forging is thus knocked through the die, leaving the severed +or stripped fin behind. The +forging is then returned to +the dies and again treated, +and the stripping may be +repeated twice, or even +oftener, before the forging +can be completed.</p> + +<p>Figs. 15 and 16 illustrate +the bottom dies of a set for +forging in a particular form +of eye, the top dies being of +exactly the same shape. The +first operation takes place in +fig. 15, in which a bar of +metal is reduced to a globular +and cylindrical form, being +constantly rotated meanwhile. +The shank portion is +then drawn down in the +parallel recess to the left. +The shape of the eye is completed +in fig. 16, and the +shank in the recess to the left +of that. Fig. 17 shows how a lever is stamped between top and +bottom dies. The hole in the larger boss is formed by punching, +the punches nearly meeting in the centre, and the centre for the hole +to be drilled subsequently in the smaller boss is located by a conical +projection in the top die.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:439px; height:284px" src="images/img665c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.</td></tr></table> + +<p>It is evident that the methods of die forging, though only explained +here in barest outline, constitute a principle of extensive application.</p> + +<p>An intricate or ornamental forging, which might occupy a smith a +quarter of a day in making at the anvil, can often be produced in +dies within five minutes (fig. 18). On the other hand, there is the +cost of the preparation of the dies, which is often heavy, so that the +question of method is resolved into the relative one of the cost of +dies, distributed over the number of identical forgings required. +From this point of view it is clear that given say a thousand forgings, +ordered all alike, the cost of even expensive dies distributed over +the whole becomes only an infinitesimal amount per forging.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:422px; height:308px" src="images/img665d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.</td></tr></table> + +<p>There is, further, the very important fact that forgings which +are produced in dies are uniform and generally of more exact dimensions +than anvil-made articles. This is seen to be an advantage +when forgings have to be turned or otherwise tooled in the engineer’s +machine shop, since it lessens the amount of work required there. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page666" id="page666"></a>666</span> +Besides, for many purposes such forgings do not require tooling at +all, or only superficial grinding, while anvil-made ones would, in +consequence of their slight inaccuracies.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:158px; height:201px" src="images/img666.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Yet again, die forging is a very elastic system, and herein lies +much of its value. Though it reaches its highest development when +thousands of similar pieces are wanted, it is also adaptable to a +hundred, or even to a dozen, similar forgings. +In such cases economy is secured by using dies +of a very cheap character; or, by employing +such dies as supplementary to anvil work for +effecting neat finish to more precise dimensions +than can be ensured at the anvil. In +the first case use is made of dies of cast iron +moulded from patterns (fig. 19) instead of +having their matrices laboriously cut in steel +with drills, chisels and milling tools. In the +second, preliminary drawing down is done +under the steam hammer, and bending and +welding at the anvil, or under the steam +hammer, until the forgings are brought approximately +to their final shape and dimensions. +Then they are reheated and inserted in the dies, when a few blows +under the steam or drop hammer suffice to impart a neat and accurate +finish.</p> + +<p>The limitations of die forging are chiefly those due to large dimensions. +The system is most successful for the smallest forgings and +dies which can be handled by one man without the assistance of +cranes; and massive forgings are not required in such large numbers +as are those of small dimensions. But there are many large articles +manufactured which do not strictly come under the term forgings, +in which the aid of dies actuated by powerful hydraulic presses is +utilized. These include work that is bent, drawn and shaped +from steel plate, of which the fittings of railway wagons constitute +by far the largest proportion. The dies used for some of these are +massive, and a single squeeze from the ram of the hydraulic press +employed bends the steel plate between the dies to shape at once. +Fairly massive forgings are also produced in these presses.</p> + +<p>Die forging in its highest developments invades the craft of the +skilled smith. In shops where it is adopted entirely, the only +craftsmen required are the few who have general charge of the +shops. The men who attend to the machines are not smiths, +but unskilled helpers.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. G. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORK<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (Lat. <i>furca</i>), an implement formed of two or more +prongs at the end of a shaft or handle, the most familiar type +of which is the table-fork for use in eating. In agriculture and +horticulture the fork is used for pitching hay, and other green +crops, manure, &c.; commonly this has two prongs, “tines”; +for digging, breaking up surface soil, preparing for hand weeding +and for planting the three-pronged fork is used. The word is +also applied to many objects which are characterized by branching +ends, as the tuning-fork, with two branching metal prongs, +which on being struck vibrates and gives a musical note, used to +give a standard of pitch; to the branching into two streams +of a river, or the junction where a tributary runs into the main +river; and in the human body, to that part where the legs +branch off from the trunk.</p> + +<p>The <i>furca</i>, two pieces of wood fastened together in the form +of the letter Λ, was used by the Romans as an instrument of +punishment. It was placed over the shoulders of the criminal, +and his hands were fastened to it, condemned slaves were compelled +to carry it about with them, and those sentenced to be +flogged would be tied to it; crucifixions were sometimes carried +out on a similar shaped instrument. From the great defeat of +the Romans by the Samnites at the battle of the Caudine Forks +(<i>Furculae Caudinae</i>), a narrow gorge, where the vanquished +were compelled to pass under the yoke (<i>jugum</i>), as a sign of +submission, the expression “to pass through or under the forks” +has been loosely used of such a disgraceful surrender. The +“forks” in any allusion to this defeat should refer to the topographical +name and not to the <i>jugum</i>, which consisted of two +upright spears with a third placed transversely as a cross-bar.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORKEL, JOHANN NIKOLAUS<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1749-1818), German +musician, was born on the 22nd of February 1749 at Meeder +in Coburg. He was the son of a cobbler, and as a practical +musician, especially as a pianoforte player, achieved some +eminence; but his claims to a more abiding name rest chiefly +upon his literary skill and deep research as an historian of musical +science and literature. He was an enthusiastic admirer of J.S. +Bach, whose music he did much to popularize. His library, +which was accumulated with care and discrimination at a time +when rare books were cheap, forms a valuable portion of the +royal library in Berlin and also of the library of the Königlicher +Institut für Kirchenmusik. He was organist to the university +church of Göttingen, obtained the degree of doctor of philosophy, +and in 1778 became musical director of the university. He died +at Göttingen on the 20th of March 1818. The following is a list +of his principal works: <i>Über die Theorie der Musik</i> (Göttingen, +1777); <i>Musikalisch kritische Bibliothek</i> (Gotha, 1778); <i>Allgemeine +Geschichte der Musik</i> (Leipzig, 1788). The last is his most important +work. He also wrote a <i>Dictionary of Musical Literature</i>, +which is full of valuable material. To his musical compositions, +which are numerous, little interest is to-day to be attached. +But it is worth noting that he wrote variations on the English +national anthem “God save the king” for the clavichord, and +that Abt Vogler wrote a sharp criticism on them, which appeared +at Frankfort in 1793 together with a set of variations as he +conceived they ought to be written.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORLÌ<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (anc. <i>Forum Livii</i>), a town and episcopal see of Emilia, +Italy, the capital of the province of Forlì, 40 m. S.E. of Bologna +by rail, 108 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 15,461 (town); +43,321 (commune). Forlì is situated on the railway between +Bologna and Rimini. It is connected by steam tramways with +Ravenna and Meldola, and by a road through the Apennines +with Pontassieve. The church of S. Mercuriale stands in the +principal square, and contains, besides paintings, some good +carved and inlaid choir stalls by Alessandro dei Bigni. The +façade has been considerably altered, but the campanile, erected +in 1178-1180, still exists; it is 252 ft. in height, square and built +of brickwork, and is one of the finest of Lombard campanili. +The pictures in this church are the work of Marco Palmezzano +(1456-1537) and others; S. Biagio and the municipal picture +gallery also contain works by him. The latter has other interesting +pictures, including a fresco representing an apprentice with +pestle and mortar (Pestapepe), the only authentic work in Forlì +of Melozzo da Forlì (1438-1494), an eminent master whose style +was formed under the influence of Piero della Francesca, and +who was the master of Palmezzano; the frescoes in the Sforza +chapel in SS. Biagio e Girolamo are from the former’s designs, +though executed by the latter. The church also contains the +fine tomb (1466) of Barbara Manfredi. The cathedral (Santa +Croce) has been almost entirely rebuilt since 1844. The Palazzo +del Podestà, now a private house, is a brick building of the 15th +century. The citadel (Rocca Ravaldina), constructed about +1360-1370, and later rebuilt, is now used as a prison. Flavio +Biondo, the first Renaissance writer on the topography of ancient +Rome (1388-1463), was a native of Forlì.</p> + +<p>Of the ancient Forum Livii, which lay on the Via Aemilia, +hardly anything is known. In the 12th century we find Forlì +in league with Ravenna, and in the 13th the imperial count of +the province of Romagna resided there. In 1275 Forlì defeated +Bologna with great loss. Martin IV. sent an army to besiege +it in 1282, which was driven out after severe fighting in the streets; +but the town soon afterwards surrendered. In the 14th and +15th centuries it was under the government of the Ordelaffi; +and in 1500 was taken by Caesar Borgia, despite a determined +resistance by Caterina Sforza, widow of Girolamo Riario. Forlì +finally became a part of the papal state in 1504.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORLIMPOPOLI<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (anc. <i>Forum Popillii</i>), a village of Emilia, +Italy, in the province of Forlì, from which it is 5 m. S.E. by rail, +105 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2299 (town); 5795 (commune). +The ancient Forum Popillii, a station on the Via Aemilia, +was destroyed by Grimuald in 672. Whether its site is occupied +by the present town is not certain; the former should perhaps +be sought a mile or so farther to the S.E., where were found most +of the inscriptions of which the place of discovery is certain. +Forlimpopoli was again destroyed by Cardinal Albornoz in 1360, +and rebuilt by Sinibaldo Ordelaffi, who constructed the well-preserved +medieval castle (1380), rectangular with four circular +towers at the corners.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORLORN HOPE<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (through Dutch <i>verloren hoop</i>, from Ger. +<i>verlorene Haufe</i> = “lost troop”; <i>Haufe</i>, “heap,” being equivalent +in the 17th century to “body of troops”; the French +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page667" id="page667"></a>667</span> +equivalent is <i>enfants perdus</i>), a military term (sometimes shortened +to “forlorn”), used in the 16th and 17th centuries for a body +of troops thrown out in front of the line of battle to engage the +hostile line, somewhat after the fashion of skirmishers, though +they were always solid closed bodies. These troops ran great +risks, because they were often trapped between the two lines of +battle as the latter closed upon one another, and fired upon or +ridden down by their friends; further, their mission was to +facilitate the attacks of their own main body by striking the +first blow against or meeting the first shock of the fresh and +unshaken enemy. In the following century (18th), when lines +of masses were no longer employed, a thin line of skirmishers +alone preceded the three-deep line of battle, but the term +“forlorn hope” continued to be used for picked bodies of men +entrusted with dangerous tasks, and in particular for the storming +party at the assault of a fortress. In this last sense “forlorn +hope” is often used at the present time. The misunderstanding +of the word “hope” has led to various applications of “forlorn +hope,” such as to an enterprise offering little chance of success, +or, further still from the original meaning, to the faint or desperate +hope of such success.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORM<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (Lat. <i>forma</i>), in general, the external shape, appearance, +configuration of an object, in contradistinction to the matter of +which it is composed; thus a speech may contain excellent +arguments,—the <i>matter</i> may be good, while the style, grammar, +arrangement,—the <i>form</i>—is bad. The term, with its adjective +“formal” and the derived nouns “formality” and “formalism,” +is hence contemptuously used for that which is superficial, +unessential, hypocritical: chap. xxiii. of Matthew’s gospel is +a classical instance of the distinction between the formalism +of the Pharisaic code and genuine religion. With this may be +compared the popular phrases “good form” and “bad form” +applied to behaviour in society: so “format” (from the French) +is technically used of the shape and size, <i>e.g.</i> of a book (octavo, +quarto, &c.) or of a cigarette. The word “form” is also applied +to certain definite objects: in printing a body of type secured +in a chase for printing at one impression (“form” or “forme”); +a bench without a back, such as is used in schools (perhaps to +be compared with O. Fr. <i>s’asseoir en forme</i>, to sit in a row); a +mould or shape on or in which an object is manufactured; the +lair or nest of a hare. From its use in the sense of regulated order +comes the application of the term to a class in a school (“sixth +form,” “fifth form,” &c.); this sense has been explained without +sufficient ground as due to the idea of all children in the same +class sitting on a single form (bench).</p> + +<p>The word has been used technically in philosophy with various +shades of meaning. Thus it is used to translate the Platonic +<span class="grk" title="idea">ἰδέα</span>, <span class="grk" title="eidos">εἶδος</span>, the permanent reality which makes a thing what +it is, in contrast with the particulars which are finite and subject +to change. Whether Plato understood these forms as actually +existent apart from all the particular examples, or as being of the +nature of immutable physical laws, is matter of discussion. For +practical purposes Aristotle was the first to distinguish between +matter (<span class="grk" title="hylê">ὕλη</span>) and form (<span class="grk" title="eidos">εἶδος</span>). To Aristotle matter is the +undifferentiated primal element: it is rather that from which +things develop (<span class="grk" title="hypokeimenon">ὑποκείμενον</span>, <span class="grk" title="dynamis">δύναμις</span>) than a thing in itself +(<span class="grk" title="energeia">ἐνεργεία</span>). The development of particular things from this +germinal matter consists in differentiation, the acquiring of +particular <i>forms</i> of which the knowable universe consists (cf. +<span class="sc">Causation</span> for the Aristotelian “formal cause”). The perfection +of the form of a thing is its entelechy (<span class="grk" title="entelecheia">ἐντελέχεια</span>) in virtue of +which it attains its fullest realization of function (<i>De anima</i>, +ii. 2, <span class="grk" title="hê men hylê dynamis to de eidos entelecheia">ἡ μὲν ὕλη δύναμις τὸ δὲ εἶδος ἐντελέχεια</span>). Thus the +entelechy of the body is the soul. The origin of the differentiation +process is to be sought in a “prime mover” (<span class="grk" title="prôton kinoun">πρῶτον κινοῦν</span>), +<i>i.e.</i> pure form entirely separate (<span class="grk" title="chôriston">χωριστόν</span>) from all matter, +eternal, unchangeable, operating not by its own activity but by +the impulse which its own absolute existence excites in matter +(<span class="grk" title="hôs erômenon">ὡς ἐρώμενον</span>, <span class="grk" title="ou kinoumenon">οὐ κινούμενον</span>). The Aristotelian conception of +form was nominally, though perhaps in most cases unintelligently, +adopted by the Scholastics, to whom, however, its origin in the +observation of the physical universe was an entirely foreign +idea. The most remarkable adaptation is probably that of +Aquinas, who distinguished the spiritual world with its “subsistent +forms” (<i>formae separatae</i>) from the material with its +“inherent forms” which exist only in combination with matter. +Bacon, returning to the physical standpoint, maintained that all +true research must be devoted to the discovery of the real nature +or essence of things. His induction searches for the true “form” +of light, heat and so forth, analysing the external “form” given +in perception into simpler “forms” and their “differences.” +Thus he would collect all possible instances of hot things, and +discover that which is present in all, excluding all those qualities +which belong accidentally to one or more of the examples +investigated: the “form” of heat is the residuum common to +all. Kant transferred the term from the objective to the subjective +sphere. All perception is necessarily conditioned by +pure “forms of sensibility,” <i>i.e.</i> space and time: whatever is +perceived is perceived as having <span class="correction" title="amended from special">spacial</span> and temporal relations +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Space and Time</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kant</a></span>). These forms are not obtained +by abstraction from sensible data, nor are they strictly speaking +innate: they are obtained “by the very action of the mind from +the co-ordination of its sensation.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORMALIN<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Formaldehyde</span>, CH<span class="su">2</span>O or H·CHO, the first +member of the series of saturated aliphatic aldehydes. It is +most readily prepared by passing the vapour of methyl alcohol, +mixed with air, over heated copper or platinum. In order to +collect the formaldehyde, the vapour is condensed and absorbed, +either in water or alcohol. It may also be obtained, although +only in small quantities, by the distillation of calcium formate. +At ordinary temperatures formaldehyde is a gas possessing +a pungent smell; it is a strong antiseptic and disinfectant, +a 40% solution of the aldehyde in water or methyl alcohol, +sold as <i>formalin</i>, being employed as a deodorant, fungicide +and preservative. It is not possible to obtain the aldehyde +in a pure condition, since it readily polymerizes. It is +a strong reducing agent; it combines with ammonia to form +<i>hexamethylene tetramine</i>, (CH<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">6</span>N<span class="su">4</span>, and easily “condenses” +in the presence of many bases to produce compounds which +apparently belong to the sugars (<i>q.v.</i>). It renders glue or gelatin +insoluble in water, and is used in the coal-tar colour industry +in the manufacture of para-rosaniline, pyronines and rosamines. +Several polymers have been described. <i>Para-formaldehyde</i>, or +trioxymethylene, obtained by concentrating solutions of formaldehyde +<i>in vacuo</i>, is a white crystalline solid, which sublimes at +about 100° C. and melts at a somewhat higher temperature, +changing back into the original form. It is insoluble in cold +water, alcohol and ether. A diformaldehyde is supposed to +separate as white flakes when the vapour is passed into chloroform +(Körber, <i>Pharm. Zeit.</i>, 1904, xlix. p. 609); F. Auerbach +and H. Barschall (<i>Chem. Zentr.</i>, 1907, ii. p. 1734) obtained three +polymers by acting with concentrated sulphuric acid on solutions +of formaldehyde, and a fourth by heating one of the forms so +obtained. The strength of solutions of formaldehyde may be +ascertained by the addition of excess of standard ammonia to the +aldehyde solution (hexamethylene tetramine being formed), +the excess of ammonia being then estimated by titration with +standard acid. On the formation of formaldehyde by the +oxidation of methane at high temperatures, see W.A. Bone +(<i>Journ. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1902, 81, p. 535; 1903, 83, p. 1074). Formaldehyde +also appears to be a reduction product of carbon +dioxide (see <i>Annual Reports of the Chemical Society</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORMAN, ANDREW<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1465-1521), Scottish ecclesiastic, was +educated at the university of St Andrews and entered the service +of King James IV. about 1489. He soon earned the favour of +this king, who treated him with great generosity and who on +several occasions sent him on important embassies to the English, +the French and the papal courts. In 1501 he became bishop of +Moray and in July 1513 Louis XII. of France secured his appointment +as archbishop of Bourges, while pope Julius II. promised +to make him a cardinal. In 1514 during a long absence from his +own land Forman was nominated by Pope Leo X. to the vacant +archbishopric of St Andrews and was made papal legate in +Scotland, but it was some time before he secured possession of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page668" id="page668"></a>668</span> +the see owing to the attempts of Henry VIII. to subject Scotland +to England and to the efforts of his rivals, Gavin Douglas, the +poet, and John Hepburn, prior of St Andrews, and their supporters. +Eventually, however, he resigned some of his many +benefices, the holding of which had made him unpopular, and +through the good offices of the regent, John Stewart, duke of +Albany, obtained the coveted archbishopric and the primacy +of Scotland. Afterwards he was one of the vice-regents of the +kingdom and he died on the 11th of March 1521. As archbishop +he issued a series of constitutions which are printed in J. Robertson’s +<i>Concilia Scotiae</i> (1866). Mr Andrew Lang (<i>History of +Scotland</i>, vol. i.) describes Forman as “the Wolsey of Scotland, +and a fomenter of the war which ended at Flodden.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the biography of the archbishop which forms vol. ii. of <i>The +Archbishops of St Andrews</i>, by J. Herkless and R.K. Hannay (1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORMAN, SIMON<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1552-1611), English physician and astrologer, +was born in 1552 at Quidham, a small village near Wilton, +Wiltshire. At the age of fourteen he became apprentice to a +druggist at Salisbury, but at the end of four years he exchanged +this profession for that of a schoolmaster. Shortly afterwards +he entered Magdalen College, Oxford, where he studied chiefly +medicine and astrology. After continuing the same studies in +Holland he commenced practice as a physician in Philpot Lane, +London, but as he possessed no diploma, he on this account +underwent more than one term of imprisonment. Ultimately, +however, he obtained a diploma from Cambridge university, +and established himself as a physician and astrologer at Lambeth, +where he was consulted, especially as a physician, by many +persons of rank, among others by the notorious countess of +Essex. He expired suddenly while crossing the Thames in a +boat on the 12th of September 1611.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A list of Forman’s works on astrology is given in Bliss’s edition +of the <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i>; many of his MS. works are contained +in the Bodleian Library, the British Museum and the Plymouth +Library. <i>A Brief Description of the Forman MSS. in the Public +Library, Plymouth</i>, was published in 1853.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORMERET<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span>, a French architectural term for the wall-rib +carrying the web or filling-in of a vault (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORMEY, JOHANN HEINRICH SAMUEL<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1711-1797), +Franco-German author, was born of French parentage at Berlin +on the 31st of May 1711. He was educated for the ministry, and +at the age of twenty became pastor of the French church at +Brandenburg. Having in 1736 accepted the invitation of a +congregation in Berlin, he was in the following year chosen professor +of rhetoric in the French college of that city and in 1739 +professor of philosophy. On the organization of the academy +of Berlin in 1744 he was named a member, and in 1748 became +its perpetual secretary. He died at Berlin on the 7th of March +1797. His principal works are <i>La Belle Wolfienne</i> (1741-1750, +6 vols.), a kind of novel written with the view of enforcing the +precepts of the Wolfian philosophy; <i>Bibliothèque critique, ou +mémoires pour servir à l’histoire littéraire ancienne et moderne</i> +(1746); <i>Le Philosophe chrétien</i> (1750); <i>L’Émile chrétien</i> (1764), +intended as an answer to the <i>Émile</i> of Rousseau; and <i>Souvenirs +d’un citoyen</i> (Berlin, 1789). He also published an immense +number of contemporary memoirs in the transactions of the +Berlin Academy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORMIA<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (anc. <i>Formiae</i>, called Mola di Gaeta until recent +times), a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, +from which it is 48 m. W.N.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 5514 +(town); 8452 (commune). It is situated at the N.W. extremity +of the Bay of Gaeta, and commands beautiful views. It lay on +the ancient Via Appia, and was much frequented as a resort by +wealthy Romans. There was considerable imperial property +here and along the coast as far as Sperlonga, and there are +numerous remains of ancient villas along the coast and on the +slopes above it. The so-called villa of Cicero contains two well-preserved +<i>nymphaea</i> with Doric architecture. Its site is now +occupied by the villa Caposele, once a summer residence of the +kings of Naples. There are many other modern villas, and the +sheltered hillsides (for the mountains rise abruptly behind the +town) are covered with lemon, orange and pomegranate gardens. +The now deserted promontory of the Monte Scauri to the E. is +also covered with remains of ancient villas; the hill is crowned +by a large tomb, known as Torre Giano. To the E. at Scauri is +a large villa with substructions in “Cyclopean” work. The +ancient Formiae was, according to the legend, the home of the +Laestrygones, and later a Spartan colony (<span class="grk" title="Hormiaidia to euormon">Ὁρμίαιδιὰ τὸ εὔορμον</span>, +Strabo v. 3. 6, p. 233). It was a Volscian town, and, like Fundi, +received the <i>civitas sine suffragio</i> from Rome in 338 (or 332 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +because the passage through its territory had always been secure. +This was strategically important for the Romans, as the military +road definitely constructed by Appius Claudius in 312 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, still +easily traceable by its remains, and in part followed by the +high-road, traversed a narrow pass, which could easily be blocked, +between Fundi and Formiae. In 188 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, with Fundi, it received +the full citizenship, and, like it, was to a certain extent under +the control of a <i>praefectus</i> sent from Rome, though it retained +its three aediles. Mamurra was a native of Formia. Cicero +possessed a favourite villa here, and was murdered in its vicinity +in 43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but neither the villa nor the tomb can be identified +with any certainty. It was devastated by Sextus Pompeius, +and became a colony, with <i>duoviri</i> as chief magistrates, under +Hadrian. Portus Caietae (the modern Gaeta) was dependent +upon it.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See T. Ashby, “Dessins inédits de Carlo Labruzzi,” in <i>Mélanges +de l’école française de Rome</i> (1903), 410 seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORMIC ACID,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> H<span class="su">2</span>CO<span class="su">2</span> or H·COOH, the first member of the +series of aliphatic monobasic acids of the general formula +C<span class="su">n</span>H<span class="su">2n</span>O<span class="su">2</span>. It is distinguished from the other members of the +series by certain characteristic properties; for example, it +shows an aldehydic character in reducing silver salts to metallic +silver, and it does not form an acid chloride or an acid anhydride. +Its nitrile (prussic acid) has an acid character, a property not +possessed by the nitriles of the other members of the series; +and, by the abstraction of the elements of water from the acid, +carbon monoxide is produced, a reaction which finds no parallel +in the higher members of the series. Finally, formic acid is, as +shown by the determination of its affinity constant, a much +stronger acid than the other acids of the series. It occurs +naturally in red ants (Lat. <i>formica</i>), in stinging nettles, in some +mineral waters, in animal secretions and in muscle. It may be +prepared artificially by the oxidation of methyl alcohol and of +formaldehyde; by the rapid heating of oxalic acid (J. Gay-Lussac, +<i>Ann. chim. phys.</i>, 1831 [2] 46, p. 218), but best by heating +oxalic acid with glycerin, at a temperature of 100-110° C. (M. +Berthelot, <i>Ann.</i>, 1856, 98, p. 139). In this reaction a glycerol +ester is formed as an intermediate product, and undergoes +decomposition by the water which is also produced at the same +time.</p> + +<p class="center"> +C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(OH)<span class="su">3</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span> = C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(OH)<span class="su">2</span>·OCHO+CO<span class="su">2</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>O<br /> +C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(OH)<span class="su">2</span>O·CHO + H<span class="su">2</span>O = C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>(OH)<span class="su">3</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>CO<span class="su">2</span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Many other synthetical processes for the production of the acid +or its salts are known. Hydrolysis of hydrocyanic acid by means +of hydrochloric acid yields formic acid. Chloroform boiled with +alcoholic potash forms potassium formate (J. Dumas, <i>Berzelius +Jahresberichte</i>, vol. 15, p. 371), a somewhat similar decomposition +being shown by chloral and aqueous potash (J. v. Liebig, <i>Ann.</i>, +1832, 1, p. 198). Formates are also produced by the action of +moist carbon monoxide on soda lime at 190-220° C. (V. Merz and +J. Tibiçira, <i>Ber.</i>, 1880, 13, p. 23; A. Geuther, <i>Ann.</i>, 1880, 202, +p. 317), or by the action of moist carbon dioxide on potassium +(H. Kolbe and R. Schmitt, <i>Ann.</i>, 1861, 119, p. 251). H. Moissan +(<i>Comptes rend.</i>, 1902, 134, p. 261) prepared potassium formate by +passing a current of carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide over heated +potassium hydride,</p> + +<p class="center">KH + CO<span class="su">2</span> = KHCO<span class="su">2</span> and KH + 2CO = KHCO<span class="su">2</span> + C.</p> + +<p>A concentrated acid may be obtained from the diluted acid either +by neutralization with soda, the sodium salt thus obtained being +then dried and heated with the equivalent quantity of anhydrous +oxalic acid (Lorin, <i>Bull. soc. chim.</i>, 37, p. 104), or the lead or copper +salt may be decomposed by dry sulphuretted hydrogen at 130° C. +L. Maquenne (<i>Bull. soc. chim.</i>, 1888, 50, p. 662) distils the commercial +acid, <i>in vacuo</i>, with concentrated sulphuric acid below 75° C.</p> + +<p>Formic acid is a colourless, sharp-smelling liquid, which crystallizes +at 0° C., melts at 8.6° C. and boils at 100.8° C. Its specific +gravity is 1.22 (20°/4°). It is miscible in all proportions with water, +alcohol and ether. When heated with zinc dust, the acid decomposes +into carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The sodium and potassium +salts, when heated to 400° C., give oxalates and carbonates of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page669" id="page669"></a>669</span> +alkali metals, but the magnesium, calcium and barium salts yield +carbonates only. The free acid, when heated with concentrated +sulphuric acid, is decomposed into water and pure carbon monoxide; +when heated with nitric acid, it is oxidized first to oxalic acid and +finally to carbon dioxide. The salts of the acid are known as <i>formates</i>, +and are mostly soluble in water, those of silver and lead being +the least soluble. They crystallize well and are readily decomposed. +Concentrated sulphuric acid converts them into sulphates, with +simultaneous liberation of carbon monoxide. The calcium salt, +when heated with the calcium salts of higher homologues, gives +aldehydes. The silver and mercury salts, when heated, yield the +metal, with liberation of carbon dioxide and formation of free +formic acid; and the ammonium salt, when distilled, gives some +formamide, HCONH<span class="su">2</span>. The esters of the acid may be obtained +by distilling a mixture of the sodium or potassium salts and the +corresponding alcohol with hydrochloric or sulphuric acids.</p> + +<p><i>Formamide</i>, HCONH<span class="su">2</span>, is obtained by heating ethyl formate with +ammonia; by heating ammonium formate with urea to 140° C.,</p> + +<p class="center">2HCO·ONH<span class="su">4</span> + CO(NH<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">2</span> = 2HCONH<span class="su">2</span> + (NH<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>CO<span class="su">3</span>;</p> + +<p>by heating ammonium formate in a sealed tube for some hours at +230° C., or by the action of sodium amalgam on a solution of +potassium cyanate (H. Basarow, <i>Ber.</i>, 1871, 4, p. 409). It is a liquid +which boils <i>in vacuo</i> at 150°, but at 192-195° C. under ordinary +atmospheric pressure, with partial decomposition into carbon +monoxide and ammonia. It dissolves mercuric oxide, with the +formation of mercuric formamide, (HCONH)<span class="su">2</span>Hg.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORMOSA,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> a northern territory of the Argentine republic, +bounded N. by Bolivia, N.E. and E. by Paraguay, S. by +the Chaco Territory, and W. by Salta, with the Pilcomayo +and Bermejo forming its northern and southern boundaries. +Estimated area, 41,402 sq. m. It is a vast plain, sloping gently +to the S.E., covered with marshes and tropical forests. Very +little is known of it except small areas along the Bermejo and +Paraguay rivers, where attempts have been made to form +settlements. The unexplored interior is still occupied by tribes +of wild Indians. The climate is hot, the summer temperature +rising to a maximum of 104° F. Timber-cutting is the +principal occupation of the settlers, though stock-raising and +agriculture engage some attention in the settlements on the +Paraguay. The capital, Formosa (founded 1879), is a small +settlement on the Paraguay with a population of about 1000 in +1900. The settled population of the territory was 4829 in 1895, +which it was estimated had increased to 13,431 in 1905. The +nomadic Indians are estimated at 8000.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORMOSA<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (called <i>Taiwan</i> by the Chinese, and following +them by the Japanese, into whose possession it came after their +war with China in 1895), an island in the western Pacific Ocean, +between the Southern and the Eastern China Sea, separated +from the Chinese mainland by the Formosa Strait, which has +a width of about 90 m. in its narrowest part. The island is +225 m. long and from 60 to 80 m. broad, has a coast-line measuring +731 m., an area of 13,429 sq. m.—being thus nearly the same +size as Kiushiu, the most southern of the four chief islands +forming the Japanese empire proper—and extends from 20° 56′ +to 25° 15′ N. and from 120° to 122° E. It forms part of the long +line of islands which are interposed as a protective barrier +between the Asiatic coast and the outer Pacific, and is the cause +of the immunity from typhoons enjoyed by the ports of China +from Amoy to the Yellow Sea. Along the western coast is a low +plain, not exceeding 20 m. in extreme width; on the east coast +there is a rich plain called Giran, and there are also some fertile +valleys in the neighbourhood of Karenko and Pinan, extending +up the longitudinal valleys of the rivers Karenko and Pinan, +between which and the east coast the Taito range intervenes; +but the rest of the island is mountainous and covered with virgin +forest. In the plains the soil is generally of sand or alluvial +clay, covered in the valleys with a rich vegetable mould. The +scenery of Formosa is frequently of majestic beauty, and to +this it is indebted for its European name, happily bestowed by +the early Spanish navigators.</p> + +<p>On the addition of Formosa to her dominions, Fuji ceased +to be Japan’s highest mountain, and took the third place on the +list. Mount Morrison (14,270 ft.), which the Japanese renamed +Niitaka-yama (New High Mountain), stands first, and Mount +Sylvia (12,480 ft.), to which they give the name of Setzu-zan +(Snowy Mountain), comes second. Mount Morrison stands +nearly under the Tropic of Cancer. It is not volcanic, but consists +of argillaceous schist and quartzite. An ascent made by Dr +Honda of the imperial university of Japan showed that, up to +a height of 6000 ft., the mountain is clothed with primeval +forests of palms, banyans, cork trees, camphor trees, tree ferns, +interlacing creepers and dense thickets of rattan or stretches +of grass higher than a man’s stature. The next interval of 1000 +ft. has gigantic cryptomerias and chamoecyparis; then follow +pines; then, at a height of 9500 ft., a broad plateau, and then +alternate stretches of grass and forest up to the top, which +consists of several small peaks. There is no snow. Mount +Morrison, being surrounded by high ranges, is not a conspicuous +object. Mount Sylvia lies in 24° 30´ N. lat. There are many +other mountains of considerable elevation. In the north is +Getsurôbi-zan (4101 ft.); and on either side of Setzu-zan, with +which they form a range running due east and west across the +island, are Jusampunzan (4698 ft.) and Kali-zan (7027 ft.). +Twenty-two miles due south of Kali-zan stands Hakumosha-zan +(5282 ft.), and just 20 m. due south of Hakumosha-zan begins +a chain of three peaks, Suisha-zan (6200 ft.), Hoo-zan (4928), +and Niitaka-yama. These five mountains, Hari-zan, Hakumosha-zan, +Suisha-zan, Hoo-zan and Niitaka-yama, stand almost +exactly under 121° E. long., in the very centre of the island. But +the backbone of the island lies east of them, extending S. from +Setzu-zan through Gokan-zan, and Noko-zan and other peaks +and bending S.W. to Niitaka-yama. Yet farther south, and +still lying in line down the centre of the island, are Sankyakunan-zan +(3752 ft.), Shurogi-zan (5729 ft.), Poren-zan (4957 ft.), and +Kado-zan (9055 ft.), and, finally, in the south-east Arugan-zan +(4985 ft.). These, it will be observed, are all Japanese names, +and the heights have been determined by Japanese observers. +In addition to these remarkable inland mountains, Formosa’s +eastern shores show magnificent cliff scenery, the bases of the +hills on the seaside taking the form of almost perpendicular +walls as high as from 1500 to 2500 ft. Volcanic outbreaks of +steam and sulphur-springs are found. Owing to the precipitous +character of the east coast few rivers of any size find their way to +the sea in that direction. The west coast, on the contrary, has +many streams, but the only two of any considerable length +are the Kotansui, which rises on Shurogi-zan, and has its mouth +at Toko after a course of some 60 m. and the Seirakei, which +rises on Hakumosha-zan, and enters the sea at a point 57 m. +farther north after a course of 90 m.</p> + +<p>The climate is damp, hot and malarious. In the north, the +driest and best months are October, November and December; +in the south, December, January, February and March. The +sea immediately south of Formosa is the birthplace of innumerable +typhoons, but the high mountains of the island protect it +partially against the extreme violence of the wind.</p> + +<p><i>Flora and Fauna.</i>—The vegetation of the island is characterized +by tropical luxuriance,—the <span class="correction" title="amended from moutainous">mountainous</span> regions being +clad with dense forest, in which various species of palms, the +camphor-tree (<i>Laurus Camphora</i>), and the aloe are conspicuous. +Consul R. Swinhoe obtained no fewer than 65 different kinds of +timber from a large yard in Taiwanfu; and his specimens are +now to be seen in the museum at Kew. The tree which supplies +the materials for the pith paper of the Chinese is not uncommon, +and the cassia tree is found in the mountains. Travellers are +especially struck with the beauty of some of the wild flowers, +more especially with the lilies and convolvuluses; and European +greenhouses have been enriched by several Formosan orchids and +other ornamental plants. The pine-apple grows in abundance. +In the lowlands of the western portion, the Chinese have introduced +a large number of cultivated plants and fruit trees. Rice +is grown in such quantities as to procure for Formosa, in former +days, the title of the “granary of China”; and the sweet potato, +taro, millet, barley, wheat and maize are also cultivated. +Camphor, sugar, tea, indigo, ground peanuts, jute, hemp, oil +and rattans are all articles of export.</p> + +<p>The Formosan fauna has been but partially ascertained; but +at least three kinds of deer, wild boars, bears, goats, monkeys +(probably <i>Macacus speciosus</i>), squirrels, and flying squirrels +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page670" id="page670"></a>670</span> +are fairly common, and panthers and wild cats are not unfrequent. +A poisonous but beautiful green snake is often mentioned by +travellers. Pheasants, ducks, geese and snipe are abundant, +and Dr C. Collingwood in his <i>Naturalist’s Rambles in the China +Seas</i> mentions <i>Ardea prasinosceles</i> and other species of herons, +several species of fly-catchers, kingfishers, shrikes and larks, +the black drongo, the <i>Cotyle sinensis</i> and the <i>Prinia sonitans</i>. +Dogs are kept by the savages for hunting. The horse is hardly +known, and his place is taken by the ox, which is regularly bridled +and saddled and ridden with all dignity. The rivers and neighbouring +seas seem to be well stocked with fish, and especial +mention must be made of the turtles, flying-fish, and brilliant +coral-fish which swarm in the waters warmed by the <i>Kurosiwo</i> +current, the gulf-stream of the Pacific. Shell-fish form an +important article of diet to both the Chinese and the aborigines +along the coast—a species of <i>Cyrena</i>, a species of <i>Tapes</i>, <i>Cytheraea +petechiana</i> and <i>Modiola teres</i> being most abundant.</p> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The population of Formosa, according to a +census in 1904, is estimated at 3,022,687, made up as follows: +aborigines 104,334, Chinese 2,860,574 and Japanese 51,770. +The inhabitants of Formosa may be divided into four classes: +the Japanese, who are comparatively few, as there has not been +much tendency to immigration; the Chinese, many of whom +immigrated from the neighbourhood of Amoy and speak the +dialect of that district, while others were Hakkas from the +vicinity of Swatow; the subjugated aborigines, who largely +intermingled with the Chinese; and the uncivilized aborigines +of the eastern region who refuse to recognize authority and +carry on raids as opportunity occurs. The semi-civilized +aborigines, who adopted the Chinese language, dress and customs, +were called Pe-pa-hwan (<i>Anglice</i> Pepo-hoans), while their +wilder brethren bear the name of Chin-hwan or “green savages,” +otherwise Sheng-fan or “wild savages.” They appear to belong +to the Malay stock, and their language bears out the supposition. +They are broken up into almost countless tribes and clans, +many of which number only a few hundred individuals, and +their language consequently presents a variety of dialects, of +which no classification has yet been effected: in the district +of Posia alone a member of the Presbyterian mission distinguished +eight different mutually unintelligible dialects. The +people themselves are described as of “middle height, broad-chested +and muscular, with remarkably large hands and feet, +the eyes large, the forehead round, and not narrow or receding +in many instances, the nose broad, the mouth large and disfigured +with betel.” The custom of tattooing is universal. In the north +of the island at least, the dead are buried in a sitting posture +under the bed on which they have expired. Petty wars are +extremely common, not only along the Chinese frontiers, but +between the neighbouring clans; and the heads of the slain are +carefully preserved as trophies. In some districts the young +men and boys sleep in the skull-chambers, in order that they +may be inspired with courage. Many of the tribes that had +least intercourse with the Chinese show a considerable amount +of skill in the arts of civilization. The use of Manchester prints +and other European goods is fairly general; and the women, +who make a fine native cloth from hemp, introduce coloured +threads from the foreign stuffs, so as to produce ornamental +devices. The office of chieftain is sometimes held by women.</p> + +<p>The chief town is Taipe (called by the Japanese Taihoku), +which is on the Tamsui-yei river, and has a population of about +118,000, including 5850 Japanese. Taipe may be said to have +two ports; one, Tamsui, at the mouth of the river Tamsui-yei, +10 m. distant on the north-west coast, the other Kelung (called +by the Japanese Kiirun), on the north-east shore, with which +it is connected by rail, a run of some 18 m. The foreign settlement +at Taipe lies outside the walls of the city, and is called +Twatutia (Taitotei by the Japanese). Kelung (the ancient +Pekiang) is an excellent harbour, and the scenery is very beautiful. +There are coal-mines in the neighbourhood. Tamsui +(called Tansui by the Japanese) is usually termed Hobe by +foreigners. It is the site of the first foreign settlement, has a +population of about 7000, but cannot be made a good harbour +without considerable expenditure. On the west coast there is +no place of any importance until reaching Anping (23° N. lat.), +a port where a few foreign merchants reside for the sake of the +sugar trade. It is an unlovely place, surrounded by mud flats, +and a hotbed of malaria. It has a population of 4000 Chinese +and 200 Japanese. At a distance of some 2½ m. inland is the +former capital of Formosa, the walled city of Tainan, which has +a population of 100,000 Chinese, 2300 Japanese, and a few +British merchants and missionaries. Connected with Anping +by rail (26 m.) and laying south of it is Takau, a treaty port. It +has a population of 6800, and is prettily situated on two sides +of a large lagoon. Six miles inland from Takau is a prosperous +Chinese town called Feng-shan (Japanese, Hozan). The anchorages +on the east coast are Soo, Karenko and Pinan, which do +not call for special notice. Forty-seven m. east of the extreme +south coast there is a little island called Botel-tobago (Japanese, +Koto-sho), which rises to a height of 1914 ft. and is inhabited +by a tribe whose customs differ essentially from those of the +natives on the main island.</p> + +<p><i>Administration and Commerce.</i>—The island is treated as an +outlying territory; it has not been brought within the full +purview of the Japanese constitution. Its affairs are administered +by a governor-general, who is also commander-in-chief of the +forces, by a bureau of civil government, and by three prefectural +governors, below whom are the heads of twenty territorial +divisions called <i>cho</i>; its finances are not included in the general +budget of the Japanese empire; it is garrisoned by a mixed +brigade taken from the home divisions; and its currency is on +a silver basis. One of the first abuses with which the Japanese +had to deal was the excessive use of opium by the Chinese +settlers. To interdict the importation of the drug altogether, +as is done in Japan, was the step advocated by Japanese public +opinion. But, influenced by medical views and by the almost +insuperable difficulty of enforcing any drastic import veto in +the face of Formosa’s large communications by junk with China, +the Japanese finally adopted the middle course of licensing the +preparation and sale of the drug, and limiting its use to persons +in receipt of medical sanction. Under the administration of the +Japanese the island has been largely developed. Among other +industries gold-mining is advancing rapidly. In 1902 48,400 +oz. of gold representing a value of £168,626 were obtained from +the mines and alluvial washings. Coal is also found in large +quantities near Kelung and sulphur springs exist in the north +of the island.</p> + +<p>An extensive scheme of railway construction has been planned, +the four main lines projected being (1) from Takau to Tainan; +(2) from Tainan to Kagi; (3) from Kagi to Shoka; and (4) from +Shoka to Kelung; these four forming, in effect, a main trunk +road running from the south-west to the north-east, its course +being along the foot of the mountains that border the western +coast-plains. The Takau-Tainan section (26 m.) was opened to +traffic on the 3rd of November 1900, and by 1905 the whole line +of 259 m. was practically complete. Harbour improvements also +are projected, but in Formosa, as in Japan proper, paucity of +capital constitutes a fatal obstacle to rapid development.</p> + +<p>There are thirteen ports of export and import, but 75% of the +total business is done at Tamsui. Tea and camphor are the +staple exports. The greater part of the former goes to Amoy +for re-shipment to the west, but it is believed that if harbour +improvements were effected at Tamsui so as to render it accessible +for ocean-going steamers, shipments would be made thence direct +to New York. The camphor trade being a government monopoly, +the quantity exported is under strict control.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The island of Formosa must have been known from +a very early date to the Chinese who were established in the +Pescadores. The inhabitants are mentioned in the official works +of the Yuan dynasty as <i>Tung-fan</i> or eastern barbarians; and +under the Ming dynasty the island begins to appear as Kilung. +In the beginning of the 16th century it began to be known to +the Portuguese and Spanish navigators, and the latter at least +made some attempts at establishing settlements or missions. +The Dutch were the first, however, to take footing in the island; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page671" id="page671"></a>671</span> +in 1624 they built a fort, Zelandia, on the east coast, where +subsequently rose the town of Taiwan, and the settlement was +maintained for <span class="correction" title="amended from thrity">thrity</span>-seven years. On the expulsion of the +Ming dynasty in China, a number of their defeated adherents +came over to Formosa, and under a leader called in European +accounts Coxinga, succeeded in expelling the Dutch and taking +possession of a good part of the island. In 1682 the Chinese +of Formosa recognized the emperor K’ang-hi, and the island +then began to form part of the Chinese empire. From the close +of the 17th century a long era of conflict ensued between the +Chinese and the aborigines. A more debased population than +the peoples thus struggling for supremacy could scarcely be +conceived. The aborigines, <i>Sheng-fan</i>, or “wild savages,” +deserved the appellation in some respects, for they lived by the +chase and had little knowledge even of husbandry; while the +Chinese themselves, uneducated labourers, acknowledged no +right except that of might. The former were not implacably +cruel or vindictive. They merely clung to their homesteads, and +harboured a natural resentment against the raiders who had +dispossessed them. Their disposition was to leave the Chinese in +unmolested possession of the plain. But some of the most +valuable products of the island, as camphor and rattan, are to be +found in the upland forests, and the Chinese, whenever they +ventured too far in search of these products, fell into ambushes +of hill-men who neither gave nor sought quarter, and who +regarded a Chinese skull as a specially attractive article of +household furniture. A violent rebellion is mentioned in 1788, +put down only after the loss, it is said, of 100,000 men by disease +and sword, and the expenditure of 2,000,000 taels of silver. +Reconciliation never took place on any large scale, though it is +true that, in the course of time, some fitful displays of administrative +ability on the part of the Chinese, and the opening +of partial means of communication, led to the pacification of a +section of the <i>Sheng-fan</i>, who thenceforth became known as +Pe-pa-hwan (<i>Pepohoan</i>).</p> + +<p>In the early part of the 19th century the island was chiefly +known to Europeans on account of the wrecks which took place +on its coasts, and the dangers that the crews had to run from +the cannibal propensities of the aborigines, and the almost +equally cruel tendencies of the Chinese. Among the most +notable was the loss in 1842 of the British brig “Ann,” with +fifty-seven persons on board, of whom forty-three were executed +at Taichu. By the treaty of Tientsin (1860) Taichu was opened +to European commerce, but the place was found quite unsuitable +for a port of trade, and the harbour of Tamsui was selected +instead. From 1859 both Protestant and Presbyterian missions +were established in the island. An attack made on those at +Feng-shan (Hozan) in 1868 led to the occupation of Fort Zelandia +and Anping by British forces; but this action was disapproved +by the home government, and the indemnity demanded from +the Chinese restored. In 1874 the island was invaded by the +Japanese for the purpose of obtaining satisfaction for the murder +of a shipwrecked crew who had been put to death by one of the +semi-savage tribes on the southern coast, the Chinese government +being either unable or unwilling to punish the culprits. +A war was averted through the good offices of the British +minister, Sir T.F. Wade, and the Japanese retired on payment +of an indemnity of 500,000 taels. The political state of the +island during these years was very bad; in a report of 1872 +there is recorded a proverb among the official classes, “every +three years an outbreak, every five a rebellion”; but subsequent +to 1877 some improvement was manifested, and public works +were pushed forward by the Chinese authorities. In 1884, in +the course of belligerent proceedings arising out of the Tongking +dispute, the forts at Kelung on the north were bombarded by +the French fleet, and the place was captured and held for some +months by French troops. An attack on the neighbouring town +of Tamsui failed, but a semi-blockade of the island was maintained +by the French fleet during the winter and spring of +1884-1885. The troops were withdrawn on the conclusion of +peace in June 1885.</p> + +<p>In 1895 the island was ceded to Japan by the treaty of +Shimonoseki at the close of the Japanese war. The resident +Chinese officials, however, refused to recognize the cession, declared +a republic, and prepared to offer resistance. It is even said they +offered to transfer the sovereignty to Great Britain if that +power would accept it. A formal transfer to Japan was made +in June of the same year in pursuance of the treaty, the ceremony +taking place on board ship outside Kelung, as the Chinese +commissioners did not venture to land. The Japanese were +thus left to take possession as best they could, and some four +months elapsed before they effected a landing on the south of +the island. Takau was bombarded and captured on the 15th of +October, and the resistance collapsed. Liu Yung-fu, the notorious +Black Flag general, and the back-bone of the resistance, +sought refuge in flight. The general state of the island when the +Japanese assumed possession was that the plain of Giran on +the eastern coast and the hill-districts were inhabited by semi-barbarous +folk, the western plains by Chinese of a degraded type, +and that between the two there existed a traditional and continuous +feud, leading to mutual displays of merciless and +murderous violence. By many of these Chinese settlers the +Japanese conquerors, when they came to occupy the island, +were regarded in precisely the same light as the Chinese themselves +had been regarded from time immemorial by the aborigines. +Insurrections occurred frequently, the insurgents receiving +secret aid from sympathizers in China, and the difficulties +of the Japanese being increased not only by their ignorance of +the country, which abounds in fastnesses where bandits can find +almost inaccessible refuge, but also by the unwillingness of +experienced officials to abandon their home posts for the purpose +of taking service in the new territory.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—C. Imbault-Huart, <i>L’Île Formose, histoire et +description</i> (Paris, 1893), 4<span class="sp">o</span>; J.D. Clark, <i>Formosa</i> (Shanghai, +1896); W.A. Pickering, <i>Pioneering in Formosa</i> (London, 1898); +George Candidius, <i>A Short Account of the Island of Formosa in the +Indies</i> ..., vol. i.; Churchill’s <i>Collection of Voyages</i> (1744); +Robert Swinhoe, <i>Notes on the Island of Formosa</i>, read before the +British Association (1863); W. Campbell, “Aboriginal Savages of +Formosa,” <i>Ocean Highways</i> (April 1873); H.J. Klaproth, <i>Description +de l’île de Formose, mém. rel. à l’Asie</i> (1826); Mrs T.F. Hughes, +<i>Notes of a Six Years’ Residence in Formosa</i> (London, 1881); Y. +Takekoshi, <i>Japanese Rule in Formosa</i> (transl. by G. Braithwaite) +(London, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORMOSUS,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> pope from 891 to 896, the successor of Stephen +V. (or VI.). He first appears in history when, as bishop of Porto, +he was sent on an embassy to the Bulgarians. Having afterwards +sided with a faction against John VIII., he was excommunicated, +and compelled to take an oath never to return to Rome or again +to assume his priestly functions. From this oath he was, however, +absolved by Marinus, the successor of John VIII., and restored +to his dignities; and on the death of Stephen V. in 891 he was +chosen pope. At that time the Holy See was engaged in a struggle +against the oppression of the princes of Spoleto, and a powerful +party in Rome was eager to obtain the intervention of Arnulf, +king of Germany, against these dangerous neighbours. Formosus +himself shared this view; but he was forced to yield to circumstances +and to consecrate as emperor Lambert, the young son +of Guy of Spoleto. Guy had already been consecrated by +Stephen V., and died in 894. In the following year Arnulf +succeeded in seizing Rome, and Formosus crowned him emperor. +But, as he was advancing on Spoleto against Lambert, Arnulf +was seized with paralysis, and was forced to return to Germany. +Overwhelmed with chagrin, Formosus died on the 4th of April +896. The discords in which he had been involved continued +after his death. The validity of his acts was contested on the +pretext that, having been originally bishop of Porto, he could +not be a legitimate pope. The fundamental factor in these +dissensions was the rivalry between the princes of Spoleto and +the Carolingian house, represented by the king of Germany. +The body of Formosus was disinterred in 897 by Stephen VI., +and treated with contumely as that of a usurper of the papal +throne; but Theodore II. restored it to Christian burial, and at +a council presided over by John IX. the pontificate of Formosus +was declared valid and all his acts confirmed.</p> +<div class="author">(L. D.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page672" id="page672"></a>672</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">FORMULA<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (Lat. diminutive of <i>forma</i>, shape, pattern, &c., +especially used of rules of judicial procedure), in general, a +stereotyped form of words to be used on stated occasions, for +specific purposes, ceremonies, &c. In the sciences, the word +usually denotes a symbolical statement of certain facts; for +example, a chemical formula exhibits the composition of a substance +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chemistry</a></span>); a botanical formula gives the differentia +of a plant; a dentition formula indicates the arrangement and +number of the teeth of an animal.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORNER, JUAN BAUTISTA PABLO<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1756-1799), Spanish +satirist and scholar, was born at Mérida (Badajoz) on the 23rd +of February 1756, studied at the university of Salamanca, and +was called to the bar at Madrid in 1783. During the next few +years—under the pseudonyms of “Tomé Cecial,” “Pablo +Segarra,” “Don Antonio Varas,” “Bartolo,” “Pablo Ignocausto,” +“El Bachiller Regañadientes,” and “Silvio Liberio”—Forner +was engaged in a series of polemics with García de la +Huerta, Iriarte and other writers; the violence of his attacks +was so extreme that he was finally forbidden to publish any +controversial pamphlets, and was transferred to a legal post at +Seville. In 1796 he became crown prosecutor at Madrid, where +he died on the 17th of March 1799. Forner’s brutality is almost +unexampled, and his satirical writings give a false impression of +his powers. His <i>Oración apologética por la España y su mérito +literario</i> (1787) is an excellent example of learned advocacy, +far superior to similar efforts made by Denina and Antonio +Cavanilles; and his posthumous <i>Exequias de la lengua castellana</i> +(printed in the <i>Biblioteca de autores españoles</i>, vol. lxiii.) testifies +to his scholarship and taste.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORRES<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (Gaelic, <i>far uis</i>, “near water”), a royal and police +burgh of Elginshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891) 3971; (1901) +4317. It is situated on the Findhorn, which sweeps past the town +and is crossed by a suspension bridge about a mile to the W., +11 m. W. of Elgin by the Highland railway, and 6 m. by road +from Findhorn, its port, due north. It is one of the most ancient +towns in the north of Scotland. King Donald (892-900), son +of Constantine, died in Forres, not without suspicion of poisoning, +and in it King Duff (961-967) was murdered. Macbeth is said +to have slain Duncan in the first structure that gave its name +to Castlehill, which was probably the building demolished in +1297 by the adherents of Wallace. The next castle was a royal +residence from 1189 to 1371 and was occupied occasionally by +William the Lion, Alexander II. and David II. It was burned +down by the Wolf of Badenoch in 1390. The ruins on the hill, +however, are those of a later edifice and are surmounted by a +granite obelisk, 65 ft. high, raised to the memory of Surgeon +James Thomson, a native of Cromarty, who at the cost of his +life tended the Russian wounded on the field of the Alma. The +public buildings include the town hall, a fine and commodious +house on the site of the old tolbooth; the Falconer museum, +containing among other exhibits several valuable fossils, and +named after Dr Hugh Falconer (1808-1865), the distinguished +palaeontologist and botanist, a native of the town; the mechanics’ +institute; the agricultural and market hall; Leanchoil hospital +and Anderson’s Institution for poor boys. The cross, in Decorated +Gothic, stands beside the town hall. Adjoining the town on +the south-east is the beautifully-wooded Cluny Hill, a favourite +public resort, carrying on its summit the tower, 70 ft. high, which +was erected in 1806 to the memory of Nelson, and on its southern +slopes a well-known hydropathic. An excellent golf-course +extends from Kinloss to Findhorn. The industries comprise +the manufacture of chemicals and artificial manures, granite +polishing, flour and sawmills, boot- and shoe-making, carriage-building +and woollen manufactures. There is also considerable +trade in cattle.</p> + +<p>Sueno’s Stone, about 23 ft. high, probably the finest sculptured +monolith in Scotland, stands in a field to the east of the town. +Its origin and character have given rise to endless surmises. +It is carved with figures of soldiers, priests, slaughtered men and +captives on one side, and on the other with a cross and Runic +ornamentation. One theory is that it is a relic of the early +Christian church, symbolizing the battle of life and the triumph +of good over evil. According to an older tradition it was named +after Sueno, son of Harold, king of Denmark, who won a victory +on the spot in 1008. A third conjecture is that it commemorates +the expulsion of the Danes from Moray in 1014. Skene’s view +is that it chronicles the struggle in 900 between Sigurd, earl of +Orkney, and Maelbrigd, Maormor of Moray. Another storied +stone is called the Witches’ Stone, because it marks the place +near Forres where Macbeth is said to have encountered the +weird sisters.</p> + +<p>Forres is one of the Inverness district group of parliamentary +burghs, the other members being Nairn, Fortrose and Inverness. +The town is amongst the healthiest in Scotland and has the lowest +rainfall in the county.</p> + +<p>Within 2 m. of Forres, to the S.W., lie the beautiful woods of +Altyre, the seat of the Gordon-Cummings. Three miles farther +south is Relugas House, the favourite residence of Sir Thomas +Dick Lauder, romantically situated on a height near the confluence +of the Divie and the Findhorn. Not far away stand the +ruins of the old castle of Dunphail. On the left bank of the +Findhorn, 3½ m. W. of Forres, is situated Brodie Castle, partly +ancient and partly modern. The Brodies—the old name of +their estate was Brothie, from the Irish <i>broth</i>, a ditch, in allusion +to the trench that ran from the village of Dyke to the north of +the house—were a family of great consequence at the period +of the Covenant. Alexander Brodie (1617-1680), the fourteenth +laird, was one of the commissioners who went to the Hague to +treat with Charles II., and afterwards became a Scottish lord of +session and an English judge. He and his son were regarded +as amongst the staunchest of the Presbyterians. Farther south +is the forest of Darnaway, famous for its oaks, in which stands +the earl of Moray’s mansion of Darnaway Castle. It occupies +the site of the castle which was built by Thomas Randolph, +the first earl. Attached to it is the great hall, capable of accommodating +1000 men, with an open roof of fine dark oak, the only +remaining portion of the castle that was erected by Archibald +Douglas, earl of Moray, in 1450. Queen Mary held a council +in it in 1562. Earl Randolph’s chair, not unlike the coronation +chair, has been preserved. Kinloss Abbey, now in ruins, stands +some 2½ m. to the N.E. of Forres. It was founded in 1150 by +David I., and remained in the hands of the Cistercians till its +suppression at the Reformation. Robert Reid, who ruled from +1526 to 1540, was its greatest abbot. His hobby was gardening, +and it is believed that many of the 123 varieties of pears and 146 +varieties of apples for which the district is famous were due to +his skill and enterprise. Edward I. stayed in the abbey for a +short time in 1303 and Queen Mary spent two nights in it in +1562.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORREST, EDWIN<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1806-1872), American actor, was born +at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 9th of March 1806, of +Scottish and German descent. He made his first stage appearance +on the 27th of November 1820, at the Walnut Street theatre, in +Home’s <i>Douglas</i>. In 1826 he had a great success in New York +as Othello. He played at Drury Lane in the <i>Gladiator</i> in 1836, +but his Macbeth in 1845 was hissed by the English audience, and +his affront to Macready in Edinburgh shortly afterwards—when +he stood up in a private box and hissed him,—was fatal to his +popularity in Great Britain. His jealousy of Macready resulted +in the Astor Place riot in 1849. In 1837 he had married Catherine, +daughter of John Sinclair, an English singer, and his divorce +suit in 1852 was a <i>cause célèbre</i> which hurt his reputation and +soured his temper. His last appearance was as Richelieu in +Boston in 1871. He died on the 12th of December 1872. He +had amassed a large fortune, much of which he left by will to +found a home for aged actors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lawrence Barrett’s <i>Edwin Forrest</i> (Boston, 1881).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORREST, SIR JOHN<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1847-  ), West Australian statesman +and explorer, son of William Forrest, of Bunbury, West Australia, +was born near Bunbury, on the 22nd of August 1847, and +educated at Perth, W.A. In 1865 he became connected with +the Government Survey Department at Perth, and in 1869 led +an exploring expedition into the interior in search of D. Leichardt, +penetrating through bush and salt-marshes as far inland as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page673" id="page673"></a>673</span> +123° E. In 1870 he again made an expedition from Perth to +Adelaide, along the southern shores. In 1874, with his brother +Alexander Forrest (born 1849), he explored eastwards from +Champion Bay, following as far as possible the 26th parallel, +and striking the telegraph line between Adelaide and Port +Darwin; a distance of about 2000 m. was covered in about five +months with horses and without carriers, a particularly fine +achievement (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Australia</a></span>: <i>Exploration</i>). John Forrest also +surveyed in 1878 the north-western district between the rivers +Ashburton and Lady Grey, and in 1882 the Fitzroy district. +In 1876 he was made deputy surveyor-general, receiving the +thanks of the colony for his services and a grant of 5000 acres +of land; for a few months at the end of 1878 he acted as commissioner +of crown lands and surveyor-general, being given the +full appointment in 1883 and retaining it till 1890. When the +colony obtained in 1890 its constitution of self-government, +Sir John Forrest (who was made K.C.M.G. in 1891, and G.C.M.G. +in 1901) became its first premier, and he held that position till +in 1901 he joined the Commonwealth government, first as +minister for defence, later as minister for home affairs and +postmaster-general, resigning the office of federal treasurer in +July 1907. His influence in West Australia was one of an +almost autocratic character, owing to the robust vigour of his +personality and his success in enforcing his views (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Western +Australia</a></span>: <i>History</i>). In 1897 he was made a member of the +Privy Council. Sir John Forrest married in 1876 Margaret +Hamersley. He published <i>Explorations in Australia</i> (1876) and +<i>Notes on Western Australia</i> (1884-1887).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORREST, NATHAN BEDFORD<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1821-1877), Confederate +cavalry general in the American Civil War, was born near Chapel +Hill, Tennessee, on the 13th of July 1821. Before his father’s +death in 1837 the family had removed to Mississippi, and for +some years thereafter it was supported principally by Nathan, +who was the eldest son. Thus he never received any formal +education (as witnessed by the uncouth phraseology and spelling +of his war despatches), but he managed to teach himself with very +fair success, and is said to have possessed considerable ability +as a mathematician. He was in turn a horse and cattle trader in +Mississippi, and a slave dealer and horse trader in Memphis, until +1859, when he took to cotton planting in north-western Mississippi, +where he acquired considerable wealth. At the outbreak +of the Civil War in 1861 he volunteered as a private, raised a +cavalry battalion, of which he was lieut.-colonel, and in February +1862 took part in the defence of Fort Donelson, and refusing, like +Generals Floyd and Pillow, to capitulate with the rest of the +Confederate forces, made his way out, before the surrender, with +all the mounted troops there. He was promptly made a colonel +and regimental commander, and fought at Shiloh with distinction, +receiving a severe wound. Shortly after this he was promoted +brigadier-general (July 1862). At the head of a mounted brigade +he took a brilliant part in General Bragg’s autumn campaign, +and in the winter of 1862-1863 he was continually active in +raiding the hostile lines of communication. These raids have +been the theme of innumerable discussions, and on the whole +their value seems to have been overrated. At the same time, +and apart from the question of their utility, Forrest’s raids were +uniformly bold and skilful, and are his chief title to fame in the +history of the cavalry arm. Indeed, next to Stuart and Sheridan, +he was the finest cavalry leader of the whole war. One of the +most remarkable of his actions was his capture, near Rome, +Georgia, after five days of marching and fighting, of an entire +cavalry brigade under Colonel A.D. Streight (April 1863). He +was present at the battle of Chickamauga in September, after +which (largely on account of his criticism of General Bragg, the +army commander) he was transferred to the Mississippi. Forrest +was made a major-general in December 1863. In the winter of +1863-1864 he was as active as ever, and in the spring of 1864 he +raided as far north as Paducah, Ky. On the 12th of April 1864 +he assaulted and captured Fort Pillow, in Tennessee on the +Mississippi; U.S. negro troops formed a large part of the garrison +and according to survivors many were massacred after the fort +had surrendered. The “Massacre of Fort Pillow” has been the +subject of much controversy and there is much conflicting +testimony regarding it, but it seems probable that Forrest himself +had no part in it. On the 10th of June Forrest decisively defeated +a superior Federal force at Brice’s Cross Roads, Miss., and +throughout the year, though the greatest efforts were made by the +Federals to crush him, he raided in Mississippi, Tennessee and +Alabama with almost unvarying success. He was once more with +the main Confederate army of the West in the last disastrous +campaign of Nashville, and fought stubborn rearguard actions to +cover the retreat of the broken Confederates. In February 1865 +he was made a lieut.-general, but the struggle was almost at +an end and General James H. Wilson, one of the ablest of the +Union cavalry generals, rapidly forced back the few Confederates, +now under Forrest’s command, and stormed Selma, Alabama, +on the 2nd of April. The surrender of General Forrest and his +whole command, under the agreement between General Richard +Taylor and General E.S. Canby, followed on the 9th of May. +After the war he lived in Memphis. He sold his cotton plantation +in 1867, and for some years was president of the Selma, Marion +and Memphis Railroad. He died at Memphis, Tennessee, on the +29th of October 1877.</p> + +<p>The military character of General Forrest, apart from questions +of his technical skill, horsemastership and detail special to his +arm of the service, was admittedly that of a great leader. He +never commanded a large force of all arms. He was uneducated, +and had neither experience of nor training for the strategical +handling of great armies. Yet his personality and his natural +soldierly gifts were such that General Sherman considered him +“the most remarkable man the Civil War produced on either +side.” Joseph Johnston, the Confederate general whose greatness +lay above all in calm and critical judgment, said that Forrest, +had he had the advantage of a thorough military training, “would +have been the great central figure of the war.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the biographies by J.A. Wyeth (1899) and J.H. Mathes (1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORSKÅL, PETER<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1736-1763), Swedish traveller and +naturalist, was born in Kalmar in 1736. He studied at Göttingen, +where he published a dissertation entitled <i>Dubia de principiis +philosophiae recentioris</i> (1756). Thence he returned to his +native country, which, however, he had to leave after the publication +of a pamphlet entitled <i>Pensées sur la liberté civile</i> (1759). +By Linnaeus he was recommended to Frederick V. of Denmark, +who appointed him to accompany Carsten Niebuhr in an expedition +to Arabia and Egypt in 1761. He died of the plague at +Jerim in Arabia on the 11th of July 1763.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His friend and companion, Niebuhr, was entrusted with the +care of editing his MSS., and published in 1775 <i>Descriptiones +animalium, avium, amphibiorum, piscium, insectorum, vermium, +quae in itin. Orient. observavit Petrus Forskål</i>. In the same year +appeared also his account of the plants of Arabia Felix and of lower +Egypt, under the title of <i>Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORSSELL, HANS LUDVIG<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1843-1901), Swedish historian +and political writer, the son of Adolf Forssell, a distinguished +mathematician, was born at Gefle, where his father was professor, +on 14th January 1843. At the age of sixteen he became +a student in Upsala University, where he distinguished himself, +and where, in 1866, having taken the degree of doctor, he was +appointed reader in history. At the age of thirty, however, +Forssell, who had already shown remarkable business capacity, +was called to Stockholm, where he filled one important post +after another in the Swedish civil service. In 1875 he was +appointed head of the treasury, and in 1880 was transferred to +the department of inland revenue, of which he continued to be +president until the time of his death. In addition to the responsibilities +which these offices devolved upon him, Forssell +was constantly called to serve on royal commissions, and his +political influence was immense. In spite of all these public +duties, which he carried through with the utmost diligence, +Forssell also found leisure for an abundant literary activity. Of +his historical writings the most important were: <i>The Administrative +and Economical History of Sweden after Gustavus I.</i> +(1869-1875) and <i>Sweden in 1571</i> (1872). He was also for several +years, in company with the poet Wirsén, editor of the <i>Swedish +Literary Review</i>. He published two volumes of <i>Studies and</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page674" id="page674"></a>674</span> +<i>Criticisms</i> (1875, 1888). In the year 1881, at the death of the +historian Anders Fryxell, Forssell was elected to the vacant seat +on the Swedish Academy. The energy of Forssell was so great, +and he understood so little the economy of strength, that he +unquestionably overtaxed his vital force. His death, however, +which occurred with great suddenness on the 2nd of August 1901 +while he was staying at San Bernardino in Switzerland, was +wholly unexpected. There was little of the typical Swedish +urbanity in Forssell’s exterior manner, which was somewhat dry +and abrupt. Like many able men who have from early life +administered responsible public posts, there appeared a certain +want of sympathy in his demands upon others. His views were +distinct, and held with great firmness; for example, he was a +free-trader, and his consistent opposition to what he called “the +new system” had a considerable effect on Swedish policy. He +was not exactly an attractive man, but he was a capable, upright +and efficient public servant. In 1867 he married Miss Zulamith +Eneroth, a daughter of the well-known pomologist of Upsala; +she survived him, with two sons and two daughters.</p> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORST<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (originally <span class="sc">Forsta</span> or <span class="sc">Forste</span>), a town of Germany, +in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, on the Neisse, 44 m. +S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder. Pop. (1905) 33,757. It has two +Evangelical, a Roman Catholic and an Old Lutheran church; +there are two schools and two hospitals in the town. The chief +industry of Forst is the manufacture of cloth, but spinning, +dyeing and the making of artificial flowers are also carried on. +Founded in the 13th century, Forst passed in 1667 to the duke +of Saxe-Merseburg, becoming part of electoral Saxony in 1740. +It was ceded to Prussia in 1815.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORSTER, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1790-1872), French engraver, was +born at Locle in Neufchâtel, on the 22nd of August 1790. In +1805 he was apprenticed to an engraver in Paris, and he also +studied painting and engraving simultaneously in the École des +Beaux-Arts. His preference was ultimately fixed on the latter +art, and on his obtaining in 1814 the first “grand prix de gravure,” +the king of Prussia, who was then with the allies in Paris, +bestowed on him a gold medal, and a pension of 1500 francs for +two years. With the aid of this sum he pursued his studies in +Rome, where his attention was devoted chiefly to the works +of Raphael. In 1844 he succeeded Tardieu in the Academy. +He died at Paris on the 27th of June 1872. Forster occupied +the first position among the French engravers of his time, and +was equally successful in historical pieces and in portraits. +Among his works may be mentioned—The Three Graces, and +<i>La Vierge de la légende</i>, after Raphael; <i>La Vierge au bas-relief</i>, +after Leonardo da Vinci; Francis I. and Charles V., after Gros; +St Cecilia, after Paul Delaroche; Albert Dürer and Henry IV., +after Porbus; Wellington, after Gérard; and Queen Victoria, +after Winterhalter.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FÖRSTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1791-1868), German +historian and poet, was the second son of Karl Christoph Förster +(1751-1811), and consequently a brother of the painter, Ernest +Joachim Förster (1800-1885). Born at Münchengosserstadt on +the Saale on the 24th of September 1791, he received his early +education at Altenburg, and after a course of theology at Jena, +devoted some time to archaeology and the history of art. At +the outbreak of the War of Liberation in 1813, he joined the army, +quickly attaining the rank of captain; and by his war-songs +added to the national enthusiasm. On the conclusion of the +war he was appointed professor at the school of engineering and +artillery in Berlin, but on account of some democratic writings +he was dismissed from this office in 1817. He then became +connected with various journals until about 1829, when he +received an appointment at the royal museum in Berlin, with +the title of court councillor (<i>Hofrat</i>). He was the founder and +secretary of the <i>Wissenschaftlicher Kunstverein</i> in Berlin, and +died in Berlin on the 8th of November 1868. Förster’s principal +works are: <i>Beiträge zur neueren Kriegsgeschichte</i> (Berlin, 1816); +<i>Grundzüge der Geschichte des preussischen Staates</i> (Berlin, 1818); +<i>Der Feldmarschall Blücher und seine Umgebungen</i> (Leipzig, +1820); <i>Friedrich der Grosse, Jugendjahre, Bildung und Geist</i> +(Berlin, 1822); <i>Albrecht von Wallenstein</i> (Potsdam, 1834); +<i>Friedrich Wilhelm I., König von Preussen</i> (Potsdam, 1834-1835); +<i>Die Höfe und Kabinette Europas im 18. Jahrhundert</i> (Potsdam, +1836-1839); <i>Leben und Taten Friedrichs des Grossen</i> (Meissen, +1840-1841); <i>Wallensteins Prozess</i> (Leipzig, 1844); and <i>Preussens +Helden in Krieg und Frieden, neuere und neueste preussische +Geschichte</i>, 7 volumes (Berlin, 1849-1860). The three concluding +volumes of this work contain the history of the war of liberation +of 1813-14-15. He brought out an edition of Hegel’s works, +adapted several of Shakespeare’s plays for the theatre, wrote a +number of poems and an historical drama, <i>Gustav Adolf</i> (Berlin, +1832).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Many of his lesser writings were collected and published as +<i>Kriegslieder, Romanzen, Erzählungen und Legenden</i> (Berlin, 1838). +The beginning of an autobiography of Förster, edited by H. Kletke, +has been published under the title, <i>Kunst und Leben</i> (Berlin, 1873).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1754-1794), German +traveller and author, was born at Nassenhuben, a small village +near Danzig, on the 27th of November 1754. His father, Johann +Reinhold Forster, a man of great scientific attainments but an +intractable temper, was at that time pastor of the place; the +family are said to have been of Scottish extraction. In 1765 the +elder Forster was commissioned by the empress Catherine +to inspect the Russian colonies in the province of Saratov, +which gave his son an opportunity of acquiring the Russian +language and the elements of a scientific education. After a +few years the father quarrelled with the Russian government, +and went to England, where he obtained a professorship of +natural history and the modern languages at the famous non-conformist +academy at Warrington. His violent temper soon +compelled him to resign this appointment, and for two years +he and his son earned a precarious livelihood by translations in +London—a practical education, however, exceedingly useful +to the younger Forster, who became a thorough master of +English, and acquired many of the ideas which chiefly influenced +his subsequent life. At length the turning point in his career +came in the shape of an invitation for him and his father to +accompany Captain Cook in his third voyage round the world. +Such an expedition was admirably calculated to call forth +Forster’s peculiar powers. His account of Cook’s voyage +(<i>A Voyage round the World</i>, London, 1777; in German, Berlin, +1778-1780), is almost the first example of the glowing yet +faithful description of natural phenomena which has since +made a knowledge of them the common property of the educated +world. The publication of this work was, however, impeded for +some time by differences with the admiralty, during which +Forster proceeded to the continent to obtain an appointment +for his father as professor at Cassel, and found to his surprise +that it was conferred upon himself. The elder Forster, however, +was soon provided for elsewhere, being appointed professor +of natural history at Halle. At Cassel Forster formed an intimate +friendship with the great anatomist Sömmerring, and about +the same time made the acquaintance of Jacobi, who gave him +a leaning towards mysticism from which he <span class="correction" title="amended from subequently">subsequently</span> +emancipated himself. The want of books and scientific apparatus +at Cassel induced him to resort frequently to Göttingen, where +he became betrothed to Therese Heyne, the daughter of the +illustrious philologist, a clever and cultivated woman, but ill-suited +to be Forster’s wife. To be able to marry he accepted +(1784) a professorship at the university of Wilna, which he did +not find to his taste. The penury and barbarism of Polish +circumstances are graphically described in his and his wife’s +letters of this period. After a few years’ residence at Wilna he +resigned his appointment to participate in a scientific expedition +projected by the Russian government, and upon the relinquishment +of this undertaking became librarian to the elector of +Mainz. He actively promoted the incorporation of the left +bank of the Rhine with France and in 1793 went to Paris to +carry on the negotiations. Meanwhile, however, the Germans +seized Mainz, and Forster—already disheartened by the turn +of events in France—was cut off from all return. Domestic +sorrows were added to his political troubles and he died suddenly +at Paris on the 10th of January 1794.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page675" id="page675"></a>675</span></p> + +<p>Forster’s masterpiece is his <i>Ansichten vom Niederrhein, von +Brabant, Flandern, Holland, England und Frankreich</i> (1791-1794), +one of the ablest books of travel of the 18th century. +His style is clear and vivid; his method of describing what +he sees extraordinarily plastic; above all, he has the art of presenting +objects to us from their most interesting and attractive +side. The same qualities are also more or less conspicuous in +his minor writings. By his translation (from the English) of the +<i>Sakuntala</i> of Kalidasa (1791), he first awakened German interest +in Indian literature.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Forster’s <i>Sämtliche Werke</i> appeared at Leipzig in 9 vols. in 1843. +The <i>Ansichten vom Rhein</i>, &c., has been frequently reprinted (best +edition by A. Leitzmann, Halle, 1893); Leitzmann has also published +(Stuttgart, 1894) a selection of Forster’s <i>Kleine Schriften</i>, +which originally appeared in 6 vols. (1789-1797). His correspondence +was published by his wife (2 vols., Leipzig, 1829); his <i>Briefwechsel +mit Sömmerring</i> by H. Hettner (Brunswick, 1877). See +J. Moleschott, <i>G. Forster, der Naturforscher des Volks</i> (1854; 3rd +ed., 1874); K. Klein, <i>G. Forster in Mainz</i> (Gotha, 1863); A. Leitzmann, +<i>G. Forster</i> (Vorlesung) (Halle, 1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORSTER, JOHN<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1812-1876), English biographer and critic, +was born on the 2nd of April 1812 at Newcastle. His father, +who was a Unitarian and belonged to the junior branch of a +good Northumberland family, was a cattle-dealer. After being +well grounded in classics and mathematics at the grammar school +of his native town, John Forster was sent in 1828 to Cambridge, +but after only a month’s residence he removed to London, where +he attended classes at University College, and was entered at the +Inner Temple. He devoted himself, however, chiefly to literary +pursuits. He contributed to <i>The True Sun, The Morning +Chronicle</i> and to <i>The Examiner</i>, for which he acted as literary +and dramatic critic; and the influence of his powerful individuality +soon made itself felt. His <i>Lives of the Statesmen of +the Commonwealth</i> (1836-1839) appeared partly in Lardner’s +Cyclopaedia. He published the work separately in 1840 with +a <i>Treatise on the Popular Progress in English History</i>. Its +merits obtained immediate recognition, and Forster became +a prominent figure in that distinguished circle of literary men +which included Bulwer, Talfourd, Albany, Fonblanque, Landor, +Carlyle and Dickens. Forster is said to have been for some time +engaged to Letitia Landon, but the engagement was broken off, +and Miss Landon married George Maclean. In 1843 he was +called to the bar but he never became a practising lawyer. +For some years he edited the <i>Foreign Quarterly Review</i>; in 1846, +on the retirement of Charles Dickens, he took charge for some +months of the <i>Daily News</i>; and from 1847 to 1856 he edited the +<i>Examiner</i>. From 1836 onwards he contributed to the <i>Edinburgh +Quarterly</i> and <i>Foreign Quarterly</i> Reviews a variety of articles, +some of which were republished in two volumes of <i>Biographical +and Historical Essays</i> (1858). In 1848 appeared his admirable +<i>Life and Times of Oliver Goldsmith</i> (revised in 1854). Continuing +his researches into English history under the early Stuarts, he +published in 1860 the <i>Arrest of the Five Members by Charles I.—A +Chapter of English History rewritten</i>, and <i>The Debates on the +Grand Remonstrance, with an Introductory Essay on English +Freedom</i>. These were followed by his <i>Sir John Eliot: a Biography</i> +(1864), elaborated from one of his earlier studies for the +<i>Lives of Eminent British Statesmen</i>. In 1868 appeared his <i>Life +of Landor</i>, and, on the death of his friend Alexander Dyce, +Forster undertook the publication of his third edition of Shakespeare. +For several years he had been collecting materials for +a life of Swift, but he interrupted his studies in this direction +to write his standard <i>Life of Charles Dickens</i>. He had long been +intimate with the novelist, and it is by this work that John +Forster is now chiefly remembered. The first volume appeared +in 1872, and the biography was completed in 1874. Towards the +close of 1875 the first volume of his <i>Life of Swift</i> was published; +and he had made some progress in the preparation of the second +at the time of his death on the 2nd of February 1876. In 1855 +Forster had been appointed secretary to the lunacy commission, +and from 1861 to 1872 he held the office of a commissioner in +lunacy. His valuable collection of manuscripts, including the +original copies of Charles Dickens’s novels, together with his +books and pictures, was bequeathed to South Kensington +Museum.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An admirable account of him by Henry Morley is prefixed to the +official handbook (1877) of the Dyce and Forster bequests.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORSTER, JOHN COOPER<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1823-1886), British surgeon, was +born in 1823 in Lambeth, London, where his father and grandfather +before him had been local medical practitioners. He entered +Guy’s hospital in 1841, was appointed demonstrator of anatomy +in 1850, assistant-surgeon, 1855, and surgeon, 1870. He became +a member of the College of Surgeons in 1844, fellow in 1849 and +president in 1884. He was a prompt and sometimes bold operator. +In 1858 he performed practically the first gastrostomy in England +for a case of cancer of the oesophagus. Among his best-known +papers were discussions of acupressure, syphilis, hydrophobia, +intestinal obstruction, modified obturator hernia, torsion, and +colloid cancer of the large intestine; and he published a book +on <i>Surgical Diseases of Children</i> in 1860, founded on his experience +as surgeon to the hospital for children and women in +Waterloo Road. He died suddenly in London on the 2nd of +March 1886.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1818-1886), British statesman, +was born of Quaker parents at Bradpole in Dorsetshire +on the 11th of July 1818. He was educated at the Friends’ +school at Tottenham, where his father’s family had long been +settled, and on leaving school he was put into business. He +declined, however, on principle, to enter a brewery. Becoming +in due time a woollen manufacturer in a large way at Bradford, +Yorkshire (from which after his marriage he moved to Burley-in-Wharfedale), +he soon made himself known as a practical philanthropist. +In 1846-1847 he accompanied his father to Ireland +as distributor of the Friends’ relief fund for the famine in +Connemara, and the state of the country made a deep impression +on him. In 1849 he wrote a preface to a new edition of Clarkson’s +<i>Life of William Penn</i>, defending the Quaker statesman against +Macaulay’s criticisms. In 1850 he married Jane Martha, eldest +daughter of the famous Dr Arnold of Rugby. She was not a +Quaker, and her husband was formally excommunicated for +marrying her, but the Friends who were commissioned to +announce the sentence “shook hands and stayed to luncheon.” +Forster thereafter ranked himself as a member of the Church of +England, for which, indeed, he was in later life charged with +having too great a partiality. There were no children of the +marriage, but when Mrs Forster’s brother, William Arnold, died +in 1859, leaving four orphans, the Forsters adopted them as +their own.</p> + +<p>One of these children was Mr H.O. Arnold-Forster (1855-1909), +the well-known Liberal-Unionist member of parliament, +who eventually became a member of Mr Balfour’s cabinet; he +was secretary to the admiralty (1900-1903), and then secretary +of state for war (1903-1905), and was the author of numerous +educational books published by Cassell & Co., of which firm he +was a director.</p> + +<p>W.E. Forster gradually began to take an active part in public +affairs by speaking and lecturing. In 1858 he gave a lecture +before the Leeds Philosophical Institution on “How we Tax +India.” In 1859 he stood as Liberal candidate for Leeds, but +was beaten. But he was highly esteemed in the West Riding, +and in 1861 he was returned unopposed for Bradford. In 1865 +(unopposed) and in 1868 (at the head of the poll) he was again +returned. He took a prominent part in parliament in the debates +on the American Civil War, and in 1868 was made under-secretary +for the colonies in Earl Russell’s ministry. It was then +that he first became a prominent advocate of imperial federation. +In 1866 his attitude on parliamentary reform attracted a good +deal of attention. His speeches were full of knowledge of the +real condition of the people, and contained something like an +original programme of Radical legislation. “We have other +things to do,” he said, “besides extending the franchise. We +want to make Ireland loyal and contented; we want to get rid +of pauperism in this country; we want to fight against a class +which is more to be dreaded than the holders of a £7 franchise—I +mean the dangerous class in our large towns. We want to see +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page676" id="page676"></a>676</span> +whether we cannot make for the agricultural labourer some +better hope than the workhouse in his old age. We want to have +Old England as well taught as New England.” In these words +he heralded the education campaign which occupied the country +for so many years afterwards. Directly the Reform Bill had +passed, the necessity of “inducing our masters to learn their +letters” (in Robert Lowe’s phrase) became pressing. Mr +Forster and Mr Cardwell, as private members in opposition, +brought in Education Bills in 1867 and 1868; and in 1868, when +the Liberal party returned to office, Mr Forster was appointed +vice-president of the council, with the duty of preparing a +government measure for national education. The Elementary +Education Bill (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Education</a></span>) was introduced on the 17th of +February 1870. The religious difficulty at once came to the front. +The Manchester Education Union and the Birmingham Education +League had already formulated in the provinces the two opposing +theories, the former standing for the preservation of denominational +interests, the latter advocating secular rate-aided education +as the only means of protecting Nonconformity against the +Church. The Dissenters were by no means satisfied with Forster’s +“conscience clause” as contained in the bill, and they regarded +him, the ex-Quaker, as a deserter from their own side; while +they resented the “25th clause,” permitting school boards to +pay the fees of needy children at denominational schools out of +the rates, as an insidious attack upon themselves. By the 14th +of March, when the second reading came on, the controversy +had assumed threatening proportions; and Mr Dixon, the +Liberal member for Birmingham and chairman of the Education +League, moved an amendment, the effect of which was to +prohibit all religious education in board schools. The government +made its rejection a question of confidence, and the amendment +was withdrawn; but the result was the insertion of the +Cowper-Temple clause as a compromise before the bill passed. +Extremists on both sides abused Forster, but the government +had a difficult set of circumstances to deal with, and he acted +like a prudent statesman in contenting himself with what he +could get. An ideal bill was impracticable; it is to Forster’s +enduring credit that the bill of 1870, imperfect as it was, established +at last some approach to a system of national education +in England without running absolutely counter to the most +cherished English ideas and without ignoring the principal +agencies already in existence.</p> + +<p>Forster’s next important work was in passing the Ballot Act +of 1872, but for several years afterwards his life was uneventful. +In 1874 he was again returned for Bradford, in spite of Dissenting +attacks, and he took his full share of the work of the Opposition +Front Bench. In 1875, when Mr Gladstone “retired,” he was +strongly supported for the leadership of the Liberal party, but +declined to be nominated against Lord Harrington. In the same +year he was elected F.R.S., and made lord rector of Aberdeen +University. In 1876, when the Eastern question was looming +large, he visited Servia and Turkey, and his subsequent speeches +on the subject were marked by studious moderation, distasteful +to extremists on both sides. On Mr Gladstone’s return to office +in 1880 he was made chief secretary for Ireland, with Lord +Cowper as lord-lieutenant. He carried the Compensation for +Disturbance Bill through the Commons, only to see it thrown +out in the Lords, and his task was made more difficult by the +agitation which arose in consequence. During the gloomy +autumn and winter of 1880-1881 Forster’s energy and devotion +in grappling with the situation in Ireland (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ireland</a></span>) were +indefatigable, his labour was enormous, and the personal risks +he ran were many; but he enjoyed the Irish character in spite +of all obstacles, and inspired genuine admiration in all his +coadjutors. On the 24th of January 1881 he introduced a new +Coercion Bill in the House of Commons, to deal with the growth of +the Land League, and in the course of his speech declared it to be +“the most painful duty” he had ever had to perform, and one +which would have prevented his accepting his office if he had +known that it would fall upon him. The bill passed, among its +provisions being one enabling the Irish government to arrest +without trial persons “reasonably suspected” of crime and +conspiracy. The Irish party used every opportunity in and out +of parliament for resenting this act, and Forster was kept constantly +on the move between Dublin and London, conducting +his campaign against crime and anarchy and defending it in +the House of Commons. His scrupulous conscientiousness and +anxiety to meet every reasonable claim availed him nothing +with such antagonists, and the strain was intense and continuous. +He was nicknamed “Buckshot” by the Nationalist press, on +the supposition that he had ordered its use by the police when +firing on a crowd. On the 13th of October Mr Parnell was +arrested, and on the 20th the Land League was proclaimed. +From that time Forster’s life was in constant danger, and he +had to be escorted by mounted police when he drove in Dublin. +Early in March 1882 he visited some of the worst districts in +Ireland, and addressed the crowd at Tullamore on the subject +of outrages, denouncing the people for their want of courage in +not assisting the government, but adding, “whether you do or +not, it is the duty of the government to stop the outrages, and +stop them we will.” Forster’s pluck in speaking out like this +was fully appreciated in England, but it was not till after the +revelations connected with the Phoenix Park murders that the +dangers he had confronted were properly realized, and it became +known that several plans to murder him had only been frustrated +by the merest accidents. On the 2nd of May Mr Gladstone +announced that the government intended to release Mr Parnell +and his fellow-prisoners in Kilmainham, and that both Lord +Cowper and Mr Forster had in consequence resigned; and +the following Saturday Forster’s successor, Lord Frederick +Cavendish, was, with Mr Burke, murdered in Phoenix Park. It +was characteristic of the man that Forster at once offered to go +back to Dublin temporarily as chief secretary, but the offer was +declined. His position naturally attracted universal attention +towards him, particularly during the debates which ensued in +parliament on the “Kilmainham Treaty.” But Mr Gladstone’s +influence with the Liberal party was paramount, in spite of the +damaging appearance of the compact made with Parnell, and +Forster’s pointed criticisms only caused thoroughgoing partisans +to accuse him of a desire to avenge himself. It was not till the +next session that he delivered his fiercest attack on Parnell in +the debate on the address, denouncing him for his connexion with +the Land League, and quoting against him the violent speeches +of his supporters and the articles of his newspaper organs. It +was on this occasion that Parnell, on Forster’s charging him, +not with directly planning or perpetrating outrages or murder, +but with conniving at them, ejaculated “It’s a lie”; and, +replying on the next day, the Irish leader, instead of disproving +Forster’s charges, bitterly denounced his methods of administration. +Though, during the few remaining years of his life, +Forster’s political record covered various interesting subjects, +his connexion with these stormy times in Ireland throws them +all into shadow. He died on the 6th of April 1886, on the eve +of the introduction of the Home Rule Bill, to which he was +stoutly opposed. In the interval there had been other questions +on which he found himself at variance with Gladstonian Liberalism, +for instance, as regards the Sudan and the Transvaal, nor +was he inclined to stomach the claims of the Caucus or the +Birmingham programme. When the Redistribution Act divided +Bradford into three constituencies, Forster was returned for the +central division, but he never took his seat in the new parliament.</p> + +<p>Forster, like John Bright, was an excellent representative +of the English middle-class in public life. Patriotic, energetic, +independent, incorruptible, shrewd, fair-minded, he was endowed +not only with great sympathy with progress, but also with a full +faculty for resistance to mere democraticism. He was tall (the +Yorkshiremen called him “Long Forster”) and strongly though +stiffly built, and, with his simple tastes and straightforward +manners and methods, was a typical North-country figure. +His oratory was rough and unpolished, but full of freshness and +force and genuine feeling. It was Forster who, when appealing +to the government at the time of Gordon’s danger at Khartum, +spoke of Mr Gladstone as able “to persuade most people of most +things, and himself of almost anything,” and though the phrase +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page677" id="page677"></a>677</span> +was much resented by Mr Gladstone’s <i>entourage</i>, the truth that +underlay it may be taken as representing the very converse of +his own character. His personal difficulties with some of his +colleagues, both in regard to the Education Act of 1870 and his +Irish administration, must be properly understood if a complete +comprehension of his political career is to be obtained. For an +account of them we need only refer to the <i>Life of the Right Hon. +W.E. Forster</i>, by Sir T. Wemyss Reid.</p> +<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORSYTH, PETER TAYLOR<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1848-  ), British Nonconformist +divine, was born at Aberdeen in 1848. He took first-class +honours in classics at Aberdeen, subsequently studied at Göttingen +(under Ritschl) and at New College, Hampstead, and +entered the Congregational ministry. Having held pastorates +at Shipley, Hackney, Manchester, Leicester and Cambridge, he +became principal of Hackney Theological College, Hampstead, +in 1901. In 1907 he delivered the Lyman Beecher lectures on +preaching at Yale University, published as <i>Positive Preaching and +Modern Mind</i>. Among his other publications may be mentioned +<i>Religion in Recent Art</i>, and articles in the <i>Contemporary Review</i>, +<i>Hibbert Journal</i>, and <i>London Quarterly</i>. He was chairman of the +Congregational Union of England and Wales in 1905.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORTALEZA<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (usually called <span class="sc">Ceará</span> by foreigners), a city +and port of Brazil and the capital of the state of Ceará, on a +crescent-shaped indentation of the coast-line immediately W. +of Cape Mucuripe or Mocoripe, 7½ m. from the mouth of the +Ceará river, in lat. 3° 42′ S., long. 38° 30′ W. Pop. (1890) of the +municipality, including a large rural district, 40,902. The city +stands on an open sandy plain overlooking the sea, and is +regularly laid out, with broad, well-paved, gas-lighted streets +and numerous squares. Owing to the aridity of the climate +the vegetation is less luxuriant than in most Brazilian cities. +The temperature is usually high, but it is modified by the strong +sea winds. Fortaleza has suffered much from epidemics of +yellow-fever, small-pox and beri-beri, but the climate is considered +to be healthy. A small branch of the Ceará river, called +the Pajehú, traverses the city and divides it into two parts, +that on its right bank being locally known as Outeiro. Fortaleza +is the see of a bishopric, created in 1854, but it has no cathedral, +one of its ten churches being used for that purpose. Its public +buildings include the government house, legislative chambers, +bishop’s palace, an episcopal seminary, a lyceum (high school), +Misericordia hospital, and asylums for mendicants and the +insane. The custom-house stands nearer the seashore, 1¾ m. +from the railway station in the city, with which it is connected +by rail. The port is the principal outlet for the products of the +state, but its anchorage is an open roadstead, one of the most +dangerous on the northern coast of Brazil, and all ships are +compelled to anchor well out from shore and discharge into +lighters. Port improvements designed by the eminent engineer +Sir John Hawkshaw have been under construction for many +years, but have made very slow progress. The Baturité railway, +built by the national government partly to give employment +to starving refugees in times of long-continued droughts, connects +the city and its port with fertile regions to the S.W., and extends +to Senador Pompeu, 178 m. distant. The exports include sugar, +coffee, rubber, cotton, rum, rice, beans, fruits, hides and +skins.</p> + +<p>Fortaleza had its origin in a small village adjoining a fort +established at this point in early colonial times. In 1654 it took +the name of Villa do Forte da Assumpçã, but it was generally +spoken of as Fortaleza. In 1810 it became the capital of Ceará, +and in 1823 it was raised to the dignity of a city under the title +of Fortaleza da Nova Bragança.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORT AUGUSTUS<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span>, a village of Inverness-shire, Scotland. +Pop. (1901) 706. It is delightfully situated at the south-western +extremity of Loch Ness, about 30 m. S.W. of Inverness, on the +rivers Oich and Tarff and the Caledonian Canal. A branch line +connects with Spean Bridge on the West Highland railway via +Invergarry. The fort, then called Kilchumin, was built in 1716 +for the purpose of keeping the Highlanders in check, and was +enlarged in 1730 by General Wade. It was captured by the +Jacobites in 1745, but reoccupied after the battle of Culloden, +when it received its present name in honour of William Augustus, +duke of Cumberland, the victorious general. The fort was used +as a sanatorium until 1857, when it was bought by the 12th Lord +Lovat, whose son presented it in 1876 to the English order of +Benedictines. Within four years there rose upon its site a pile +of stately buildings under the title of St Benedict’s Abbey and +school, a monastic and collegiate institution intended for the +higher education of the sons of the Roman Catholic nobility and +gentry. The series of buildings consists of the college, monastery, +hospice and scriptorium—the four forming a quadrangle connected +by beautiful cloisters. Amongst its benefactors were +many Catholic Scots and English peers and gentlemen whose +arms are emblazoned on the windows of the spacious refectory +hall. The summit of the college tower is 110 ft. high.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORT DODGE,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Webster county, +Iowa, U.S.A., on the Des Moines river, 85 m. (by rail) N. by W. +from Des Moines. Pop. (1890) 4871; (1900) 12,162; (1905, state +census) 14,369, (2269 being foreign-born); (1910) 15,543. It is +served by the Illinois Central, the Chicago Great Western, the +Minneapolis & Saint Louis, and the Fort Dodge, Des Moines & +Southern railways, the last an electric interurban line. Eureka +Springs and Wild Cat Cave are of interest to visitors, and +attractive scenery is furnished by the river and its bordering +bluffs. The river is here spanned by the Chicago Great Western +railway steel bridge, or viaduct, one of the longest in the country. +Fort Dodge is the seat of Tobin College (420 students in 1907-1908), +a commercial and business school, with preparatory, +normal and classical departments, and courses in oratory and +music; among its other institutions are St Paul’s school +(Evangelical Lutheran), two Roman Catholic schools, Corpus +Christi Academy and the Sacred Heart school, Our Lady of +Lourdes convent and a Carnegie library. Oleson Park and +Reynold’s Park are the city’s principal parks. Immediately +surrounding Fort Dodge is a rich farming country. To the E. +of the city lies a gypsum bed, extending over an area of about +50 sq. m., and considered to be the most valuable in the United +States; to the S. coal abounds; there are also limestone quarries +and deposits of clay in the vicinity—the clay being, for the most +part, obtained by mining. Fort Dodge is a market for the products +of the surrounding country, and is a shipping centre of considerable +importance. It has various manufactures, including +gypsum, plaster, oatmeal, brick and tile, sewer pipe, pottery, +foundry and machine-shop products, and shoes. In 1905 the +value of all the factory products was $3,025,659, an increase +of 200.8% over that for 1900. Fort Clark was erected +on the site in 1850 to protect settlers against the Indians; in +1851 the name was changed by order of the secretary of war to +Fort Dodge in honour of Colonel Henry Dodge (1782-1867), +who was a lieutenant-colonel of Missouri Volunteers in the War +of 1812, served with distinction as a colonel of Michigan Mounted +Volunteers in the Black Hawk War, resigned from the military +service in March 1833, was governor of Wisconsin Territory +from 1836 to 1841 and from 1846 to 1848, and was a delegate +from Wisconsin Territory to Congress from 1841 to 1845, and a +United States senator from Wisconsin in 1848-1857. The fort +was abandoned in 1853, and in 1854 a town was laid out. +It was chartered as a city in 1869. From the gypsum beds +near Fort Dodge was taken in 1868 the block of gypsum from +which was modelled the “Cardiff Giant,” a rudely-fashioned +human figure, which was buried near Cardiff, Onondaga county, +New York, where it was “discovered” late in 1869. It was +then exhibited in various parts of the country as a “petrified +man.” The hoax was finally exposed by Professor Othniel C. +Marsh of Yale; and George Hall of Binghamton, N.Y., confessed +to the fraud, his object having been to discredit belief in the +“giants” of Genesis vi. 4. (See “The Cardiff Giant: the True +Story of a Remarkable Deception,” by Andrew D. White, in +the <i>Century Magazine</i>, vol. xlii., 1902.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORT EDWARD,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a village of Washington county, New York, +U.S.A., in the township of Fort Edward, on the Hudson river, +56 m. by rail N. of Albany. Pop. of the village (1900) 3521, of +whom 385 were foreign-born; (1905) 3806; (1910) 3762; of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page678" id="page678"></a>678</span> +the township, including the village (1900), 5216; (1905), 5300; +(1910), 5740. The village lies mostly at the foot of a steep hill, +is at the junction of the main line and the Glens Falls branch +of the Delaware & Hudson railway, and is also served by electric +line to Albany and Glens Falls; the barge canal connecting +Lake Champlain and the Hudson river enters the Hudson here. +The river furnishes good water-power, which is used in the +manufacture of paper and wood pulp, the leading industry. +Shirts and pottery (flower pots, jars and drain tile) are manufactured +also. The village is the seat of the Fort Edward +Collegiate Institute, a non-sectarian school for girls, which was +founded in 1854 and until 1893 was coeducational. The village +owns and operates the waterworks. Indian war parties on their +way to Canada were accustomed to make a portage from this +place, the head of navigation for small boats on the Hudson, +to Lake George or Lake Champlain, and hence it was known +as the Great Carrying Place. Governor (afterwards Sir) Francis +Nicholson in 1709, in his expedition against Canada, built +here a stockade which was named Fort Nicholson. Some years +afterwards John Henry Lydius (1693-1791) established a +settlement and protected it by a new fort, named Fort Lydius, +but this was destroyed by the French and Indians in 1745. In +1755, a third fort was built by General Phineas Lyman (1716-1774), +as preliminary to the expedition against Crown Point +under General William Johnson, and was named Fort Lyman; +in 1756 Johnson renamed it Fort Edward in honour of Edward, +Duke of York. In the War for Independence Fort Edward was +the headquarters of General Philip Schuyler while he and his +troops were blocking the march of General Burgoyne’s army +from Fort Ticonderoga. When a part of Burgoyne’s forces was +distant only 3 or 4 m. from Fort Edward, on Fort Edward Hill, +on the 27th of July 1777, the leader of an Indian band whose +assistance the British had sought is supposed to have murdered +Jane McCrea (<i>c.</i> 1757-1777), a young-girl who had been visiting +friends in Fort Edward, and who was to be escorted on that day +to the British camp and there to be married to David Jones, a +loyalist serving as a lieutenant in Burgoyne’s army; it is possible +that she was shot accidentally by Americans pursuing her Indian +escorts, but her death did much to rouse local sentiment against +Burgoyne and his Indian allies, and caused many volunteers to +join the American army resisting Burgoyne’s invasion. A +monument has been erected by the Jane McCrea Chapter of the +Daughters of the American Revolution near the spot where she +was killed, and she is buried in Union Cemetery in Fort Edward. +Fort Edward township was erected in 1818 from a part of the +township of Argyle. Fort Edward village was incorporated +in 1852.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R.O. Bascom, <i>The Fort Edward Book</i> (Fort Edward, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1394-<i>c.</i> 1476), English lawyer, +the second son of Sir John Fortescue, of an ancient family in +Devonshire, was born at Norris, near South Brent, in Somersetshire. +He was educated at Exeter College, Oxford. During the +reign of Henry VI. he was three times appointed one of the +governors of Lincoln’s Inn. In 1441 he was made a king’s +sergeant at law, and in the following year chief justice of the +king’s bench. As a judge Fortescue is highly recommended for +his wisdom, gravity and uprightness; and he seems to have +enjoyed great favour with the king, who is said to have given +him some substantial proofs of esteem and regard. He held his +office during the remainder of the reign of Henry VI., to whom +he steadily adhered; and having faithfully served that unfortunate +monarch in all his troubles, he was attainted of treason +in the first parliament of Edward IV. When Henry subsequently +fled into Scotland, he is supposed to have appointed Fortescue, +who appears to have accompanied him in his flight, chancellor +of England. In 1463 Fortescue accompanied Queen Margaret +and her court in their exile on the Continent, and returned with +them afterwards to England. During their wanderings abroad +the chancellor wrote for the instruction of the young prince +Edward his celebrated work <i>De laudibus legum Angliae</i>. On +the defeat of the Lancastrian party he made his submission +to Edward IV., from whom he received a general pardon dated +Westminster, October 13, 1471. He died at an advanced age, +but the exact date of his death has not been ascertained.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fortescue’s masterly vindication of the laws of England, though +received with great favour by the learned of the profession to whom +it was communicated, did not appear in print until the reign of +Henry VIII., when it was published, but without a date. It was +subsequently many times reprinted. Another valuable and learned +work by Fortescue, written in English, was published in 1714, under +the title of <i>The Difference between an Absolute and a Limited Monarchy</i>. +In the Cotton library there is a manuscript of this work, in the title +of which it is said to have been addressed to Henry VI.; but many +passages show plainly that it was written in favour of Edward IV. +A revised edition of this work, with a very valuable historical and +biographical introduction, was published in 1885 by Charles Plummer, +under the title <i>The Governance of England</i>. All of Fortescue’s minor +writings appear in <i>The Works of Sir John Fortescue, now first Collected +and Arranged</i>, published in 1869 for private circulation, by his +descendant, Lord Clermont.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Plummer’s Introduction to <i>The Governance of +England</i>; <i>Life</i> in Lord Clermont’s edition; Gairdner’s <i>Paston +Letters</i>; Foss’s <i>Lives of the Judges</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1531-1607), English statesman, +was the eldest son of Sir Adrian Fortescue (executed in 1539), +and of his second wife, Anne, daughter of Sir William Reade or +Rede of Borstall in Buckinghamshire. The exact date of his +birth is unrecorded.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> He was restored in blood and to his +estate at Shirburn in Oxfordshire in 1551. Through his father’s +mother, Alice, daughter of Sir Geoffrey Boleyn, he was a second +cousin once removed from Queen Elizabeth. He acquired early +a considerable reputation as a scholar and was chosen to direct +the Princess Elizabeth’s classical studies in Mary’s reign. On +the accession of Elizabeth he was appointed keeper of the great +wardrobe. He was returned in 1572 to parliament for Wallingford, +in 1586 for Buckingham borough, in 1588 and 1597 for +Buckingham county, and in 1601 for Middlesex. In 1589 he +was appointed chancellor of the exchequer and a member of +the privy council. In 1592 he was knighted, and in November +1601, in addition to his two great offices, he received that of +chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. By means of his lucrative +employments he amassed great wealth, with which he bought +large estates in Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire, and kept up +much state and a large household. He took a prominent part +in public business, was a member of the court of the star chamber +and an ecclesiastical commissioner, sat on various important +commissions, and as chancellor of the exchequer explained the +queen’s financial needs and proposed subsidies in parliament. +On the death of Elizabeth he suggested that certain restrictions +should be imposed on James’s powers, in order probably to limit +the appointment of Scotchmen to office,<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> but his advice was not +followed. He was deprived by James of the chancellorship of +the exchequer, but evidently did not forfeit his favour, as he +retained his two other offices and entertained James several +times at Henden and Salden. In 1604 Sir John, who stood for +Buckinghamshire, was defeated by Sir Francis Goodwin, whose +election, however, was declared void by the lord chancellor on the +ground of a sentence of outlawry under which he lay, and +Fortescue was by a second election returned in his place. This +incident gave rise to a violent controversy, regarding the chancellor’s +jurisdiction in deciding disputed elections to parliament, +which was repudiated by the Commons but maintained by the +king. The matter after much debate was ended by a compromise, +which, while leaving the principle unsettled, set aside the elections +of both candidates and provided for the issue of a new writ. +Fortescue was then in February 1606 returned for Middlesex, +which he represented till his death on the 23rd of December 1607. +He was buried in Mursley church in Buckinghamshire, where a +monument was erected to his memory. His long public career +was highly honourable, and he served his sovereign and country +with unswerving fidelity and honesty. His learned attainments +too were considerable—Camden styles him “vir integer, Graece, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page679" id="page679"></a>679</span> +Latineque apprime eruditus,”<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and his scholarship is also praised +by Lloyd, while his friendship with Sir Thomas Bodley procured +gifts of books and manuscripts to the latter’s library. Fortescue +married (1) Cecily, daughter of Sir Edmund Ashfield of Ewelme, +by whom, besides a daughter, he had two sons, Sir Francis and +Sir William; and (2) Alice, daughter of Christopher Smyth +of Annabels in Hertfordshire, by whom he had one daughter. +His descent in the male line became extinct with the death of +Sir John Fortescue, 3rd baronet, in 1717.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Article in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biography</i>; Lord +Clermont’s <i>Hist. of the Family of the Fortescues</i>; <i>Hist. Notices of the +Parishes of Swyncombe and Ewelme</i>, by A. Napier, p. 390; D. Lloyd’s +<i>State Worthies</i> (1670), p. 556; <i>Add. MSS.</i> 12497 f. 143 (“Sir John +Fortescue’s meanes of gaine by Sir R. Thikstin told me [Sir Julius +Caesar]”); <i>Hist. MSS. Comm., Marquis of Salisbury’s MSS.</i>; +Spedding’s <i>Life of Bacon</i>; Architectural and Archaeological Soc. for +Bucks, <i>Records of Bucks</i>, vol. i. p. 86.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The inscription on his tomb states that he was 76 at his death +on the 23rd of December 1607 (Lord Clermont’s <i>Hist. of the Family +of Fortescue</i>, 377), but according to a statement ascribed to himself, +he was born the same year as Queen Elizabeth and therefore in 1533 +(Bucks. Architect. and Archaeolog. Soc. <i>Records of Bucks</i>, i. p. 89).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> David Lloyd’s <i>State Worthies</i> (1670), 556.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Annales</i>, 613.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORTEVIOT,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, on +the Water of May, a right-hand affluent of the Earn, 6¾ m. S.W. +of Perth. Pop. of parish (1901) 562. It is a place of remote +antiquity, having been a capital of the Picts, when the district +was known as Fortrenn, and afterwards of the Scots. The army +led by Edward Baliol camped here before the battle of Dupplin +(1332), in which the regent, Donald, earl of Mar, was slain along +with 13,000 out of 30,000 men. The parish of Findo-Gask +adjoining it on the N.W. contains remains of a Roman road, +station and outpost, besides the “auld hoose” of Gask in which +the Baroness Nairne was born, and which forms the theme of one +of her most popular songs. The new house in which she died +dates from 1801.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORT GEORGE,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> a military station of Inverness-shire, Scotland. +It lies 12 m. N.E. of Inverness, and is the terminus of the small +branch line connecting with the Highland railway at Gollanfield +junction. It occupies a sandy promontory forming the extreme +end of the southern shore of Inner Moray Firth (also called the +Firth of Inverness), which is here only 1 m. wide. There is +communication by ferry with Fortrose on the opposite coast of +the Black Isle. The fort was begun in 1748, partly after the plan +of one of Vauban’s works, and named in honour of George II. +Wolfe, who saw it in course of erection in 1751, was much impressed +with it and thought it would, when finished, be “the +most considerable fortress and best situated in Great Britain.” +It covers 16 acres and contains accommodation for nearly 2200 +men. It is the depot of the Seaforth Highlanders, and a +military training-ground of some size and importance because +the surrounding country gives ample facilities for exercise and +manœuvres. General Wade’s road is maintained in good order. +Fort George, it is said, had almost been chosen as the place of +detention for Napoleon when the claims of St Helena were put +forward. About 2 m. S.E. is the fishing village of Campbelltown, +in growing repute as a seaside resort. Midway between the fort +and Inverness stands Castle Stuart, a shooting-box of the earl +of Moray.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORTH,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> a river and firth of the east of Scotland. The river +is formed by two head streams, Duchray Water (12 m.) and +Avondhu (10 m.), or Laggan as it is called after it leaves Loch +Ard, both rising in the north-east of Ben Lomond in Stirlingshire, +and uniting 1 m. west of Aberfoyle. From this point till it +receives the Kelty, the Forth continues to be a Perthshire +stream, but afterwards it becomes the dividing line between +the counties of Perth and Stirling as far as the confluence of the +Allan. Thence it belongs to Stirlingshire to a point 1½ m. due +west of Cambus, whence it serves as the boundary between the +shires of Stirling and Clackmannan. Owing to the extremely +tortuous character of its course between Gartmore and Alloa—the +famous “links of the Forth,”—the actual length of the river +is 66 m., or nearly double the distance in a direct line (30 m.) +between the source of the Duchray and Kincardine, where the +firth begins. The river drains an area of 645 sq. m. Its general +direction is mainly easterly with a gentle trend towards the +south, and the principal tributaries on the left are the Goodie, +Teith, Allan and Devon, and on the right, the Kelty, Boquhan +and Bannock. The alluvial plain extending from Gartmore to +the county town is called the Carse of Stirling. The places of +interest on the banks are Aberfoyle, Kippen, Stirling, Cambuskenneth, +Alloa and Kincardine, but after it crosses the Highland +line the Forth does not present many passages of remarkable +beauty. There are bridges at Aberfoyle, Gartmore, Frew, Drip +and Stirling (2), besides railway viaducts at Stirling and Alloa, +and there are ferries at Stirling (for Cambuskenneth), Alloa (for +South Alloa) and Kincardine (for Airth). The tide rises to 4½ m. +above Stirling, where the river is navigable at high water by +vessels of 100 tons. There is, however, a brisk shipping trade at +Alloa, where the dock accommodates vessels of at least 300 tons.</p> + +<p>The Firth of Forth extends from Kincardine to the North Sea, +that is, to an imaginary line drawn, just west of the Isle of May, +from the East Neuk of Fife to the mouth of the Tyne in Haddingtonshire—a +distance of 48 m. Thus, according to some calculations, +the Forth measures from source to sea 114 m. The width +of the firth varies from ½ m. at Kincardine and 1½ m. at Queensferry +to 6½ m. at Leith and 17½ m. at the mouth. The chief +affluents are, on the south, the Carron, Avon, Almond, Leith, +Esk and Tyne, and on the north, the Tiel, Leven, Kiel and +Dreel. The principal ports on the south shore are Grangemouth, +Bo’ness, Granton and Leith, and on the north, Burntisland and +Kirkcaldy; but fishery centres and holiday resorts are very +numerous on both coasts. Since the opening of the Forth Bridge +(see Bridges) in 1890 the ferries at Queensferry and Burntisland +have greatly diminished in importance. The fisheries are still +considerable, though the oyster trade is dwindling. The larger +islands are Inchcolm, with the ruins of an abbey, Inchkeith, +with fortifications and a lighthouse, and the Isle of May, with a +lighthouse. The anchorage of St Margaret’s Hope, with the +naval base of Rosyth, lies off the shore of Fife immediately to +the west of the Forth Bridge.</p> + +<p>The Forth was the <i>Bodotria</i> of Tacitus and the Scots Water +of the chroniclers of the 11th and 12th centuries; while Bede +(d. 735) knew the firth as <i>Sinus orientalis</i> (the Eastern Gulf), +and Nennius (fl. 796) as <i>Mare Friesicum</i> (the Frisian Sea).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT.<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> “Fortification” is +the military art of strengthening positions against attack. The +word (Lat. <i>fortis</i>, strong, and <i>facere</i>, to make) implies the creation +of defences. Thus the boy who from the top of a mound defies +his comrades, or shelters from their snowballs behind a fence, +is merely taking advantage of ground; but if he puts up a hurdle +on his mound and stands behind that he has fortified his position.</p> + +<p>Fortification consists of two elements, viz. <i>protection</i> and +<i>obstacle</i>. The protection shields the defender from the enemy’s +missiles; the obstacle prevents the enemy from coming to close +quarters, and delays him under fire.</p> + +<p><i>Protection</i> may be of several kinds, direct or indirect. Direct +protection is given by a wall or rampart of earth, strong enough +to stop the enemy’s missiles. The value of this is reduced in +proportion as the defender has to expose himself to return the +enemy’s fire, or to resist his attempts to destroy the defences. +Indirect protection is given by <i>distance</i>, as for instance by a high +wall placed on a cliff so that the defender on the top of the wall +is out of reach of the enemy’s missiles if these are of short range, +such as arrows. This kind of defence was very popular in the +middle ages. In the present day the same object is attained by +pushing out detached forts to such a distance from the town +they are protecting that the besieger cannot bombard the town +as long as he is outside the forts. Another form of indirect +protection of great importance is <i>concealment</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>obstacle</i> may consist of anything which will impede the +enemy’s advance and prevent him from coming to close quarters. +In the earliest forms of fortification the protecting wall was also +the obstacle, or it may be a wet or dry ditch, an entanglement, +a swamp, a thorn hedge, a spiked palisade, or some temporary +expedient, such as crows’ feet or chevaux de frise. The two +elements must of course be arranged in combination. The +besieged must be able to defend the obstacle from their protected +position, otherwise it can be surmounted or destroyed at leisure. +But a close connexion is no longer essential. The effect of modern +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page680" id="page680"></a>680</span> +firearms permits of great elasticity in the disposition of the +obstacle; and this simplifies some of the problems of defence.</p> + +<p>Protection must be arranged mainly with reference to the +enemy’s methods of attack and the weapons he uses. The +obstacle, on the other hand, should be of such a nature as to +bring out the best effects of the defender’s weapons. It follows +from this that a well-armed force operating against a badly-armed +uncivilized enemy may use with advantage very simple +old-fashioned methods of protection; or even dispense with it +altogether if the obstacle is a good one.</p> + +<p>When the assailant has modern weapons the importance of +protection is very great. In fact, it may be said that in proportion +as missile weapons have grown more effective, the importance +of protection and the difficulty of providing it have increased, +while the necessity for a monumental physical obstacle has +decreased.</p> + +<p>The art of the engineer who is about to fortify consists in +appreciating and harmonizing all the conditions of the problem, +such as the weapons in use, nature of the ground, materials +available, temper of assailants and defenders, strategical possibilities, +expenditure to be incurred, and so forth. Few of these +conditions are in themselves difficult to understand, but they are +so many and their reactions are so complex that a real familiarity +with all of them is essential to successful work. The keynote +of the solution should be simplicity; but this is the first point +usually lost sight of by the makers of “systems,” especially by +those who during a long period of peace have time to give play +to their imaginations.</p> + +<p>Fortification is usually divided into two branches, namely +<i>permanent fortification</i> and <i>field fortification</i>. Permanent fortifications +are erected at leisure, with all the resources that a state can +supply of constructive and mechanical skill, and are built of +enduring materials. Field fortifications are extemporized by +troops in the field, perhaps assisted by such local labour and +tools as may be procurable, and with materials that do not +require much preparation, such as earth, brushwood and light +timber. There is also an intermediate branch known as <i>semi-permanent +fortification</i>. This is employed when in the course +of a campaign it becomes desirable to protect some locality +with the best imitation of permanent defences that can be made +in a short time, ample resources and skilled civilian labour being +available.</p> + +<p>The <i>objects of fortification</i> are various. The vast enceintes +of Nineveh and Babylon were planned so that in time of war +they might give shelter to the whole population of the country +except the field army, with their flocks and herds and household +stuff. The same idea may be seen to-day in the walls of such +cities as Kano. In the middle ages feudal lords built castles +for security against the attacks of their neighbours, and also to +watch over towns or bridges or fords from which they drew +revenue; whilst rich towns were surrounded with walls merely +for the protection of their own inhabitants and their property. +The feudal castles lost their importance when the art of cannon-founding +was fairly developed; and in the leisurely wars of the +17th and 18th centuries, when roads were few and bad, a swarm +of fortified towns, large and small, played a great part in delaying +the march of victorious armies.</p> + +<p>In the present day isolated forts are seldom used, and only for +such purposes as to block passes in mountainous districts. +Fortresses are used either to protect points of vital importance, +such as capital cities, military depots and dockyards, or at +strategic points such as railway junctions. Combinations of +fortresses are also used for more general strategic purposes, +as will be explained later.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">I. History</p> + +<p>The most elementary type of fortification is the thorn <i>hedge</i>, +a type which naturally recurs from age to age under primitive +conditions. Thus, Alexander found the villages of the +Hyrcanians defended by thick hedges, and the same +<span class="sidenote">Ancient methods.</span> +arrangements may be seen to-day among the least +civilized tribes of Africa. The next advance from the hedge is +the <i>bank</i> of earth, with the exterior made steep by revetments +of sods or hurdle-work. This has a double advantage over the +hedge, as, besides being a better obstacle against assault, it gives +the defenders an advantage of position in a hand-to-hand fight. +Such banks formed the defences of the German towns in Caesar’s +time, and they were constructed with a high degree of skill. +Timber being plentiful, the parapets were built of alternate +layers of stones, earth and tree trunks. The latter were built in +at right angles to the length of the parapet, and were thus very +difficult to displace, while the earth prevented their being set +on fire. The bank was often strengthened by a palisade of tree +trunks or hurdle-work.</p> + +<p>After the bank the most important step in advance for a +nation progressing in the arts was the <i>wall</i>, of masonry, sun-dried +brick or mud. The history of the development of the wall and +of the methods of attacking it is the history of fortification for +several thousand years.</p> + +<p>The first necessity for the wall was height, to give security +against escalade. The second-was thickness, so that the defenders +might have a platform on the top which would give them space +to circulate freely and to use their weapons. A lofty wall, thick +enough at the top for purposes of defence, would be very expensive +if built of solid masonry; therefore the plan was early +introduced of building two walls with a filling of earth or rubble +between them. The face of the outer wall would be carried up a +few feet above the platform, and crenellated to give protection +against arrows and other projectiles.</p> + +<p>The next forward step for the defence was the construction +of <i>towers</i> at intervals along the wall. These provided flanking +fire along the front; they also afforded refuges for the garrison +in case of a successful escalade, and from them the platform +could be enfiladed.</p> + +<p>The evolution of the wall with towers was simple. The main +requirements were despotic power and unlimited labour. Thus +the finest examples of the system known to history are also +amongst the earliest. One of these was Nineveh, built more than +2000 years <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The object of its huge perimeter, more than +50 m., has been mentioned. The wall was 120 ft. high and 30 ft. +thick; and there were 1500 towers.</p> + +<p>After this no practical advance in the art of fortification was +made for a very long time, from a constructional point of view. +Many centuries indeed elapsed before the inventive genius of +man evolved engines and methods of attack fit to cope with such +colossal obstacles.</p> + +<p>The earliest form of attack was of course <i>escalade</i>, either by +ladders or by heaping up a ramp of faggots or other portable +materials. When the increasing height of walls made escalade +too difficult, other means of attack had to be invented. Probably +the first of these were the <i>ram</i>, for battering down the walls, and +<i>mining</i>. The latter might have two objects: (<i>a</i>) to drive an +underground gallery below the wall from the besiegers’ position +into the fortress, or (<i>b</i>) to destroy the wall itself by undermining.</p> + +<p>The use of missile <i>engines</i> for throwing heavy projectiles +probably came later. They are mentioned in the preparations +made for the defence of Jerusalem against the Philistines in the +8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> They are not mentioned in connexion with the +siege of Troy. At the sieges of Tyre and Jerusalem by <span class="correction" title="amended from Nebuchadrezzar">Nebuchadnezzar</span> +in 587 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> we first find mention of the ram and of movable +towers placed on mounds to overlook the walls.</p> + +<p>The Asiatics, however, had not the qualities of mind necessary +for a systematic development of siegecraft, and it was left for +the Greeks practically to create this science. Taking +it up in the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> they soon, under Philip +<span class="sidenote">Classical times.</span> +of Macedon and Alexander, arrived at a very high +degree of skill. They invented and systematized methods +which were afterwards perfected by the Romans. Alexander’s +siegecraft was extremely practical. His successors endeavoured +to improve on it by increasing the size of their missile and other +engines, which, however, were so cumbrous that they were of +little use. When the Romans a little later took up the science +they returned to the practical methods of Alexander, and by the +time of Caesar’s wars had become past-masters of it. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page681" id="page681"></a>681</span> +highest development of siegecraft before the use of gunpowder +was probably attained in the early days of the Roman empire. +The beginning of the Christian era is therefore a suitable period +at which to take a survey of the arts of fortification and siegecraft +as practised by the ancients.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In fortification the wall with towers was still the leading idea. +The towers were preferred circular in plan, as this form offered the +best resistance to the ram. The wall was usually reinforced +by a ditch, which had three advantages: it +<span class="sidenote">Conditions at opening of the Christian era.</span> +increased the height of the obstacle, made the bringing +up of the engines of attack more difficult, and supplied +material for the filling of the wall. In special cases, as at +Jerusalem and Rhodes, the enclosure walls were doubled +and trebled. Citadels were also built on a large scale.</p> + +<p>The typical site preferred by the Romans for a fortified town +was on high ground sloping to a river on one side and with steep +slopes falling away on the other three sides. At the highest point +was a castle serving as citadel. The town enclosure was designed +in accordance with the character of the surrounding country. Where +the enemy’s approach was easiest, the walls were higher, flanking +towers stronger and ditches wider and deeper. Some of the towers +were made high for look-out posts. If there was a bridge over the +river, it was defended by a bridge-head on the far side; and stockades +defended by towers were built out from either bank above and +below the bridge, between which chains or booms could be stretched +to bar the passage.</p> + +<p>The natural features of the ground were skilfully utilized. Thus +when a large town was spread over an irregular site broken by hills, +the enceinte wall would be carried over the top of the hills; and in +the intervening valleys the wall would not only be made stronger, +but would be somewhat drawn back to allow of a flanking defence +from the hill tops on either side. The walls would consist of two +strong masonry faces, 20 ft. apart, the space between filled with +earth and stones. Usually when the lie of the ground was favourable, +the outside of the wall would be much higher than the inside, the +parapet walk perhaps being but a little above the level of the town. +Palisades were used to strengthen the ditches, especially before the +gates.</p> + +<p>There was little scope, however, in masonry for the genius of +Roman warfare, which had a better opportunity in the active work +of attack and defence. For siegecraft the Roman legions were +specially apt. No modern engineer, civil or military, accustomed +to rely on machinery, steam and hydraulic apparatus, could hope +to emulate the feats of the legionaries. In earthworks they excelled; +and in such work as building and moving about colossal +wooden towers under war conditions, they accomplished things at +which nowadays we can only wonder.</p> + +<p>The attack was carried on mainly by the use of “engines,” under +which head were included all mechanical means of attack—towers, +missile engines such as catapults and balistae, rams of different +kinds, “tortoises” (see below), &c. Mining, too, was freely resorted +to, also approach trenches, the use of which had been introduced +by the Greeks.</p> + +<p>The object of mining, as has been said, might be the driving of a +gallery under the wall into the interior of the place, or the destruction +of the wall. The latter was effected by excavating large chambers +under the foundations. These were supported while the excavation +was proceeding by timber struts and planking. When the chambers +were large enough the timber supports were burnt and the wall +collapsed. The besieged replied to the mining attack by countermines. +With these they would undermine and destroy the besiegers’ +galleries, or would break into them and drive out the workers, +either by force of arms or by filling the galleries with smoke.</p> + +<p>Breaches in the wall were made by rams. These were of two +kinds. For dislodging the cemented masonry of the face of the +wall, steel-pointed heads were used; when this was done, another +head, shaped like a ram’s head, was substituted for battering down +the filling of the wall.</p> + +<p>For escalade they used ladders fixed on wheeled platforms; but +the most important means of attack against a high wall were the +movable towers of wood. These were built so high that from their +tops the parapet walk of the wall could be swept with arrows and +stones; and drawbridges were let down from them, by which a +storming party could reach the top of the wall. The height of the +towers was from 70 to 150 ft. They were moved on wheels of solid +oak or elm, 6 to 12 ft. in diameter and 3 to 4 ft. thick. The ground +floor contained one or two rams. The upper floors, of which there +might be as many as fifteen, were furnished with missile engines +of a smaller kind. The archers occupied the top floor. There also +were placed reservoirs of water to extinguish fire. These were filled +by force pumps and fitted with hose made of the intestines of cattle. +Drawbridges, either hanging or worked on rollers, were placed at +the proper height to give access to the top of the wall, or to a breach, +as might be required. Apollodorus proposed to place a couple of +rams in the upper part of the tower to destroy the crenellations of +the wall.</p> + +<p>The siege towers had of course to be very solidly built of strong +timbers to resist the heavy stones thrown by the engines of the +defence. They were protected against fire by screens of osiers, +plaited rope or raw hides. Sometimes it was necessary, in order +to gain greater height, to place them on high terraces of earth. In +that case they would be built on the site. At the siege of Marseilles, +described by Caesar, special methods of attack had to be employed +on account of the strength of the engines used by the besieged and +their frequent sallies to destroy the siege works. A square fort, +with brick walls 30 ft. long and 5 ft. thick, was built in front of one +of the towers of the town to resist sorties. This fort was subsequently +raised to a height of six storeys, under shelter of a roof which +projected beyond the walls, and from the eaves of which hung heavy +mats made of ships’ cables. The mats protected the men working +at the walls, and as these were built up the roof was gradually +raised by the use of endless screws. The roof was made of heavy +beams and planks, over which were laid bricks and clay, and the +whole was covered with mats and hides to prevent the bricks from +being dislodged. This structure was completed without the loss of +a man, and could only have been built by the Romans, whose soldiers +were all skilled workmen.</p> + +<p>Although these towers were provided with bridges by which +storming parties could reach the top of the wall, their main object +was usually to dominate the defence and keep down the fire from +the walls and towers. Under this protection breaching operations +could be carried on. The approaches to the wall were usually made +under shelter of galleries of timber or hurdle-work, which were placed +on wheels and moved into position as required. When the wall +was reached, a shelter of stronger construction, known as a “rat,” +was placed in position against it. Under this a ram was swung or +worked on rollers; or the rat might be used as a shelter for miners +or for workmen cutting away the face of the wall. The great rat at +Marseilles, which extended from the tower already described to the +base of the tower of the city, was 60 ft. long, and built largely of +great beams 2 ft. square, connected by iron pins and bands. It +was unusually narrow, the ground sills of the side walls being only +4 ft. apart. This was no doubt in order to keep down the weight +of the structure, which, massive as it was, had to be movable. The +sloping roof and sides of timber were protected, like those of the +tower, with bricks and moist clay, hides and wool mattresses. Huge +stones and barrels of blazing pitch were thrown from the wall upon +this rat without effect, and under its cover the soldiers loosened and +removed the foundations of the tower until it fell down.</p> + +<p>In order that it might be possible to move these heavy structures, +it was usually necessary to fill up the ditch or to level the surface of +the ground. For this purpose an “approach tortoise” was often +used. This was a shelter, something between the ordinary gallery +and the rat, which was moved end on towards the wall, and had an +open front with a hood, under cover of which the earth brought up +for filling the ditch was distributed.</p> + +<p>The missile engines threw stones up to 600 ℔ weight, heavy +darts from 6 to 12 ft. long, and Greek fire. Archimedes at the siege +of Syracuse even made some throwing 1800 ℔. The ranges varied, +according to the machine and the weight thrown, up to 600 yds. +for direct fire and 1000 yds. for curved fire. At the siege of Jerusalem +Titus employed three hundred catapults of different sizes +and forty balistae, of which the smallest threw missiles of 75 ℔ +weight. At Carthage Scipio found 120 large and 281 medium +catapults, 23 large and 52 small balistae, and a great number of +scorpions and other small missile engines.</p> + +<p>Screens and mantlets for the protection of the engine-workers +were used in great variety.</p> + +<p>In addition to the above, great mechanical skill was shown in +the construction of many kinds of machines for occasional purposes. +A kind of jib crane of great height on a movable platform was used +to hoist a cage containing fifteen or twenty men on to the wall. +A long spar with a steel claw at the end, swung in the middle from +a lofty frame, served to pull down the upper parts of parapets and +overhanging galleries. The defenders on their side were not slow +in replying with similar devices. Fenders were let down from the +wall to soften the blow of the ram, or the ram heads were caught +and held by cranes. Grapnels were lowered from cranes to seize the +rats and overturn them. Archimedes used the same idea in the +defence of Syracuse for lifting and sinking the Roman galleys. +Wooden towers were built on the walls to overtop the towers of the +besiegers. Many devices for throwing fire were employed. The +tradition that Archimedes burnt the Roman fleet, or a portion of it, +at Syracuse, by focusing the rays of the sun with reflectors, is +supported by an experiment made by Buffon in 1747. With a reflector +having a surface of 50 sq. ft., made up of 168 small mirrors +each 6 by 8 in., lead was melted at a distance of 140 ft. and wood was +set on fire at 160 ft.</p> + +<p>The development of masonry in permanent fortification had long +since reached its practical limit, and was no longer proof against the +destructive methods that had been evolved. The extemporized +defences were, as is always the case, worn down by a resolute besieger, +and the attack was stronger than the defence.</p> +</div> + +<p>Through the dark ages the Eastern Empire kept alive the +twin sciences of fortification and siegecraft long enough for the +Crusaders to learn from them what had been lost in the West. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page682" id="page682"></a>682</span> +Byzantium, however, always a storehouse of military science, +<span class="sidenote">Middle ages.</span> +while conserving a knowledge of the ancient methods and +the great missile engines, contributed no new ideas +to fortification, so far as we know. In practice the +Byzantines favoured multiplied enceintes or several +concentric lines of defence. This of course is always a tendency +of decadent nations.</p> + +<p>In the West the Roman fortifications remained standing, and +the Visigoths, allies of Rome, utilized their principles in the +defences of Carcassonne, Toulouse, &c. in the 5th century. +Viollet-le-Duc’s description and illustrations of the defences of +Carcassonne will give a very good idea of the methods then in +use:—</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:360px; height:157px" src="images/img682a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Plan of one of the Towers at +Carcassonne.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The Visigoth fortification of the city of Carcassonne, which is +still preserved, offers an analogous arrangement recalling those +described by Vegetius. The level of the town is much more elevated +than the ground outside, and almost as high as the parapet walks. +The curtain walls, of great thickness, are composed of two faces +of small cubical masonry alternating with courses of brick; the +middle portion being filled, not with earth but with rubble run with +lime. The towers were raised above these curtains, and their communication +with the latter might be cut off, so as to make of each +tower a small independent +fort; externally +these towers +are cylindrical, and +on the side of the +town square; they +rest, also towards +the country, upon a +cubical base or +foundation. We +subjoin (fig. 1) the +plan of one of these +towers with the curtains +adjoining. A +is the plan of the ground-level; B the plan of the first storey at the +level of the parapet. We see, at C and D, the two excavations +formed in front of the gates of the tower to intercept, when the +drawbridges were raised, all communication between the town +or the parapet walk and the several storeys of the tower. From the +first storey access was had to the upper crenellated or battlemented +portion of the tower by a ladder of wood placed interiorly against +the side of the flat wall. The external ground-level was much lower +than that of the tower, and also beneath the ground-level of the +town, from which it was reached by a descending flight of from ten +to fifteen steps. Fig. 2 shows the tower and its two curtains on the +side of the town; the bridges of communication are supposed to have +been removed. The battlemented portion at the top is covered with +a roof, and open on the side of the town in order to permit the +defenders of the tower to see what was going on therein, and also +to allow of their hoisting up stones and other projectiles by means +of a rope and pulley. Fig. 3 shows the same tower on the side +towards the country; we have added a postern, the sill of which +is sufficiently raised above the ground to necessitate the use of a +scaling or step ladder, to obtain ingress. The postern is defended, +as was customary, by a palisade or barrier, each gate or postern +being provided with a work of this kind.”</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:528px; height:335px" src="images/img682b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—One of the Towers at Carcassonne, inside view.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:311px; height:398px" src="images/img682c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—One of the Towers at Carcassonne, +outside view.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Meanwhile, in western Europe, siegecraft had almost disappeared. +Its perfect development was only possible for an +army like that of the Romans. The Huns and Goths knew +nothing of it, and the efforts of Charlemagne and others of the +Frankish kings to restore the art were hampered by the fact that +their warriors despised handicrafts and understood nothing +but the use of their weapons. During the dark ages the towns +of the Gauls retained their old Roman and Visigoth defences, +which no one knew properly how to attack, and accordingly the +sieges of that period dragged themselves out through long years, +and if ultimately +successful were so as +a rule only through +blockade and famine. +It was not until the +11th century that +siegecraft was revived +in the West on the +ancient lines.</p> + +<p>By this time a new +departure of great +importance +had been +made in the seigneurial +castle (<i>q.v.</i>), +which restored for +some centuries a definite +superiority to +the defence. Built +primarily as strongholds +for local magnates +or for small +bodies of warriors +dominating a conquered country, the conditions which called +<span class="sidenote">Castles.</span> +them into existence offered several marked advantages. The +defences of a town had to follow the growth of the town, +and would naturally have weak points. It was not to be +expected that a town would develop itself in the manner most +suitable for defence; nor indeed that any position large enough +for a town could be found that would be naturally strong +all round. But the site of a castle could be chosen purely +for its natural strength, without regard, except as a secondary +consideration, to the protection of anything outside it; and as +its area was small it was often easy to find a natural position +entirely suited for the purpose. In fact it frequently happened +that the existence of such a position was the <i>raison d’être</i> +of the castle. A small hill with steep sides might well be unapproachable +in every direction by such cumbrous structures +as towers and rats, while the height of the hill, added to the +height of the walls, would be too much for the besiegers’ missiles. +If the sides of the hill were precipitous and rocky, mining +became impossible, and the site was perfect for defence. A +castle built under such conditions was practically impregnable; +and this was the cause of the independence of the barons in the +11th and 12th centuries. They could only be reduced by +blockade, and a blockade of long duration was very difficult in +the feudal age.</p> + +<p>A very instructive example of 12th-century work is the +Château Gaillard, built by Richard Cœur-de-Lion in 1196. +This great castle, with ditches and escarpments cut out of the +solid rock, and extensive outworks, was completed in one year. +In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Castle</a></span> will be found the plan of the main work, +which is here supplemented by an elevation of the donjon (or +keep). The waved face of the inner or main wall of the castle, +giving a divergent fire over the front, is an interesting feature +in advance of the time. So also is the masonry protection of +the machicolation at the top of the donjon, a protection which +at that time was usually given by wooden hoardings. After +the death of Richard, Philip Augustus besieged the château, +and carried it after a blockade of seven months and a regular +attack of one month. In this attack the tower at A was first +mined, after which the whole of that outwork was abandoned by +the defenders. The outer enceinte was next captured by surprise; +and finally the gate of the main wall was breached by the +pioneers. When this happened a sudden rush of the besiegers +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page683" id="page683"></a>683</span> +prevented the remains of the garrison from gaining the shelter +of the donjon, and they had to lay down their arms.</p> + +<p>Château Gaillard, designed by perhaps the greatest general +of his time, exemplifies in its brief resistance the weak points of +the designs of the 12th century. It is easy to understand how +at each step gained by the besiegers the very difficulties which +had been placed in the way of their further advance prevented +the garrison from reinforcing strongly the points attacked.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:286px; height:504px" src="images/img683a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Donjon, Château Gaillard.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the 13th century many influences were at work in the +development of castellar fortification. The experience of such +sieges as that of Château Gaillard, and still more that gained in +the Crusades, the larger garrisons at the disposal of the great +feudal lords, and the importance of the interests which they had +to protect in their towns, led to a freer style of design. We must +also take note of an essential difference between the forms of +attack preferred by the Roman soldiery and by the medieval +chivalry. The former, who were artisans as well as soldiers, preferred +in siege works the certain +if laborious methods of +breaching and mining. The +latter, who considered all +manual labour beneath +them and whose only ideal +of warfare was personal +combat, affected the tower +and its bridge, giving access +to the top of the wall rather +than the rat and battering-ram. +They were also fond +of surprises, which the bad +discipline of the time +favoured.</p> + +<p>We find, therefore, important +progress in enlarging +the area of defence and +in improving arrangements +for flanking. The size and +height of all works were +increased. The keep of +Coucy Castle, built in 1220, +was 200 ft. high. Montargis +Castle, also built +about this time, had a +central donjon and a large +open enclosure, within +which the whole garrison could move freely, to reinforce quickly +any threatened point. The effect of flanking fire was increased +by giving more projection to the towers, whose sides were in +some cases made at right angles to the curtain walls.</p> + +<p>We find also a tendency, the influence of which lasted long +after medieval times, towards complexity and multiplication +of defences, to guard against surprise and localize successful +assaults. Great attention was paid to the “step by step” +defence. Flanking towers were cut off from their walls and +arranged for separate resistance. Complicated entrances with +traps and many doors were arranged. Almost all defence was +from the tops of the walls and towers, the loopholes on the +lower storeys being mainly for light and air and reconnoitring. +Machicouli galleries (for vertical defence) were protected either +by stone walls built out on corbels, or by strong timber hoardings +built in war time, for which the walls were prepared beforehand +by recesses left in the masonry. Loopholes and crenelles were +protected by shutters. Great care and much ingenuity were +expended on details of all kinds.</p> + +<p>Already in the 12th century the engineers of the defence had +made provision for countermining, by building chambers and +galleries at the base of the towers and walls. Further protection +for the towers against the pioneer attack was given by carrying +out the masonry in front of the tower in a kind of projecting +horn. This was found later to have the further advantages of +doing away with the dead ground in front of the tower unseen +from the curtain, and of increasing the projection and therefore +the flanking power of the tower itself. The arrangement is seen +in several of the towers at Carcassonne, and has in it the germ +of the idea of the bastion.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:371px; height:461px" src="images/img683b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Plan of Carcassonne, 13th century.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The defences of Carcassonne, remodelled in the latter half of the +13th century on the old Visigoth foundations, exemplify some of +the best work of the period. Figs. 5 and 6 (reproduced from Viollet-le-Duc) +show the plan of the defences of the town and castle, and a +bird’s-eye view of the castle with its two barbicans. The thick +black line shows the main wall; beyond this are the lists and then +the moat. It will be noted that the wall of the lists as well as the +main wall is defended by towers. There are only two gates. That +on the east is defended +by two +great towers and +a semicircular barbican. +The gate +of the castle, on +the west, has a +most complicated +approach defended +by a labyrinth of +gates and flanking +walls, which cannot +be shown on +this small scale, +and beyond these +is a huge circular +barbican in several +storeys, capable of +holding 1500 men. +On the side of the +town the castle is +protected by a +wide moat, and the +entrance is masked +by another large +semicircular barbican. +An interesting +feature of the +general arrangement +is the importance +which the lists +have assumed. The slight wooden barricade of older times has +developed into a wall with towers; and the effect is that the +besieger, if he gains a footing in the lists, has a very narrow space +in which to work the engines of attack. The castle, after the +Roman fashion, adjoins the outer wall of the town, so that there +may be a possibility of communicating with a relieving force from +outside after the town has fallen. There were also several posterns, +small openings made in the wall at some height above the ground, +for use with rope ladders.</p> +</div> + +<p>The siegecraft of the period was still that of the ancients. +Mining was the most effective form of attack, and the approach +to the walls was covered by engines throwing great stones against +the hoardings of the parapets, and by cross-bowmen who were +sheltered behind light mantlets moved on wheels. Barrels of +burning pitch and other incendiary projectiles were thrown as +before; and at one siege we read of the carcasses of dead horses +and barrels of sewage being thrown into the town to breed +pestilence, which had the effect of forcing a capitulation.</p> + +<p>With all this the attack was inferior to the defence. As +Professor C.W.C. Oman has pointed out, the mechanical +application of the three powers of tension, torsion and counterpoise +(in the missile engines) had its limits. If these engines were +enlarged they grew too costly and unwieldy. If they were +multiplied it was impossible on account of their short range and +great bulk to concentrate the fire of enough of them on a single +portion of the wall.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to give anything like an accurate account, in a +small space, of the changes in fortification which took place in the +first two centuries after the introduction of gunpowder. +The number of existing fortifications that had to be +<span class="sidenote">Introduction of gunpowder.</span> +modified was infinite, so also was the number of +attempted solutions of the new problems. Engineers +had not yet begun to publish descriptions of their “systems”; +also the new names and terms which came into use with the new +works were spread over Europe by engineers of different countries, +and adopted into new languages without much accuracy.</p> + +<p>Artillery was in use for some time before it began to have any +effect on the design of fortification. The earliest cannon threw +so very light a projectile that they had no effect on masonry and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page684" id="page684"></a>684</span> +were more useful for the defence than the attack. Later, larger +pieces were made, which acted practically as mortars, throwing +stone balls with high elevation, and barrels of burning composition. +In the middle of the 15th century the art of cannon-founding +was much developed by the brothers Bureau in France. +They introduced iron cannon balls and greatly strengthened +the guns. In 1428 the English besieging Orleans were entirely +defeated by the superior artillery of the besieged. By 1450 +Charles VII. was furnished with so powerful a siege train that he +captured the whole of the castles in Normandy from the English +in one year.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:361px; height:597px" src="images/img684a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Carcassonne Castle and Barbican.</td></tr></table> + +<p>But the great change came after the invasion of Italy by +Charles VIII. with a greatly improved siege train in 1494. The +astonishing rapidity with which castles and fortified towns fell +before him proved +the uselessness of +the old defences. +It became necessary +to create a +new system of +defences, and, +says Cosseron +de Villenoisy, +“thanks to the +mental activity of +the Renaissance +and the warlike +conditions prevailing +everywhere, +the time +could not have +been more favourable.” +There +is no doubt that +the engineers of +Italy as a body +were responsible +for the first advance +in fortification. +There, +where vital and +mental energy +were at boiling-point, +and where +the first striking +demonstration of +the new force had been given, the greatest intellects, men such +as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Machiavelli, busied +themselves over the problem of defence.</p> + +<p>It has been claimed that Albert Dürer was the first writer on +modern fortification. This was not so; Dürer’s work was +published in 1527, and more than one Italian engineer, certainly +Martini of Siena and San Gallo, had preceded him. Also Machiavelli, +writing between 1512 and 1527, had offered some most +valuable criticisms and general principles. Dürer, moreover, +had little influence on the progress of fortification; though we +may see in his ideas, if we choose, the germ of the “polygonal” +system, developed long afterwards by Montalembert. Dürer’s +work was to some extent a connecting link between the old +fortification and the new. He proposed greatly to enlarge the +old towers; and he provided both them and the curtains with +vaulted chambers for guns (casemates) in several tiers, so as to +command both the ditch and the ground beyond it. His projects +were too massive and costly for execution, but his name is +associated with the first practical gun casemates.</p> + +<p>Before beginning to trace the effect of gunpowder on the +design of fortification, it may be noted that two causes weakened +the influence of the castles. First, their owners were slow to +adopt the new ideas and abandon their high strong walls for +low extended parapets, and, secondly, they had not the men +necessary for long lines of defence. At the same time the +corporations of the towns had learnt to take an active part in +warfare, and provided trained and disciplined soldiers in large +numbers.</p> + +<p>When artillery became strong enough to destroy masonry +from a distance two results followed: it was necessary to modify +the masonry defences so as to make them less vulnerable, and +to improve the means of employing the guns of the defence. +For both these purposes the older castles with their restricted +area were little suited, and we must now trace the development +of the fortified towns.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:211px; height:154px" src="images/img684b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Probably the first form of construction directly due to the appearance +of the new weapons was the bulwark (<i>boulevard, baluardo</i> or +<i>bollwerk</i>). This was an outwork usually semicircular in +plan, built of earth consolidated with timber and revetted +<span class="sidenote">The bulwark.</span> +with hurdles. Such works were placed as a shield in +front of the gates, which could be destroyed even by the early light +cannon-balls; and they offered at the same time advanced positions +for the guns of the defence. They were found so useful for gun +positions for flanking fire that later they were placed in front of +towers or at intervals along the walls for that purpose.</p> + +<p>This, however, was only a temporary expedient, and we have now +to consider the radical modifications in designs. These affected +both the construction and trace of the walls.</p> + +<p>The first lesson taught by improved artillery was that the walls +should not be set up on high as targets, but in some manner screened. +One method of doing this in the case of old works was +by placing bulwarks in front of them. In other cases the +<span class="sidenote">The wall.</span> +lists or outer walls, being surrounded by moats, were already partially +screened and suitable for conversion +into the main defence; and as with +improved flanking defence great height +was no longer essential, the tops of the +walls were in some cases cut down. +In new works it was natural to sink +the wall in a ditch, the earth from +which was useful for making ramparts.</p> + +<p>As regards resistance to the effect +of shot, it was found that thin masonry +walls with rubble filling behind them +were very easily destroyed. A bank +of earth behind the wall lessened the vibration of the shot, but +once a breach was made the earth came down, making a slope +easy of ascent. To obviate this, horizontal layers of brushwood, +timber and sometimes masonry were built into the earth bank, +and answered very well (fig. 7).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:476px; height:289px" src="images/img684c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Another expedient of still greater value was the use of counterforts. +The earliest counterforts were simply buttresses built +<i>inward</i> from the wall into the rampart instead of <i>outward</i> (fig. 8). +Their effect was to strengthen the wall and make the breaches more +difficult of ascent. An alternative arrangement for strengthening +the wall was an arched gallery built behind it under the rampart +(fig. 9). This construction was in harmony with the idea, already +familiar, of a passage in the wall from which countermines could +be started; but it has the obvious weakness that the destruction +of the face wall takes away one of the supports of the arch. The +best arrangement, which is ascribed to Albert Dürer, was the +“counter-arched revetment.” This consisted of a series of arches +built between the counterforts, with their axes at right angles to +the face of the wall. Their advantage was that, while supporting +the wall and taking all the weight of the rampart, they formed +an obstacle after the destruction of the wall more difficult to surmount +than the wall itself and very hard to destroy. The counter-arches +might be in one, two or three tiers, according to the height +of the wall (figs. 10 and 11, the latter without the earth of the +rampart and showing also a countermine gallery).</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:370px; height:130px" src="images/img685a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>A more important question, however, than the improvement of +the passive defence or obstacle was the development of the active +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page685" id="page685"></a>685</span> +defence by artillery. For this purpose it was necessary to find room +for the working of the guns. At the outset it was of course a question +<span class="sidenote">The rampart.</span> +of modifying the existing defences at as little cost as +possible. With this object the roofs of towers were +removed and platforms for guns substituted, but this +only gave room for one or two guns. Also the loopholes in the lower +storeys of towers were converted into embrasures to give a grazing +fire over the ditch; this became the commonest method of strengthening +old works for +cannon, but was of +little use as the +resulting field of +fire was so small. +In some cases the +towers were made +larger, with a semicircular +front and +side walls at right +angles to the curtain. +Such towers built at Langres early in the 16th century had +walls 20 ft. thick to resist battering.</p> + +<p>Even in new works some attempts were made to combine artillery +defence with pure masonry protection. The works of Albert Dürer +in theory, and the bridge-head of Schaffhausen in practice, are the +best examples of this. The Italian engineers also showed much +ingenuity in arranging for the defence of ditches with masonry +caponiers. These were developed from external buttresses, and +equally with the casemated flanking towers of Dürer contained the +germs of the idea of “polygonal” defence.</p> + +<p>The natural solution, however, which was soon generally adopted, +was the rampart; that is, a bank of earth thrown up behind the wall, +which, while strengthening the wall as already indicated, offered +plenty of space for the disposal of the guns.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:269px; height:278px" src="images/img685b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>ditch</i>, which had only been occasionally used in ancient and +medieval fortification, now became essential and characteristic. +Serving as it did for the double purpose of supplying +<span class="sidenote">The ditch.</span> +earth for a rampart and allowing the wall to be sunk for +concealment, it was found also to have a definite use as an obstacle. +Hitherto the wall had sufficed for this purpose, the ditch being +useful mainly to prevent the +besieger from bringing up his +engines of attack.</p> + +<p>When the wall (or escarp) was +lowered, the obstacle offered by +the ditch was increased by revetting +the far side of it with a +<i>counterscarp</i>. Beyond the +counterscarp wall some of the +earth excavated from the ditch +was piled up to increase the +protection given to the escarp +wall. This earth was sloped +down gently on the outer side +to meet the natural surface of +the ground in such a manner as +to be swept by the fire from the +ramparts and was called the +<i>glacis</i>.</p> + +<p>Now, however, a new difficulty +arose. In all times a chief element in a successful defence has +consisted in action by the besieged outside the walls. The old +ditches, when they existed, had merely a slope on the far side +leading up to the ground-level; and the ditch was a convenient +place in which troops preparing for a sortie could assemble without +being seen by the enemy, and ascend the slope to make their +attack. The introduction of the counterscarp wall prevented +sorties from the ditch. At first it was customary, after the introduction +of the counterscarp, to leave a narrow space on the top of +it, behind the glacis, for a patrol path. Eventually the difficulty +was met by widening this patrol path into a space of about 30 ft., +in which there was room for troops to assemble. This was known as +the <i>covered way</i>.</p> + +<p>With this last addition the ordinary elements of a profile of +modern fortification were complete and are exemplified in fig. 12.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:517px; height:124px" src="images/img685c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Up to the gunpowder period the <i>trace</i> of fortifications, that is, +the plan on which they were arranged on the ground, was very +simple. It was merely a question of an enclosure wall adapted +to the site and provided with towers at suitable intervals. The +<span class="sidenote">The trace.</span> +foot of the wall could be seen and defended everywhere, from +the tops of the towers and the machicoulis galleries. The introduction +of ramparts and artillery made this more difficult +in two ways. The rampart, interposed between +the defenders and the face of the wall, put a stop to vertical +defence. Also with the inferior gun-carriages of the time very +little depression could be given to the guns, and thus the top of +the enceinte wall, with or without a rampart, was not a suitable +position for guns intended to flank the ditch in their immediate +neighbourhood. The problem of the “trace” therefore at the +beginning of the 16th century was to rearrange the line of defence +so as to give due opportunity to the artillery of the besieged, +both to oppose the besiegers’ breaching batteries and later to +defend the breaches. At the outset the latter rôle was the more +important.</p> + +<p>In considering the early efforts of engineers to solve this +problem we must remember that for economical reasons they +had to make the best use they could of the existing walls. At +first for flanking purposes casemates on the ditch level were +used, the old flanking towers being enlarged for the purpose. +Masonry galleries were constructed across the ditch, containing +casemates which could fire to either side, and after this casemates +were used in the counterscarps. Some use was also made of the +fire from detached bulwarks. It was soon realized, however, that +the flanking defence of the body of the place ought not to be +dependent on outworks, and that greater freedom was required +for guns than was consistent with casemate defence. The +<i>bulwark</i> (which in its earliest shape suggests that it was in some +sort the offspring of the barbican, placed to protect an entrance) +gave plenty of space for guns, but was too detached for security. +The enlarged tower, as an integral part of the lines, gave security, +and its walls at right angles to the curtain gave direct flanking +fire, but the guns in it were too cramped. The blending of the +two ideas produced the <i>bastion</i>, an element of fortification which +dominated the science for three hundred years, and so impressed +itself on the imagination that to this day any strong advanced +position in a defensive line is called by that name by unscientific +writers. The word had been in use for a long time in connexion +with extemporized towers or platforms for flanking purposes, +the earliest forms being <i>bastille</i>, <i>bastide</i>, <i>bastillon</i>, and in its origin +it apparently refers rather to the quality of work in the construction +than to its defensive intention.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:367px; height:294px" src="images/img685d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—Bastion at Troyes.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The earliest bastions were modified bulwarks with straight faces +and flanks, attached to the main wall, for which the old towers +often acted as keeps; and at first the terms bulwark and bastion +were more or less interchangeable. Fig. 13, taken from a contemporary +MS. by +Viollet-le-Duc, +shows a bastion +added to the old +wall of Troyes about +1528. On the other +hand, in fig. 14 +(taken from an +English MS. of +1559, which again is +based on the Italian +work of Zanchi published +in 1554), we +find <i>a a</i> spoken of +as “bulwarks” and +<i>b b</i> as “bastilions.” +The triangular +works between the +bastilions are described +as “ramparts,” +intended to +protect the curtains from breaching fire. (We may also notice in +this design the broad ditch, the counterscarp with narrow covered +way, and loopholes indicating counterscarp galleries.)</p> +</div> + +<p>Towards the end of the 16th century the term “bulwark” +began to be reserved for banks of earth thrown up a little distance +in front of the main wall to protect it from breaching fire, and it +thus reverted to its original defensive intention. The term +“bastion” henceforth denoted an artillery position connected +by flanks to the main wall; and the question of the arrangement +of these flanks was one of the main preoccupations of engineers. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page686" id="page686"></a>686</span> +Flanks retired, casemated or open, or sometimes in several tiers +were proposed in infinite variety.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:474px; height:214px" src="images/img686a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Thus, while in the early part of the 16th century the actual +modification of existing defences was proceeding very slowly on +account of the expense involved, the era of theoretical “systems” +had begun, based on the mutual relations of flank and face. +These can be grouped under three heads as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. The <i>crémaillère</i> or indented trace: Faces and flanks succeeding +each other in regular order (fig. 15).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:427px; height:64px" src="images/img686b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>2. The <i>tenaille</i> trace: Flanks back to back between the faces +(fig. 16). The development of the flanks in this case gives us the +<i>star</i> trace (fig. 17).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:524px; height:58px" src="images/img686c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>3. The <i>bastioned</i> trace: Flanks facing each other and connected +by curtains (fig. 18).</p> +</div> + +<p>In comparing these three traces it will be observed that unless +casemates are used the flanking in the first two is incomplete. +Guns on the ramparts of the faces cannot defend the flanks, and +therefore there are “dead” angles in the ditch. In the bastioned +trace there is no “dead” ground, provided the flanks are so far +apart that a shot from the rampart of a flank can reach the ditch +at the centre of the curtain.</p> + +<p>Here was therefore the parting of the ways. For those who +objected to casemate fire, the bastioned trace was the way of +salvation. They were soon in the majority; perhaps +because the symmetry and completeness of the idea +<span class="sidenote">The bastioned trace.</span> +captivated the imagination. At all events the +bastioned trace, once fairly developed, held the field in +one form or another practically without a rival until near the +end of the 18th century. The Italian engineers, who were supreme +throughout most of the 16th century, started it; the French, +who took the lead in the following century, developed it, and +officially never deserted it until late in the 19th century, when +the increasing power of artillery made enceintes of secondary +importance.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It will be useful at this point to go forward a little, with a couple +of explanatory figures, in order to get a grasp of the component +parts of the bastioned trace as ultimately developed, and of its +outworks.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:363px; height:148px" src="images/img686d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>In fig. 19 ABCD represents part of an imaginary line drawn round +the place to be fortified, forming a polygon, regular or irregular.</p> + +<p>ABC is an <i>exterior angle</i> or angle of the polygon.</p> + +<p>BC is an <i>exterior side</i>.</p> + +<p><i>zz</i> is an <i>interior side</i>.</p> + +<p><i>abcdefghijk</i> is the trace of the <i>enceinte</i>.</p> + +<p><i>bcdef</i> is a <i>bastion</i>.</p> + +<p><i>zdef</i> is a <i>demi-bastion</i>.</p> + +<p><i>de</i> is a <i>face</i> of the bastion.</p> + +<p><i>ef</i> is a <i>flank</i> of the bastion.</p> + +<p><i>fg</i> is the <i>curtain</i>.</p> + +<p><i>bf</i> is the <i>gorge</i>.</p> + +<p>(Two demi-bastions with the connecting curtain make the bastioned +front, <i>defghi</i>.)</p> + +<p><i>zd</i> bisecting the <i>exterior angle</i> ABC is the <i>capital</i> of the bastion.</p> + +<p><i>xy</i> is the <i>perpendicular</i>, the proportionate length of which to the +exterior side BC (usually about one-sixth) is an important element +of the trace.</p> + +<p><i>ef</i>C is the angle of <i>defence</i>.</p> + +<p>BC<i>f</i> is the <i>diminished angle</i>.</p> + +<p><i>cde</i> is the <i>flanked angle</i> or <i>salient angle</i> of the bastion.</p> + +<p><i>e</i> is the <i>shoulder</i> of the bastion.</p> + +<p><i>def</i> is the <i>angle of the shoulder</i>.</p> + +<p><i>efg</i> is the <i>angle of the flank</i>.</p> + +<p>The line of the escarp is called the <i>magistral line</i> since it regulates +the trace. When plans of fortifications are given without much +detail, this line, with that of the counterscarp and the crest of the +parapet, are often the only ones shown,—the crest of the parapet, +as being the most important line, whence the fire proceeds, being +usually emphasized by a thick black line.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:522px; height:628px" src="images/img686e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Fig. 20, reproduced from a French engraving of 1705, shows an +imaginary place fortified as a hexagon with bastions and all the +different kinds of outworks then in use. The following is the explanation +of its figuring and lettering.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Flat bastion</i>: Placed in the middle of a curtain when the lines +of defence were too long for musketry range.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Demi-bastion</i>: Used generally on the bank of a river.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Tenaille bastion:</i> Used when the flanked angle is too acute; +that is, less than 70°.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Redans</i>: Used along the bank of a river, or when the parapet +of the covered way can be taken in reverse from the front.</p> + +<p>A, B. <i>Ravelins.</i></p> + +<p>C. <i>Demi-lunes</i>: So called from the shape of the gorge. They +differ from the ravelins in being placed in front of the bastions +instead of the curtains.</p> + +<p>D. <i>Counter-guards</i>: Used instead of demi-lunes, which were then +going out of fashion.</p> + +<p>E. <i>Simple tenaille.</i></p> + +<p>F. <i>Double tenaille</i> (see L and M).</p> + +<p>(If the tenaille E is reduced in width towards the gorge, as shown +alternatively, it is called a <i>swallow-tail</i>. If the double tenaille is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page687" id="page687"></a>687</span> +reduced as at G, it is called a <i>bonnet de prêtre</i>. Such works were +rarely used.)</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>H. <i>Hornwork:</i> Much used for gates, &c.</p> +<p>I. <i>Crown-work.</i></p> +<p>K. <i>Crowned hornwork.</i></p> +<p>L. M. New forms of <i>tenaille</i>: (N.B.—These are the forms which +ultimately retained the name.)</p> +<p>N. New form of work called a <i>demi-lune lunettée</i>, the ravelin N +being protected by two counterguards, O.</p> +<p>P. <i>Re-entering places of arms.</i></p> +<p>Q. <i>Traverses.</i></p> +<p>R. <i>Salient places of arms.</i></p> +<p>S. <i>Places of arms</i> without <i>traverses</i>.</p> +<p>T. Orillon, to protect the flank V.</p> +<p>X. A <i>double bastion</i> or <i>cavalier</i>.</p> +<p>Y. A <i>retrenchment</i> with a ditch, of the breach Z.</p> +<p>&. <i>Traverses</i> to protect the terreplein of the ramparts from +enfilade.</p> +</div></div> + +<p>Turning back now to the middle of the 16th century we find +in the early examples of the use of the bastion that there is no +attempt made to defend its faces by flanking fire, the curtains +being considered the only weak points of the enceinte. Accordingly, +the flanks are arranged at right angles to the curtain, +and the prolongation of the faces sometimes falls near the middle +of it. When it was found that the faces needed protection, the +first attempts to give it were made by erecting <i>cavaliers</i>, or +raised parapets, behind the parapet of the curtain or in the +bastions.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:498px; height:320px" src="images/img687a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The first example of the complete bastioned system is found in +Paciotto’s citadel of Antwerp, built in 1568 (fig. 21). Here we +have faces, flanks and curtain in due proportion; the faces +long enough to contain a powerful battery, and the flanks able +to defend both curtain and faces. The weak points of this trace, +due to its being arranged on a small pentagon, are that the terreplein +or interior space of the bastions is rather cramped, and the +salient angles too acute.</p> + +<p>In the systems published by Speckle of Strassburg in 1589 +we find a distinct advance. Speckle’s actual constructions in +fortification are of no great importance; but he was a +<span class="sidenote">The 16th century.</span> +great traveller and observer, and in his work, published +just before his death, he has evidently assimilated, +and to some extent improved, the best ideas that had been put +forward up to that time.</p> + +<p>Two specimens from Speckle’s work are well worth studying +as connecting links between the 16th and 17th centuries.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fig. 22 is early 16th-century work much improved. There are no +outworks, except the covered way, now fully developed, with a +battery in the re-entering place of arms. The bastions are large, +but the faces directed on the curtain get little protection from the +flanks. To make up for this they are flanked by the large cavaliers +in the middle of the curtain. The careful arrangement of the flank +should be noted; part of it is retired, with two tiers of fire, some of +which is arranged to bear on the face of the bastion. The great +saliency of the bastion is a weak point, but the whole arrangement +is simple and strong.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:373px; height:398px" src="images/img687b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig 22.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>In the second example, known as Speckle’s “reinforced trace” +(fig. 23), we find him anticipating the work of the next century. +The ravelin is here introduced, and made so large that its faces are +in prolongation of those of the bastions. Speckle’s other favourite +ideas are here: the cavaliers and double parapets and his own +particular invention of the low batteries behind the re-entering +place of arms and the gorge of the ravelin. These low batteries +did not find favour with other writers, being liable to be too easily +destroyed by the +besiegers’ batteries +crowning the +salients of the +covered way.</p> + +<p>Speckle’s book +is of great importance +as embodying +the best work of +the period. His +own ideas are large +and simple, but +rather in advance +of the powers of +the artillery of his +day.</p> +</div> + +<p>At the beginning +of the 17th +century we find +the Italian engineers +following +Paciotto in developing +the complete +bastioned +trace; but they +got on to a bad line of thought in trying to reduce everything +to symmetry and system. The era of geometrical +<span class="sidenote">The 17th century.</span> +fortification (or, as Sir George Clarke has called it, +“drawing-board” fortification) had already begun +with Marchi, and his followers busied themselves entirely in +finding geometrical solutions for the application of symmetrical +bastioned fronts to such imaginary forms of perimeter as the +oval, club, heart, figure of eight, &c. Marchi, however, was one +of the first to think of prolonging the resistance of a place by +means of outworks such as the ravelin. De Villenoisy says that +Busca was the first to discuss the proportions and functions of +all the component parts of a front; and Floriani, about 1630, +was the last of the important Italians. The characteristics of +a good deal of Spanish fortification carried out at this time +were, according to the same authority, that the works were well +adapted to sites, and the masonry excellent but too much exposed, +while the bastions were too small. The Dutch and German +schools will be referred to later.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:520px; height:335px" src="images/img687c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>—Speckle’s Reinforced Trace.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The French engineers now began to take the lead in adapting +the principles already established to actual sites. In the first +half of the century the names of de Ville and Pagan stand out as +having contributed valuable studies to the advancement of the +science. In putting forward their designs they discussed very +fully such practical questions as the length of the line of defence, +whether this should be governed by the range of artillery or +musketry fire, the length of flanks, the use in them of orillons, +casemates and retired flanks, the size of bastions, &c.</p> + +<p>It is the latter half of the 17th century, however, which is one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page688" id="page688"></a>688</span> +of the most important periods in the history of fortification, +chiefly because it was illuminated by the work of Vauban. +It was at this time also that a prodigious output of purely +theoretical fortification began, which went on till the French +Revolution. Many of the “systems” published at this time +were elaborated by men who had no practical knowledge +of the subject, some of them priests who were engaged in +educating the sons of the upper classes, and who had to +teach the elements of fortification among other things. +They naturally wrote treatises, which were valuable for +their clearness of style; and with their industry and +ingenuity the elaboration of existing methods was a very +congenial task. Most of these essays took the form of +multiplication and elaboration of outworks on an impossible +scale, and they culminated in such fantastic +extravagances as the system of Rhana, published in 1769 +(fig. 24). These proposals, however, were of no practical +importance.</p> + +<p>The work of the real masters who knew more than +they published can always be recognized by its comparative +simplicity. The greatest of these was +Sebastien le Prestre de Vauban (<i>q.v.</i>). Born in +1633, and busied from his eighteenth year till his death in +<span class="sidenote">Vauban.</span> +1707 in war or preparations for war, he earned alike by his +genius, his experience, his industry and his personal character +the chief place among modern military engineers. His +experience alone puts him in a category apart from others. +Of this it is enough to say that he took part in forty-eight +sieges, forty of which he directed as chief engineer without +a single failure, and repaired or constructed more than +160 places. Vauban’s genius was essentially practical, and he was +no believer in systems. He would say, “One does not fortify +by systems but by common sense.” Of new ideas in fortification +he introduced practically none, but he improved and modified +existing ideas with consummate skill in actual construction. +His most original work was in the attack (see below), which he +reduced to a scientific method most certain in its results. It +is therefore one of the ironies of fate that Vauban should be +chiefly known to us by three so-called “systems,” known as his +“first,” “second” and “third.” How far he was from following +a system is shown by de Villenoisy, who reproduces twenty-eight +fronts constructed by him between 1667 and 1698, no two of +which are quite alike and most of which vary very considerably +to suit local conditions.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:300px; height:224px" src="images/img688a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Vauban’s “first system,” as variously described by other +writers even in his own time, is pieced together from some +of the early examples of +his work. The “second +system” is the “tower +bastion” defence of Belfort +and Landau (1684-1688), +obviously suggested +by a design of Castriotto’s +one hundred years earlier; +and the “third system” +is the front of Neu-Breisach +(1698), which is +merely Landau slightly +improved. In other +works, between 1688 and 1698, he did not keep to the tower +bastion idea.</p> + +<p>It will be convenient to take the “first system,” as reproduced +in the Royal Military Academy text book of fortification (fig. 25) +as typical of much of Vauban’s work. It may be observed that +he sometimes uses the straight flank, and sometimes the curved +flank with orillon. Parapets in several tiers are never used, nor +cavaliers. The ravelin is almost always used. It is small, +having little artillery power and giving no protection to the +shoulders of the bastions. Sometimes it has flanks and occasionally +a keep.</p> + +<p>The tenaille is very generally found. In this form, viz. as a +shield to the escarp of the curtain, it was probably invented by +him. Fig. 25 shows two forms. In both the parapet of the +tenaille had to be kept low, so that the flanks might defend a +breach at the shoulder of the opposite bastion, with artillery +fire striking within 12 ft. of the base of the escarp. Traverses +are used for the first time on the covered way to guard against +enfilade fire; and the re-entering place of arms, to which Vauban +attached considerable importance, is large.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:567px; height:415px" src="images/img688b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>—Vauban’s First System.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the construction of the trace an average length of about +400 yds. (which, however, is a matter entirely dependent on the +site) may be taken for the exterior side. The perpendicular, except +for polygons of less than six sides, is one-sixth, and the faces of the +bastions two-sevenths of the exterior side. The flanks are chords +of arcs struck from the opposite shoulder as centres. An arc described +with the same radius, but with the angle of the flank as a centre, and +cutting the perpendicular produced outwardly, gives the salient of +the ravelin; the prolongations of the faces of the ravelin fall upon +the faces of the bastions at 11 yds. from the shoulders. The main +ditch has a width of 38 yds. at the salient of the bastions, and the +counterscarp is directed upon the shoulders of the adjoining bastions. +The ditch of the ravelin is 24 yds. wide throughout.</p> + +<p>As regards the profile the bastions and curtain have a command +of 25 ft. over the country, 17 ft. over the crest of the glacis and 8 ft. +over the ravelin. The ditches are 18 ft. deep throughout. The +parapets are 18 ft. thick with full revetments. In his later works +he used demi-revetments.</p> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 26 shows the tower bastions of Neu-Breisach, or the +so-called “third system.” It is worth introducing, simply as +showing that even a mind like Vauban’s could not resist in old +age the tendency to duplicate defences. Here the main bastions +and tenaille are detached from the enceinte. The line of the +enceinte is broken with flanks and further flanked by the towers. +The ravelin is large and has a keep. The section through the +face of the bastion shows a demi-revetment with wide berm, +and a hedge as an additional obstacle.</p> + +<p>After Vauban died, though the theories continued, the valuable +additions to the system were few. Among his successors in the +early part of the 18th century Cormontaingne (<i>q.v.</i>) +has the greatest reputation, though his experience +<span class="sidenote">18th and 19th centuries.</span> +and authority fell far short of Vauban’s. He was a +clear thinker and writer, and the elements of the system +were distinctly advanced by him. His trace includes an enlarged +ravelin with flanks, the ends of which were intended to close the +gaps at the end of the tenaille, and a keep to the ravelin with +flanks. He provides a very large re-entering place of arms, +also with a keep, the ditches of which are carefully traced so as +to be protected from enfilade by the salients of the ravelin and +bastion. He was also in favour of a permanent retrenchment +of the gorge of the bastion. His works were printed, with many +alterations, more than twenty years after his death, to serve as +a text-book for the school of Mézières. This school was established +in 1748, and from this time forward there was an official +school of thought, based on Vauban. Cormontaingne’s work, +therefore, represents the modifications of Vauban’s ideas accepted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page689" id="page689"></a>689</span> +by French engineers in the latter part of the 18th century. The +school of Mézières was afterwards replaced by that of Metz, +which carried on its traditions. Such schools are necessarily +conservative, and hence, in spite of the gradual improvement +in ordnance and firearms, we find the main elements of the +bastioned system remaining unchanged right up to the period of +the Franco-German War in 1870. Chasseloup-Laubat tells us +that, before the Revolution, to attempt novelties in fortification +was to write one’s self down ignorant. How far the general form +of the bastion with its outworks had become crystallized is +evident from a cursory comparison of fig. 27 with Vauban’s +early work. This figure is the front of the Metz school in 1822, +by General Noizet.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:521px; height:543px" src="images/img689a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 26.—Neu-Breisach.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:511px; height:401px" src="images/img689b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 27.—Noizet.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Since, therefore, the official view was that the general outlines +of the system were sacred, the efforts of orthodox engineers from +Cormontaingne’s time onwards were given to improvements of +detail, and mainly to retard breaching operations as long as +possible. We find enormous pains being bestowed on the study +of the comparative heights of the masonry walls and crest levels; +with the introduction here and there of glacis slopes in the ditches, +put in both to facilitate their defence and to protect portions of +the escarps.</p> + +<p>Among the unorthodox two names deserve mention. The first +of these is Chasseloup-Laubat (<i>q.v.</i>), who served throughout the +wars of the Republic and Empire, and constructed the fortress +of Alessandria in Piedmont.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Chasseloup’s main proposals to improve the bastioned system +were two:</p> + +<p>First, in order to prevent the bastions from being breached +through the gaps made by the ditch of the ravelin, he threw forward +the ravelin and its keep outside the main glacis. This had the +further advantage of giving great saliency to the ravelin for cross-fire +over the terrain of the attack. On the other hand, it made the +ravelin liable to capture by the gorge. It is probable that this +system would have lent itself to a splendid defence by an able +commander with a strong force; but under the opposite conditions +it has a dangerous element of weakness.</p> + +<p>Secondly, in order to get freedom to use longer fronts than those +admissible for the ordinary bastioned trace, he proposed to extend +his exterior side up to about 650 yds. and to break the faces of his +bastions; the portion next the shoulder being defended from the +flank of the collateral bastion and coinciding with the line of defence, +and the portion next the salient, up to about 80 yds. in length, +being defended from a central keep or caponier placed in front of the +tenaille. The natural criticism of this arrangement is that it +combines some of the defects of both the bastioned and polygonal +systems without getting the full advantages of either.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:799px" src="images/img689c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 28.—Chasseloup-Laubat.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Fig. 28 shows a half front of Chasseloup’s system, of ordinary +length, as actually constructed. The section shows an interesting +detail, viz. the Chasseloup mask—a detached mask with tunnels +for the casemate guns to fire through, the intention of which is to +save them from being destroyed from a distance.</p> +</div> + +<p>The second name is that of Captain Choumara of the French +Engineers, born in 1787, whose work was published in 1827. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page690" id="page690"></a>690</span> +Two leading ideas are due to him. The first is that of the +“independence of parapets.” A glance at any of the plans that +have already been shown will show that hitherto the crests of +parapets had always been traced parallel to the escarp or +magistral line. Choumara pointed out that, while it was +necessary for the escarp to be traced in straight lines with +reference to the flanking arrangements, there was no such +necessity as regards the parapets. By making the crest of the +parapet quite independent of the escarp line he obtained great +freedom of direction for his fire. The second idea is that of the +“inner glacis.” This was a glacis parapet placed in the main +ditch to shield the escarp; its effect being to prevent the escarp +of the body of the place from being breached in the usual way +by batteries crowning the crest of the covered way.</p> + +<p>The need for Choumara’s improvements has passed by, but +he was in his time a real teacher. One sentence of his strikes a +resounding note: “What is chiefly required in fortification is +simplicity and strength. It is not on a few little contrivances +carefully hidden that one can rely for a good defence. <i>The fate +of a place should not depend on the intelligence of a corporal shut +up in a small post prepared for his detachment.</i>”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:513px; height:296px" src="images/img690a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 29.</span>—Sedan in 1705.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Before leaving the bastioned system it will be of interest to study +a couple of actual and complete examples, one irregular and one +regular. Fig. 29 shows the defences of Sedan as they were at the +end of the 17th century. One sees the touch of Vauban here and +there, but the work is for the most part apparently early 17th +century. It will be observed that on the river side of the town the +defence consists of very irregular bastions with duplicated wet +ditches (see the Dutch style, below); and on the other side, where +water is not available, strength is sought for by pushing a succession +of hornworks far out.</p> + +<p>Fig. 30 is Saarlouis, constructed by Vauban in 1680 in his early +manner, a remarkable example of symmetry. Vauban of course +never thought of aiming at symmetry, which is of itself neither good +nor bad, but it is interesting to note such a perfect example of the +system.</p> + +<p>It must here be remarked that the reproach of “geometrical” +fortification is in no way applicable to the works of Vauban and +his immediate successors. The true geometric fortification, which +worshipped symmetry as a fetish, marked, as has been already +pointed out, the decadence of the Italian school. Vauban and his +fellows excelled in adapting works to sites, the real test of the +engineer.</p> + +<p>The bastioned system was the 17th-century solution of the fortification +problem. Given an artillery and musketry of short range +and too slow for effective frontal defence, a ditch is necessary as an +obstacle. What is the best means of flanking the ditch and of +protecting the flanking arrangements? If Vauban elected for the +bastion, we must before criticizing his choice remember that he was +the most experienced engineer of his day, a man of the first ability +and quite without prejudice. What is matter for regret is that the +authority of Vauban should have practically paralysed the French +school during the 18th and most of the 19th century, so that while +the conditions of attack and defence were gradually altering they +could admit no change of idea, and their best men, who could not +help being original, were struggling against the whole weight of +official opposition.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:511px; height:433px" src="images/img690b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 30.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Again, such duplication of outworks as we see at Sedan is not +geometric fortification. It is a definite attempt to retard the attack, +on ground favourable to it, by successive lines of defence. As to the +policy of this, no axiom can be laid down. Nowadays most of us +think, as Machiavelli did, that a single line of defence is best and that +a second line only serves to suggest the advisability of retreat. +There are also, of course, the recognized drawbacks of outworks, +difficulty of retreat, of relief and so forth, and the moral effect of +their loss. But the engineers of such defences as Ostend and Candia +might well say, “Oh, if only when we had held on to that bastion for +so many months we had had a second and a third line of permanent +retrenchment to fall back upon, we could have held the place for +ever.” And who shall say that they were wrong? Let us at all +events remember that the leading engineers of that time were men +who had passed their lives in a state of war, and that we ourselves +in comparison with them are the theorists.</p> +</div> + +<p>From the end of the 16th century the Dutch methods of +fortification acquired a great reputation, thanks to the stout +resistance offered to the Spaniards by some of their +fortresses, the three years’ defence of Ostend being +<span class="sidenote">The Dutch school.</span> +perhaps the most striking example. Prolonged defences, +which were mainly due to the desperate energy of the +besieged, were credited to the quality of their defences. In point +of fact the Dutch owed more to nature, and more still to their +own spirit, than to art; but they showed a good deal of skill in +adapting recent ideas to their needs.</p> + +<p>Three conditions governed the development of the Dutch +works at this time, viz. want of time, want of money and abundance +of water. When the Netherlands began their revolt +against Spain, they would no doubt have been glad enough of +expensive masonry fortresses on such models as Paciotto’s +citadel of Antwerp. But there was neither time nor money for +such works. Something had to be extemporized, and fortunately +for them they had wet ditches to take the place of high revetted +walls. Everywhere water was near the surface, and rivers or +canals were available for inundations. A wide and shallow +ditch, while making a good obstacle, was also the readiest means +of obtaining earth for the ramparts. High command was, owing +to the flatness of the country, unnecessary and even undesirable, +as it did not allow of grazing fire.</p> + +<p>What the Dutch actually did in strengthening their towns +gives little evidence of system. Starting as a rule from an +existing enceinte, sometimes a medieval wall, they would provide +a broad wet ditch. No further provision was usually made on +the sides of the town which were additionally protected by a +river or inundation. On the other sides the wet ditch was made +still broader, and sometimes contained a counterguard, sometimes +ravelins and lunettes. These were quite irregular in their +design and relation to each other. At the foot of the glacis would +be found another but narrower wet ditch, which was a peculiarly +Dutch feature; and sometimes if the town was in a bend of a +river there would be a canal cut across the bend in a straight line, +strengthened by several redans.</p> + +<p>Speaking generally, they endeavoured to provide for the want +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page691" id="page691"></a>691</span> +of a first-class masonry obstacle by multiplication of wet ditches, +and further to strengthen these obstacles by great quantities +of palisading, for which purpose the timber of old ships was used. +They also recognized the inherent weaknesses of wet ditches, +as, for instance, that when frozen they no longer provide an +obstacle; and they studied the means, not only of causing +inundations, but also of arranging to empty as well as to +fill the ditches at will. Simon Stevin was the leader in this +work.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless a Dutch school of design did come into existence +at this time. The leaders, early in the 17th century, were Simon +Stevin, Maurice and Henry of Nassau, Marollois and Freitag. +The fortress of Coevorden, constructed by Prince Maurice, of +which fig. 31 shows a front, is a well-known example of this, and +the section shows clearly some typical features of the school.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:325px" src="images/img691a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.</span>—Coevorden.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The elements of the plan are those of the early bastioned trace, +but we find added both ravelins and lunettes, very regular in design. +There is also the ditch at the foot of the glacis, and surrounding +the rampart of the enceinte a continuous fausse-braie. This work, +which partook of the nature of both boulevard and counterguard, +served several purposes. It was desirable that the weight of the +rampart should be drawn back a little from the edge of the ditch, +and the fausse-braie filled what would otherwise have been dead +ground at the foot of the rampart. It also afforded a grazing fire +over the ditch, which was very important, and which the rampart +supported by a plunging fire.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:272px" src="images/img691b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 32.</span>—Coehoorn’s First System.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Coehoorn (<i>q.v.</i>), the contemporary and nearest rival to Vauban, +was the greatest light of the Dutch school. Like Vauban he was +distinguished as a fighting engineer, both in attack and +defence; but in the attack he differed from him in +<span class="sidenote">Coehoorn.</span> +relying more on powerful artillery fire than systematic earthworks. +He introduced the Coehoorn mortar. His “first +system,” which was employed at Mannheim (fig. 32), is reproduced +for the sake of comparison with the Coevorden front +designed a hundred years earlier. Among other points will be +noticed the combination of wet and dry ditches; the very broad +main ditch with counterguard; the roomy keep of the ravelin; +the expansion of the fausse-brais into an independent low +parapet; and the powerful flanking fire in three tiers.</p> + +<p>The “tenaille” system and the “polygonal” system which +grew out of it are mainly identified with the <i>German school</i>. +That school, says von Zastrow, does not, like that of +France, represent the authoritative teaching of an +<span class="sidenote">German school.</span> +official establishment, but rather the general practice +of the German engineers. It was founded on the principles of +Dürer, Speckle and especially Rimpler, and much influenced in +execution by Montalembert. “The German engineers desired +a simple trace, a strong fortification with retrenchments and +keeps, bomb-proof accommodation and an organization suitable +for an offensive defence.”</p> + +<p>These had always been the German principles. Already in the +16th century the Prussian defences of Kustrin, Spandau and +Peitz had large bomb-proof casemates sufficient for a great +part of the garrison. The same thing is seen in the defences of +Giogau, Schweidnitz, &c., built by Frederick the Great. These +works show various applications of the tenaille system. In +1776 Frederick became acquainted with the work of Montalembert, +and his influence is seen in the casemates of Kosel.</p> + +<p>Whether through the influence of Albert Dürer or not cannot +be said, but while the bastion was being developed in France +the tenaille and the accompanying casemates from the first +found acceptance in Germany, and thence in eastern and northern +Europe. De Groote, who wrote in 1618, produced a sort of +tenaille system, and may have been the inspiration of Rimpler. +Dillich (1640), Landsberg the elder (1648), Griendel d’Aach +(1677), Werthmuller (1685) and others advocated both bastion +and tenaille, sometimes in combination; the German bastion +being usually distinguished by short faces and long flanks.</p> + +<p>Rimpler, who was present at the siege of Candia (taken by the +Turks in 1669) and died at that of Vienna in 1683, exercised a +great influence. He had been struck by the weakness of the +early Italian bastions at Candia, and published a book in 1673 +called <i>Fortification with Central Bastions</i>, which was practically +the polygonal trace. Zastrow thinks that Rimpler inspired +Montalembert. He left unfortunately no designs to illustrate +his ideas.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:345px; height:352px" src="images/img691c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 33.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Landsberg the younger (1670-1746), a major-general in the +Prussian service, who saw many sieges, also had a great influence. +He appears to have +been the first who +frankly advocated +the tenaille alone, +chiefly on the ground +that the flank, which +was the most important +part of the +bastioned system, +was also the weakest. +Fig. 33 shows his +system, published in +1712.</p> + +<p>It was, however, +ultimately a Frenchman, +Marc René +Montalembert (<i>q.v.</i>), +who was the great +apostle of the tenaille, +though in his later +years he leaned more to the polygonal trace. He objected +to the bastioned trace on many grounds; principally +that the bastion was a shell trap, that the flanks by +<span class="sidenote">Montalembert and Carnot.</span> +crossing their fire lost the advantage of the full +range of their weapons, and that the curtain was +useless for defence. He took the view that the bastions with +their ravelins constituted practically a tenaille trace, spoilt by +the detachment of the ravelins and cramped by the presence of +the curtains and flanks. His tenaille system consisted of redans, +with salient angles of 60° or more, flanking each other at right +angles; from which he gave to his system the name of “perpendicular +fortification.”</p> + +<p style="clear: both;">Lazare Carnot (<i>q.v.</i>), the “Organizer of Victory,” was, in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page692" id="page692"></a>692</span> +fortification, a follower of Montalembert, and produced in 1797 +a tenaille system (fig. 34) on strong and simple lines.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:295px; height:220px" src="images/img692a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 34.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:360px; height:124px" src="images/img692b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 35.</span>—Mortar-casemate and Detached Wall.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:304px; height:227px" src="images/img692c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 36.</span>—Montalembert, 1786.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1812 Carnot offered three systems. For a dry and level site he +recommended a bastioned trace; but for wet ditches and for irregular +ground, tenaille traces. Both of these latter differ from his 1797 +trace in that the re-entering angle is reinforced by a tenaille whose +faces are parallel to the main faces and reach almost to the salients. +There are also counterguards in front of the salients, whose ends +overlap the ends of the tenaille. (N.B. To avoid confusion between +the <i>tenaille trace</i> and the +<i>tenaille</i>, it should be noted +that the latter is a low detached +parapet placed in +front of the escarp of the +body of the place, partly as +a shield, and partly as an +additional line of defence. +It is used in front of the +curtain in the bastioned +trace, and in the re-entering +angle in the tenaille trace.)</p> + +<p>Other important features +of Carnot’s work were: a +continuous general retrenchment, +or interior parapet, +following more or less the +lines of the main parapet; the use of the detached wall in place +of the escarp revetment; and the countersloping glacis. This last +(of which Carnot was not the inventor), instead of sloping gently +outwards from a crest raised about 8 ft. down to the natural level +of the ground, sloped inwards from the ground-level to the bottom +of the ditch. The advantage of the additional obstacle of the +counterscarp was thus lost to the defence. On the other hand, the +besiegers’ saps, as they progressed down the glacis, were exposed to a +plunging fire from the parapet.</p> +</div> + +<p>Carnot was also, like Coehoorn, a great believer in the +mortar; but while Coehoorn introduced the small portable +mortar that bears his name, Carnot expected great results from +a 13 in. mortar throwing 600 iron balls at each discharge. He +endeavoured to +prove mathematically +that the discharge +of these +mortars would in +due course kill off +the whole of the +besieging force. +These mortars he emplaced in open fronted mortar-casemates, +in concealed positions. Fig. 35 shows in section one of these +mortar-casemates, placed between the parapet of the retrenchment +and a detached wall.</p> + +<p>The leading idea of Montalembert was that for a successful +defence it was necessary for the artillery to be superior to that +of the enemy. This idea led him to the adoption of +casemates in several tiers; in preference to open +<span class="sidenote">The polygonal trace.</span> +parapets, exposed to artillery fire of all kinds, high +angle, ricochet and reverse. In considering the defects +of bastions he had arrived at the conclusion that for flanking +purposes two forms of trace were preferable; either the tenaille +form, connecting the +ravelins with the body of +the place, or the form in +which the primary flanking +elements, instead of +facing each other with +overlapping fire, as with +the bastions, should be +placed back to back in +the middle of the exterior +side. Fig. 36 is an example +of this. The central +flanking work resulting +from this arrangement is +the caponier of the early Italians, reintroduced and developed; +and with it Montalembert laid the foundation of the polygonal +system of our own time.</p> + +<p>Montalembert was one of the first to foresee the coming +necessity for detached forts, and it was for these that he chiefly +proposed to use his caponier flanking, preferring the tenaille +system for large places. In abandoning the bastioned trace +he was already committed to the principle of casemate defence +for ditches; and the combination of this principle with his +desire for an overwhelming artillery defence led him in the course +of years of controversial writing into somewhat extravagant +proposals. For instance, for a square fort of about 400 yds. +side, he proposed over 1000 casemate guns; and one of his +caponier sections shows 10 tiers of masonry gun-casemates one +above the other. Confiding in the power of such an artillery, +he freely exposed the upper parts of his casemates to direct fire.</p> + +<p>Montalembert is said to have contributed more new ideas +to fortification than any other man. His designs must be +considered in some ways unworkable and unsound, but all the +best work of the 19th century rests on his teaching. The Germans, +who already used the tenaille system and made free provision +of bomb-proof casemates, took from him the polygonal trace and +the idea of the entrenched camp.</p> + +<p>The polygonal system in fortification implies straight or +slightly broken exterior sides, flanked by casemated caponiers. +The caponier is the vital point of the front, and is protected in +important works by a ravelin and keep. The essence of the +system is its simplicity, which allows of its being applied to any +sort of ground, level or broken, and to long or short fronts.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:384px; height:615px" src="images/img692d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 37.</span>—Front at Posen.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The final period of smooth bore artillery is an important one +in the history of fortification. It is true that the many expensive +works that were constructed at this time were obsolete +almost as soon as they were finished; but this was +<span class="sidenote">1815-1855, entrenched camps.</span> +inevitable, thanks to the pace at which the world was +travelling. After the Napoleonic wars the Germanic +Confederation began to strengthen its frontiers; and considering +that they had not derived much strategic advantage from their +existing fortresses, +the Germans +took up +Montalembert’s +idea of entrenched +camps, utilizing +at the same +time his polygonal +system +with modifications +for the +main enceintes. +The Prussians +began with the +fortresses of Coblenz +and Cologne; +later Posen, +Königsberg and +other places were +treated on the +same lines. The +Austrians constructed, +among +other places, +Linz and Verona. +The Germanic +Confederation +reinforced Mainz +with improved +works, and reorganized <span class="correction" title="amended from enentirely">entirely</span> +Rastatt +and Ulm. The +Bavarians built Germersheim and Ingolstadt. While all these +works were conceived in the spirit of Rimpler and Montalembert, +they showed the differences of national temperament. +The Prussian works, simple in design, relied upon powerful +artillery fire, and exposed a good deal of masonry to the enemy’s +view. The Austrians covered part of their masonry with earth +and gave more attention to detail.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page693" id="page693"></a>693</span></p> + +<p>The German development of the polygonal system at this +time is not of great importance, since the great masonry caponiers +were designed without sufficient consideration for the increasing +powers of artillery. One example (fig. 37) is given for the +sake of historical comparison. It is a front of Posen.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The exterior side of the front is about 650 yds. (600 metres) long. +It is flanked by a central caponier, which is protected by a <i>detached +bastion</i>.... The main front is broken back to flank the faces of the +bastion from casemates behind the escarp, as well as from the parapet.</p> + +<p>“The central caponier forms the keep of the whole front and +sweeps both the interior and the ditch by its flanking fire. It has +two floors of gun-casemates and one for musketry, and +on the top is a parapet completely commanding alike the +<span class="sidenote">Posen.</span> +outworks and the body of the place. It contains barrack accommodation +for a battalion of 1000 men, and has a large inner courtyard +closed at the gorge by a detached wall. The caponier is itself flanked +by three small caponiers at the head, and one at the inner end of each +flank.</p> + +<p>“The escarp of the body of the place is a simple detached wall; +that of the detached bastion is either a detached wall with piers and +arches, or a counter-arched revetment. At the salient of the bastion +there is a mortar battery under the rampart, and a casemated +traverse for howitzers upon the terreplein. The flanks of the bastion +are parallel to those of the caponier, and at the same distance from +it as the faces.</p> + +<p>“Masonry blockhouses, loopholed for musketry, are provided as +keeps of the re-entering and salient places of arms. In the latter +case they have stairs leading down into a counterscarp gallery, +which serves as a base for countermine galleries, and is connected +with the detached bastion by a gallery under the ditch. The counterscarp +is not revetted if the ditch is wet.</p> + +<p>“The angle of the polygon should not be less than 160°, in order +that the prolongation of the main ditch may fall within the salients +of the detached bastions of the neighbouring fronts, and the masonry +of the caponiers may thus be hidden from outside view.” (R.M.A. +<i>Text-book of F. & M.E.</i>, 1886.)</p> +</div> + +<p>We have now reached a period when the “detached fort” +becomes of more importance than the organization of the enceinte. +The early conception of the rôle of detached forts in +connexion with the fortress was to form an entrenched +<span class="sidenote">The detached fort.</span> +camp within which an army corps could seek safety +if necessary. The idea had occurred to Vauban, who +added to the permanent defences of Toulon a large camp defended +by field parapets attached to one side of the fortress. The +substitution of a ring of detached forts, while giving it the +greater safety of permanent instead of field defences, gave also +a wider area and freer scope for the operations of an army +seeking shelter under the guns of a fortress, and at the same time +made siege more difficult by increasing the line of investment. +The use of the detached fort as a means of protecting the body +of the place from bombardment had not yet been made necessary +by increased range of artillery.</p> + +<p>When these detached forts were first used by Germany the +scope of the idea had evidently not been realised, as they were +placed much too close to the fortress. Those at Cologne, for +instance, were only some 400 or 500 yds. in advance of the +ramparts. The same leading idea is seen in most of these forts +as in the new enceintes; <i>i.e.</i> a lunette, with a casemated keep +at the gorge. The keep is the essential part of the work, the +rampart of the lunette serving to protect it from frontal artillery +fire. The keep projects to the rear, so as not only to be able to +flank its own gorge, but to give some support to the neighbouring +works with guns protected from frontal fire. This is a valuable +arrangement, which is still sometimes used. The front ditches +of the lunettes were flanked by caponiers. Some of the larger +forts were simple quadrangular works with casemate barracks +and caponier ditch defence.</p> + +<p>In 1830, in Austria, the archduke Maximilian made an entirely +fresh departure with the defences of Linz. The idea was to +provide an entrenched camp at the least possible cost, whose +works should require the smallest possible garrison. With this +object Linz was surrounded with a belt of circular towers spaced +about 600 yds. apart. The towers, 25 metres in diameter, were +enclosed by a ditch and glacis, and contained 3 tiers of casemates. +The masonry was concealed from view by the ditch and glacis. +On the top of the tower was an earth parapet, over which a +battery of 13 guns fired <i>en barbette</i>. In order to find room for +so many guns in the restricted space, the whole 13 were placed +parallel and close together on a single specially designed mounting.</p> + +<p>This new departure was received with a certain amount of +approval at the time, which is somewhat difficult to account for, +as a more faulty system could hardly be devised; but the +experiment was never repeated.</p> + +<p>The credit for much of the clear views and real progress made +in Germany during this period is due to General von Brese-Winiari, +inspector-general of the Prussian engineers.</p> + +<p>France, for a few years after 1815, could spare little money for +fortifications, and nothing was done but repairs and minor +improvements on the old lines. Belgium, having some money +in hand, rebuilt and improved in detail a number of bastioned +fortresses which had fallen into disrepair.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:513px; height:615px" src="images/img693.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 38.</span> The Fortress of Antwerp.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In 1830 France began to follow the lead of Germany with +entrenched camps. The enceinte of Paris was reconstructed, +and detached forts were added at a cost, according to von +Zastrow, of £8,000,000. The Belgian and German frontiers +of France being considered fairly protected by the existing +fortresses, they turned their attention to the Swiss and Italian +frontiers, and constructed three fortresses with detached forts at +Belfort, Besançon and Grenoble. The cost of the new works at +Lyons was, according to the same writer, £1,000,000 without +the armament. Here and elsewhere the enceinte was simplified +on account of the advanced defences. That of Paris, which was +influenced by political considerations, was a simple bastioned +trace with rather long fronts and without ravelins or other +outworks; the escarp was high and therefore exposed, and the +counterscarp was not revetted.</p> + +<p>As regards the detached forts there was certainly a want of +clearness of conception. Those of Paris were simply fortresses +in miniature, square or pentagonal figures with bastioned fronts +and containing defensible barracks. Those of Lyons were much +more carefully designed, but the authors wavered between two +ideas. Unwilling to give up the bastion, but evidently hankering +after the new caponiers, they produced a type which it is difficult +to praise. The larger works were irregular four- or five-sided +figures with bastioned fronts; and practically the whole interior +space was taken up by a large keep, with its ditch, on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page694" id="page694"></a>694</span> +polygonal system. The smaller works, instead of a keep, had +defensible barracks in the gorge.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:858px; height:666px" src="images/img694.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 39.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>During the period 1855-1870 a considerable impulse was given +to the science of fortification, both by the Crimean War and the +arrival of the rifled gun. One immediate result of these +was the condemnation of masonry exposed to artillery +<span class="sidenote">Period from 1855 to 1870.</span> +fire. The most important work of the period was the +new scheme of defence of Antwerp, initiated in 1859. +This is chiefly interesting as giving us the last and finest expression +of the medieval enceinte, at a time when the war +between the polygonal and bastioned traces was still raging, +though the boom of the long-range guns had already given +warning that a new era had begun. Antwerp is also associated +with the name of General Brialmont (<i>q.v.</i>), of the +Belgian engineers, whom posterity will no doubt regard as +the greatest writer on fortification of the latter half of the +19th century.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:360px; height:545px" src="images/img694a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 40.</span>—Sections of fig. 39.</td></tr></table> + +<p>We give in figs. 38, 39 and 40 the general plan of the 1859 +defences of Antwerp, the plan of a front of the enceinte, and its +<span class="sidenote">Antwerp.</span> +sections, as showing almost the last word of fortification +before the arrival of high explosives.</p> + +<p>The defences of Antwerp were designed, as the strategic centre +of the national defence of Belgium, for an entrenched camp for +100,000 men. The length of the enceinte is about 9 m. The +detached forts, which on the sides not defended by inundation +are about 1¼ m. apart and from 2 to 3 m. in front of the enceinte, +are powerful works, arranged for a garrison of 1000 men. They +have each a frontal crest-line of over 700 yds. and are intended +for an armament of 120 guns and 15 mortars.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The general +arrangement of the +fronts of the enceinte +should be +compared with the +earlier German +type of Posen. It +will be noticed that +while the large +casemated caponier +at Posen breaks +the enceinte and +flanks it both without +and within, at +Antwerp the caponier +is detached—a +much sounder +arrangement—and +flanks the front +only. The defence +of the faces rests +on the width of the +wet ditches and on +the flanking power +of the caponier; +there is no attempt +to add to it by +fausse-braie or +detached wall. +The dimensions are +everywhere very +generous, allowing +free movement for +the troops of the +defence; the covered +way is 22 yds. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page695" id="page695"></a>695</span> +wide and there is a double terreplein on the face. The parapet +of the face is 27 ft. thick. The masonry of the casemate guns +in the caponier, first flank and low battery, is protected by earth, +<i>à la</i> Haxo.</p> +</div> + +<p>In 1859 Austria acknowledged the influence of the new artillery +with some new forts at Verona. The detached forts built by +Radetzky in 1848 were only from 1000 to 2000 yds. distant from +the ramparts. Those now added, of which fig. 41 is an example, +were from 3000 to 4000 yds. out.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:418px" src="images/img695a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 41.</span>—Austrian Fort at Verona.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the same year the land defences of some of the British +dockyards were taken in hand. These first serious attempts at +permanent fortification in England were received with approval +on the continent, as constituting an advance on anything that +had been done before. The detached forts intended to keep an +enemy outside bombarding distance were roomy works with +small keeps. The parapets were organized for artillery and the +ditches were defended by caponiers or counterscarp galleries. +The forts were spaced about a mile apart and arranged so as to +support each other by their fire.</p> + +<p>The sieges of the Franco-German War of 1870 are alluded +to in the section below dealing with the “Attack of Fortresses.” +As regards their effect on the designs of fortification +the most important thing to note is the distance to +<span class="sidenote">Period from 1870 to 1885.</span> +which it was thought necessary to throw out the +detached forts. These distances were of course influenced +by the character of the ground, but for the most part +they were very largely increased. Thus at Paris the fort at St Cyr +was 18,000 yds. from the enceinte; at Verdun the distances +varied from 2300 to 12,000 yds.; at Belfort the new forts were +from 4500 to 11,500 yds. out; at Metz 2300 to 4500; and at +Strassburg 5200 to 10,000. One result of these increased +distances was of course to increase very largely the length of +the zone of investment, and therefore the strength necessary +for the besieging force.</p> + +<p>As regards the character of the works, the typical shape +adopted both in France and Germany was a very obtuse-angled +lunette, shallow from front to rear. The German type had one +parapet only, which was organized for artillery and heavily +traversed, the living casemates being under this parapet. The +ditch defence was provided for by caponiers and a detached wall +(see fig. 42).</p> + +<p>The French forts had two parapets, that in the rear being +placed over living casemates (in two tiers, as shown in the section +of fig. 43 by a dotted line), and commanding the front one. +There was a long controversy as to whether the artillery of the +fort should be on the upper or the lower parapet, the advocates +of the upper parapet attaching great importance to the command +that the guns would have over the country in front. The other +school, objecting to having guns on the skyline, preferred to +sacrifice the command and place them on the lower parapet, as +in fig. 43, the infantry occupying the upper parapet. It will be +observed that the bastioned trace is abandoned, the ditches, +like those of the German fort, being defended by caponiers.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:502px; height:438px" src="images/img695b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 42.</span>—German Fort about 1880.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:512px; height:519px" src="images/img695c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 43.</span>—French Fort about 1880.</td></tr></table> + +<p>While a great deal of work was done on these lines, a very +active controversy had already begun on the general question +as to whether guns should be employed in forts at all. Some +declared that the accuracy and power of artillery had already +developed so far, that guns in fixed and visible positions must +needs be put out of action in a very short time. The remedy +proposed by these was the removal of the guns from the forts into +“wing-batteries” which should be less conspicuous; but soon +the broader idea was put forward of placing the guns in concealed +positions and moving them from one to another by means of +previously prepared roads or railways. Others declared that +there was no safety for the guns outside the forts, and that the +use of steel turrets and disappearing cupolas was the only +solution of the difficulty. General Brialmont, who had by this +time become the first European authority on fortification questions, +ranged himself on the side of the turrets. The younger +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page696" id="page696"></a>696</span> +school were largely in favour of mobility and expressed themselves +eagerly in a shower of pamphlets.</p> + +<p>It was at this juncture that a new factor was introduced, +namely, the obus-torpille, or long shell with high-explosive +bursting charge. With its appearance we say good-bye to the +old school and enter upon the consideration of the fortification +of to-day.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">II. Modern Permanent Fortification</p> + +<p>Modern fortification dates by universal consent from 1885. +The Germans had begun experiments a year or two before this, +with long shell containing large charges of gun-cotton. +But it was the experiments at Fort Malmaison in France +<span class="sidenote">High-angle fire with long shell.</span> +in 1886 that set the military world speculating on the +future of fortification. The fort was used as a target +for 8-in. shell of five calibres length containing large charges of +melinite. The reported effects of these made a tremendous +sensation, and it was thought at first that the days of permanent +fortification were over. Magazine casemates were destroyed +by a single shell, and revetment walls were overturned and +practicable breaches made by two or three shells falling behind +them. It must be remembered, however, that the works were +not adapted to meet this kind of fire. The casemates had +enough earth over them to tamp the shell thoroughly, but +not enough to prevent it from coming into contact with the +masonry, and the latter was not thick enough to resist the explosion +of the big charges. Other experiments were made in +the same direction in Germany, Holland, Belgium and Austria. +The Germans used shell containing from 60 to 130 ℔ of high +explosive.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:905px; height:765px" src="images/img696.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90">From Plessix and Legrand’s <i>Manuel complet de la fortification</i>, by permission.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 44.</span>—Metz in 1899.</td></tr></table> + +<p>After the first alarm had subsided foreign engineers set about +adapting their works to meet the new projectiles. Revetments +were enormously strengthened, and designed so that their weight +resisted overturning. Concrete roofs were made from 6 to 10 ft. +thick, and in many cases the surface of the concrete was left bare +so as to expose a hard surface to the shell without any earth +tamping. The idea of cupolas and shielded guns gained ground, +and is now practically accepted all over the continent of Europe. +In many cases the main armament, in some only the safety +armament (see below), is in cupolas in the forts.</p> + +<p>But meanwhile Europe had been flooded with literature +on the subject, and the whole policy of fortification as well as +its minutest details were discussed <i>ab ovo</i>. The extremists of +both sides revelled in their opportunity. Some declared that, +with the use of heavy guns and armour, fortresses could be made +stronger than ever. Others held that modern fortresses were far +too expensive, that their use led to strategic mistakes, and +(arguing from certain well-known examples) that extemporized +field defences could offer as good a resistance as permanent +works.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page697" id="page697"></a>697</span></p> + +<p>European military opinion generally is now more or less +agreed on the following lines:—</p> + +<div class="condensed list"> +<p>1. Important places must be defended by fortresses.</p> + +<p>2. Their girdle of forts must be far enough out to prevent the +bombardment of the place.</p> + +<p>3. An enceinte is desirable, but need not be elaborate.</p> + +<p>4. A few guns (called “safety armament”) should be in the forts, +and these must be protected by armour.</p> + +<p>5. The bulk of the artillery of the defence should be outside the +forts; the direct-fire guns preferably in cupolas, the howitzers +in concealed positions.</p> + +<p>6. The forts should be connected by lines of entrenched infantry +positions and obstacles, permanent bomb-proof shelters being +provided for the infantry.</p> + +<p>7. There should be ample communications—radial and peripheral—between +the place and the forts, both by road and rail.</p> + +<p>8. Special lines of communication—such as mountain passes—should +be closed by barrier forts.</p> +</div> + +<p>These considerations will now be taken somewhat more in +detail, but first it will be useful to deal with the plan of Metz +in 1899 (fig. 44).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Here the fortifications of successive periods can be readily recognized. +First the old enceinte, unaltered by the Germans and now +<span class="sidenote">Metz.</span> +<i>déclassée</i>. Next the detached forts, begun by the French +engineers in 1868 and still unfinished in 1870, can be +readily recognized by their bastioned trace. Among them are Fort +Manteuffel, formerly St Julien, and Fort Goeben (fig. 45), formerly +Queuleu. These were not altered in their general lines.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:344px" src="images/img697a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Plessix and Legrand’s <i>Manuel complet de la fortification</i>, by permission.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 45.</span>—Fort Goeben, Metz.</td></tr></table> + +<p>This early line of detached forts, less than 3000 yds. from the +enceinte, was completed by the Germans with forts of polygonal +type such as Fort Prinz August. The hill of St Quentin (fig. 46), a +very important point, was converted into a fortified position, with +two forts and connecting parapets, and a communication running +north to Fort Alvensleben.</p> + +<p>The arrangement of wing batteries in connexion with the forts +can be clearly noted at Fort Manteuffel. These are reinforced by +other batteries either for the defence of the intervals or to dominate +important lines of approach such as the valley of the Moselle (canal +battery at Montigny). To these were added later armoured batteries.</p> + +<p>There are also infantry positions, shelters and magazines in connexion +with this line.</p> + +<p>Finally some new forts of modern type were commenced in 1899 +at about 9000 yds. from the place.</p> +</div> + +<p>Leaving out of consideration at present the strategic use of +<span class="sidenote">Fortresses.</span> +groups of fortresses, the places which, as mentioned +above, are intrinsically worth being defended as +fortresses are:—</p> + +<div class="condensed list" style="clear: both;"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Centres of national, industrial or military resources.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Places which may serve as <i>points d’appui</i> for manœuvres.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Points of intersection of important railroads.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) Bridges over considerable rivers.</p> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) Certain lines of communication across a frontier.</p> +</div> + +<p>Examples of (<i>a</i>) are Paris, Antwerp, Lyons, Verdun. Again +for (<i>a</i>) and (<i>b</i>), as is pointed out by Plessix and Legrand, Metz +in the hands of the Germans may serve both as a base of supplies +and a <i>point d’appui</i> for one flank. Strassburg is a bridge-head +giving the Germans a secure retreat across the Rhine if beaten +in the plains of Alsace, and an opportunity of resuming the +offensive when they have re-formed behind the river.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:525px; height:376px" src="images/img697b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Plessix and Legrand’s <i>Manuel complet de la fortification</i>, by permission.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 46.</span>—St Quentin position, Metz.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The distance of detached forts from the place depends on the +range of the siege artillery and the distance at which it can +usually be established from the forts, and is variously +given by different continental writers at from 4 to 9 km. +<span class="sidenote">The ring of detached forts.</span> +(4500 to 10,000 yds.). The bombarding range of siege +howitzers with heavy shells is considered to be about +8000 yds., and if it is possible for them to be emplaced within +say 2000 yds. of the forts, this would give a minimum distance +of 6000 yds. from the forts to the body of the place. Some writers +extend the minimum distance to 7 km., or nearly 8000 yds. +In practice, however, it must happen that the position of the +forts is determined to a very large extent by the lie of the ground. +Thus some good positions for forts may be found within 4000 or +5000 yds. of the place, and no others suitable on the same front +within 15,000 yds. In that case the question of expense might +necessitate choosing the nearer positions. Some examples of +the actual distances of existing forts have already been given. +Others, more recent, are, at Bucharest 7-10 km., Lyons 8-10½, +Copenhagen 7-8 and Paris 14-17. <i>Strategic pivots</i> are in a different +category from other fortresses. While not necessarily protected +from bombardment, they may yet have one or two forts thrown +out from 9 to 12 km., to get advantage of ground. Such are +Langres, Epinal and Belfort.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Enceinte.</i>—The desirability of this is almost universally +allowed; but often it is more as a concession to tradition than for +any solid reason. The idea is that behind the line of forts, which is +the main defensive position, any favourable points that exist should +be provisionally fortified to assist in a “step-by-step” defence: and +behind these again the body of the place should be surrounded by a +last line of defence, so that the garrison may resist to the last moment. +It may be remarked that apart from the additional expense of an +enceinte, such a position would not, under modern conditions, be +the most favourable for the last stages of a defence. Again, there is +the difficulty that it is practically impossible to shut in a large +modern town by a continuous enceinte. It has been proposed to +construct the enceinte in sections in front of the salient portions of +the place. This system of course abandons several of the chief +advantages claimed for an enceinte.</p> + +<p>In actual practice enceintes have been constructed since 1870 in +France and other countries, consisting of a simple wall 10 or 12 ft. +high with a banquette and loopholes at intervals. This of course can +only be looked upon as a measure of police. For war purposes, in +face of modern artillery, it is a <i>reductio ad absurdum</i>.</p> + +<p><i>The Safety Armament.</i>—If the bulk of the artillery is to be placed +in positions prepared on the outbreak of war, it is considered very +necessary that a few heavy long-range guns should be permanently +in position ready at any moment to keep an enemy at a distance, +forcing him to open his first batteries at long range and checking the +advance of his investment line. Such guns would naturally be in +secure positions inside the forts, and if they are to be worked from +such positions they must have armour to shield them from the +concentrated fire of the numerous field artillery that a besieger +could bring to bear from the first.</p> +</div> + +<p>Artillery outside the forts constitutes the most important +part of the defence, and there is room for much discussion as to +whether it should have positions prepared for it beforehand +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page698" id="page698"></a>698</span> +or should be placed in positions selected as the attack develops +<span class="sidenote">The question of artillery positions.</span> +itself. On the one hand the preparation of the positions beforehand, +which in many cases means the use of armour +and concrete, increases very largely the initial expense +of the defence, and ties the defender somewhat in +the special dispositions that become desirable once +the attack has taken shape. Moreover, such expenditure +must be incurred on all the fronts of the fortress, whereas +the results would only be realized on the front or fronts +actually attacked. On the other hand much time and labour +are involved in emplacing heavy and medium artillery with +extemporized protection, and this becomes a serious consideration +when one remembers how much work of all kinds is necessary +in preparing a fortress against attack. Again, to avoid the danger +of a successful attack on the intervals between the forts before +their defences have been fully completed, the fire of the guns +in the intermediate positions might be urgently required. The +solution in any given case would no doubt depend on the importance +of the place. In most cases a certain amount of compromise +will come in, some preparation being made for batteries, without +their being completed. Armoured batteries of whatever kind +must in any case be prepared in peace time. It should not be +overlooked that as, whatever theories may exist about successive +lines of defence, the onus of the defence will now lie on the fort +line, just as it formerly did on the enceintes, so that line should +be fully prepared, and should not have to commence its fight in +a position of inequality.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:949px; height:650px" src="images/img698.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Brialmont’s <i>Progrès de la défense des états et de la fortification permanente depuis Vauban</i>, by permission of M. le Commandant G. Meeüs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 47.</span></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Defence of Intervals of Forts.</i>—The frontal fire of the batteries in +the intervals and the flanking fire of some of the guns in the forts +will play an important part, but the main reliance should be on +infantry defence. A fully prepared fortress would have practically +a complete chain of infantry fighting positions and obstacles between +the forts, at all events on the fronts likely to be seriously attacked. +The positions would consist largely of fire trenches, with good +communications; but it is pretty generally recognized that there +must be some <i>points d’appui</i> in the shape of redoubts or infantry +forts, and also bomb-proof shelter for men, ammunition and stores +near the fighting line. This is usually included in the redoubts. +If they are to resist the heaviest shell, such shelters must be built +in peace time.</p> + +<p><i>Communications</i> are of the first importance, not merely to facilitate +the movement of the enormous stores of ammunition and materials +required in the fighting line, but also that defenders may fully utilize +the advantage of acting on interior lines. They should include both +railways and roads running from the centre of the place to the +different sectors of defence, and all round, in rear of the line of forts; +also ample covered approaches to the fighting line. Concealment +is essential, and where the lie of the ground does not help, it must be +got from earth parapets or plantations.</p> +</div> + +<p>The principal use of barrier forts is in country where the +necessary line of communication cannot be easily diverted. +For instance, in a comparatively flat country a barrier +fort commanding a road or railway is of little use +<span class="sidenote">Barrier forts.</span> +because roads may be found passing round it, or a line +of railway may be diverted for some miles to avoid it. But in +mountainous country, where such diversion is impossible, it will +be necessary for the enemy to capture the fort before he can +advance; and the impossibility of surrounding it, the few +positions from which siege artillery can be brought into play, +and the fact that there is practically only one road of approach +to be denied, make these positions peculiarly suitable for forts +with armoured batteries. Italy makes considerable use of such +forts for the defence of frontier passes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>General Brialmont’s Theoretical Claim for the Defence of a Country.</i>—Before +going into details, it is worth while to state the full claim +of strategic fortification advanced by General Brialmont, the most +thorough of all its advocates. It is as follows:—</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>A. Fortify the capital.</p> + +<p>B. Fortify the points where main lines of communication pass a +strategic barrier.</p> + +<p>C. Make an entrenched camp at the most important centre of +communication in each zone of invasion: and support it by +one or two places arranged so as to make a fortified district.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page699" id="page699"></a>699</span></p> + +<p>D. Close with barrier forts the lines necessary to an enemy across +mountains or marshes.</p> + +<p>E. Make a central place behind a mountain chain as a pivot for +the army watching it.</p> + +<p>F. Defend mountain roads by provisional fortifications.</p> + +<p>G. Make a large place in each theatre of war which is far from the +principal theatre, and where the enemy might wish to establish +himself.</p> + +<p>H. Fortify coasts and harbours.</p></div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:910px; height:1116px" src="images/img699.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Brialmont’s <i>Progrès de la défense des états et de la fortification depuis Vauban</i>, by permission of Commandant G. Meeüs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 48.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Objections to these proposals will be readily supplied by the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page700" id="page700"></a>700</span> +officials of the national treasury and the commanders-in-chief of the +active armies.</p> +</div> + +<p>So many types of detached forts have been proposed by +competent authorities, as well as actually constructed +<span class="sidenote">Types of detached forts.</span> +in recent years, that it is impossible here to consider +all of them, and a few only will be reproduced of +those which are most representative of modern continental +thought.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Taking first the type of heavily armed fort, which contains guns +for the artillery fight as well as safety armament, we must give +precedence to General Brialmont. The two works here shown are +taken from the <i>Progrès de la défense des états, &c.</i>, published in 1898. +The pentagonal fort (fig. 47) has two special features. In section 1 +is shown a concrete infantry parapet, with a gallery in which the +defenders of the parapet may take shelter from the bombardment +preceding an assault. In section 2 it will be seen that the counterscarp +galleries flanking the ditch are drawn back from the face of the +counterscarp. This is to counteract proposals that have been made +to obscure the view from the flanking galleries, and perhaps drive +the defenders out of them by throwing smoke-producing materials +into the ditch at the moment of an assault. The arrangement may +save the occupants of the galleries from excessive heat and noxious +fumes, but will not of course prevent the smoke from obscuring the +view.</p> + +<p>The following points may be noticed about this design in comparing +it with earlier types. There is no escarp, the natural slope of the +rampart being carried down to the bottom of the ditch. There is a +counterscarp to the faces, but no covered way. The flanks +have no counterscarp, but a steel fence at the foot of the +slope, and the covered way which is utilized for a wire entanglement +which is under the fire of the parapet. The +gorge has a very slight bastioned indentation, which allows +for an efficient flanking of the ditch by a couple of machine +guns placed in a single casemate on either side.</p> + +<p>The abolition of the covered way as such is noteworthy. +It marks an essential difference between +the fort and the old enceinte profiles; showing that +offensive action is not expected from the garrison of +the fort, and is the duty of the troops of the intermediate +lines.</p> + +<p>The great central mass of concrete containing all +the casemates and the gun-cupolas, a very popular +feature, is omitted in this design, advantage being +taken of the great lateral extent of the fort to spread +the casemates under the faces, flanks and gorge, +with a communication across the centre of the +fort. This arrangement gives more freedom to the +disposition of the cupolas. +The thickness of the concrete +over the casemate +arches is more than 8 ft. +Communication between +the faces and the counterscarp +galleries is obtained +by posterns under the ditch. +The armament, which is all +protected by cupolas, is +powerful. It consists of two 150-mm. (6 in.) guns, four 120-mm. +(4.7 in.) guns, two 210-mm. (8.4 in.) howitzers, two 210-mm. (8.4 +in.) mortars, four 57-mm. Q.F. guns for close defence. There is +also a shielded electric light projector in the centre.</p> + +<p>This fort is a great advance on General Brialmont’s designs before +1885. These were marked by great complexity of earth parapets +and various <i>chicanes</i> which would not long survive bombardment. +This type is simple and powerful. It is also very expensive.</p> + +<p>The second Brialmont fort (fig. 48) is selected because it shows a +keep or citadel, an inner work designed to hold out after the capture +of the outer parapet. General Brialmont held strongly to the +necessity of keeps for all important works. History of course gives +instances of citadels which have enabled the garrison to recapture +the main work with assistance, or caused a really useful delay in the +progress of the general attack. It affords still more instances in +which the keeps have made no resistance, or none of any value. +Some think that the existence of a keep encourages the defenders of +the main work; others that it encourages the idea of retreat. The +British school of thought is against keeps. In any case they add +largely to expense.</p> + +<p>In the present design the keep is a mass of concrete, which depends +for the defence of its front ditches on counterscarp galleries in the +main work, the few embrasures for frontal defence being practically +useless. Its main function is to prevent the attackers from establishing +themselves on the gorge, thus leaving the way open for a +reinforcement from outside to enter (assisted by bamboo flying +bridges) through the passages left for the purpose in the outer and +inner gorge parapets.</p> + +<p>As regards the main work, the arrangements for defence of the +ditch and the armament are similar to the design last considered. +This parapet has no concrete shelter for the defenders. The casemates +are all collected in the keep and the gorge, with a passage all +round giving access to the parapet and the cupolas.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:582px; height:445px" src="images/img700a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:848px; height:99px" src="images/img700b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Brialmont’s <i>Progrès de la défense des états, &c.</i>, by permission of Commandant G. Meeüs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 49.</span>—Fort Molsheim, Strassburg.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Fig. 49 is a German work, Fort Molsheim at Strassburg. This is +a simple type of triangular fort. The main mass of concrete rests on +the gorge, and is divided by a narrow courtyard to give light and air +to the front casemates. The fort has a medium armament for the +artillery fight, consisting of four 6-in. howitzers in cupolas. On each +face are two small Q.F. guns in cupolas for close defence, for which +purpose, it will be seen, there is also an infantry parapet. At the +angles are look-out turrets. The ditch has escarp and counterscarp, +and is defended by counterscarp galleries at the angles. There is no +covered way. The thickness of concrete over the casemates, where +it is uncovered, is about 10 ft.</p> + +<p>Fig. 50 is Fort Lyngby at Copenhagen. The new Copenhagen +defences are very interesting, giving evidence of clear and original +thought, and effectiveness combined with economy. There is one +special feature worth noting about the outer ring of forts, of which +Lyngby is one. These works are intended for the artillery fight only, +their main armament being four 6-in. guns (in pairs) and three 6-in. +howitzers, all in cupolas. The armament for immediate defence is +trifling, consisting of only two 57-mm. guns and a machine-gun. +There is no provision for infantry defence. The ditch has no escarp +or counterscarp, and is flanked by counterscarp galleries at the salient.</p> + +<p>It is usual in the case of works so slightly organized for their own +defence, and intended only for the long-range artillery fight, to withdraw +them somewhat from the front line. The Danish engineers, +however, have not hesitated to put these works in the very front line, +some 2000 metres in front of the permanent intermediate batteries. +The object of this is to force the enemy to establish his heavy artillery +at such long ranges that it will be able to afford little assistance to +the trench attack of the infantry. The intermediate batteries, being +withdrawn, are comparatively safe. They therefore do not require +expensive protection, and can reserve their strength to resist the +advance of the attack. The success of this arrangement will depend +on the fighting strength of the cupolas under war conditions; and +what that may be, war alone can tell us.</p> + +<p>In the details of these works, besides the bold cutting down of +defensive precautions, we may note the skilful and economical use +of layers of large stones over the casemates to diminish the thickness +of concrete required. The roofs of the casemates are stiffened +underneath with steel rails, and steel lathing is used to prevent lumps +of concrete from falling on the occupants. The living casemates +look out on the gorge, getting plenty of light and air, while the +magazines are under the cupolas.</p> + +<p>The forts above described are all armed with a view to their taking +an important part in the distant artillery fight. The next type to be +considered (fig. 51) is selected mainly because it is a good example +of the use of concealed flanking batteries, known on the continent +as <i>batteries traditores</i>, which seem to be growing in popularity.</p> + +<p>This design by Colonel Voorduin of the Dutch engineers has a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page701" id="page701"></a>701</span> +medium armament, which is not intended for the artillery duel, but +to command the immediate front of the neighbouring forts and the +intervals. The fort is long and narrow, with small casemate accommodation. +It contains eight 4.7-in. guns. Two of these are in a +cupola concealed from view, though +not protected, by a bank of earth in +front. The other six are in an armoured +battery behind the cupola. It may be +remarked that as the cupola gets no +real protection from the covering mass +of earth, it would be better to be able +to utilize the fire of its guns to the +front. The <i>batterie traditore</i>, if properly +protected overhead, would be very +difficult to silence, and its flanking fire +would probably be available up to the +last moment. There is very much to +be said both for and against the policy +of so emplacing the guns. The immediate +defence of the work, with the +aid of a broad wet ditch, is easy; but +the great mass of concrete, which is intended +to form an indestructible platform +and breastwork for the infantry, +would seem to be a needless expense.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:619px; height:423px" src="images/img701a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:823px; height:231px" src="images/img701b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Brialmont’s <i>Progrès de la défense des états, &c.</i>, by permission of Commandant G. Meeüs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 50.</span>—Fort Lyngby, Copenhagen.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:906px; height:508px" src="images/img701c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Leithner’s <i>Beständige Befestigung</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 51.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Fig. 52, designed by the Austrian +lieutenant field-marshal Moritz Ritter +von Brunner (1839-1904), is selected as +a type of the intermediate fort which +is intended only to be a strong point +in the infantry line of defence between +the main forts. It has a protected +armament, but this, +which consists only of four +small Q.F. guns in cupolas, is +for its own defence, and not +to take part in the artillery +duel. There is also a movable +armament of four light Q.F. +guns on wheels, for which a +shelter is provided between the +two observatory cupolas. The +garrison would be a half company +of infantry, for whom +casemates are provided in the +gorge. The gorge ditch is +flanked by a caponier, but +there is no flank defence for +the front ditch. This is defended +by a glacis parapet. At +the bottom of the ditch is a wire entanglement and the glacis slope is +planted with thorns. The thickness of concrete on the casemates is +2 metres (6 ft. 7 in.). This is a strong and simple form of infantry +work, but considering its rôle it appears to be needlessly expensive.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page702" id="page702"></a>702</span></p> + +<p>Fig. 53 is an Italian type of barrier fort in mountainous country. +A powerful battery of eight medium guns protected by a Gruson +shield commands the approach. The fort with its dwelling casemates +is surrounded by a deep ditch flanked by counterscarp galleries. +There are certain apparent weaknesses in the type, but the difficulties +of the attack in such country and its limitations must be borne in +mind.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Modern Details of Protection and Obstacle.</i>—After considering +the above types of fort, it will be of use to note some of the +details in which modern construction has been modified to +provide against the increasing power of artillery.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:493px" src="images/img702a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Brialmont’s <i>Progrès de la défense des états, &c.</i>, by permission of Commandant +G. Meeüs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 52.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The penetration of projectiles varies according to the nature +of the soil—the lighter the better for protection. Sand offers +the greatest resistance to penetration, clay the least. +Since, however, the penetration of heavy shells fired +<span class="sidenote">Bomb-proof protection.</span> +from long ranges with high elevation may be 20 ft. +or more in ordinary soil, we can no longer look to earth +alone as a source of protection against bombardment. Again +a moderate quantity of earth over a casemate increases the explosive +effect of a shell by “tamping” it, that is by preventing +the force of the explosion from being wasted in the open air. +We find therefore that in most modern designs the tops of +casemates are left uncovered, or with only a few inches of earth +over them, in which grass may be grown for concealment.</p> + +<p>For the materials of casemates and revetment walls exposed +to fire, concrete (<i>q.v.</i>) has entirely replaced masonry and brickwork, +not because of its convenience in construction, but because +it offers the best resistance. The exact composition of the +concrete is a matter that demands great care and knowledge. +It should be, like an armour plate, hard on the surface and tough +within. The great thickness of 10 ft. of concrete for casemate +arches, very generally prescribed on the continent in important +positions, is meant to meet the danger of several successive +shells striking the same spot. To stop a single shell of any siege +calibre in use at present, 5 ft. of good concrete would be enough. +A good deal is expected from the use of “reinforced concrete” +(that is concrete strengthened by steel) both for revetment +walls and casemates.</p> + +<p>Parapets are frequently made continuous or glacis-wise, that +is the superior slope is prolonged to the bottom of the ditch so +that the whole rampart can be swept by the fire of the +defenders from the crest, and there is no dead ground +<span class="sidenote">Parapets.</span> +in front of it. It is also common to build the crest of the parapet +in solid concrete, with sometimes a concrete banquette, so that +bombardment shall not destroy the line the defenders have to +man in repelling an assault. This concrete parapet may be +further reinforced by hinged steel bullet-proof plates, to give +head cover; which when not in use hang down behind the crest.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:525px; height:767px" src="images/img702b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From General Rocchi’s <i>Traccia per lo studio della fortificazione</i>, by permission.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 53.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The escarp is falling into disfavour, on account of the great +expense of a revetment that can withstand breaching fire. A +counterscarp of very solid construction is generally +used. It is low and gives cover to a wire entanglement +<span class="sidenote">Obstacles.</span> +in the ditch. This may be supplemented by a steel unclimbable +fence, and by entanglements or thorn plantations on the covered +way and the lower slopes of the parapet. Entanglements are +attached to steel posts bedded in concrete. The upper parts of +revetments and the foundations of walls are protected against +the action of shells, that falling steeply might act as mines to +overturn them, by thick aprons of large stones. Fig. 54 shows +most of these dispositions.</p> + +<p>Electric search-lights are now used in all important works +and batteries. They are usually placed in disappearing cupolas. +They are of great value for discovering working parties +at night, and lighting up the foreground during an +<span class="sidenote">Search-lights.</span> +attack; and since only the projector need be exposed, +they are not very vulnerable. Their value, however, must not +be over-estimated. The most powerful search-light can in no +way compare with daylight as an illuminant, and, like all other +mechanical contrivances, they have certain marked drawbacks +in war. They may give rise to a false confidence; an important +light may fail at a critical moment; and in foggy weather they +are useless.</p> + +<p>The use of armour (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Armour-Plates</a></span>) for coast batteries +followed closely upon its employment for ships, for those were +the days of short ranges and close fighting, and it seemed +natural not to leave the battery in a position of inferiority to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page703" id="page703"></a>703</span> +<span class="sidenote">Armour.</span> +the ship in the matter of protection. In England the coast battery +for a generation after the Crimean War was a combination of +masonry and iron; and in 1860 Brialmont employed +armoured turrets at Antwerp in the forts which +commanded the Scheldt. For land defence purposes, however, +engineers were very slow to adopt armour. Apart from all +questions of difficulty of manufacture, expense, &c., the idea was +that sea and land fronts were radically different. It was pointed +out that a ship gun, fired from an unsteady platform, had not +enough accuracy to strike repeated blows on the same spot; +so that a shield which was strong enough to resist a single shot +would give complete protection. A battery on a land front, on +the other hand, was exposed to an accurate fire from guns which +could strike successive blows on the same spot, and break down +the resistance of the strongest shield. But in time continental +opinion gradually began to turn in favour of iron protection. +Practical types of disappearing and revolving cupolas were +produced, and many engineers were influenced in their favour +by the effect of the big high-explosive shell. Eventually it was +argued that, after all, the object of fortification is not to obtain a +resisting power without limit, but to put the men and guns of a +work in an advantageous position to defend themselves as long +as possible against a superior force; and that from this point of +view armour cannot but add strength to defensive works.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:905px; height:145px" src="images/img703a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Deguise’s <i>La Fortification permanente</i>, by permission of J. Polleunis.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 54.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The question has of course long passed beyond the stage of +theory. Practically every European state uses iron or steel +casemates and cupolas. German, Danish, Italian and other +types of forts so armed have been shown. Recent French types +have not been published, but it is known that cupolas are +employed; and Velichko, the Russian authority, long an +uncompromising opponent of armour, in the end changed his +views. These countries have had to proceed gradually, by +improving existing fortresses, and with such resources as could +be spared from the needs of the active armies. Among the +smaller states Rumania and Belgium have entered most freely +into the new way. In England, which is less directly interested, +opinion has been led by Sir George Clarke, since the publication +in 1890 of his well-known book on fortification. Having witnessed +officially the experiments at Bucharest in 1885 with a St Chamond +turret and a Gruson cupola, he expressed himself very strongly +against the whole system. Besides pointing out very clearly +the theoretical objections to it, and the weak points of the constructions +under experiment, he added: “The cost of the French +turret was about £10,000 exclusive of its armament, and for +this sum about six movable overbank guns of greater power +could be provided.” In view of the weight that belongs of right +to his criticisms it is as well to point out that while this remark +is quite true, yet the six guns would require also six gun detachments, +with arrangements for supply, &c.; a consideration +which alters the working of this apparently elementary sum. +The whole object of protection is to enable a few men and guns +successfully to oppose a larger number.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>At the time when Sir George Clarke’s first edition came out, +such extravagances were before the public as Mougin’s fort; “a +mastless turret ship,” as he called it, “buried up to the deck-level +in the ground and manned by mechanics.” Such ideas tended to +throw discredit on the more reasonable use of armour, but whether +the system be right or wrong, it exists now and has to be taken +account of. Nowhere has it been applied more boldly than in +Rumania. The defences of Bucharest (designed by Brialmont) +consist of 18 main and 18 small forts, with intermediate batteries. +The main forts are some 4500 yds. apart, and 11,000 to 12,000 yds. +from the centre of the place. The typical armament of a main fort +is six 6-in. guns in three cupolas (one for indirect fire), two 8.4-in. +howitzers in cupolas, one 4.7-in. howitzer in a cupola, six small +Q.F. guns in disappearing cupolas. The total armament of the place +(all protected) is eighty-six 6-in. guns, seventy-four 8.4-in. howitzers, +eighteen 4.7-in. howitzers, 127 small calibre Q.F. guns in disappearing +cupolas, 476 small calibre Q.F. guns in casemates for flanking +the ditches. The “Sereth Line” will be described later.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Different Forms of Protection: Casemate, Cupola, &c.</i>—The +broad difference between casemates or shielded batteries and +turrets and cupolas is that the former are fixed while the latter +revolve and in some cases disappear. The casemate thus has +the disadvantages that the arc of fire of the gun, which has to +fire through a fixed embrasure or port-hole, is very limited, and +that the muzzle of the gun and the port-hole, the weak points +of the system, are constantly exposed to the fire of the enemy. +The advantage of the casemate lies in its comparative cheapness +and the greater strength of a fixed structure. It is well suited +for barrier forts (fig. 53) and other analogous positions; and the +Italians amongst other nations have so employed it at such +places as the end of the Mont Cenis tunnel. Steel and iron casemates +are also useful as caponiers for ditch flanking (fig. 55).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:909px; height:286px" src="images/img703b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Leithner’s <i>Beständige Befestigung</i>, by permission.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 55.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Turrets and Cupolas.</i>—The difference between a turret and a +cupola is that the former is cylindrical with a flat or nearly flat +top and presents a vertical target; while the latter is a flattened +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page704" id="page704"></a>704</span> +dome, the vertical supports of which are entirely concealed. The +turret appears to be little used. The object of both forms is at +once to give an all-round arc of fire to the guns and to allow of +the weak point of the structure, the port-hole and muzzle of +the gun, being turned away from the enemy in the intervals of +firing. Both usually emerge from a mass of concrete, which is +strengthened round the opening by a collar of chilled cast iron +about 12 to 15 in. thick.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are four types of cupolas, viz. (<i>a</i>) Disappearing, (<i>b</i>) Oscillating, +(<i>c</i>) Central pivot, (<i>d</i>) On roller rings.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Disappearing cupolas are used chiefly for small quick-firing +guns, on account of the expense of the various systems. They can +be used for medium guns. The details of the best foreign +systems are secret. (<i>b</i>) The oscillating turret is a Mougin +<span class="sidenote">Cupolas.</span> +type, in which the turret is supported in the centre by a knife-edge +on which it can swing. The oscillation is controlled by powerful +springs. The effect of it is that after firing, the front of the cupola +with the port-hole swings downwards under cover, and is held there +until the gun is ready to fire again. (<i>c</i>) Schumann’s centre pivot is +understood to be approved in Germany. It has been adopted in +Rumania and Belgium for howitzer cupolas. It is only suitable for +a single piece; d is strong and steady—the best cupola for coast +batteries; c and d are best for rapid fire because they can be loaded +without lowering. They are suited for long guns.</p> + +<p>The following types are illustrated as being generally representative +of the different classes of cupola.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:733px; height:617px" src="images/img704a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 56.</span>—Cupola for 6-in. gun (Friedr. Krupp A.G.).</td></tr></table> + +<p>Fig. 56 is a section of Messrs Krupp’s typical cupola for one 6-in. +gun. The shield is of nickel steel, the collar of cast steel. A small +space is left between the cupola and its collar to prevent the possibility +of the shield jamming after being damaged. The guns are +muzzle-pivoting and thickened out near the muzzle by the addition +of a ring, so as to close the port as much as possible. The recoil is +controlled within narrow limits both to economize space and to +prevent the smoke from the muzzle from getting into the cupola. +To facilitate the elevation and depression of the gun (with muzzle +pivotings the breech has of course to be moved through a much larger +arc than with ordinary mountings) it is balanced by a counterweight. +The cupola rests on a roller ring and is traversed by a winch. It can +be turned through a complete circle in about one minute.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:512px; height:431px" src="images/img704b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Leithner’s <i>Beständige Befestigung</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 57.</span>—Gruson Spherical Mortar.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Fig. 57 shows a Schumann shielded mortar (sphere-mortar, +<i>Kugelmörser</i>). In this case it will be observed that the cupola is +replaced by an enlargement of the encircling collar; and the mortar +(8.4-in. calibre) is enclosed in a sphere of cast iron, so as to close +completely the opening of the collar in any position.</p> + +<p>Fig. 58 shows a Gruson cupola for one 4.7-in. Q.F. howitzer.</p> + +<p>Fig. 59 shows a disappearing turret for an electric light projector.</p> + +<p>Fig. 60 shows a Krupp transportable cupola for a 5.7-cm. gun. +This is drawn on a four-wheeled carriage, and when coming into +action slides on rollers on to a platform in the parapet. It weighs +about 2½ tons, and with carriage and platform about 4 tons.</p> + +<p>The mechanism of these cupolas is for the most part simpler than +it appears. Counterweights and hand winches are much in use for +the lighter natures of guns. The armouring of course keeps pace +with improvements in manufacture. The chilled cast iron first +made popular by the Gruson firm is now little used except for such +purposes as the collar round a cupola. Wrought iron, steel and +compound plates for the tops of cupolas have all been tried, the most +recent Krupp-Gruson designs being of nickel steel.</p> + +<p>The sighting in some cases may be done by sights on the gun, with +suitable enlargements in the port-hole; +in others by sights affixed to the cupola +itself (which of course can give horizontal +direction only); in others training and +elevation are given in accordance with +the readings on electric dials, or instructions +by telephone or speaking tube. +There is of course nothing unreasonable +in this in the case of indirect fire guns +and howitzers, for if not firing from +cupolas they would be behind the shelter +of some wood or quarry.</p> + +<p><i>Schumann’s System: “Armoured +Fronts.”</i>—Lieut.-Colonel Maximilian +Schumann (1827-1889) of the Prussian +engineers, who took a very prominent +part in the design and advocacy of +armoured defences, eventually produced +a system which dispensed entirely with +forts and relied on the fire of protected +guns. It consists of several lines of batteries +for Q.F. guns and howitzers in +cupolas. He considered that such batteries +would be able to defend their own +front, and the infantry garrison was not +to be called into action except in the +case of the enemy breaking through at +some point of the line.</p> + +<p>This system was actually adopted by +Rumania (1889-1892) for the Sereth Line. +There are three routes by which the +Russians can enter the country across +the Sereth river: through Focshani, +Nemolassa and Galatz. These three +routes are barred by bridge-heads, those +at Focshani, the most important, being +on the left bank of the Milkov, a tributary +of the Sereth.</p> + +<p>The Focshani works consist of 71 +batteries arranged on a semicircular front about 12 m. long and +from 8000 to 10,000 yds. in advance of the bridges. The batteries +are placed in three lines, which are about 500 yds. apart, and are +subdivided into groups. The normal group consists of 5 batteries, +of which 3 are in the first line, 1 in the second, and 1 in the third. +The first-line batteries each contain five small Q.F. guns in travelling +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page705" id="page705"></a>705</span> +cupolas. The second-line batteries, each six small Q.F. guns in disappearing +cupolas. The third-line batteries have one 120-mm. gun +in a cupola, and two 210-mm. spherical mortars with Gruson shields. +The immediate defence of the batteries consists of a glacis planted +with thorn bushes and a wire entanglement.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:522px; height:373px" src="images/img705a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Leithner’s <i>Beständige Befestigung</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 58.</span>—Cupola for 4.7-in. Howitzer.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The fortification of these three bridge-heads are said to have cost +about £1,100,000. But the system of “armoured fronts” is never +likely to be reproduced, having been condemned by all authoritative +continental opinion. Its defects have been summarized by Schroeter +as follows: weakness of artillery at long ranges, want of security +against a surprise rush, the neglect of the use of infantry in the +defence, and the difficulty of command. This last is the most +serious of all. It is indeed difficult to conceive that any one should +expect half-a-dozen expert gunners, each shut up in an iron box with +a gun, to stop the rush of a thousand men, even by day. But +imagine the feelings of the gunner on the night of a big attack, alone +in his box, his nerves already strained by a preliminary bombardment +and nights of watching. He hears the sounds of battle all around; +he knows nothing of the progress of the attack, but expects everything, +and feels every moment the door of his box being opened and +the bayonet entering his back. No wise commander would submit +his troops to such a test.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Sir George Clarke and Unarmoured Systems.</i>—Before leaving +the subject of fortresses it is necessary to consider the ideas of +those who, while recognizing the necessity for places permanently +organized for defence, prefer to treat them more from the point +of view of perfected field defences. It is to the credit of English +military science that Sir George Clarke may be taken as the +representative of this school of thought. His study of fortification, +as he tells us, began with a history of the defence of Plevna +(<i>q.v.</i>). He was led to compare the resistance made behind +extemporized defences at such places as Sevastopol, Kars and +Plevna, with those at other places fortified in the most complete +manner known to science. From this comparison he drew the +conclusion that the true strength of fortification does not depend +on great masonry works intricately pieced together at vast +expense, but on organization, communications and invisibility. +In his 1907 edition he says:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“Future defences will divide themselves naturally into the +following categories: (1) Permanent works wholly constructed in +peace time and forming the key points +of the position. (2) Gun emplacements, +magazines and shelters for men in rear +of the main line, all concrete structures +and platforms to be completed, +though some earthwork may be left +until the position is placed in a state +of defence. (3) Field works, trenches, +&c., guarding the intervals between +the permanent defences in the main +line, or providing rear positions. +These should be deliberately planned +in time of peace ready to be put in +hand at short notice. The essence of +a well-fortified position is that the +weapons of the defender shall obtain +the utmost possible scope of action, +and that those of the attacker shall have the minimum chances of +effecting injury.”</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:524px; height:553px" src="images/img705b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">Drawn from illustration in Leithner’s <i>Beständige Befestigung</i>, by permission.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 59.</span>—Disappearing Turret for Searchlight.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Since Sir George Clarke published his first edition in 1890 continental +ideas have expanded a good deal. The foregoing statement +as to the three categories of defences would be accepted +anywhere now: the differences of opinion come in +<span class="sidenote">Infantry redoubts.</span> +when we reach the stage of classifying under the first +head the permanent works to be constructed in peace time. +In most countries these would include forts with guns for the +artillery duel, forts with safety armaments, fixed batteries with +or without armour, and forts for infantry only. Sir George +Clarke will have no armour for guns except in certain special +cases of barrier forts. Heavy guns and howitzers requiring +permanent emplacements (concrete platforms, &c.) must either +be well concealed or be provided with alternative positions. +The only permanent works which he admits are for infantry. +They are redoubts of simple form intended for 350 or 400 men, +with casemate accommodation for three-fourths of that number. +Fig. 61 shows the design:—two rows of casemates, one under +the front parapet, one under a parados; frontal musketry +defence; obstacle consisting of entanglements, mines, &c., +with or without escarp and counterscarp.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:754px; height:250px" src="images/img705c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 60.</span>—Transportable Cupola for 5.7-cm. Gun (Friedr. Krupp A.G.).</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The intervals (he says) between the infantry redoubts may be +about 2500 yds.; but this will necessarily depend upon the conformation +of the ground. Where there are good artillery positions +falling within the sphere of protection of the redoubts, large intervals +will be permissible. Thus, in the case of an extended line of defence +where the ground offers marked tactical features, the idea of a +continuous chain of permanent works may be abandoned in favour +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page706" id="page706"></a>706</span> +of groups of redoubts guarding the artillery positions. In this case, +the redoubts in a group might be distributed on a curve bent back +in approximately horse-shoe form.”</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:894px; height:395px" src="images/img706a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Sir George S. Clarke’s Fortification, by permission of John Murray.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 61.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The keystones of the close defence of the fighting line in +future will undoubtedly be these infantry redoubts, and therefore +it is of great interest to compare with the above types two +studies put forward by Schroeter (<i>Die Festung in der heutigen +Kriegführung</i>), one in his first edition in 1898 (fig. 62), and the +other in the second in 1905 (fig. 63). In both these the defensive +arrangements are merely trenches of field profile with entanglements, +the command and the obstacle being less than in Sir +George Clarke’s work; and it will be noticed that in the 1905 +type, published after the Russo-Japanese War, the plan is much +less simple and arrangements for close flanking defence have been +introduced. But these works of Schroeter’s are merely infantry +supporting points in a line which contains forts of the triangular +type with guns, and armoured batteries, as well as a very complete +arrangement of field defences and communications; while +Sir G. Clarke’s redoubts are the only permanent works giving +casemate protection in the front line.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:744px; height:622px" src="images/img706b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Schoeter’s Die Festung in der heutigen Kriegführung, by permission of E.S. Mittler u. Sohn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 62.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The comparative merits of either design for an infantry +redoubt are not of much importance. It is agreed that the +main line of defence must consist of a more or less continuous +line of field defences and obstacles, and that at some points +in the line there should be infantry supporting points with +bomb-proof protection capable of resisting big shells. The +open question is, what additional +works, if any, are required for the +artillery, whether for the medium +and heavy guns that will take part +in the “artillery duel,” or for the +lighter natures that will help in +the close fight and defence of the +intervals. Is it best for the defenders +to rely on armoured protection or on +concealment for his guns?</p> + +<p>Official opinion outside England has +certainly sanctioned armour, since all +over the continent it is to +some extent adopted in +practice. National practice +is usually based on the advice +of the most distinguished +officers of the day, and therefore it is +<span class="sidenote">Opposing views as to armour, gun positions, &c.</span> +unsafe to condemn it hastily. Sir +George Clarke and those who are with +him—and they are many, both in Great +Britain and abroad—object entirely +to armour. He says (<i>Fortification</i>, ed. +1907, p. 96): “The great advantage +possessed by the attack in all ages +has been the employment of a mobile +artillery against armaments cribbed, +cabined and confined by fortification. +It is necessary to perpetuate this advantage?” +Of course the effect of +long-range weapons, in increasing the +length of front that can be held by +a given force, has given much greater +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page707" id="page707"></a>707</span> +freedom of action to the defence and this should be taken full +advantage of.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:750px; height:815px" src="images/img707.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Schroeter’s <i>Die Festung in der heutigen Kriegführung</i>, by permission of E.S. Mittler u. Sohn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 63.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The argument as to the vulnerability of shielded guns is +not at present strong. Sir George says (ib. p. 94), “If the high +angle fire ... is ever to find a favourable opportunity, it will +surely be against a cupola, the site of which can generally be +determined with accuracy.” On the other hand he says (p. 90), +“During the long and costly experiments carried on at Bucharest +in 1885-1886, 164 rounds were fired from the Krupp 21 cm. +mortar at targets of about 40 sq. metres area” (about 430 sq. ft.) +“without obtaining a single hit. The range was 2700 yds.; the +targets were towers built upon a level plain; the shooting +conditions were ideal, and the fall of each shell was telephoned +back to the firing point; but it must have been evident to the +least instructed observer that to attempt to group 6 or 8 shells +on an invisible area 2 metres square would have been absolutely +futile.” These facts are adduced to prove that it is not necessary +to give great thickness to concrete casemates, to resist successive +bursts of shells in the same place; but surely they are equally +applicable to cupolas. Again (p. 252), “The experience gained +at Port Arthur was not altogether encouraging as regards the +use of high angle fire. The Russian vessels in the harbour were +sunk by opening their sea-valves.... Fire was subsequently +directed upon them from 11 in. howitzers at ranges up to about +7500 yds. This was deliberate practice from siege batteries at +stationary targets; but the effect was distinctly disappointing.” +The cupolas therefore can hardly be considered ideal targets: +and the probability is that they would hold their own against +both direct and indirect fire for a long time. There are other +and stronger arguments against the +general use of them, all of which are +clearly set forth by Sir George Clarke.</p> + +<p>The worst objections to the cupola +are the military disadvantages of +isolation and immobility, and the +multiplication of mechanical arrangements. +For a successful round from +a disappearing cupola, the elevating +and traversing arrangements, the +elevating and loading gear of the +gun, and the telephone communication, +must all be in good order. At +night the successful co-operation of +the searchlight is also in many cases +necessary.</p> + +<p>The teaching of history is all against +immobile mechanical defences. Initiative, +surprise, unforeseen offensive +action, keeping the besieger in ignorance +of the dispositions of the +garrison, and of what progress he is +making: all these, with their influence +on the morale of both sides, tend +towards successful defences and do +not point towards the use of armour.</p> + +<p>It may further be said that the +use of armour as a general rule is unnecessary, +because a concealed battery +is a protected one; and with the long +ranges now usual for heavy guns and +howitzers, there is not generally much +difficulty about concealment.</p> + +<p>In the opinion, however, of the +present writer an exception must be +made for guns intended to flank the +line of defence, which would generally +need bomb-proof over-head cover. +Further, when we leave theory and +come to the consideration of actual +problems of defence, it will often be +found that it is necessary to place guns +in certain positions where good concealment +cannot be got. In such cases some form of protection +must be given if the guns are to engage the concealed batteries of +the attack.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">III. The Attack of Fortresses</p> + +<p>In considering the history of siegecraft since the introduction +of gunpowder, there are three main lines of development to +follow, viz. the gradually increasing power of artillery, the +systematizing of the works of attack, and in recent times +the change that has been brought about by the effect of modern +small-arm fire.</p> + +<p>Cannon appear to have been first used in sieges as mortars, +to destroy hoardings by throwing round stones and barrels of +burning composition. Early in the 15th century we find cannon +throwing metal balls, not only against hoarding and battlements, +but also to breach the bases of the walls. It was only possible +to work the guns very slowly, and archers or crossbowmen were +needed in support of them, to drive the defenders from the +crenellations or loopholes of the battlements. At that period +the artillery was used in place of the medieval siege engines and +in much the same manner. The guns of the defence were inaccurate, +and being placed high on the walls were made ineffective +by bad mountings, which did not allow of proper depression. +The besieger therefore could place his guns close to the walls, +with only the protection of a few large gabions filled with earth, +set up on the ground on either side of the muzzle.</p> + +<p>In the course of the 15th century the power of artillery was +largely increased, so that walls and gates were destroyed by it +in an astonishingly short time. Three results shortly followed. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page708" id="page708"></a>708</span> +The guns of the defence having gained equally in effectiveness, +greater protection was needed for the attack batteries; bastions +and outworks were introduced to keep the besieger at a distance +from the inner walls; and the walls were sunk in ditches so that +they could only be breached by batteries placed on the edge +of the glacis.</p> + +<p>Early in the 16th century fortresses were being rapidly remodelled +on these lines, and the difficulties of the attack were at +once very much increased. The tendency of the assailants was +still to make for the curtain, which had always been considered +the weak point; but the besiegers now found that they had to +bring their guns right up to the edge of the ditch before they could +make a breach, and in doing so had to pass over ground which was +covered by the converging fire from the faces of the bastions. +Towards the end of the century the attack of the curtain was +delayed and the cross-fire over the ground in front increased by +the introduction of ravelins.</p> + +<p>The slight gabion protection for the siege batteries was at +first replaced by strong timber shelters. These were found inadequate; +but a still greater difficulty was that of bringing up the +siege guns to their positions, emplacing them and maintaining +communication with them under fire. In addition to this, the +guns of the defence until they could be overpowered (a slow +process) dominated a wide belt of ground in front of the fortress; +and unless the besiegers could find some means of maintaining +a strong guard close to their batteries these were liable to be +destroyed by sorties from the covered way.</p> + +<p>Gradually the whole problem of siege work centred round the +artillery. The besiegers found that they had first to bring up +enough guns to overpower those of the defence; then +<span class="sidenote">Siegecraft before Vauban.</span> +to advance their guns to positions from which they +could breach the walls; and throughout these operations +to protect them against sorties. Breaches once +made, the assault could follow on the old lines.</p> + +<p>The natural solution of the difficulty of approach to the +battery positions was the use of trenches. The Turks were the +first to make systematic use of them, having probably inherited +the idea from the Eastern Empire. The soldiers of Christendom, +however, strongly disliked digging, and at first great leaders like +Bayard and Montluc had themselves to use pick and shovel, to +give their men an example. In due course the necessity of the +trenches was recognized, but the soldiers never took kindly to +them, and the difficulty was dealt with in a manner reminiscent +of the feudal ages, by impressing large bodies of peasantry as +workmen whenever a siege was in contemplation.</p> + +<p>Through the 16th and most of the 17th century, therefore, +we find the attack being conducted by means of trenches leading +to the batteries, and supported by redoubts often called “places +of arms” also made by trench work. During this period the +result of a siege was always doubtful. Both trenches and +batteries were arranged more or less at haphazard without any +definite plan; and naturally it often happened that offensive +action by the besieged against the trenches would disorder the +attack and at times delay it indefinitely. Fig. 64, taken from a +late 17th-century print by de Fer of Paris, gives a good idea of +the general practice of that day when Vauban’s methods were +not yet generally known.</p> + +<p>Another weak point about the attack was that after the +escarp walls had been strengthened to resist artillery fire as has +been described, there was no clear idea as to how they should +be breached. The usual process was merely an indiscriminate +pounding from batteries established on the crest of the glacis. +Thus there were cases of sieges being abandoned after they had +been carried as far as the attempt to breach.</p> + +<p>It is in no way strange that this want of method should have +characterized the attack for two centuries after artillery had +begun to assert its power. At the outset many new ideas had +to be assimilated. Guns were gradually growing in power; +sieges were conducted under all sorts of conditions, sometimes +against medieval castles, sometimes against various and widely-differing +examples of the new fortification; and the military +systems of the time were not favourable to the evolution of +method. It is the special feature of Vauban’s practical genius +for siege warfare that he introduced order into this chaos and +made the issue of a siege under normal conditions, a mere matter +of time, usually a very short time.</p> + +<p>The whole of Vauban’s teaching and practice cannot be +condensed into the limits of this article, but special reference +must be made to several points. The most important +of these is his general arrangement of the attack. +<span class="sidenote">Vauban’s teaching.</span> +The ultimate object of the attack works was to make +a breach for the assaulting columns. To do this it was necessary +to establish breaching batteries on the crest of the glacis; and +before this could be done it was necessary to overpower the +enemy’s artillery. This preliminary operation is nowadays +called the “artillery duel.” In Vauban’s day the effective +range of guns was 600 to 700 yds. He tells us that it was customary +to establish batteries at 1000 yds. from the place, but +that at that range they did little more than make a great deal +of noise. The first object of the attack, therefore, after the +preliminary operations of investment, &c., had been completed, +was to establish batteries within 600 or 700 yds. of the place, +to counter-batter or enfilade all the faces bearing on the front +of attack; and to protect these batteries against sorties. After +the artillery of the defences had been subdued—if it could not +be absolutely silenced—it was necessary to push trenches to +the front so that guns might be conveyed to the breaching +positions and emplaced there in batteries. Throughout these +processes it was necessary to protect the working parties and the +batteries against sorties.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:507px; height:532px" src="images/img708.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 64.—Siege-works of the 17th century.</td></tr></table> + +<p>For this purpose Vauban devised the <i>Places d’armes</i> or <i>lignes +parallèles</i>. He tells us that they were first used in 1673 at the +siege of Maestricht, where he conducted the attack, and which +was captured in thirteen days after the opening of the trenches. +The object of these parallels was to provide successive positions +for the guard of the trenches, where they could be at hand to +repel sorties. The latter were most commonly directed against +the trenches and batteries, to destroy them and drive out the +working parties. The most vulnerable points were the heads +of the approach trenches. It was necessary, therefore, that the +guard of the trenches should be in a position to reach the heads +of the approaches more quickly than the besieged could do so +from the covered way. This was provided for as follows.</p> + +<p>The first parallel was usually established at about 600 yds. +from the place, this being considered the limiting range of action +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page709" id="page709"></a>709</span> +of a sortie. The parallel was a trench 12 to 15 ft. wide and 3 ft. +deep, the excavated earth being thrown forward to make a +parapet 3 or 4 ft. high. In front of the first parallel and close +to it were placed the batteries of the “first artillery position.”</p> + +<p>While these batteries were engaged in silencing the enemy’s +artillery, for which purpose most of them were placed in prolongation +of the faces of the fortress so as to enfilade +them, the “Approach Trenches” were being pushed +<span class="sidenote">The attack.</span> +forward. The normal attack included a couple of +bastions and the ravelin between, with such faces of the fortress +as could support them; and the approach trenches (usually +three sets) were directed on the capitals of the bastions and +ravelin, advancing in a zigzag so arranged that the prolongations +of the trenches always fell clear of the fortress and could not be +enfiladed.</p> + +<p>Fig. 65, taken from Vauban’s <i>Attack and Defence of Places</i>, +shows clearly the arrangement of trenches and batteries.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:834px; height:578px" src="images/img709a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 65.</span>—Regular Attack (Vauban).</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>After the approach trenches had been carried forward nearly +half-way to the most advanced points of the covered way, the +“second parallel” was constructed, and again the approach trenches +were pushed forward. Midway between the second parallel and the +covered way, short branches called <i>Demi-parallels</i> were thrown out +to either flank of the attacks: and finally at the foot of the glacis +came the third parallel. Thus there was always a secure position +for a sufficient guard of the trenches. Upon an alarm the working +parties could fall back and the guard would advance.</p> + +<p>Trenches were either made by <i>common trenchwork, flying trenchwork +or sap</i>. In the first two a considerable length of trench was +excavated at one time by a large working party extended along the +trench: flying trenchwork (formerly known as flying sap) being +distinguished from common trenchwork by the use of gabions, by +the help of which protection could be more quickly obtained. Both +these kinds of trenchwork were commenced at night, the position +of the trench having been previously marked out by tape. The +“tasks” or quantities of earth to be excavated by each man were +so calculated that by daybreak the trench would afford a fair amount +of cover. Flying trenchwork was generally used for the 2nd parallel +and its approaches, and as far beyond it as possible. In proportion +as the attack drew nearer to the covered way, the fire of the defenders’ +small-arms and wall-pieces naturally grew more effective, though +by this time most of their artillery would have been dismounted +by the fire of the siege batteries. It therefore became necessary +before reaching the 3rd parallel to have recourse to sap.</p> + +<p>Sapping required trained men. It consisted in gradually pushing +forward the end of a narrow trench in the desired direction. At the +sap-head was a squad of sappers. The leading man excavated a +trench 1 ft. 6 in. wide and deep. To protect the head of the trench +<span class="sidenote">Sapping.</span> +he had a shield on wheels, under cover of which he placed the +gabions in position one after another as the sap-head progressed. +Other men following strengthened the parapet +with fascines, and increased the trench to a depth of 3 ft., and a +width of 2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. Fig. 66, taken from Vauban’s treatise on +the attack, shows the process clearly. The sap after being completed +to this extent could be widened at leisure to ordinary trench +dimensions by infantry working parties.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:525px; height:369px" src="images/img709b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 66.</span>—Sapping (Vauban).</td></tr></table> + +<p>As the work at the sap-head was very dangerous, Vauban encouraged +his sappers by paying them on the spot at piecework rates, which +increased rapidly in proportion to the risk. He thus stimulated all +concerned to do their best, and reckoned that under average conditions +he could depend on a +rate of progress for an ordinary +sap of about 50 yds. in 24 +hours.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to compare +the more recent method of +sapping with that above described +(fig. 67 taken from the +<i>Instruction in Military Engineering</i>, +1896). It is no longer +possible to place gabions in +position at the sap-head +under fire. Accordingly the +leading sapper excavates to the +full depth of 4 ft. 6 in., and +the rate of progress is retarded +proportionately, so that an +advance of only 15 to 30 yds. +in 24 hours can be reckoned +on instead of 50. The head +of the sap is protected by a +number of half-filled sandbags, +which the leading sapper +throws forward as he goes on.</p> + +<p>The nearer the approaches +drew to the covered way, the +more oblique became the zig-zags, +so that little forward +progress was made in proportion +to the length of the trench. +The approaches were then +carried straight to the front, +by means of the “double +sap,” which consisted of two +single saps worked together +with a parapet on each side +(fig. 68). To protect these +from being enfiladed from the +front, traverses had to be left +at intervals, usually by turning the two saps at right angles to right +or left for a few feet, then forward, and so on as shown in fig. 69, +the distance apart of these traverses being of course regulated by +the height from which the enemy’s fire commanded the trench.</p> +</div> + +<p>The later stages in the attack are illustrated in fig. 70. From +the third parallel the attack was pushed forward up the glacis +by means of the double sap. It was then pushed right and +left along the glacis, a little distance from the crest of the +<span class="sidenote">Later stages of the attack.</span> +covered way. This was called “crowning” the covered way, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page710" id="page710"></a>710</span> +and on the position thus gained breaching batteries were established +in full view of the escarp. While the escarp was being +breached, if it was intended to use a systematic attack +throughout, a mine gallery (see <i>Mining</i> below) was +driven under the covered way and an opening made +through the counterscarp into the ditch. The sap was +then pushed across the ditch, and if necessary up the breach, the +defenders’ resistance being kept under by musketry and artillery +fire from the covered way. The ravelin and bastions were thus +captured successively, and where the bastions had been retrenched +the same methods were used against the retrenchment.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:523px; height:336px" src="images/img710a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Military Engineering</i>, by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery +Office.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 67.—“Deep” Sap.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Vauban showed how to breach the escarp with the least +expenditure of ammunition. This was done by making, with +successive shots placed close together (which was feasible even +in those days from a position so close as the crest of the covered +way) horizontal and vertical cuts through the revetment wall. +The portion of revetment enclosed by the cuts being thus +detached from support was overturned by the pressure of the +earth from the rampart. Ricochet fire was also the invention +of Vauban. He showed how, in enfilading the face of a work, +by using greatly reduced charges a shot could be made to drop +over the crest of the parapet and skim along the terreplein, +dismounting guns and killing men as it went.</p> + +<p>The constant success of Vauban must be ascribed to method +and thorough organization. There was a deadly certainty +about his system that gave rise to the saying “Place +assiégée, place prise.” He left nothing to chance, +<span class="sidenote">18th-century principles of defence.</span> +and preferred as a rule the slow and certain progress +of saps across the ditch and up the breach to the loss +and delay that might follow an unsuccessful assault. His contemporary +and nearest rival Coehoorn tried to shorten sieges +by heavy artillery fire and attacks across the open; but in the +long run his sieges were slower than Vauban’s.</p> + +<p>So much a matter of form did the attack become under these +conditions, that in comparing the supposed defensive powers +of different systems of fortification it was usual to calculate the +number of days that would be required in each case before the +breach was opened, the time being measured by the number of +hours of work required for the construction of the various +trenches and batteries. It began to be taken as a matter of +course that no place under any circumstances could hold out +more than a given number of days; and naturally, when the +whole question had become one of formula, it is not surprising +to find that places were very often surrendered without more +than a perfunctory show of resistance.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:305px; height:445px" src="images/img710b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 68.</span>—Double Sap.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:365px; height:254px" src="images/img710c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 69.</span>—Direct advance by Double Sap.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The theory of defence at this time appeared to be that since +it was impossible to arrest the now methodical and protected +progress of the besiegers’ trenches, no real resistance was possible +until after they had reached the covered way, and this idea is +at the root of the extraordinary complications of outworks +and multiplied lines of ramparts that characterized the “systems” +of this period. No doubt if a successor to Vauban could have +brought the same genius to bear on the actual defence of places +as he did on the attack, he would have discovered that the +essence of successful defence lay in offensive action outside the +body of the place, viz. with trench against trench. For want +of such a man the engineers of the defence resigned themselves +contentedly to the loss of the open ground outside their walls, +and relied either upon +successive permanent lines +of defence, or if these did +not exist, upon extemporized +retrenchments, +usually at the gorge of the +bastion.</p> + +<p>It is curious that such +experienced soldiers as +most of them were should +not have realized the fatal +effect upon the minds of +the defenders which this +almost passive abandonment +of line after line +must needs produce. Even +a civilian—Machiavelli—had +seen into the truth +of the matter years before +when he said (<i>Treatise on +the Art of War</i>, Book vii.): +“And here I ought to +give an advice ... to +those who are constructing +a fortress, and that +is, not to establish within its circuit fortifications which may +serve as a retreat to troops who have been driven back from +the first line.... I maintain that there is no greater danger +for a fortress than rear fortifications whither troops can retire +in case of a reverse; for once the soldier knows that he has a +secure retreat after he has abandoned the first post, he does +in fact abandon it and so causes the loss of the entire fortress.”</p> + +<p>It must, however, be remembered that in those days when +soldiers were mostly of a separate or professional caste, the +whole thing had become a matter of business. Fighting was +so much regulated by the laws and customs of war that men +thought nothing of giving up a place if, according to accepted +opinion, the enemy had advanced so far that they could no +longer hope to defend it successfully. Once this idea had set +in it became hopeless to expect successful defences, save now +and then when +some officer of +very unusual resolution +was in +command. This +is the real reason +for the feeble resistance +so often +made by fortresses +in the 17th and +18th centuries, +which has been +attributed to inherent +weakness +in fortifications. +Custom exacted that a commandant should not give up a place +until there was an open breach or, perhaps, until he had stood at +least one assault. Even Napoleon recognized this limitation +of the powers of the defence when in the later years of his reign +he was trying to impress upon his governors the importance of +their charge. The limitation was perfectly unnecessary, for +history at that time could have afforded plenty of instances of +places that had been successfully defended for many months +after breaches were opened, and assault after assault repulsed +on the same breach. But the same soldiers of the 17th and +18th centuries who had created this artificial condition of affairs, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page711" id="page711"></a>711</span> +established it by making it an understood thing that a garrison +which surrendered without giving too much trouble after a +breach had been opened should have honourable consideration; +while if they put the besiegers to the pains of storming the breach, +they were liable to be put to the sword.</p> + +<p>It has been necessary to dwell at some length on the siegecraft +of Vauban and his time, not merely for its historical interest, +but because the system he introduced was practically +unaltered until the end of the 19th century. The +<span class="sidenote">Peninsular War.</span> +sieges of the Peninsular War were conducted on his +lines; so was that of Antwerp in 1830; and as far as the disposition +of siege trenches was concerned, the same system remained +in the Crimea, the Franco-German War and the Russo-Turkish +War. The sieges in the Napoleonic wars were few, except in the +Iberian peninsula. These last differed from those of the Vauban +period and the 18th century in this, that instead of being deliberately +undertaken with ample means, against fortresses that +answered to the requirements of the time, they were attempted +with inadequate forces and materials, against out-of-date +works. The fortresses that Wellington besieged in Spain had +rudimentary outworks, and escarps that could be seen and +breached from a distance. At that time, though the power of +small arms had increased very slightly since the last century, +there had been a distinct improvement in artillery, so that it +was possible to breach a visible revetment at ranges from 500 +to 1000 yds. Wellington was very badly off for engineers, +siege artillery and material. Trench works could only be carried +out on a small scale and slowly. Time being usually of great +importance, as in the first two sieges of Badajoz, his technical +advisers endeavoured to shorten sieges by breaching the escarp +from a distance—a new departure—and launching assaults +from trenches that had not reached the covered way. Under +these circumstances the direct attacks on breaches failed several +times, with great loss of life. Wellington in one or two earlier +despatches reflected on his engineers for not establishing their +batteries on the crest of the glacis. The failures are, however, +clearly due to attempts to push sieges to a conclusion without +proper preparation.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:710px; height:496px" src="images/img711.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 70.</span>—Later Stages of the Attack (Vauban).</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>So much has been written of late years in criticism of the fortification +to what may be called the Vauban period that it is important +to note what were the preparations considered necessary for a siege +at that time (<i>Journals of Sieges in Spain, 1811 to 1814</i>). Sir John +Jones summarizes his own experience in Spain and the data accumulated +by practical engineers in former sieges from the time of +Vauban onwards, in the following conclusions: The actual work +of entrenching, sapping, &c., on the front attacked was much the +same whether the fortress contained 5000 or 10,000 men. On the +other hand the guard of the trenches was proportionate to the fighting +men inside the fortress. (The total number of men had of course to +be sufficient to allow three or four complete shifts or “reliefs” for all +work and duties.) Adding a proportion of men for camp and other +duties, he calculates, for the vigorous siege of an ordinary place +situated in open country and containing 5000 men, a corps of 32,080 +effectives, and remarks further that this force would be greatly +exhausted after a month’s service. The same place held by 10,000 +would call for a besieging army of 50,830 men (guards and duties +increasing, but not working parties). Thus the besieger should if +possible have a superiority of 7 to 1 if the garrison numbered 5000, +6 to 1 if 10,000 and 5 to 1 if 15,000 and so on. As regards artillery, +he should have as many, and if possible twice as many, guns as those +of the defender on the front of attack, as well as howitzers for sweeping +every line subject to enfilade and mortars for destroying traverses, +&c. Later in the siege, more howitzers and mortars to clear the +covered way and places of +arms, and finally, after the +covering of the covered way, +fifty additional battering guns +would be required. It is +apparent from this that the +practical engineers of the day +looked upon a siege as a serious +matter, and did not find +permanent fortifications wanting +in defensive strength.</p> +</div> + +<p>During the long peace that +followed the Napoleonic +wars, one advance +was made in siegecraft. +In England in 1824 +successful experiments were +carried out in breaching an +unseen wall by curved or +indirect fire from howitzers. +At Antwerp in 1830 the increasing +power and range +of artillery, and especially +of howitzers, were used for +<span class="sidenote">Crimea.</span> +bombarding purposes, the +breaches there being mostly +made by mines. Then came +one of the world’s great +sieges; that of Sevastopol +in 1854-1855 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crimean +War</a></span>). The outstanding +lesson of Sevastopol is the +value of an active defence; +of going out to meet the besieger, with countertrench and +countermine. This lesson has increased in value for us in proportion +to the increased power of the rifle.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In comparing the resistance made behind the earthworks of +Sevastopol with the recorded defences of permanent works, it is +essential to remember that the conditions there were quite abnormal. +Sir John Jones has told us what the relative forces of besiegers and +besieged should be, and the necessary preponderance of artillery +for the attack. The following quotations may be added:</p> + +<p>“The siege corps should be sufficiently strong—(1) To invest the +fortress completely, and maintain the investment against all the +efforts of the garrison. (2) If a regular siege is contemplated, to +execute and guard all the siege works required for it. Complete +investment may sometimes be impossible, but experience has +repeatedly shown that the difficulties of a siege are enormously +increased if the garrison are able to draw fresh troops and supplies +from outside, and to rid themselves of their sick and wounded.” +(Lewis). Again as regards artillery: “In a regular attack, where +every point is gained inch by inch, it is impossible to succeed without +overpowering the defensive artillery”; and “it is useless to attempt +to sap near a place till its artillery fire is subdued ...” (Jones).</p> + +<p>These conditions were so far from being fulfilled at Sevastopol +that (<i>a</i>) there was no investment—in fact the Russians came nearer +to investing the Allies; (<i>b</i>) the Russians had the preponderance in +guns almost throughout; (<i>c</i>) the Russian force in and about +Sevastopol was numerically superior to that of the Allies. We must +add to this that Todleben had been able to get rid of most of his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page712" id="page712"></a>712</span> +civilian population, and those who remained were chiefly dockyard +workmen, able to give most valuable assistance on the defence works. +The circumstances were therefore exceptionally favourable to an +active defence. The weak point about the extemporized earthworks, +which eventually led to the fall of the place, was the want of good +bomb-proof cover near the parapets.</p> +</div> + +<p>The Franco-German War of 1870 produced no great novelty. +The Germans were not anxious to undertake siege operations +when it could be avoided. In several cases minor +fortresses surrendered after a slight bombardment. +<span class="sidenote">Franco-German War.</span> +In others, after the bombardment failed, the Germans +contented themselves with establishing a blockade or +detaching a small observing force. By far the most interesting +siege was that of Belfort (<i>q.v.</i>). Here Colonel Denfert-Rochereau +employed the active defence so successfully by extemporizing +detached redoubts and fortifying outlying villages, that he +obliged the besiegers (who, however, were a small force at first) +to take up an investing line 25 m. long; and succeeded in holding +the village of Danjoutin, 2000 yds. in advance of the enceinte, +for two months after the siege began. He also used indirect fire, +withdrawing guns from the ramparts and placing them in the +ditches, in the open spaces of the town, &c. At Paris the French +found great advantage in placing batteries in inconspicuous +positions outside the forts. Their direct fire guns were at a +disadvantage in being fired through embrasures. These had +served their purpose when artillery fire was very inaccurate, +but had now for a long time been recognized by the best engineers +as out of date. The Germans since the siege of Düppel in 1864 +had mounted their siege guns on “overbank” carriages; that +is, high carriages which made it possible to fire the guns over the +parapet of the battery without embrasures. The guns in the +Paris forts which were further handicapped by conspicuous +parapets and the bad shooting of the gunners were easily +silenced.</p> + +<p>At Strassburg indirect fire against escarps was used. The +escarp of Lunette 53 was successfully breached by this method. +The breaching battery was 870 yds. distant, and the shot struck +the face of the wall at an angle (horizontally) of 55°, the effect +being observed and reported from the counterscarp. 1000 rounds +from 60-pounder guns sufficed to make a breach 30 yds. wide.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fig. 71 is a good example of the attack in the late stages. It will +be observed that batteries for mortars and field guns are established in +the captured lunettes. The narrow wet ditch of Lunette 53 was +crossed by a dam of earth and fascines, the headway protected by a +parapet or screen of sandbags.</p> + +<p>“Lunette 52 was unrevetted, and its ditch was more than 60 yds. +wide, and 6 to 9 ft. deep.... It was determined to effect the +passage by a cask bridge, for which the casks were furnished by +breweries near at hand.... The formation of the bridge was begun +at nightfall. A pioneer swam across, hauled over a cable, and made +it fast to the hedge on the berm. Four men were stationed in the +water, close to the covered way, the casks were rolled down to them +one after the other, and fitted with saddles, so as to form piers ... +these piers were successively boomed out along the line of the cable.... In +two hours the bridge was finished, and the lunette was +entered.... The work had not been discovered by the besieged, +and the formation of lodgments inside the lunette was already begun, +when the noise made by some troops in passing the bridge attracted +attention, and drew a fire which cost the besiegers about 50 men. +A dam was afterwards substituted for the bridge, as it was repeatedly +struck by shells.” (<i>R.E. Professional Papers</i>, vol. xix.)</p> + +<p>It is curious to realize that this happened at so recent a time. +Such operations would be impossible now, as long as any defending +guns remained in action.</p> +</div> + +<p>On the whole it may be said that siegecraft gained practically +nothing from the Franco-German War. The Russo-Turkish +war taught less, Plevna (<i>q.v.</i>) having been defended +by field works and attacked by the old-fashioned +<span class="sidenote">Modern siege warfare.</span> +methods. For the last ten years of the 19th century +military opinion was quite at a loss as to how the +sieges of the future would work out. As guns and projectiles +continued to improve the “attaque brusquée” proposed by von +Sauer had many adherents. It was thought that a heavy +bombardment would paralyse resistance and open the way for +an attack, to be delivered by great numbers and with special +appliances for crossing obstacles. Others thought that the +strength of the defence, as manifested by the Plevna field works, +would be greater than ever when the field works were backed by +permanent works, good communications and the resources of a +fortress. One thing was obvious—namely, that as long as the +artillery of the place, of even the smallest calibres, remained +unsubdued, the difficulty of trenchwork and sapping would be +enormously increased, and no one seemed to have formed a clear +conception of how that difficulty was to be met. A lecture +delivered in Germany about 1895 is worth quoting as a fair +example of the vagueness of idea then prevailing: “For the +attack, the following is the actual procedure: Accumulation and +preparation of material for attack before the fortress: advance +of attacking artillery, covered by infantry. Artillery duel. +Throwing forward of infantry: destruction of the capability +for defence of the position attacked; when possible by long-range +artillery fire, otherwise by the aid of the engineers. Occupation +of the defensive position. Assault on the inner lines +of the fortress.” That seemed quite a simple prescription, but +the necessary drugs were wanting. And even since Port Arthur +great uncertainty as to the future of the attack remains.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:729px" src="images/img712.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Textbook of Fortification</i>, by permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery +Office.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 71.—Strassburg, Lunettes 52 and 53, 1870.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Modern artillery has much simplified the construction of siege +batteries. Formerly siege batteries and rampart batteries opposed +each other with direct fire at ranges not too long for the unaided +human eye, and the shells, travelling with low velocity, bit into the +parapets, and, exploding, produced their full effect. Accordingly +the task of the gunners was, by accurate fire, to destroy the parapets +and embrasures, and to dismount the guns. The parapets of siege +batteries were therefore made from 18 to 30 ft. thick, and the construction +of such batteries, with traverses, &c., involved much work. +The height of parapet necessary for proper protection being 7 ft. +6 in. to 8 ft., a great deal of labour could be saved by sinking the +gun-platforms about 4 ft. below the surface level, but of course this +was only possible where rock or water were not near the surface.</p> + +<p>The effect of modern projectiles was to reduce the thickness of +earth necessary for parapets. High velocity projectiles are very +easily deflected upwards by even a slight bank of earth. This is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page713" id="page713"></a>713</span> +especially the case with sand. Loose earth is better than compacted +earth, and clay offers the least resistance to penetration. These +facts were taken note of in England more than on the Continent in +the design of instructional siege batteries.</p> + +<p>The construction of batteries is moreover vastly simplified by the +long ranges at which artillery will fight in future. It will as a rule +be possible to place howitzer batteries in such positions that even +from balloons it will be difficult to locate them; and even direct fire +batteries can easily be screened from view. This renders parapets +unnecessary, and probably no more protection will be used than light +splinter-proof screens to stop shrapnel bullets or fragments of +common shell. Moreover batteries can be constructed at leisure +and by daylight.</p> + +<p>The most important point about the modern battery is the gun +platform for the larger natures of guns and howitzers. These require +very solid construction to resist the heavy shock of discharge. Not +long ago it was thought that the defence would have larger ordnance +than the attack, as anything heavier than an 8 in. howitzer required +a concrete bed, which could not be made at short notice. The +Japanese, however, at Port Arthur made concrete platforms for 11 in. +howitzers. It may be remarked that difficulties which loom largely +in peace are often overcome easily enough under the stress of war.</p> + +<p>Another gain to the attack is in connexion with magazines. The +old powder magazines were particularly dangerous adjuncts to +batteries, and had to be very carefully bomb-proofed. Such propellants +as cordite, however, are comparatively harmless in the open. +They are very difficult to detonate, and if set on fire do not explode +like gunpowder. It is therefore unnecessary to provide bomb-proof +magazines for them in connexion with the batteries.</p> + +<p>In future sieges the question of supply will be more important +than it has ever been. Leaving out of the question the bringing up +of supplies from the base of operations, the task of distribution at +the front is a very large one. The Paris siege manœuvres of 1894 +furnish some instructive data on this point. The main siege park +was at Meaux, 10 m. from the 1st artillery position, and the average +distance from the 1st artillery position to the principal fort attacked +was 5000 yds. The front of attack on Fort Vaujours and its collateral +batteries covered 10,000 yds. There were 24 batteries in the 1st +artillery position; say 100 guns, spread over a front of 4000 yds. +To connect Meaux with the front, the French laid some 30 m. of +narrow gauge railway largely along existing roads. The line was +single, with numerous branches and sidings. They ran 11 regular +trains to the front daily and half-a-dozen supplementary. The +amount of artillery material sent up was over 5000 tons, without +any projectiles; but it can easily be imagined that large demands +were also made on transport for other purposes. For instance, one +complete bakery train was sent up daily. The amount of ammunition +sent up would be limited only by the power of transporting it. +A siege train of 100 pieces could probably dispose of from 500 to +1000 tons of ammunition a day, at the maximum rate of firing.</p> + +<p>But the most important question affecting the sieges of the future +(putting aside accidental circumstances) will be the configuration of +the ground. Assuming that local conditions do not specially favour +the artillery of either side, it is highly probable that the artillery +duel will result in a deadlock. If the besiegers’ guns do not succeed +in silencing those of the defence from the 1st or distant artillery +position (which, whether they are in cupolas or in concealed positions, +will in any case be an extremely difficult task), it will be necessary +for the infantry to press in; to feel for weak points, and to fight +for those that offer better positions for fire and observation. In +doing this they will have to face the defenders’ infantry, entrenched, +backed by their unsilenced guns, and having secure places of assembly +from which to deliver counter-attacks. The distance to which they +can work forward and establish themselves under these conditions +will depend on the ground. It will then be for the engineers to +cross the remaining space by sap. This, under present conditions, +will be a tedious process, and may even take long enough to cause +the failure of the siege.</p> + +<p>As to the manner of the sap, it will certainly be “deep,” as long +as the defence retains any artillery power. When the 4 ft. 6 in. sap +already described was first introduced, it was known as a “deep sap”; +but the sieges of the future will probably necessitate a true deep +sap, that is one in which the whole of the necessary cover is got +below the surface of the earth.</p> + +<p>Such a sap may consist of an open trench, about 6 ft. deep, the +whole of the excavated earth being carried away through the trench +to the rear; or a blinded trench, covered in as it progresses by +splinter-proof timbers and earth; or a tunnelled trench, leaving a +foot or so of surface earth undisturbed. In either case nothing should +be visible from the front to attract artillery fire. As the sap is +completed, it will sometimes be necessary to add a slight parapet +in places, to give command over the foreground for the rifles of the +guard of the trenches.</p> + +<p>The sap will have to be pushed up quite close to the defenders’ +trenches and obstacles. After that further progress must either be +made by mining, or as seems very probable, by getting the better +of the defenders in a contest with shells from +short-range mortars.</p> + +<p>Just as in the feudal ages a castle was built on some solitary +eminence which lent itself to the defensive methods of the time, so +in the future the detached forts and supporting points in the girdle +of a fortress will be sited where smooth and gentle slopes of ground +give the utmost opportunity to the defenders’ fire, and the least +chance of concealment to the enemy. There will be considerable +latitude of choice in the defensive positions; though not, of course, +the same latitude as when the existence of a precipitous hill was the +<i>raison d’être</i> of the castle. In some places, as at Port Arthur, the +whole country-side may by reason of its steep and broken slopes be +unfavourable to the defence, though even then genius will turn the +difficulties to account. But wherever it is possible the defender will +provide for a space of 1000 yds. or so, swept by fire and illuminated +by searchlights, in front of his lines. That space will have to be +crossed by sap, and it needs little imagination to realize how great +the task will be for the besieger.</p> + +<p>There are other modern methods of siege warfare to be noticed, +the use of which is common to besiegers and besieged. Much is +expected of balloons; but the use of these in war is unlikely to +correspond to peace expectations. They must be kept at a considerable +distance from the enemy’s guns, a distance which will increase +as the means of range-finding improve; and as the height from which +they can observe usefully is limited, so is the observers’ power to +search out hidden objects behind vertical screens. Thus, suppose a +captive balloon at a height of 2000 ft., and distant 4000 yds. from +an enemy’s howitzer battery: and suppose the battery placed +behind a steep hill-side or a grove of trees, at such a distance that a +shell fired with 30° elevation can just clear this screen. The line of +sight from the observer to the battery is inclined to the horizontal +at 2000 / (3 × 4000), that is <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span>, or roughly 10°. It is obvious, therefore, that +the observer cannot see the battery.</p> + +<p>Balloon observers are expected to assist the batteries by marking +the effects of their fire. For this to be done on any practical scale +a balloon would be required for each battery: that is, for only 100 +guns, some 20 or 25 balloons. These would require an equal number +of highly skilled observers (of whom there are not too many in +existence), besides the other balloon personnel and accessories, and +the means of making gas, which is too much to expect, even if an +enemy were obliging enough to give notice of his intentions.</p> + +<p>Telephones and all other means of transmitting intelligence rapidly +are now of the utmost importance to both attack and defence. Maps +marked with numbered squares are necessary for directing artillery +fire, especially from cupolas. Organization in every branch will give +better results than ever before, and the question of communication +and transport from the base of supplies right up to the front needs +detailed study, in view of the great weight of ammunition and +supplies that will have to be handled.</p> + +<p>The use of light mortars for the trenches, introduced by Coehoorn +and revived with extemporized means at Port Arthur, needs great +attention. It may be prophesied that the issue of important sieges +in the future, when skilfully conducted on both sides with sufficient +resources, will depend mainly on the energy of the defenders in +trench work, on mining and countermining in connexion with the +trenches, and on the use of light mortars made to throw large charges +of high explosive for short distances with great accuracy.</p> + +<p>For a brief narrative of the siege of Port Arthur in 1904, one of +the greatest sieges of history, both as regards its epic interest and its +military importance, the reader is referred to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Russo-Japanese War</a></span>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Definitions.</span>—The following definitions may be useful, but have +no place in the evolution of the attack, to which this section is +mainly devoted.</p> + +<p><i>Investment.</i>—This most necessary, almost indispensable operation +of every siege consists in surrounding the fortress about to be besieged, +so as to cut off its communications with the outside world. +<i>Preliminary investment</i> which is carried out by cavalry and light +troops before the arrival of the besieging force, consists in closing +the roads so as to shut out supplies and reinforcements. <i>Close +investment</i> should be of such a character as to prevent any sort of +communication, even by single messengers or spies. The term +“<i>blockade</i>” is sometimes loosely used instead of investment.</p> + +<p><i>Lines of Circumvallation and Contravallation.</i>—These now obsolete +terms were in great use until the 19th century. The <i>circumvallation</i> +was a line of parapet which the besieger made outside the investing +position of his own force, to protect it when there was a chance of +attack by a relieving army. The line of <i>contravallation</i> was the line +of parapet and trench sometimes made by the besieger all round the +town he was attacking, to check the sorties of the garrison.</p> + +<p><i>Observing Force.</i>—When circumstances make the reduction of a +particular fortress in the theatre of operations unnecessary a force +is often detached to “observe” it. The duty of this force will be +to watch the garrison and prevent any hostile action such as raids +on the lines of communications.</p> + +<p><i>Bombardment.</i>—This operation, common to all ages, consists in a +general (sometimes an indiscriminate) fire against either the whole +target offered by the fortress or a particular section of that target. +In ancient and medieval times the effect of a bombardment—whether +of ordinary missiles, of incendiary projectiles, or of poisonous matters +tending to breed pestilence—upon a population closely crowded +within its walls was very powerful. In the present day little military +importance is attached to bombardment, since under modern +conditions it cannot do much real harm.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page714" id="page714"></a>714</span></p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">IV. Military Mining</p> + +<p>It has been noted already that mining is one of the most ancient +resources of siege warfare. The use of gunpowder in mining +operations dates from the end of the 15th century. When +Shakespeare makes Fluellen say, at Henry V.’s siege of Harfleur, +“th’athversary is digt himself four yards under the countermines; +I think ’a will plow up all, if there is not better directions,” +he is anticipating the development of siegecraft by nearly 100 +years. Pedro di Navarro, a Spanish officer, is credited with the +first practical use of explosive mines. He employed them with +great success at the siege of Naples in 1503; and afterwards, +when rebuilding the Castello Nuovo after the siege, was probably +the first to make permanent provision for their use in countermines. +Countermining had been a measure of defence against +the earlier methods of attack-mining; the object being to break +into the besiegers’ galleries and fight hand to hand for the possession +of them. When the explosive mine was introduced, it +became the object of the defenders to establish their countermines +near the besiegers’ galleries and destroy them by the effect +of the explosion. In the 400 years or so that have passed this +branch of warfare has changed less than any other. Methods of +mining have not advanced much, and the increased power +of high explosives as compared with gunpowder has its least +advantage in moving masses of earth.</p> + +<p>When a besieger has arrived by means of trenches within a +certain distance of the enemy’s works without having subdued +their fire, he may find that the advance by sap becomes too slow +and too dangerous. He can then advance underground by means +of mine galleries, and by exploding large charges at the heads of +these galleries can make a series of craters. These craters are +then occupied by infantry, and are connected with each other +and with the parallel in rear by trenches, thus forming a new +parallel. If not interfered with by the defenders the besieger +can advance in this way until he reaches the counterscarp. +His mines will now be turned to a new purpose, viz. to breach the +counterscarp and afterwards the escarp. This is done by +placing suitable charges at intervals behind the scarps at such a +height above the foundations that the pressure of the earth above +the mine will more than counterbalance the resistance of the +masonry.</p> + +<p>But if the defenders are active, they will countermine. There +is as a general rule this broad difference between the mines of +the defence and those of the attack, that the defenders +do not wish the surface of the ground broken, lest +<span class="sidenote">Mines and countermines.</span> +increased opportunities of getting cover should be +offered to the besiegers. The object of the defence, +therefore, is to destroy the besiegers’ galleries without forming +craters, and for this purpose they generally endeavour to get +underneath the attack galleries. The defenders may, however, +wish, if the opportunity is allowed them, to explode mines under +the attack parallels, in which case there is of course no objection +to disturbing the surface.</p> + +<div class="condensed pt1"> +<p>“At the commencement of the subterranean war the main object +of the defence is to force the besieger to take to mining operations +as early as possible, as it is a tedious operation and will prolong the +siege. Every endeavour must be made to push forward countermines +so as to meet and check the attack. On the approach of the +opponents to each other careful listening for the enemy must be +resorted to. To this end it is necessary at <i>irregular</i> intervals to +suspend all work for some minutes at a time, closing doors of communication +and employing experienced listeners at the heads of the +countermines. This matter is a most important one, as a premature +explosion of the defender’s mines is a double loss to the defender, a +loss of a mine and an advantage to the enemy in more than one way. +As soon as the overcharged mines of the besieger have been fired, a +heavy fire should be brought to bear on the craters, and if possible +sorties should be made to prevent the enemy occupying them. At +the same time every effort should be made underground to surround +with galleries, and as it were isolate, the craters so as to prevent the +besieger making a new advance from them. The efforts of the +attack at this stage will probably be directed to the formation of +what are called “Boule shafts” (<i>i.e.</i> shafts partially lined in which +charges are hastily fired with little or no tamping), and to meet these +in time the defender may resort to the use of boring tools, and so +place charges somewhere in advance of the heads of the countermines. +His great object must be to prevent as long as possible +the besieger from getting underground again; and these occasions, +when the power of resistance is temporarily equal to, if not greater +than, that of the attack, should be made the most of by the defence.” +(Lewis, <i>Text-book on Fortification, &c.</i>, 1893.)</p> +</div> + +<p>The defence has the advantage, in the case of fortresses, of +being able to establish beforehand a system of countermine +galleries in masonry. Many systems have been worked out for +this purpose. A good typical arrangement is that of General +Marescot, published in 1799, shown in fig. 72.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:489px; height:845px" src="images/img714.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Textbook of Fortification</i>, by permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery +Office.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 72.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The main galleries (those running out in a straight line from +the counterscarp gallery <i>e</i> to three of the points <i>a</i>) fall gently +to the front to a depth of 30 or 40 ft. below the surface—the +deeper they are the less they will suffer from the enemy’s mines. +Branch galleries (marked <i>c b</i> + <i>d c</i>) run obliquely upward from +them to right and to left, leading to the mines, which are placed +at various depths, according to circumstances.</p> + +<p>Two main points must be observed in any system of countermines: +the branch galleries must run obliquely forward, so as +not to present their sides to the action of the enemy’s mines; +and the distance between the ends of the branches from adjacent +main galleries should be such that the enemy cannot pass between +them unheard. This distance will vary with the nature of the +soil, but may be taken roughly as 20 yds. A convenient size +for main galleries is 6 ft. high by 3 ft. wide: branch galleries +may be 5 ft. by 3 ft. When the enemy is approaching, other +branch galleries, called <i>listeners</i>, will be pushed out from main +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page715" id="page715"></a>715</span> +and branch galleries. The section to fig. 1 of fig. 72 shows openings +left for the purpose.</p> + +<p>Another use of mines in defence is in connexion with breaches. +A permanent arrangement for this purpose, by General Dufour, +is shown in fig. 72. Yet another use, on which much ingenuity +was expended in the 18th century, is to extemporize retrenchments.</p> + +<p>The charges of mines depend of course upon the effect which +is desired. When the charge is strong enough to produce a +crater, the radius of the circular opening on the surface +of the ground is called the <i>radius of the crater</i>. The +<span class="sidenote">Different kinds of mines.</span> +line drawn from the centre of the charge to the nearest +surface, which is expressed in feet, is called the <i>line +of least resistance</i> (L.L.R.). When a mine produces a crater the +diameter of which is equal to the line of least resistance, it is +called a one-lined crater; when the diameter is double the L.L.R., +a <i>two-lined crater</i> and so on. <i>Common mines</i> are those which +produce a two-lined crater. <i>Over-charged mines</i> produce craters +greater than two-lined, and <i>undercharged mines</i> less. A <i>camouflet</i> +does not produce a crater; it is used when the object is to +destroy an enemy’s gallery without breaking the surface. Fig. +73 shows sections of the different kinds of mines, with their +craters and the effect they will produce downwards and horizontally +in ordinary earth.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:527px; height:643px" src="images/img715.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Instructions in Military Engineering</i>, by permission of the Controller of H.M. +Stationery Office.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 73.—Mines.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Consideration of this figure will show that it is possible to place +a long charge at such a depth below the surface that it will +destroy all galleries of the enemy within a considerable radius, +without much disturbing the surface of the ground.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Bored mines, which have been alluded to above, are a comparatively +recent innovation. When the enemy is heard at work in +one of his galleries and his position approximately determined by the +sound, it is necessary to drive a branch gallery with all speed in that +direction, and when it has advanced as far as appears necessary, to +load, tamp and discharge a mine before the enemy can fire his own +mine. This is one of the most delicate and dangerous operations +of war, and success will fall to those who are at the same time most +skilful and most determined. The work can be hastened and made +less dangerous as follows: Instead of driving a branch gallery, a +hole several inches in diameter is bored in the required direction. +With suitable tools there is no difficulty in driving a straight bore +hole 20 or 30 ft. long. A small charge of high explosives is then +pushed up to the end of the borehole and fired. This forms a small +camouflet chamber by compressing the earth around it. Into this +chamber the charge for the mine is passed up the bore-hole. No +tamping of course is required.</p> +</div> + +<p>Mine warfare is slow, dangerous and uncertain in its results. +It will certainly delay the besiegers’ advance very much and may +do so indefinitely. One point is distinctly in favour of the defence, +namely that when ground has been much mined it becomes +charged with poisonous gases. Some explosives are less noxious +than others in this way, and it will be advantageous for the attack, +but not necessarily for the defence, to make use of these.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Calculation of Charges.</i>—The quantity of powder required for a +charge is expressed in lbs. in terms of L.L.R.<span class="sp">3</span>, and the following +formulae are used:</p> + +<p>l = L.L.R. in feet, r = radius of crater in feet, c = powder charge in +pounds, s = a variable dependent on the nature of the soil.</p> + +<p>For a common mine c = (s/10) l<span class="sp">3</span>.</p> + +<p>For an overcharged mine c = (s/10) {l + .9 (r − l)}<span class="sp">3</span>.</p> + +<p>For an undercharged mine c = (s/10) {l − .9 (l − r)}<span class="sp">3</span>.</p> + +<p>The values to be given to s are:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">   Nature of Soil.</td> <td class="tcc">Value of s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Very light earth</td> <td class="tcc">0.80</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Common earth</td> <td class="tcc">1.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hard sand</td> <td class="tcc">1.25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Earth mixed with stones</td> <td class="tcc">1.40</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Clay mixed with loam</td> <td class="tcc">1.55</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Inferior brickwork</td> <td class="tcc">1.66</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Rock or good new brickwork</td> <td class="tcc">2.25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Very good old brickwork</td> <td class="tcc">2.50</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>Military mining is carried on by means of vertical <i>shafts</i> and +horizontal or inclined <i>galleries</i>. When the soil is very stiff, very +little or even no lining is required for shafts and galleries; but +usually they have to be lined either with cases or frames.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Cases make a complete lining of 2 in. planking. Frames are used +at intervals of 4 or 5 ft. to support a partial lining of planks. Cases +are of course preferable in other respects; but in ordinary soil they +take up more timber.</p> + +<p>There are two kinds of gallery in ordinary use in the British +service, namely the <i>common gallery</i> whose interior dimensions with +cases are 5 ft. 6 in. × 2 ft., and the <i>branch gallery</i> which +is 4 ft. × 2 ft. The <i>shaft</i> has about the same dimensions as +<span class="sidenote">Shafts and galleries.</span> +a branch gallery. Formerly it was sometimes necessary +in the systematic attack of a fortress to get guns down into the ditch. +For this purpose a “great gallery” was used, 6 ft. 6 in. in height and +6 ft. 8 in. wide, internal dimensions.</p> + +<p><i>Miners’ Tools.</i>—These are few and simple. The pick and shovel +differ from the ordinary types in having rather shorter helves suitable +for the confined space in which they are used. There is also a <i>push-pick</i>, +an implement with a straight helve and a pointed shovel head +6 in. long and 3½ in. wide. The <i>miner’s truck</i>, used for drawing the +earth from the end of the gallery to the bottom of the shaft, is a small +wooden truck holding about 2 cub. ft. of earth. Formerly the noise +of the wheels of the truck passing over the uneven wooden floor of +the gallery was very liable to be heard by the enemy. To obviate +this they now have leather tyres and should run on battens nailed +to the floor. The <i>miner’s bucket</i> is a small canvas bucket with a +couple of ropes attached, by which the earth can be drawn up the +shaft. Nowadays, however, the truck itself has chains attached to +it, by which it is drawn up, with the aid of a windlass, to the surface. +By this method more earth can be taken up in one lift, and time and +labour are not wasted in transferring the contents of the truck to the +bucket.</p> + +<p><i>Ventilation</i> is an important point. The breath of the miners and +the burning of their candles (when electric light is not available) +vitiates the air in the galleries; so that even in clean ground a +gallery should not be driven more than 60 ft. without providing +some means of renewing the air. This is usually done by forcing +fresh air, by means of a pump or bellows, through a flexible hose to +the head of the gallery. Where mines have been fired close by, +there is great danger from poisonous gases filtering through the soil +into the gallery. This difficulty is nowadays met by the use of +special apparatus, such as helmets into which fresh air is pumped, +so that the wearers need not breathe the air of the gallery at all. +Ventilation can also be assisted by boring holes vertically to the +surface of the ground.</p> + +<p>Where a point has been reached at which it is proposed to fire a +mine, a chamber just large enough to hold the charge is cut in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page716" id="page716"></a>716</span> +side of the gallery. The object of this is to keep the charge out of +the direct line of the gallery and thus increase the force of the +explosion. The charge may be placed in canvas bags, barrels or +boxes, precautions being taken against damp.</p> + +<p>The operation of loading is of the first importance, for if the mine +is not exploded with success, not only is valuable time lost, which +may give the enemy his opportunity, but it will probably +be necessary to untamp the mine in order to renew the +<span class="sidenote">Charging mines.</span> +fuze; an operation attended by considerable danger. +The loading of the mine should therefore be done by the officer in +charge with his own hands. He has to work in a very cramped +position and practically in the dark (unless with electric light) as of +course no naked lights can be allowed near powder. Everything +should therefore be prepared beforehand to facilitate the loading of +the mine and placing of the fuze. At Chatham a 1000 ℔ mine, at +the end of a gallery 136 ft. long, has been loaded in 30 minutes. +The powder was passed up the gallery by hand in sandbags, and +emptied into a box of the required size.</p> + +<p>Whatever method of firing (see below) is employed, the officer +who loads the mine must be careful to see that it is so arranged as to +make firing certain, and that the leads passing out of the gallery +are not liable to damage in the process of tamping.</p> + +<p><i>Tamping.</i>—This operation consists in filling up the head of the +gallery solidly, for such a distance that there shall be no possibility +of the charge wasting its force along the gallery. The distance +depends on the charge and on the solidity of the tamping. For a +common mine it should extend to about 3/2 L.L.R. from the charge, +when the tamping is of earth in sandbags; for a 3-lined crater, to +about 2 L.L.R. Tamping can be improved by jamming pieces of +timber across the shaft or gallery among the other filling.</p> + +<p><i>Firing.</i>—This may be done electrically, or by means of <i>safety</i> or +<i>instantaneous fuze</i> or <i>powder hose</i>.</p> + +<p>Electric firing is the safest and best, and allows of the charge being +exploded at any given moment. For this purpose <i>electric fuzes</i> (for +powder) or <i>electric detonators</i> (for guncotton or other high explosive) +are employed. The current that fires them is passed through copper +wire leads.</p> + +<p>The safety fuze used in the British service burns at the rate of +about 3 ft. a minute. Instantaneous fuze burns at the rate of a mile +a minute. Both can be fired under water. They are often used in +conjunction, a considerable length of instantaneous fuze, leading +from the charge, being connected to a short length of safety fuze.</p> + +<p>Powder hose, an old-time expedient, can be extemporized by +making a tube of strong linen, say 1 in. in diameter, and filling it with +powder. It burns at the rate of 10 to 20 ft. per second.</p> + +<p><i>Explosives.</i>—The old-fashioned gunpowder of the grained black +variety is still the best for most kinds of military mines. Pebble and +prism powders do not give as good results, presumably because +their action is so slow that some of the gases of explosion can escape +through the pores of the earth. High explosives, with their quick +shattering and rending effect, are little more effective than gunpowder +in actually moving large quantities of earth. Most of them +give off much more poisonous fumes than gunpowder. Some recent +high explosives, however, have been specially designed to be comparatively +innocuous in this respect.</p> +</div> + +<p>Some formulae have been given above for the calculation +of charges. It will, however, simplify matters for the +<span class="sidenote">Effects of mines.</span> +reader to record some actual instances of charges +fired both in peace and war.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the matter of scientific experiment we find Vauban as usual +leading the way, and the following results among others were obtained +by him at Tournay in 1686 and 1689: A charge of 162 ℔ placed +13 ft. below the surface produced a crater of 13 ft. radius (a two-lined +crater, or “common mine”). Galleries were destroyed at distances +equal to the L.L.R. in both horizontal and vertical directions. +Double the charge, placed at double the depth, <i>i.e.</i> 324 ℔ with an +L.L.R. of 27 ft. made no crater, but like the first destroyed galleries +below it and on each side at distances equal to the L.L.R. A charge +of 3828 ℔ with L.L.R. of 37 ft. made a two-lined crater and destroyed +a gallery distant 61 ft. horizontally.</p> + +<p>Bernard Forest de Belidor, a French engineer, made many experiments +at La Fère about 1732, and 20 years later, as a general officer +and inspector of miners, continued them on a larger scale. His +experiments were directed towards destroying an enemy’s galleries +at greater distances than had hitherto been supposed possible, by +means of very large charges (in proportion to the L.L.R.) which he +called “globes of compression.” In one of them a charge of 4320 ℔ +of powder placed only 15 ft. 9 in. below the surface damaged or +“compressed” a gallery distant 65 ft. horizontally. The radius of +the crater was 34 ft. 8 in.</p> + +<p>At Frederick the Great’s siege of Schweidnitz in 1762 some very +large charges were exploded. One of them, of 5400 ℔ with an L.L.R. +of 16 ft. 3 in., made a crater of 42 ft. 3 in. radius. Readers of Carlyle’s +<i>Frederick the Great</i> may recall his description of the contest of the +rival engineers on this occasion.</p> + +<p>At Graudenz in 1862 (experiments) a charge of 1031 ℔ of powder +placed 10 ft. deep, untamped, in a vertical shaft, made a crater of +15 ft. 6 in. radius. A charge of 412 ℔ of guncotton, calculated as +being equivalent to the above charge of powder and placed under +the same conditions, made a crater of 14 ft. radius. The absence +of tamping in both cases of course placed the gunpowder at a disadvantage.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most interesting mine ever fired was that at the +siege of Petersburg in the American Civil War, in June 1864. The +circumstances were all abnormal, and the untechnical +account of it in <i>Battles and Leaders of the Civil War</i> (vol. +<span class="sidenote">The Petersburg Mine, 1864.</span> +iv.) is well worth perusal. No mining tools or materials +and no military miners were available; and no one had +any confidence in the success of the attempt except its +originator, Lieut.-Colonel Pleasants, a mining engineer by profession, +his regiment which was recruited from a mining population, and +General Burnside the corps commander. The opposing entrenchments +were 130 yds. apart. The mine gallery was started behind the +Federal lines and driven a distance of 510 ft. till it came under a +field redoubt in the Confederate lines. There two branches were +made right and left, each about 38 ft. long, and in them eight mines +aggregating 8000 ℔ of powder were placed. The first attempt to +fire them failed, and an officer and a sergeant volunteered to enter +the gallery to seek the cause of the failure. A defective splice in two +lengths of fuze was thus discovered and repaired. At the second +attempt all the mines were fired simultaneously with success, and +made a gigantic crater 170 ft. long by 60 ft. wide and 30 ft. deep. +The occupants of the redoubt, at least several hundred men (they +have been stated at 1000), were blown up and mostly killed. The +assault which followed, however, failed completely, for want of +organization. The infantry was drawn up in readiness to advance, +but no outlets had been provided from the parallel, and this and other +causes delayed the occupation of the crater and gave the defending +artillery a moment’s respite. Thus the assailants gained the crater +but could not advance beyond it in face of the defenders’ fire, nor +could they establish themselves within it, on its steep clay sides, +for want of entrenching tools. A good many troops were sent forwards +in support, but being in many cases of inferior quality, they +could not be induced to go forward, and huddled in disorder in the +already overcrowded crater. Over 1000 of these were captured +when the Confederates retook the crater by a counter-attack and the +total loss of the Federals in the attack was nearly 4000.</p> +</div> + +<p>The wars of the last generation have done little or nothing +to advance the science of military mining, but a good deal has +been done in peace to improve the means. Electric lighting and +electric firing of mines will be a great help; modern drilling +machines may be used to go through rock; ventilating arrangements +are much improved; and the use of bored mines is sure +to have great developments. The Russo-Japanese War taught +nothing new in mine-warfare, or as to the effects of mines, but +the siege of Port Arthur had this moral among others; just as in +future, in the frontal attack of positions, trench must oppose +trench, so in fortress warfare mines will be more necessary than +ever. It appears that they will be essential to destroy both +the ditch-flanking arrangements of forts and the escarp or other +permanent obstacle beyond the ditch.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">V. Field Fortification</p> + +<p><i>Field Fortifications</i>, now more often spoken of as field defences, +are those which are constructed at short notice, with the means +locally available, usually when the enemy is near at hand. +Subject to the question of time, a very high degree of strength +can be given to them, if the military situation makes it worth +while to expend sufficient labour. A century or more ago, +the dividing line between permanent and field fortification +was very rigidly drawn, since in those days a high masonry +escarp surmounted by a rampart was essential to a permanent +fortress, and these could naturally not be extemporized. +Works without masonry, in other ways made as strong as +possible with deep ditches and heavy timbers,—such as would +require about six weeks for their construction—were known +as <i>semi-permanent</i>, and were used for the defence of places +which acquired strategic importance in the course of a +war, but were not immediately threatened. The term <i>field</i> +fortification was reserved for works constructed of lighter +materials, with parapets and ditches of only moderate development. +Redoubts of this class required a fortnight at most for +their construction.</p> + +<p>In modern fortification if cupolas and deep revetted ditches +were essential to permanent defences, the dividing line would +be equally clear. But as has been shown, this is not universally +admitted, and where the resources exist, the use of our present +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page717" id="page717"></a>717</span> +means of construction, such as steel joists, railway rails, reinforced +concrete and wire, in conjunction with the defensive +power of modern firearms, makes it possible to extemporize +in a very short time works having much of the resisting power +of a permanent fortress. Further, such works can be expanded +from the smallest beginnings; and, if the site is not too exposed, +in the presence of the enemy.</p> + +<p>Field fortification offers, as regards the actual constructions, +a very limited scope to the engineer; and a little consideration +will show that its defensive possibilities were not greatly affected +by the change from machine-thrown projectiles to those fired +by rude smooth-bore guns. There is therefore nothing in the +history of this branch of the subject that is worth tracing, from +the earliest ages to about the end of the 18th century. One or +two points may be noticed. The use of obstacles is probably +one of the earliest measures of defence. Long before missile +weapons had acquired such an importance as to make it worth +while to seek shelter from them, it would obviously have been +found desirable to have some means of checking the onrush of +an enemy physically or numerically superior. Hence the use +by savage tribes, to this day, of pits, pointed stakes hidden in +the grass, entanglements and similar obstacles. In this direction +the ages have made no change, and the most highly civilized +nations still use the same obstacles on occasion.</p> + +<p>Another use of field defences common to all ages is the protection +of camps at night, where small forces are operating against +an enemy more numerous but inferior in arms and discipline. +In daylight such an enemy is not feared, but at night his numbers +might be dangerous. Hence the Roman practice of making +each foot-soldier carry a couple of stakes for palisades; and the +simple defence of a thorn zariba used by the British for their +camps in the Sudan.</p> + +<p>Palisades and trenches, abatis and sharpened stakes have +always been used. Except wire, there is practically no new +material. As to methods, the laagers of the Boers are preceded +by the wagon-forts of the Hussites, and those no doubt by +similar arrangements of British or Assyrian war chariots; and +so in almost every direction it will be found that the expedient +of to-day has had its forerunners in those of the countless yesterdays. +The only really marked change in the arrangements of +field defences has been caused not by gunpowder but by quick-firing +rifled weapons. For that reason it is worth while to +consider briefly what were the principles of field fortification at +the end of the 18th century. That period has been chosen +because it gives us the result of a couple of centuries of constant +fighting between disciplined troops with fairly effective firearms. +The field defences of the 19th century are transitional in +character. Based mainly on the old methods, they show only +faint attempts at adaptation to new conditions, and it was not +till quite the end of the century that the methods now accepted +began to take shape.</p> + +<p>The essential elements of fieldworks up to the time of the +Peninsular War were <i>command</i> and <i>obstacle</i>; now they are +<i>protection</i> and <i>concealment</i>.</p> + +<p>The command and obstacle were as necessary in the days of +smooth-bore muskets and guns as in those of javelins and +arrows. When the enemy could get close up to a +work without serious loss, and attack in close order, +<span class="sidenote">Old type of field defences.</span> +the defenders needed a really good obstacle in front +of them. Moreover, since they could not rely on their +fire alone to repulse the attack, they needed a two-deep line, with +reserves close at hand, to meet it with the “arme blanche.” +For this purpose a parapet 7 or 8 ft. high, with a steep slope, +perhaps palisaded, up which the attackers must climb after +passing the obstacle, was excellent. The defenders after firing +their last volley could use their bayonets from the top of the +parapet with the advantage of position. The high parapet had +also the advantage that the attackers could not tell what was +going on inside the redoubt, and the defenders were sheltered +from their fire as well from view until the last moment.</p> + +<p>The strength of a fortified line in the 18th century depended +principally on its redoubts. Lines of shelter trenches had little +power of defence at the time, unless they held practically as +many men as would have sufficed to fight in the open. Obstacles +on the other hand had a greater value, against the inelastic +tactics of the time, than they have now. A good position therefore +was one which offered good fire-positions for redoubts and +plenty of facilities for creating obstacles. Strong redoubts +which could resist determined assaults; good obstacles in the +intervals, guns in the redoubts to sweep the intervals, and troops +in formed bodies kept in reserve for counter-strokes—these +were the essentials in the days of the smooth-bore.</p> + +<p>The redoubts were liable to a heavy cannonade by field-guns +before the attack. To withstand this, the parapets had to be +made of a suitable thickness—from 4 or 5 ft. upwards—according +to the time available, the resisting nature of the soil, and the +severity of the bombardment expected.</p> + +<p>The whole of the earth for the parapet was as a rule obtained +from the ditch, in order to make as much as possible of this +obstacle. The garrison in all parts of the interior of the redoubt +were to be sheltered, if possible, from the enemy’s fire, and with +this object great pains were bestowed on the principle of “defilade.” +The object of defilade, which was a great fetish in +theoretical works, was so to arrange the height of the parapet +with reference to the terreplein of a work that a straight line +(not, be it observed, the trajectory of the projectiles) passing +from the muzzle of a musket or gun on the most commanding +point of the enemy’s position, over the crest of the parapet, +should just clear the head of a defender standing in any part of +the work. This problem of defilade became quite out of date +after the development of time shrapnel, but was nevertheless +taught with great rigour till within the last twenty years.</p> + +<p>The sectional area of the ditch was calculated so that with +an addition of about 10% for expansion it would equal that of +the parapet. If a wider and deeper ditch was considered necessary, +the surplus earth could be used to form a glacis.</p> + +<p>The interior of the redoubt had to afford sufficient space to +allow the garrison to sleep in it, which was sometimes a matter +of some difficulty if a small irregularly shaped work had to +contain a strong garrison. Consideration of the plan and sections +of these works will show that the banquette for infantry with +its slopes, and the gun platforms, took off a good deal from the +interior space within the crest-line. Guns were usually placed +at the salients, where they could get the widest field of fire. +They were sometimes placed on the ground level, firing through +embrasures in the parapet, and sometimes on platforms so as to +fire over the parapet (<i>en barbette</i>).</p> + +<p>As in permanent fortification, immense pains were taken to +elaborate theoretically the traces of works. A distinction was +made between forts and redoubts, the former being those which +were arranged to flank their own ditches, while the redoubts did +not. Redoubts again were classed as “closed,” those which had +an equally strong defence all round; and “half-closed,” those +which had only a slight parapet or timber stockade for the gorge +or rear faces. Open works (those which had no gorge defence) +were named according to their trace, as <i>redans</i> and <i>lunettes</i>. A +redan is a work with two faces making a salient angle. It was +frequently used in connexion with straight lines of trench or +breastwork. A lunette is a work with two faces, usually forming +an obtuse angle, and two flanks.</p> + +<p>The forts described in the text-books, as might be expected, +were designed with great ingenuity, with bastioned or demi-bastioned +fronts, star traces, and so forth, and in the same books +intricate calculations were entered into to balance the <i>remblai</i> +and <i>déblai</i>, that is, the amount of earth in the parapets with that +excavated from the ditches. In practice such niceties of course +disappeared, though occasionally when the ground allowed of it +star forts and bastioned fronts were employed.</p> + +<p>On irregular ground the first necessity was to fit the redoubt +to the ground on which it stood, so as to sweep the whole of the +foreground, and this was generally a sufficiently difficult matter +without adding the complications of flanking defences. Sir +John Jones, speaking of the traces of the several works in the +Torres Vedras lines, says:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page718" id="page718"></a>718</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The redoubts were made of every capacity, from that of fig. 74 a, +limited by want of space on the ground it occupied to 50 men and +two pieces of artillery, to that of fig. 74 b, for 500 men and +six pieces of artillery, the importance of the object to be +<span class="sidenote">Torres Vedras.</span> +attained being the only guide in forming the dimensions. +Many of the redoubts first thrown up, even some of the smallest, +were shaped like stars, under the idea of procuring a flank defence +for the ditches; but this construction was latterly rejected, it being +found to cut up the interior space, and to be almost fallacious with +respect to flank defence, the breadth of the exterior slopes being in +some cases equal to the whole length of the flanks so obtained. Even +when, from the greater size of the work, some flanking fire was thus +gained, the angle formed by the faces was generally so obtuse that it +demanded more coolness in the defenders than ought reasonably +to be expected to aim along the ditch of the opposite face: and +further, this construction prevented the fire of the work being more +powerful in front than in rear.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:511px; height:223px" src="images/img718a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 74.</span>—Torres Vedras Works.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In order to decide on the proper trace of a work, it is necessary to +consider whether its object be to prevent an enemy establishing +himself on the ground on which it is to be placed, or whether it be to +insure a heavy fire of artillery on some other point in its vicinity. +In the first case every consideration should be sacrificed to that of +adding to its powers of self-defence by flanks or other expedients. +In the second, its powers of resistance are secondary to the establishment +of a powerful offensive fire and its trace cannot be too +simple. Latterly, the shape of the redoubts was invariably that most +fitted to the ground, or such as best parried the enfilade fire or +musketry plunge of neighbouring heights, care being taken to present +the front of fire deemed necessary towards the pass, or other object +to be guarded; and such will generally be found the best rule of +proceeding.</p> + +<p>This recommendation, however, is not intended to apply to +isolated works of large dimensions, and more particularly to those +considered the key of any position. No labour or expense should be +spared to render such works capable of resisting the most furious +assaults, either by breaking the parapet into flanks, or forming a +flank defence in the ditch; for the experience gained in the Peninsula +shows that an unflanked work of even more than an ordinary field +profile, if skilfully and determinedly assaulted, will generally be +carried.... Nor does the serious evil of curtailing the interior +space, which renders breaks in the outline so objectionable in small +works, apply to works of large dimensions.... Under this view +the great work on Monte Agraça (fig. 75) must be considered as very +defective, the flank defence being confined to an occasional break +of a few feet in the trace, caused by a change of direction in the +contour of the height, whilst the interior space is more than doubly +sufficient for the number of its allotted garrison to encamp.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:451px; height:340px" src="images/img718b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 75.</span>—Monte Agraça, Torres Vedras.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Interior and other Defences.</i>—This work, however, had some of its +salient points ... cut off by earthen lines of parapet, steeply +revetted externally, and so traced as to serve for traverses to the +interior. It had also three or four small enclosed posts formed within +it; and the work at Torres Vedras (fig. 76) had each of its salient +points formed into an independent post. These interior defences +and retrenchments were intended to guard against a general panic +amongst the garrison, which would necessarily be composed in part +of indifferent troops, and also to prevent the loss of the work by +the entry of the assailants at any weak or ill-defended point. Such +interior lines to rally on are absolutely essential to the security of a +large field-work. They serve as substitutes for a blockhouse or tower, +placed in the interior of all well-constructed permanent earthen +works, and merit far more attention than they generally receive.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:462px; height:350px" src="images/img718c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 76.</span>—Torres Vedras Works.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The small circular windmills of stone, which were frequently +found occupying salient knolls ... readily converted into admirable +interior posts of that nature. The profile of the several works +varied on every face and flank, according to its liability to be attacked +or cannonaded; the only general rule enforced being that all ditches +should be at least 15 ft. wide at top and 10 ft. in depth, and the crest +of the parapet have at least 5 ft. command over the crest of the +counterscarp. No parapet exceeded 10 ft. in thickness, unless +exposed to be severely cannonaded, and few more than 6 or 8 ft.; +and some, on high knolls, where artillery could not by any possibility +be brought against them, were made of stone or rubble less than 2 ft. +in thickness, to gain more interior space, and allow full liberty for the +use of the defenders’ bayonets.”</p> + +<p>Fig. 77 gives two typical sections of these works.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:451px; height:272px" src="images/img718d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 77.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The works of Torres Vedras have been chosen for illustration +because they offer very good historical examples, and also +because of the value of the critical remarks of Sir John Jones, +who as a captain was the engineer in charge of their construction. +At the same time it must be remembered that they differ from +ordinary field-works in having an unusual degree of strength, +plenty of time and civilian labour having been available for their +construction. In this respect they approximate more to semi-permanent +works, the main reason why they did not receive +under the circumstances a greater development of ditch and +parapet being that in addition to the large number of works +required, much labour was expended in abatis, inundations, +scarping hill-sides and constructing roads.</p> + +<p>Some further remarks of Sir John on the <i>situations of the +works</i> are very instructive:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“Many of the redoubts were placed on very elevated situations +on the summit of steep hills, which gave them a most imposing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page719" id="page719"></a>719</span> +appearance; but it was in reality a defect ... for the fire of their +artillery on the object to be guarded became so plunging as to lose +half its powers; the musketry could not be made to scour the face +of the hill sufficiently; and during the night both arms became of +most uncertain effect.</p> + +<p>“The domineering situation of the redoubts, however, gave confidence +to the young troops which composed their garrisons, protected +them from a cannonade, and screened their interior from +musketry, unless fired at a high angle, and consequently at random. +These considerations perhaps justify the unusually elevated sites +selected for most of the redoubts on the lines, though they cannot +induce an approval of them as a general measure.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The chief principle of the period was thus that the redoubts +were the most important features of lines of defence, and that +they combined physical obstacle and protection with good +musketry and artillery positions. The value of concealment +was not ignored, but it was as a rule subordinated to other +considerations.</p> + +<p>The principles of this time remained unaltered until after the +Crimean War. In the American Civil War the power of the rifle +began to assert itself, and it was found that a simple +breastwork defended by a double rank of men could +<span class="sidenote">19th century.</span> +protect itself by its fire against an ordinary assault. +This power of the rifle gave greatly enhanced importance to +any defences that could be hastily extemporized behind walls, +hedges or any natural cover. About the period of the Franco-German +War other considerations came in. The increased +velocity of artillery projectiles reduced in some ways their +destructive effects against earth parapets, because the shell had +an increasing tendency to deflect upwards on striking a bank +of loose earth. Also the use of shrapnel made it impossible for +troops to find cover on the terreplein of a work some distance +behind the parapet.</p> + +<p>These considerations, however, were not fully realized at that +time. The reason was partly a want of touch between the +engineers and the non-technical branches of most armies, and +partly that original writers from the Napoleonic wars to the +present day have been more occupied with the primary question +of the value of field defences as a matter of tactics than with +their details considered from the standpoint of fortification.</p> + +<p>There was always an influential school of writers who declaimed +against all defences, as being injurious to the offensive spirit so +essential to success. Those writers who treated of the arrangements +of defences devoted themselves to theoretical details of +trace quite after the old style; discussing the size and shape of +typical redoubts, their distance apart and relation to lines of +trenches, &c. The profiles—the thick parapet with command +of 7 ft. or more, the deep ditch, and the inadequate cover behind +the parapet—remained as they had been for a century.</p> + +<p>The American Civil War showed the power of rifles behind +slight defences. Plevna in 1877 taught a further lesson. It +proved the great resisting power of extemporized lines; but +more than that, we begin to find new arrangements for protection +against shell fire (see plans and sections in Greene’s <i>The Russian +Army and its Campaign in Turkey</i>). The trace of the works and +the sections of parapet and ditch suggest Torres Vedras; but +a multiplication of interior traverses and splinter-proof shelters +show the necessity for a different class of protection. The +parapet was designed according to the old type, for want of a +better; the traverses and shelters were added later, to meet the +necessities of the case. The Turks also used two or three tiers +of musketry fire, as for instance one from the crest of the glacis, +one from the parapet, and one from a traverse in rear of it. +This, however, is a development which will not be necessary in +future, thanks to magazine rifles.</p> + +<p>From 1877 to 1899 the efficiency of rifles and guns rapidly +increased, and certain new principles, causing the field defences +of the present day to differ radically from those of +the 18th century, remained to be developed. These +<span class="sidenote">Principles of modern field defences.</span> +may be considered under the following heads: the +nature of protection required, the diminished need +of obstacle, and the adaptation of works to ground.</p> + +<p>The principle that <i>thickness</i> of parapet is no longer required, +to resist artillery fire, was first laid down at Chatham in 1896. +The distance at which guns now engage makes direct hits on +parapets comparatively rare. Further, a shell striking near the +crest of a parapet may perhaps kill one man if he is in the way, +and displace a bushel of earth. That is nothing. It is the +contents of the shell, whether shrapnel or explosive, that is +the source of danger and not the shell itself. Thus the enemy’s +object is to burst his common shell immediately behind the +parapet, or his shrapnel a short distance in front of it, in order +to get searching effect. It follows that a parapet is thick enough +if it suffices to stop rifle bullets, since the same thickness will +<i>a fortiori</i> keep out shrapnel bullets or splinters of shell. For this +purpose 3 ft. is enough.</p> + +<p>Real protection is gained by a trench close in rear of the +parapet, deep enough to give shelter from high angle shrapnel, +and narrow enough to minimize the chance of a common shell +dropping into it. This protection is increased by frequent +traverses across the trench.</p> + +<p>The most essential point of all is <i>concealment</i>. In gaining this +we say good-bye finally to the old type of work. Protection +is now given by the trench rather than the parapet; command +and the ditch-obstacle (which furnished the earth for the high +parapet) are alike unnecessary. Concealment can therefore be +studied by keeping the parapet down to the lowest level above +the surface from which the foreground can be seen. This may be +18 in. or less.</p> + +<p>The need of obstacle, in daylight and when the defenders +are not abnormally few, has practically disappeared. For night +work, or when the assailant is so strong as to be able to force +home his attack in face of protected rifle fire, what is needed is not +a deep ditch immediately in front of the parapet, difficult to +climb, but also difficult to flank, but an obstacle that will +detain him under fire at short range. It may be an entanglement, +an abatis, an inundation: anything that will check the +rush and make him move slowly.</p> + +<p>In the <i>adaptation of works to ground</i>, the governing factor is +the power of the rifle in frontal defence. We have seen that in +Peninsular times great reliance was placed on the flanking defence +of lines by guns in redoubts. Infantry extended behind a simple +line of trench could not resist a strong attack without such +support. Now, however, infantry behind a slight trench, with +a good field of fire should be able to defend themselves against +any infantry attack.</p> + +<p>This being so, the enemy’s artillery seeks to locate the trenches +and to cover them with a steady hail of shells, so as to force the +defenders to keep down under cover. If they can succeed in +doing this, it is possible for the attacking infantry to advance, +and the artillery fire is kept up until the last moment, so that the +attack may have the narrowest possible space to cover after the +defenders have manned their parapets and opened fire. Fig. 78 +shows the action of various natures of projectiles.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:297px" src="images/img719.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Mil. Engineering</i>, by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 78.—Effect of Projectiles.</td></tr></table> + +<p>We need not here discuss the rôle of the defenders’ artillery in +replying to that of the enemy and playing on the attack; nor +for the moment consider how far the defence of the trenches +while under artillery fire can be made easier by overhead cover. +The main question is—what is, in view of the nature of the attack, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page720" id="page720"></a>720</span> +the best disposition of lines of trench; and do they require the +addition of redoubts?</p> + +<p>The most important point, with the object of protection, is +that the trenches must not be conspicuous; this is the best +defence against artillery. With the object of resistance by their +own fire they must have a good view, or, as it is generally +described, no <i>dead ground</i> in front of them. For this purpose +300 or 400 yds. may be enough if the ground is even and affords +no cover.</p> + +<p>This necessity for invisibility, together with the shallowness +of the zone that suffices for producing a decisive fire effect, has +of late years very much affected the choice of ground for a line +of trenches.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a defensive position on high ground, it was usually laid down +until the South African War that a line of trenches should be on the +“military crest” (Fr. <i>crête militaire</i>), <i>i.e.</i> the highest +point on the hill from which the whole of the slopes in +<span class="sidenote">Siting of trenches.</span> +front can be seen. Thus in the three sections of ground +shown in fig. 79 it would be at a, b and c respectively. The simplicity +of this prescription made it attractive and it came to be rather +abused in the text-books. There were, even before the improvements +in artillery, objections to it, because on most slopes the military +crest would be found at very different elevations on different parts +of the line, so that by a strict adherence to the rule some of the +trenches would be placed near the top of the hill, and some in +dangerous isolation near the bottom. Moreover a rounded hill has +no military crest.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:459px; height:119px" src="images/img720a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 79.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Further, we have to consider nowadays not only the position of +the fire-trenches, but those of supports, reserves and artillery, and +the whole question is extremely difficult.</p> + +<p>For instance, considering the sections alone, as if they did not +vary along the line, the positions at <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, fig. 79, are bad because +they are on the sky-line and therefore a good mark for artillery. +That at <i>b</i> is especially bad because the slope in front is so steep that +the defenders would have to expose themselves very much to fire +down it, and the artillery fire against them can be kept up until the +very last moment. The position <i>c</i> has the advantage of not being +on the sky-line, but the position of the supports in rear is exposed.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:284px; height:69px" src="images/img720b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 80.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:367px; height:83px" src="images/img720c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 81.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:220px; height:107px" src="images/img720d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 82.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:373px; height:141px" src="images/img720e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 83.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Such a position as that at +<i>d</i>, fig. 80, is good, but protected +or concealed communications +must be made +for the supports coming +from <i>e</i> over the brow of the +hill.</p> + +<p>Another possible position for the infantry line is at <i>f</i>, fig. 81, with +the guns on the high ground behind. They might easily be quite +concealed from the enemy’s artillery. The drawback is that no +retirement up the +exposed slope +would be possible +for them, except +at night. The fire +from <i>f</i> will be +<i>grazing</i>, which will +be a great advantage as compared with the <i>plunging</i> fire that would +be obtained from a position up the hill.</p> + +<p>It is idle, however, to give more than the most cursory consideration +to sections of imaginary positions. It is only by actual practice on +the ground that skill can be attained in laying out positions, and +only a trained soldier with a good eye can succeed in it. Briefly, the +advantages of view and position given by high ground must be paid +for in some degree by exposure to the enemy’s artillery; and at +least as much consideration—possibly as much labour—must be +given to communications with the fire-trenches as to the trenches +themselves. Irregular ground simplifies the question of concealment +but also gives cover to the enemy’s approach. The lie of the ground +will itself dictate the position of the trenches, subject to the predispositions +of the responsible officer. On flat featureless ground the +general trace of the trenches should be irregular. This makes a +more difficult target for artillery, and affords a certain amount of +cross and flanking fire, which is a very great advantage. Great care +should, however, be taken not to expose the trenches to oblique +or enfilade fire; or at least to protect them, if so exposed, by +traversing.</p> + +<p>Concealment of trenches is generally attempted by covering the +freshly turned earth of the small parapet with sods, leafy branches +or grass. In this connexion it should be remembered +that after a day or two cut leaves and grass wither and +<span class="sidenote"><i>Trenches.</i></span> +may become conspicuous against a green surface. Where the ground +is so even that a good view of the foreground is possible from the +surface level, the trench may be made +without a parapet; but this entails +great labour in removing and disposing +of the excavated earth. A common +device is to conceal the parapet as well +as possible and to make a dummy +trench some distance away to draw +fire.</p> + +<p>Besides the direct concealment of +trenches, care must be taken that the site is not conspicuous. Thus +a trench should not be placed along the meeting line of two different +kinds of cultivation, or along the edge of a belt of heather on a hill-side, +or where a difference of gradient is sharply defined; or where +any conspicuous +landmark would +help the enemy’s +artillery to get the +range.</p> + +<p>Trenches are +broadly distinguished +as “fire +trenches” and +“cover trenches,” +according as they +are for the firing +line or supporting troops. The following simple types are taken +from the 1908 edition of <i>Military Engineering</i> (part 1): “Field +Defences.”</p> + +<p>Fig. 82 is the most common form of fire trench, in which labour +is saved by equalizing trench and parapet. This would take 1½ to +2 hours in ordinary soil. Fig. 83 shows the same trench improved +by 2 or 3 hours’ more work. Fig. 84 shows a fire trench without +parapet, with cover trench and communication.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:95px" src="images/img720f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Mil. Engineering: Field Defences</i> (1908), by permission of the Controller +H. M. Stationery Office.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 84.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The addition of a loophole of sandbags on the top for +concealment (called <i>head-cover</i>), gives increased protection, but at +the cost of greater prominence for the parapet (fig. 85). Overhead +cover can only be provided in fire trenches by giving the parapet still +greater height and it is not usually done. Portions of the trench +not used for firing can, however, be given splinter-proof protection +by putting over them branches or bundles, covered with a few inches +of earth: or by boards, or sheets of corrugated iron if they can be +had. A better plan when time permits is to provide cover trenches +immediately behind and communicating with the fire trench.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:383px; height:232px" src="images/img720g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From <i>Mil. Engineering: Field Defences</i>, by permission of the +Controller H. M. Stationery Office.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 85.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The question of redoubts has been a vexed one for years; partly +they were thought to be unnecessary in view of the resisting power +of a line of trenches, but chiefly because the redoubt was +always imagined as one of the older type, with a high +<span class="sidenote"><i>Redoubts.</i></span> +conspicuous parapet. Of course a redoubt of such a nature would +be readily identified and made untenable. But the idea of a redoubt +does not necessarily +imply +command. Its +object is that it +shall be capable +of all-round defence. +There +can be no doubt +that as there +is always a possibility +of lines +being pierced +somewhere, it is +desirable, unless +the whole line is +to be thrown +into confusion +and forced +back, to have +some point at which the defenders can maintain themselves. +This is not possible unless at such points there is provision for +defence towards both flanks and rear, that is to say, when there are +redoubts, which can hold on after certain portions of the line have +been lost and thereby can localize the enemy’s success and simplify +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page721" id="page721"></a>721</span> +the action of supporting troops. In order that redoubts may +exercise this function, all that is necessary is that their defenders +should be able to see the ground for a furlong in front of them in +every direction. Their parapets, therefore, need be in no way more +conspicuous than those of the neighbouring fire trenches, and in +that case there is no fear of their drawing special attention from the +enemy’s artillery. Whatever theories may have been put forward +en the subject, in practice they are constantly used, and in the Russo-Japanese +War, where the experience of South Africa was already +available, we find them in the fighting lines on both sides.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:433px; height:320px" src="images/img721a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 86.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The modern type of field redoubt is a fire trench, no more conspicuous +than the others, in any simple form adapted to the ground +that will give effective all-round fire, such as a square with blunted +angles. Enhanced strength may be given by deepening the trenches +and improving the overhead cover; and special use may here be +made of obstacles.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:482px; height:125px" src="images/img721b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 87.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Within the redoubt cover may be provided for men in excess of +those required to man the parapet, by means of cover trenches and +field casemates. Fig. 86 gives the general idea of such a redoubt, +and figs. 87, 88 the plan and section of the interior shelters. Such a +work can easily be made quite invisible from a distance. It gives +excellent cover against shrapnel, but would not be tenable against +howitzer common shell, if the enemy did manage to bring an accurate +fire to bear on it.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:483px; height:140px" src="images/img721c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 88.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Fig. 89 shows the section of a parapet with two shelters behind +it for a work with a high command of 5 or 6 ft. This work would +require a concealed position, which can often be found a little in +rear of the firing line.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:517px; height:138px" src="images/img721d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Mil. Engineering: Field Defences</i> (1908), by permission of the Controller H.M. +Stationery Office.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 89.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the South African War a good deal of interest was excited by +a type of trench used by the Boers. It was very narrow at the +surface, giving only just room for a man to stand; but undercut +or hollowed out below, so that he could sit down with very good +<span class="sidenote">Boer, Russian and Japanese types.</span> +cover. Such a section is only possible in very firm soil. Apart from +this, the type is really only suited to rifle pits, as a trench proper +should have room for officers and N.C.O’s to move along +within it. The Boers showed great skill in concealing their +trenches. One good point was that there was generally +something making a background immediately behind the +men’s heads, so that they did not stand out in relief +when raised above the parapet.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:501px; height:554px" src="images/img721e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Russo-Japanese War: British Officers’ Reports</i>, vol. ii., by permission of the +Controller H.M. Stationery Office.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs.</span> 90 and 91.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the Russo-Japanese War the Russian trenches at the outset +were of old-fashioned type and very conspicuous. Later on better +types were evolved. Figs. 90 and 91 are a couple of sections from +Port Arthur; the first borrowed from the Boers but wider at the +top. The Japanese appear to have taken their type mainly from +the latest British official books, but applied them with great skill +to the ground studying especially invisibility. In their prepared +positions they used large redoubts manned by several companies.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:453px; height:314px" src="images/img721f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Mil. Engineering: Field Defences</i>, by permission of the Controller H. M. +Stationery Office.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 92.—Gun-pit.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Cover for Guns.</i>—Some degree of cover for guns, in addition to the +shield, is always desirable. If the gun stands on the natural surface +of the ground, the cover is called an epaulment. In that case a bank +is thrown up in front of the gun, about 1 ft. high in the centre, and +3 ft. 6 in. high at the ends. On either side of the gun and close up +to the bank is a small pit for the gunners. The rest of the earth for +the epaulment is got from a trench in front. If the gun is sunk, the +shelter is called a gun-pit.</p> + +<p>In this case there is no bank immediately in front of the gun. +Shelter can be got more quickly with a pit than an epaulment, but +it is generally undesirable to break the surface of the ground.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page722" id="page722"></a>722</span></p> + +<p>The commonest forms of <i>obstacle</i> now used are <i>abatis</i> and +<span class="sidenote">Obstacles.</span> +<i>wire entanglements</i>. Fig. 93 shows a well-finished type of abatis. The +branches are stripped and pointed, and the butts are +buried and pegged firmly down. Wire entanglement +may be added to this with advantage. An abatis should be protected +from artillery fire, which is sometimes done by placing it in a shallow +excavation with the earth thrown up in front of it.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:496px; height:88px" src="images/img722a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Mil. Engineering: Field Defences</i>, by permission of the Controller H.M. +Stationery Office.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 93.—Abatis.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Wire may be used as a <i>high</i> or <i>low entanglement</i> or as a fence or +trip wire or concealed obstacle. The usual form of high wire entanglement +consists of several rows of stout stakes 4 or 5 ft. long, driven +firmly into the ground about 6 ft. apart, and connected horizontally +and diagonally with barbed wire.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:93px; height:155px" src="images/img722b.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:205px; height:293px" src="images/img722c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 94.—Crows’ Feet.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 95.—Plan and section +of Trous-de-loup.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Palisades</i> are still used, and need no description. They were +formerly often made bullet-proof, but this is no longer possible. +<i>Fraises</i> are seldom heard of now, though they may appear occasionally +in a modified form. They were much used in connexion with +deep ditches, and are palisades placed +so as to project horizontally from the +escarp, or sloping forward in the bottom +of the ditch. <i>Military pits</i> both <i>deep</i> and +<i>shallow</i> (the latter, shown in fig. 95, called +<i>trous de loup</i>) are not so much used as +formerly, because the obstacle is hardly +worth the labour expended on it. Both, +however, were employed in the Russo-Japanese War. <i>Crows’ feet</i>, +formerly much used as a defence against cavalry, are practically +obsolete. They consisted of four iron spikes joined together at their +bases in such a manner that however they were thrown down one +point would always be pointing upwards (fig. 94). <i>Chevaux-de-frise</i> +(<i>q.v.</i>) were formerly a much-used type of obstacle.</p> + +<p>The best obstacle is that which can be made to fulfil a given object +with the least expenditure of time and labour. From this point of +view barbed wire is far the best. One of its greatest advantages is +that it gives no cover whatever to the enemy.</p> + +<p><i>Fougasses</i> have always for convenience been classed as obstacles. +A fougasse is a charge of powder buried at the bottom of a sloping +pit. Over the powder is a wooden shield, 3 or 4 in. thick, and over +the shield a quantity of stones are piled. The illustration, fig. 96, +gives a clear idea of the arrangement. A fougasse of this form, +charged with 80 ℔ of powder, will throw 5 tons of stones over a +surface 160 yds. long by 120 wide. They may be fired by powder +hose, fuze or electricity. Their actual effect is very often a matter +of chance, but the moral effect is usually considerable.</p> + +<p><i>Dams</i> are most effective obstacles, when circumstances allow of +their use. They are constructed by military engineers as small +temporary dams would be in civil works.</p> + +<p>A most important question, especially in connexion with obstacles, +is that of lighting up the foreground at night. Portable electric +searchlights are most valuable, especially for detecting +the enemy’s movements at some distance; but their use +<span class="sidenote">Illumination.</span> +will naturally always be restricted. Star shells and +parachute lights fired from guns are not of much use for the immediate +foreground, and do not burn very long. They were formerly chiefly +of use in siege works, to light up an enemy’s working parties. +Germany has introduced lightballs fired from pistols, which will +probably have a considerable future.</p> + +<p>Various civilian forms of <i>flare-light</i> would be very useful to +illuminate obstacles, but cannot well be carried in the field. <i>Bonfires</i> +are very useful when material is available. They require careful +treatment, <i>e.g.</i> they must be so arranged that they can be lighted +instantaneously (they may be lighted automatically, by means of a +trip wire and a fuze); they must give a bright light at once (this +can be ensured with shavings or straw sprinkled with petroleum); +they must be firmly built so that the enemy cannot destroy them +easily; and if possible there should be a screen arranged behind +them so that they may not light up the defence as well as the attack.</p> + +<p>Blockhouses are familiar to the public from the part they played +<span class="sidenote">Blockhouses.</span> +in the South African War of 1899-1902. In the old-fashioned +permanent fortification they were used as keeps in such +positions as re-entering places of arms and built of +masonry. Stone blockhouses have long been used in the +Balkans for frontier outposts; they are sometimes built cruciform, +so as to get some flanking defence. In the form of bullet-proof log-cabins +they have played a great part in warfare between pioneer +settlers and savages.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:521px; height:244px" src="images/img722d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Mil. Engineering</i>, by permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery Office.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 96.—Fougasse.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the 19th century blockhouses were usually designed to give +partial protection against field artillery; the walls being built of +two thicknesses of logs with earth between them, the roof flat and +covered with 2 or 3 ft. of earth, and earth being piled against the +walls up to the loopholes. Nowadays they are employed only in +positions where it is not likely that artillery will be brought against +them: but they may be made tenable for a while even under artillery +fire if they are surrounded by a trench and parapet.</p> + +<p>Blockhouses are especially useful for small posts protecting such +points as railway bridges, which the enemy may attempt to destroy +by cavalry raids. The essential feature is a bullet-proof loopholed +wall, arranged for all-round fire, with enough interior space for the +garrison to sleep in. The roof may be simply weatherproof. Some +arrangement for storing water must be provided. Circular blockhouses +were very popular in South Africa. They were made of +sheets of corrugated iron fastened 6 in. apart on a wooden framework, +the space between the sheets being filled with small stones. The +loopholes were made of sheet-iron frames inserted in the walls. +Fig. 97 shows a section of one of these blockhouses.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:436px; height:120px" src="images/img722e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">By permission of the Controller H.M. Stationery Office.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 97.—Blockhouse, South Africa, 1900-1902.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The defence of woods was formerly an important branch of field +defences. Abatis and entanglements could readily be extemporized, +trunks of trees made strong breastworks, and the wood +concealed the numbers of the defenders. A wood was +<span class="sidenote">Woods.</span> +therefore generally considered a useful addition to a line of defence. +It was customary to hold the front edge of the wood, the irregularities +of the outline being utilized for frontal and flanking fire, while +obstacles were disposed some 50 yds. in front. In a carefully prepared +position, clearings would be made parallel to the front and +some distance back from it, for support positions, and great attention +was paid (in theory at least) to clearing communications, erections, +signposts, &c., so that the defending troops might move freely in any +desired direction.</p> + +<p>Woods, however, had their inherent drawbacks. The ground is +hard to dig, clearing involves great labour; and communication, +at the best, is cramped. Nowadays a wood can hardly be considered +a strong defensive element in a line. The front of it is an excellent +ranging mark for artillery, and positions within the wood are not +easily made, because of the difficulty of trenching, and the fact that +no reasonable amount of timber will make a breastwork proof against +the modern bullet. Once an enemy gets a footing within a wood, +the position is more favourable to offensive than to defensive action. +If a wood has to be occupied in a line of defence, it is probable that +in most cases the rear edge or a line slightly behind it would be the +best to fortify, though the front edge would no doubt be held by the +fighting line at the outset.</p> + +<p>The defence of villages is another question which has been much +affected by recent improvements in artillery. Formerly villages +were very important adjuncts to a line of defence, and +strong points for a detached force to hold. There were +<span class="sidenote">Villages.</span> +indeed always drawbacks. The preparations for defence entailed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page723" id="page723"></a>723</span> +a good deal of labour, and the defending force was scattered in houses +and enclosures, so that control and united action were difficult. +But the value of the ready-made protection afforded by walls was so +great—and sometimes even decisive—that villages were occupied +as a matter of course. This is certainly now changed, but precisely +to what extent it will be impossible to say, until after the next +European war. A village under fire is not now an ideal defensive +position. A single shrapnel penetrating the outer wall may kill +all the occupants of a room; a single field-howitzer shell may +practically ruin a house. At the same time, a house or line of houses +may (without any preliminary labour at all) give very good protection +against shell fire to troops <i>behind</i> them. Further, the value to the +defence of the slightest cover, once the infantry attack has developed, +is so great that the ruins of walls and houses occupied at the right +moment may prove an impregnable stronghold. This class of fighting, +however, does not properly come under the present heading. For the +details of the defence of walls, houses, &c., see the official <i>Mil. +Engineering</i> (1908).</p> + +<p><i>Entrenching under Fire.</i>—Progress in this direction has been +delayed by the reluctance of military authorities to add a portable +entrenching tool to the heavy burden already carried by the infantry +soldier. Further delay has resulted from the attempts of enthusiastic +inventors to produce a tool that shall weigh nothing, go easily in the +pocket, and be available as a pick, shovel, saw, hand-axe or corkscrew. +A tool that will serve more than one use is seldom satisfactory +for any.</p> + +<p>The object of entrenching under fire is to enable attacking infantry, +when their advance is checked by the enemy’s fire, to maintain the +ground they have won by extemporizing cover where +none exists. The need of this was first felt in the American +<span class="sidenote">Extemporized cover.</span> +Civil War, and towards the close of it a small entrenching +spade 22 in. long and weighing only 1½ ℔ was introduced +by Brigadier-General H.W. Benham into the Army of the Potomac. +Since that time a great number of patterns have been tried, including +shovel, trowel and adze types. The most popular of these has been +the Linnemann spade, which is used by most continental armies +and by the Japanese. The Austrian form of this tool is a rectangular +spade with straight handle. The length over all is a little less than +20 in. The blade is 8 in. long by 6 wide. One side of it has a saw +edge, and the other a cutting edge. For carriage, the blade is enclosed +in a leather case, which is strapped to the pack or the waist-belt. +In the British army the Wallace combined pick and shovel was used +for some time, but was eventually dropped. There was always great +doubt whether the utility of a portable entrenching tool was such as +to justify the inconvenience caused to the soldier in carrying it. +But the experience of the Russo-Japanese War seems to have finally +established the necessity of it, and also the fact that it must generally +be used lying down. For this purpose and for convenience in carrying +it on the person, a very light short-handled tool is required.</p> + +<p>The soldier lying down cannot attempt to dig a trench, but can +make a little hole by his side as he lies, and put the earth in front of +his head. A method introduced by the Japanese is that at each check +in the advance the front line should do this, and, as they go forward, +the supporting lines in succession should improve the cover thus +commenced.</p> + +<p>There are few things that soldiers dislike more, in the way of +training, than trenchwork. For men unused to it, it is tiring and +tedious work, and it is difficult for them to realize its +importance. At the same time it is a commonplace of +<span class="sidenote">General remarks.</span> +recent history that men who have been in action a few +times develop a great affection for the shovel. The need of trenches +grows with the growth of firearms, and the latest feature of modern +tactics is the use of them in attack as well as in defence. The +observation has often been made—with what truth as a general +proposition we cannot here discuss—that modern battles tend more +and more to resemble a siege. The weaker side, it is said, entrenches +itself; the other bombards and attacks. After gaining as much +ground as they can, the attacking troops wait for nightfall and +entrench; perhaps making a further advance and entrenchment +before dawn. In the last stage the attack might even be reduced +to gaining ground by sapping. In open and featureless ground, +where the rifle and gun have full play, the trench is to the modern +soldier very much what the breast-plate was to the man-at-arms, +an absolute essential.</p> + +<p>The most important point in connexion with modern field fortification +is the effect on both strategy and tactics of the increased resisting +power of the defence. A small force well entrenched can check the +frontal attack of a very much larger force, and while holding its +position can make itself felt over a wider radius than ever before. +This must needs have a marked effect on strategy, and it is quite +possible to foresee such an ultimate triumph of field fortification +as that one force should succeed in surrounding another stronger +than itself, and by entrenching prevent the latter from breaking out +and compel its surrender.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">VI. Conclusion</p> + +<p>In tracing the history of the science of fortification and in +outlining the practice of our own time it has been necessary to +dwell chiefly on the material means of defence and attack. +The human element has had to be almost ignored. But here +comes in the paradox, that the material means are after all the +least important element of defence. Certainly it is inconceivable +that the designer of a fortress should not try to make it as strong +as is consistent with the object in view and the means at his +disposal. And yet while engineers in all ages have sought eagerly +for strength and refinements of strength, the fact remains that +the best defences recorded in history owed little to the builder’s +art. The splendid defence in 1667 of Candia, whose enceinte, +of early Italian design, was already obsolete but whose capture +cost the Turks 100,000 men; the three years defence of Ostend +in 1601; the holding of Arcot by Clive, are instances that present +themselves to the memory at once. The very weight of the odds +against them sometimes calls out the best qualities of the +defenders; and the <i>man</i> when at his best is worth many times +more than the <i>rampart</i> behind which he fights. But it would be a +poor dependence deliberately to make a place weak in order to +evoke these qualities. One cannot be sure that the garrison +will rise to the occasion, and the weakness of the place has very +often been found an excuse for giving it up with little or no +resistance.</p> + +<p>Very much depends on the governor. Hence the French +saying, “tant vaut l’homme, tant vaut la place.” Among modern +men we think of Todleben (not governor, but the soul of the +defence) at Sevastopol, Fenwick Williams at Kars, Denfert-Rochereau +at Belfort, and Osman Pasha at Plevna. The sieges +of the 16th and 17th centuries offer many instances in which +the event turned absolutely on the personal qualities of the +governor; in some cases distinguished by courage, skill and +foresight, in others by incapacity, cowardice or treachery. +The reader is referred to Carnot’s <i>Défense des places fortes</i> for a +most interesting summary of such cases, one or two of which +are quoted below.</p> + +<p>Naarden was besieged by the prince of Orange in September +1673 and defended by Philippe de Procé, sieur Dupas. The +duke of Luxemburg visited the place some hours +before it was invested, and arranged with Dupas to +<span class="sidenote">The spirit of the defence.</span> +relieve him as soon as he had collected his cavalry. +But the governor lost his head when he saw the enemy +encamped round the place, and surrendered it before he had even +lost the covered way. He was subsequently tried by a council of +war and sentenced to be degraded before the troops and imprisoned +for life. The reason the court gave for not condemning +him to death was that they could find no regulation which +condemned a man to loss of life for being a coward. (At that +period the decapitation of a governor who was considered to +have failed in his duty was not uncommon.) This man, however, +was not wanting in physical courage. He was in prison at Grave +when it was besieged a year later, obtained leave to serve as a +volunteer in the defence, fought well and was killed.</p> + +<p>A similar case occurred in the English Civil War. In 1645 the +young governor of the royal post at Bletchingdon House was +entertaining a party of ladies from Oxford, when Cromwell +appeared and summoned him to surrender. The attacking force +had no firearm more powerful than a carbine, but the governor, +overawed by Cromwell’s personality, yielded. Charles I., who +was usually merciful to his officers, caused this governor to be +shot.</p> + +<p>A defence of another kind was that of Quillebœuf in 1592. +Henry IV. had occupied it and ordered it to be fortified. Before +the works had been well begun, Mayenne sent 5000 men to retake +it. Bellegarde undertook its defence, with 115 soldiers, 45 +gentlemen and a few inhabitants. He had ammunition but not +much provisions. With these forces and a line of defence a +league in length, he sustained a siege, beat off an assault on the +17th day, and was relieved immediately afterwards. The +relieving forces were astonished to find that he had been defending +not a fortified town but a village, with a ditch which, in the +places where it had been begun, measured no more than 4 ft. +wide and deep.</p> + +<p>At that period the business aspect of siege warfare already +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page724" id="page724"></a>724</span> +alluded to had been recognized, but many commanders retained +the old spirit of chivalry in their reluctance to say the “loth +word.” The gallant Marshal d’Essé, who feared nothing but the +idea of dying in his bed, was lying ill at his country house when +he was sent for by the king. He was ordered to take command +at Thérouanne, then threatened by Charles V., and made his +farewell with these words, which remind us somewhat of Grenville: +“Sire, je m’y en vais donc de bon et loyal cœur; mais j’ai ouï dire +que la place est mal envitaillée, non pas seulement pourvue de +palles, de tranches, ni de hottes pour remparer et remuer la +terre; mais lors, quand entendrez que Thérouanne est prise, +dites hardiment que d’Essé est guéri de sa jaunisse et mort.” +And he made good his word, for he was killed at the breach by +a shot from the arquebus of a Spanish soldier.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the ardour of defence inspired the whole body of +the inhabitants. Fine examples of this are the defences of +Rochelle (1627) and Saint-Jean de Lône (1636), but these are too +long to quote. We may, however, mention Livron, which is +curious. In 1574 Henry III. sent one of his favourites, Saint +Lary Bellegarde, against the Huguenots in the Dauphiné. Being +entrusted with a good army, this gentleman hoped to achieve +some distinction. He began by attacking the little town of +Livron, which had no garrison and was defended only by the +inhabitants. But he was repulsed in three assaults, and the +women of the town conceived such a contempt for him that they +came in crowds to empty their slops at the breach by way of +insult. This annoyed him very much, and he ordered a fresh +assault. The women alone sustained this one, repulsed it +lightheartedly, and the siege was raised.</p> + +<p>The history of siege warfare has more in it of human interest +than any other branch of military history. It is full of the +personal element, of the nobility of human endurance +and of dramatic surprises. And more than any battles +<span class="sidenote">Arcot.</span> +in the open field, it shows the great results of the courage of men +fighting at bay. Think of Clive at Arcot. With 4 officers, 120 +Europeans and 200 sepoys, with two 18-pounders and 8 lighter +guns, he held the fort against 150 Europeans and some 10,000 +native troops. “The fort” (says Orme) “seemed little capable +of sustaining the impending siege. Its extent was more than a +mile in circumference. The walls were in many places ruinous; +the rampart too narrow to admit the firing of artillery; the +parapet low and slightly built; several of the towers were +decayed, and none of them capable of receiving more than one +piece of cannon; the ditch was in most places fordable, in others +dry and in some choked up,” &c. These feeble ramparts were +commanded almost everywhere by the enemy’s musketry from +the houses of the city outside the fort, so that the defenders were +hardly able to show themselves without being hit, and much +loss was suffered in this way. Yet with his tiny garrison, which +timbered about one man for every 7 yds. of the enclosure, +Clive sustained a siege of 50 days, ending with a really severe +assault on two large open breaches, which was repulsed, and +after which the enemy hastily decamped.</p> + +<p>Such feats as this make arguments about <i>successive lines of +defence</i> and the <i>necessity of keeps</i> seem very barren. History, +as far as the writer knows, shows no instances where successive +lines have been held with such brilliant results.</p> + +<p>Clive’s defence of his breaches, which by all the then accepted +rules of war were untenable, brings us to another point which has +been already mentioned, namely, that a garrison might honourably +make terms when there was an open breach in their main +line of defence. This is a question upon which Carnot delivers +himself very strongly in endeavouring to impress upon French +officers the necessity of defence to the last moment. Speaking of +Cormontaingne’s imaginary <i>Journal of the Attack of a Fortress</i> +(which is carried up to the 35th day, and finishes by the words +“It is now time to surrender”), he says with great scorn: “Crillon +would have cried, ‘It is time to begin fighting.’ He would have +said as at the siege of Quillebœuf, ‘Crillon is within, the enemy +is without.’ Thus when Bayard was defending the shattered +walls of Mézières, M. de Cormontaingne, if he had been there, +would have said, ‘It is time to surrender.’ Thus when Guise +was repairing the breaches of Metz under the redoubled fire of +the enemy, M. de Cormontaingne, if he had been there, would +have said, ‘It is time to surrender.’” Carnot of course allows +that Cormontaingne was personally brave. His scorn is for the +accepted principle, not for the man.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to contrast with this passage some remarks +by Sir John Jones, made in answer to Carnot’s book. He says +in the notes to the second volume of the <i>Journals +of the Sieges in Spain</i>: “When the breach shall be +<span class="sidenote">Resisting “to the last.”</span> +pushed properly forward, if the governor insists upon +the ceremony of his last retrenchment being stormed, +as by so doing he spills the blood of many brave men without a +justifiable object, his life and the lives of the garrison should be +made the forfeit. A system enforced by terror must be counteracted +by still greater terror. Humanity towards an enemy in +such a case is cruelty to one’s own troops.... The principle to +be combated is not the obligation to resist behind the breach—for +where there is a good retrenchment the bastion should be +disputed equally with the counter-guard or the ravelin and can +as safely be so—but the doctrine that surrender shall not take +place when successful resistance becomes hopeless.”</p> + +<p>Carnot’s word is “fight to the last.” Sir John Jones says the +commander has no right to provoke further carnage when +resistance is hopeless. The question of course is, When is resistance +hopeless? Sir John Jones’s reputation leaves little doubt +that if he had been commanding a fortress on British soil he +would not have thought resistance hopeless as long as there +was anything whatever left to defend. The reason why these +two men of similar temper are found in opposition is quite +simple. When Carnot wrote, the French army occupied most +of the important fortresses of Europe, and it was to the interest +of the emperor that if attacked they should be held to the last +moment, in order to cause the enemy as much delay and loss +as possible. Jones, on the other hand, was one of the engineers +who were engaged in besieging those fortresses, and his arguments +were prompted by sympathy for his own countrymen +whose lives were sacrificed by the prolongation of such resistance.</p> + +<p>A century has passed since Carnot and Jones wrote, and the +ideas in which they had been educated were those of the pre-Napoleonic +era. In the 18th century fortresses were many, good +roads few, and campaigns for the most part leisurely. To the +European nations of that time, inheritors of a perennial state +of war, the idea of concentrating the national resources on a +short and decisive campaign had not occurred. The “knock-out +blow” had not been invented. All these conditions are now +so changed that new standards must be and indeed have been +set up, both for the defence of places and the general employment +of fortification.</p> + +<p>As regards the conduct of the defence, the massacre of a +garrison as a penalty for holding out too long would meet with +no sympathy in the present day. On the other hand, the issue +of modern wars is worked out so rapidly that if a fortress is well +defended, with the advantage of the present weapons, there is +always a chance of holding out till the close of the war. If the +place is worth holding, it should as a rule be held to the bitter +end on the chance of a favourable turn in affairs; moreover, +the maintenance of an important siege under modern conditions +imposes a severe strain on the enemy and immobilizes a large +number of his troops.</p> + +<p>In concluding this article some elementary considerations +in connexion with the use of permanent defences may be noticed, +though the general question of strategic fortification +is outside its scope. The objects of fortification differ, +<span class="sidenote">Permanent defences.</span> +as has been shown, from age to age. In former times +a peaceful people exposed to the raids of piratical +Norsemen might find their refuge tower essential; later, a robber-baron +might look on his castle as so much capital invested; +a wealthy medieval town might prove the value of its walls +more than once in a generation; a country without a standing +army might gain time for preparation by means of fortresses +barring the roads across the frontier. But how does the question +stand to-day among European countries which can mobilize +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page725" id="page725"></a>725</span> +their full fighting strength at a few hours’ notice? It can only +be answered when the circumstances of a particular country are +examined.</p> + +<p>If we assume such an impossible case as that of two nations +of equal fighting strength and equal resources standing ready +in arms to defend a common frontier, and that the +theatre of war presents no difficulties on either side, +<span class="sidenote">The use and abuse of fortresses.</span> +then the use of permanent fortifications, merely as +an adjunct to military strength, is wrong. Fortresses +do not decide the issue of a campaign; they can only influence +it. It is better, therefore, to put all the money the fortress would +have cost, and all the man-power that its maintenance implies, +into the increase and equipment of the active army. For the +fate of the fortress must depend <span class="correction" title="amended from utlimately">ultimately</span> on the result of the +operations of the active armies. Moreover, the very assumption +that resources on both sides are equal means that the nation +which has spent money on permanent fortifications will have +the smaller active army, and therefore condemns itself beforehand +to a defensive rôle.</p> + +<p>This general negation is only useful as a corrective to the +tendency to over-fortify, for such a case cannot occur. In +practice there will always be occasion for some use of fortification. +A mountain range may lend itself to an economical defence +by a few men and some inexpensive barrier forts. A nation may +have close to its frontier an important strategic centre, such as a +railway junction, or a town of the first manufacturing importance, +which must be protected. In such a case it may be necessary +to guard against accidents by means of a fortress. Again, if one +nation is admittedly slower in mobilization than the other, +it may be desirable to guard one portion of the frontier by +fortresses so as to force invasion into a district where concentration +against it is easiest.</p> + +<p>As for the defence of a capital, this cannot become necessary +if it stands at a reasonable distance from the frontier until the +active armies have arrived at some result. If the fighting +strength of the country has been practically destroyed, it is not +of much use to stand a siege in the capital. There can be but +one end, and it is better, as business men say, to cut losses. +If the fighting strength is not entirely destroyed and can be +recruited within a reasonable time, say two or three months, +then it appears that under modern conditions the capital might +be held for that time by means of extemporized defences. +The question is one that can only be decided by going into the +circumstances of each particular case.</p> + +<p>The case of a weak country with powerful and aggressive +neighbours is in a different category. If she stands alone she +will be eaten up in time, fortifications or no fortifications; but +if she can reckon on assistance from outside, it may be worth +while to expend most of the national resources on permanent +defences.</p> + +<p>These hypothetical cases have, however, no value, except as +illustrations to the most elementary arguments. The actual +problems that soldiers and statesmen have to consider are too +complex to be dealt with in generalities, and no mere treatise +can supply the place of knowledge, thought and practice.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The more important works on the subject are: +Dürer, <i>Unterricht zur Befestigung</i> (Nüremberg, 1527); Speckle, +<i>Architectur von Festungen</i> (Strassburg, 1589); Fritach, <i>L’Architecture +mil. ou la f. nouvelle</i> (Paris, 1637); Pagan, <i>Les Fortif.</i> (Paris, 1689); +de Ville, <i>Les Fortif.</i> (Lyons, 1629); de Fer, <i>Introduction à la fortification</i> +(Paris, 1723); B.F. de Belidor, <i>Science des Ingénieurs, &c.</i> +(Paris, 1729); works of Coehoorn, Vauban, Montalembert, Cormontaingne; +Mandar, <i>De l’architecture des forteresses</i> (Paris, 1801); +Chasseloup-Laubat, <i>Essais sur quelques parties de l’artil. et de la +fortification</i> (Milan, 1811); Carnot, <i>Défense des places fortes</i> (Paris, +1812); Jones, <i>Journals of Sieges in Spain</i> (3rd ed., London, 1846); +T. Choumara, <i>Mémoire sur la fortification</i> (1847); A. von Zastrow, +<i>Geschichte der beständigen Befestigung</i> (N.D., Fr. trans.); works of +Sir C. Pasley; Noizet, <i>Principes de fortif.</i> (Paris, 1859); Dufour, +<i>De la fortif. permanente</i> (Paris, 1850); E. Viollet le Duc, <i>L’Architecture +militaire au moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1854); Cosseron de Villenoisy, +<i>Essai historique sur la fortification</i> (Paris, 1869); works of Brialmont +(<i>q.v.</i>); Delambre, <i>La Fortification dans ses rapports avec la tactique +et la stratégie</i> (Paris, 1887); v. Sauer, <i>Angriff und Verteidigung fester +Plätze</i> (Berlin, 1885); Schroeter, <i>Die Festung in der heutigen Kriegführung</i> +(Berlin, 1898-1906); Baron E. v. Leithner, <i>Die beständige +Befestigung und der Festungskrieg</i> (Vienna, 1894-1899); W. Stavenhagen, +<i>Grundriss der Befestigungslehre</i> (Berlin, 1900-1909); Plessix +and Legrand, <i>Manuel complet de fortification</i> (Paris, 1900, new edition +1909); Ritter v. Brunner, <i>Die beständige Befestigung</i> (Vienna, 1909), +<i>Die Feldbefestigung</i> (Vienna, 1904); Rocchi, <i>Traccia per lo studio della +fortificazione permanente</i> (Turin, 1902); Sir G.S. Clarke, <i>Fortification</i> +(1907); V. Deguise, <i>La Fortification permanente contemporaine</i> +(Brussels, 1908); Royal Military Academy, <i>Text-book of Fortification</i>, +pt. ii. (London, 1893); British official <i>Instruction in Military +Engineering</i>, pts. i., ii. and iv. (London, 1900-1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. J.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORTLAGE, KARL<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1806-1881), German philosopher, was +born at Osnabrück. After teaching in Heidelberg and Berlin, +he became professor of philosophy at Jena (1846), a post which he +held till his death. Originally a follower of Hegel, he turned to +Fichte and Beneke (<i>q.v.</i>), with whose insistence on psychology as +the basis of all philosophy he fully agreed. The fundamental idea +of his psychology is impulse, which combines representation (which +presupposes consciousness) and feeling (<i>i.e.</i> pleasure). Reason +is the highest thing in nature, <i>i.e.</i> is divine in its nature, God is +the absolute Ego and the empirical egos are his instruments.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fortlage’s chief works are: <i>Genetische Geschichte d. Philos. seit +Kant</i> (Leipzig, 1852); <i>System d. Psych, als empirische Wissenschaft</i> +(2 vols., Leipzig, 1855); <i>Darstellung und Kritik der Beweise für das +Dasein Gottes</i> (Heidelberg, 1840); <i>Beiträge zur Psych. als Wissenschaft</i> +(Leipzig, 1875).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORT LEE,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a borough of Bergen county, New Jersey, U.S.A., +in the N.E. part of the state, on the W. bank of the Hudson +river, opposite the northern part of New York City. Pop. (1905) +3433; (1910) 4472. It is connected with the neighbouring towns +and cities by electric railways, and by ferry with New York City, +of which it is a residential suburb. The main part of the borough +lies along the summit of the Palisades; north of Fort Lee is an +Interstate Palisades Park. Early in the War of Independence the +Americans erected here a fortification, first called Fort Constitution +but later renamed Fort Lee, in honour of General Charles Lee. +The name of the fort was subsequently applied to the village that +grew up in its vicinity. From the 15th of September until the 20th +of November 1776 Fort Lee was held by Gen. Nathanael Greene +with a garrison of 3500 men, but the capture by the British of +Fort Washington on the opposite bank of the river and the +crossing of the Hudson by Lord Cornwallis with 5000 men made +it necessary for Greene to abandon this post and join Washington +in the famous “retreat across the Jerseys.” An attempt to +recapture Fort Lee was made by General Anthony Wayne in +1780, but was unsuccessful. On the site of the fort a monument, +designed by Carl E. Tefft and consisting of heroic figures of a +Continental trooper and drummer boy, was erected in 1908. +The borough of Fort Lee was incorporated in 1904.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORT MADISON,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Lee county, +Iowa, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river, in the S.E. corner of the +state, and about 20 m. S.W. of Burlington. Pop. (1890) 7901; +(1900) 9278, of whom 1025 were foreign-born; (1905) 8767; (1910) +8900. Fort Madison is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa +Fé (which has repair shops here) and the Chicago, Burlington +& Quincy railways. The city has various manufactures, including +canned goods, chairs, paper and farm implements; the value +of its factory product in 1905 was $2,378,892, an increase of +50.8% over that of 1900. Fort Madison is the seat of one of +Iowa’s penitentiaries. A stockade fort was erected on the site +of the city in 1808, but was burned in 1813. Permanently +settled in 1833, Fort Madison was laid out as a town in 1836, +and was chartered as a city in 1839.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORTROSE<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (Gaelic for <i>t’rois</i>, “the wood on the promontory”), +a royal and police burgh, and seaport of the county of Ross +and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1179. It is situated +on the south-eastern coast of the peninsula of the Black Isle, +8 m. due N.N.E. of Inverness, 26¼ m. by rail. It is the terminus +of the Black Isle branch of the Highland railway; there is communication +by steamer with Inverness and also with Fort +George, 2½ m. distant, by ferry from Chanonry Ness. Fortrose +consists of the two towns of Rosemarkie and Chanonry, about 1 +m. apart, which were united into a free burgh by James II. in +1455 and created a royal burgh in 1590. It is a place of considerable +antiquity, a monastery having been established in the 6th +century by St Moluag, a friend of Columba’s, and St Peter’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page726" id="page726"></a>726</span> +church built in the 8th century. In 1124 David I. instituted +the bishopric of Ross, with its seat here, and the town acquired +some fame for its school of theology and law. The cathedral +is believed to have been founded in 1330 by the countess of Ross +(her canopied tomb, against the chancel wall, still exists) and +finished in 1485 by Abbot Fraser, whose previous residence at +Melrose is said to account for the Perpendicular features of his +portion of the work. It was Early Decorated in style, cruciform +in plan, and built of red sandstone, but all that is left are the +south aisles of the nave and the chancel, with the chapter-house, +a two-storeyed structure, standing apart near the north-eastern +corner. The cathedral and bishop’s palace were destroyed by +order of Cromwell, who used the stones for his great fort at +Inverness. Another relic of the past survives in the bell of 1460. +These ruins form the chief object of interest in the town, but +other buildings include the academy and the Black Isle combination +poorhouse. The town is an agricultural centre of some +consequence, and the harbour is kept in repair. Rosemarkie, +in the churchyard of which is an ancient Celtic cross, is much +resorted to for sea-bathing, and there is a golf course in Chanonry +Ness. The burgh belongs to the Inverness district group of +parliamentary burghs.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORT SCOTT,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Bourbon county, +Kansas, U.S.A., on the Marmaton river, about 100 m. S. of +Kansas City, Missouri. Pop. (1880) 5372; (1890) 11,946; +(1900) 10,322, of whom 1205 were negroes; (1910 census) +10,463. It is the point of intersection of the Kansas City, Fort +Scott & Memphis (St Louis & San Francisco system), the +Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Missouri Pacific railways, +and has in consequence a large traffic. The city is built on a +rolling plain. Among its institutions are an Epworth house +(1899), Mercy hospital (1889), the Goodlander home, and a +Carnegie library. Near the city there is a national cemetery. +Fort Scott is in the midst of the Kansas mineral fields, and its +trade in bituminous coal is especially important. Building +stones, cement rock, clays, oil and gas, lead and zinc are also +found in the neighbourhood. An excellent white sulphur water +is procured from artesian wells about 800 ft. deep, and there is +a mineral-water bath house. The city is also a trading centre +for a rich farming region, and is a horse and mule market of +considerable importance. Among its manufactures are mattresses, +syrup, bricks, pottery, cement and foundry products. +In 1905 the total value of the city’s factory product was +$1,349,026, being an increase of 89% since 1900. The city +owns and operates its waterworks. The fort after which the +city is named was established by the Federal government in 1842, +at a time when the whole of eastern Kansas was still parcelled +out among Indian tribes; it was abandoned in 1855. The +town was platted in 1857, and Fort Scott was chartered as a +city in 1860.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORT SMITH,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Sebastian county, +on the extreme W. border of Arkansas, U.S.A., lying about +440 ft. above sea-level, on the S. bank of the Arkansas river, +at its junction with the Poteau, and at the point where the +Arkansas breaks through the Boston mountains. Pop. (1890) +11,311; (1900) 11,587, of whom 2407 were of negro descent and +684 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 23,975. Transportation +is afforded by the river and by six railways, the St Louis & +San Francisco, the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, the +Arkansas Central, the Fort Smith & Western, the Midland Valley +and the Kansas City Southern. A belt line round the business +centre of the city facilitates freight transfers. Some of the +business streets are unusually broad, and the streets in the +residential district are well shaded. Fort Smith is the business +centre of a fine agricultural country and of the Arkansas coal +and natural gas region. It has extensive wholesale jobbing +interests and a large miscellaneous trade, partly in its own +manufactures, among which are cotton and timber products, +chairs, mattresses and other furniture, wagons, brooms and +bricks. In 1905 the total value of the factory product was +$2,329,454, an increase of 66.2% since 1900. The public +schools have a rich endowment: the proceeds of lands (about +200 acres) once belonging to the local military reservation, +which—except the part occupied by a national cemetery—was +given by Congress to the city in 1884. Near the centre of the +city are a Catholic academy, convent and infirmary; and there +is a Carnegie library. A United States army post was established +here in 1817; the town was laid out in 1821; and the county +was created in 1851. Fort Smith was incorporated as a town in +1842, and was chartered as a city in 1845. All transportation +was by river and wagon until 1876, when the railway was +completed from Little Rock. The military post, in earlier years +the chief depôt for the western forts, was abandoned in 1871. +During the Civil War Fort Smith was strongly in sympathy with +the Confederacy. The fort was seized by state troops in April +1861, and was reoccupied by the Union forces in September +1863. There was considerable unrest due to border “bushwhacking” +throughout the war, and several skirmishes took +place here in 1864. The area of the city was more than doubled +in 1905.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORTUNA<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Fortune</span>), an Italian goddess of great antiquity, +but apparently not native at Rome, where, according to universal +Roman tradition, she was introduced by the king Servius Tullius +as Fors Fortuna, and established in a temple on the Etruscan +side of the Tiber outside the city, and also under other titles in +other shrines. In Latium she had two famous places of worship, +one at Praeneste, where there was an oracle of <i>Fortuna primigenia</i> +(the first-born), frequented especially by women who, as we may +suppose, desired to know the fortunes of their children or their +own fortune in child-birth; the other at Antium, well known +from Horace’s ode (i. 35). It is highly probable that Fortuna +was never a deity of the abstract idea of chance, but represented +the hopes and fears of men and especially of women at different +stages of their life and experience; thus we find her worshipped +as time went on under numerous cult-titles, such as <i>muliebris</i>, +<i>virilis</i>, <i>hujusce diei</i>, <i>equestris</i>, <i>redux</i>, &c., which connected her +supposed powers with individuals, groups of individuals, or +particular occasions. Gradually she became more or less closely +identified with the Gr. <span class="grk" title="Tychê">Τύχη</span>, and was represented on coins, &c., +with a cornucopia as the giver of prosperity, a rudder as the +controller of destinies, and with a wheel, or standing on a ball, +to indicate the uncertainty of fortune. In this semi-Greek form +she came to be worshipped over the whole empire, and Pliny +(<i>N.H.</i> ii. 22) declares that in his day she was invoked in all +places and every hour. She even became identified with Isis, +and as <i>Panthea</i> was supposed to combine the attributes of all +other deities.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best account of this difficult subject is to be found in Roscher’s +<i>Mythological Lexicon</i> (<i>s.v.</i>); see also Wissowa, <i>Religion und Kultus +der Römer</i>, p. 206 foll.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. W. F.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORTUNATIANUS, ATILIUS,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> Latin grammarian, flourished +in the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He was the author of a treatise on +metres, dedicated to one of his pupils, a youth of senatorial rank, +who desired to be instructed in the Horatian metres. The +manual opens with a discussion of the fundamental ideas of +metre and the chief rules of prosody, and ends with a detailed +analysis of the metres of Horace. The chief authorities used +are Caesius Bassus and the Latin adaptation by Juba the +grammarian of the <span class="grk" title="Technê">Τέχνη</span> of Heliodorus. Fortunatianus being a +common name in the African provinces, it is probable that the +author was a countryman of Juba, Terentianus Maurus and +Victorinus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editions of the <i>Ars</i> in H. Keil, <i>Grammatici Latini</i>, vi., and separately +by him (1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORTUNATUS,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> the legendary hero of a popular European +chap-book. He was a native, says the story, of Famagusta in +Cyprus, and meeting the goddess of Fortune in a forest received +from her a purse which was continually replenished as often as +he drew from it. With this he wandered through many lands, +and at Cairo was the guest of the sultan. Among the treasures +which the sultan showed him was an old napless hat which had +the power of transporting its wearer to any place he desired. +Of this hat he feloniously possessed himself, and returned to +Cyprus, where he led a luxurious life. On his death he left the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page727" id="page727"></a>727</span> +purse and the hat to his sons Ampedo and Andelosia; but they +were jealous of each other, and by their recklessness and folly +soon fell on evil days. The moral of the story is obvious: men +should desire reason and wisdom before all the treasures of the +world. In its full form the history of Fortunatus occupies in +Karl Simrock’s <i>Die deutschen Volksbücher</i>, vol. iii., upwards of +158 pages. The scene is continually shifted—from Cyprus to +Flanders, from Flanders to London, from London to France; +and a large number of secondary characters appear. The style +and allusions indicate a comparatively modern date for the +authorship; but the nucleus of the legend can be traced back +to a much earlier period. The stories of Jonathas and the three +jewels in the <i>Gesta Romanorum</i>, of the emperor Frederick and +the three precious stones in the <i>Cento Novelle antiche</i>, of the +Mazin of Khorassan in the <i>Thousand and one Nights</i>, and the +flying scaffold in the <i>Bahar Danush</i>, have all a certain similarity. +The earliest known edition of the German text of Fortunatus +appeared at Augsburg in 1509, and the modern German investigators +are disposed to regard this as the original form. +Innumerable versions occur in French, Italian, Dutch and +English. The story was dramatized by Hans Sachs in 1553, +and by Thomas Dekker in 1600; and the latter’s comedy +appeared in a German translation in <i>Englische Komödien und +Tragödien</i>, 1620. Ludwig Tieck has utilized the legend in his +<i>Phantasus</i>, and Adelbert von Chamisso in his <i>Peter Schlemihl</i>; +and Ludwig Uhland left an unfinished narrative poem entitled +“Fortunatus and his Sons.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Dr Fr. W.V. Schmidt’s <i>Fortunatus und seine Söhne, eine +Zauber-Tragödie, von Thomas Decker, mit einem Anhang</i>, &c. (Berlin, +1819); Joseph Johann Görres, <i>Die deutschen Volksbücher</i> (1807).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORTUNATUS, VENANTIUS HONORIUS CLEMENTIANUS<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> +(530-609), bishop of Poitiers, and the chief Latin poet of his time, +was born near Ceneda in Treviso in 530. He studied at Milan +and Ravenna, with the special object of excelling as a rhetorician +and poet, and in 565 he journeyed to France, where he was +received with much favour at the court of Sigbert, king of +Austrasia, whose marriage with Brunhild he celebrated in an +<i>epithalamium</i>. After remaining a year or two at the court of +Sigbert he travelled in various parts of France, visiting persons +of distinction, and composing short pieces of poetry on any +subject that occurred to him. At Poitiers he visited Queen +Radegunda, who lived there in retirement, and she induced him +to prolong his stay in the city indefinitely. Here he also enjoyed +the friendship of the famous Gregory of Tours and other eminent +ecclesiastics. He was elected bishop of Poitiers in 599, and +died about 609. The later poems of Fortunatus were collected +in 11 books, and consist of hymns (including the <i>Vexilla regis +prodeunt</i>, Englished by J.M. Neale as “The royal banners +forward go”), epitaphs, poetical epistles, and verses in honour +of his patroness Radegunda and her sister Agnes, the abbess of +a nunnery at Poitiers. He also wrote a large poem in 4 books +in honour of St Martin, and several lives of the saints in prose. +His prose is stiff and mechanical, but most of his poetry has an +easy rhythmical flow.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An edition of the works of Fortunatus was published by C. Brower +at Fulda in 1603 (2nd ed., Mainz, 1617). The edition of M.A. +Luschi (Rome, 1785) was afterwards reprinted in Migne’s <i>Patrologiae +cursus completus</i>, vol. lxxxviii. See the edition by Leo and Krusch +(Berlin, 1881-1885). There are French lives by Nisard (1880) and +Leroux (1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORTUNE, ROBERT<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1813-1880), Scottish botanist and +traveller, was born at Kelloe in Berwickshire on the 16th of +September 1813. He was employed in the botanical garden at +Edinburgh, and afterwards in the Royal Horticultural Society’s +garden at Chiswick, and upon the termination of the Chinese +War in 1842 was sent out by the Society to collect plants in +China. His travels resulted in the introduction to Europe of +many beautiful flowers; but another journey, undertaken in +1848 on behalf of the East India Company, had much more +important consequences, occasioning the successful introduction +into India of the tea-plant. In subsequent journeys he visited +Formosa and Japan, described the culture of the silkworm and +the manufacture of rice paper, and introduced many trees, +shrubs and flowers now generally cultivated in Europe. The +incidents of his travels were related in a succession of interesting +books. He died in London on the 13th of April 1880.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORTUNY, MARIANO JOSE MARIA BERNARDO<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1838-1874), +Spanish painter, was born at Reus on the 11th of June +1838. His parents, who were in poor circumstances, sent him +for education to the primary school of his native town, where he +received some instruction in the rudiments of art. When he was +twelve years old his parents died and he came under the care of +his grandfather, who, though a joiner by trade, had made a +collection of wax figures, with which he was travelling from +town to town. In the working of this show the boy took an active +part, modelling and painting many of the figures; and two years +later, when he reached Barcelona, the cleverness of his handiwork +made so much impression on some people in authority there that +they induced the municipality to make him an allowance of +forty-two francs monthly, so that he might be enabled to go +through a systematic course of study. He entered the Academy +of Barcelona and worked there for four years under Claudio +Lorenzale, and in March 1857 he gained a scholarship that +entitled him to complete his studies in Rome. Then followed +a period of more than two years, during which he laboured +steadily at copies of the old pictures to which he had access at +Rome. To this period an end was put by the outbreak of the +war between Spain and the emperor of Morocco, as Fortuny +was sent by the authorities of Barcelona to paint the most +striking incidents of the campaign. The expedition lasted for +about six months only, but it made upon him an impression that +was powerful enough to affect the whole course of his subsequent +development, and to implant permanently in his mind a preference +for the glitter and brilliancy of African colour. He returned +to Spain in the summer of 1860, and was commissioned +by the city of Barcelona to paint a large picture of the capture +of the camps of Muley-el-Abbas and Muley-el-Hamed by the +Spanish army. After making a large number of studies he went +back to Rome, and began the composition on a canvas fifteen +metres long; but though it occupied much of his time during +the next few years, he never finished it. He busied himself +instead with a wonderful series of pictures, mostly of no great +size, in which he showed an astonishing command over vivacities +of technique and modulations of colour. He visited Paris in +1868 and shortly afterwards married the daughter of Federico +Madrazo, the director of the royal museum at Madrid. Another +visit to Paris in 1870 was followed by a two years’ stay at Granada, +but then he returned to Rome, where he died somewhat suddenly +on the 21st of November 1874 from an attack of malarial fever, +contracted while painting in the open air at Naples and Portici in +the summer of 1874.</p> + +<p>The work which Fortuny accomplished during his short life +is distinguished by a superlative facility of execution and a +marvellous cleverness in the arrangement of brilliant hues, but +the qualities of his art are those that are attainable by a master +of technical resource rather than by a deep thinker. His insight +into subtleties of illumination was extraordinary, his dexterity +was remarkable in the extreme, and as a colourist he was vivacious +to the point of extravagance. At the same time in such pictures +as “La Vicaria” and “Choosing a Model,” and in some of his +Moorish subjects, like “The Snake Charmers” and “Moors +playing with a Vulture,” he showed himself to be endowed with +a sensitive appreciation of shades of character and a thorough +understanding of the peculiarities of a national type. His love +of detail was instinctive, and he chose motives that gave him the +fullest opportunity of displaying his readiness as a craftsman.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Davillier, <i>Fortuny, sa vie, son œuvre, sa correspondance, &c.</i> +(Paris, 1876); C. Yriarte, <i>Fortuny</i> (<i>Artistes célèbres</i> series) (Paris, +1889).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. L. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORT WAYNE,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Allen county, +Indiana, U.S.A., 102 m. N.E. of Indianapolis, at the point where +the St Joseph and St Mary’s rivers join to form the Maumee +river. Pop. (1880) 26,880; (1890) 35,393; (1900) 45,115, of +whom 6791 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 63,933. It is +served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Fort Wayne, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page728" id="page728"></a>728</span> +Cincinnati & Louisville, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, the Lake +Shore & Michigan Southern, the New York, Chicago & St Louis, +the Pennsylvania and the Wabash railways, and also by interurban +electric lines. The site of the city is high (about 770 ft. +above sea-level) and level, and its land area was in 1906 a little +more than 6 sq. m. The streets are laid out on a rectangular +plan and bordered by a profusion of shade trees. The city has +several parks, including Lawton Park (31 acres), in which there +is a monument in honour of Major-General Henry Ware Lawton +(1843-1899), who lived in Fort Wayne for a time, Lake Side +Park (22 acres), Reservoir Park (13 acres), Piqua Park (1 acre), +and Old Fort Park (¼ acre), which is on the site of Old Fort +Wayne. The educational institutions include the German +Concordia Collegium (Lutheran), founded in 1839, and having +220 students in 1908, and the state school for feeble-minded +youth (1879). The city has a Carnegie library. Fort Wayne +is one of the most important railway centres in the Middle West, +and several railways maintain here their principal car and repair +shops, which add greatly to the value of its manufacturing +industries; in 1905 it ranked first among the cities of the state +in the value of cars constructed and repaired by steam-railway +companies. The other manufactories include foundries and +machine shops, iron and steel mills, knitting mills, planing mills, +sash and door, car-wheel, electrical machinery, and woodenware +factories and flour mills. In 1905 the total value of the factory +product of the city was $15,129,562, showing an increase of +34.3% since 1900.</p> + +<p>The Miami Indians had several villages in the immediate neighbourhood, +and the principal one, Kekionaga (Miami Town or +Great Miami Village), was situated on the E. bank of the St +Joseph river, within the limits of the present city. On the E. bank +of the St Mary’s a French trading post was built about 1680. In +1749-1750 the French fort (Fort Miami) was moved to the E. +bank of the St Joseph. The English occupied the fort in 1760 and +Pontiac captured it in May 1763, after a siege of more than three +months. In 1790 the Miami villages were destroyed. In September +1794 General Anthony Wayne built on the S. bank of the +Maumee river the stockade fort which was named in his honour, +the site of which forms the present Old Fort Park. By the treaty +of Greenville, concluded by General Wayne on the 3rd of August +1795, a piece of land 6 sq. m. in area, including the tract of the +Miami towns, was ceded to the United States, and free passage +to Fort Wayne and down the Maumee to Lake Erie was +guaranteed to the people of the United States by the Indians. +By the treaty of Fort Wayne, concluded by General W.H. +Harrison on the 7th of June 1803, the tract about Vincennes +reserved to the United States by the treaty of Greenville was +described and defined; by the second treaty of Fort Wayne, +concluded by Harrison on the 30th of September 1809, the +Indians sold to the United States about 2,900,000 acres of land, +mostly S.E. of the Wabash river. In September 1813 Fort +Wayne was besieged by Indians, who withdrew on the arrival, +on the 12th of September, of General Harrison with about 2700 +men from Kentucky and Ohio. The fort was abandoned on the +19th of April 1819 and no trace of it remains. The first permanent +settlement here was made in 1815, and the village was +an important fur-trading depôt until 1830. The opening of the +Wabash & Erie canal in 1843 stimulated its growth. A town was +platted and was made the county-seat in 1824; and in 1840 +Fort Wayne was chartered as a city.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.A. Brice, <i>History of Fort Wayne</i> (Ft. Wayne, 1868); John +B. Dillon, <i>History of Indiana, from its Earliest Exploration by +Europeans to the Close of the Territorial Government in 1816</i> (Indianapolis, +Ind., 1859); and Charles E. Slocum, <i>History of the Maumee +River Basin, from the Earliest Accounts to its Organization into +Counties</i> (Defiance, Ohio, 1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORT WILLIAM,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> the principal town of Thunder Bay district, +Ontario, Canada, 426 m. (by rail) E.S.E. of Winnipeg, on the +Kaministiquia river, about a mile from Lake Superior. It +is the lake terminus of the Canadian Pacific railway, of the new +Grand Trunk Pacific railway, and of several steamship lines. +Port Arthur, the terminus of the Canadian Northern railway, +lies 4 m. to the N.E. Fort William contains numerous grain +elevators, railway repair shops and docks, and has a large export +trade in grain and other farm produce. Minerals are also +exported from the mining district, of which it is the centre. +Industries, such as saw, planing and flour mills, have also +sprung up. The population was 4800 in 1901, but has since +increased with great rapidity.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORT WILLIAM,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a police burgh of Inverness-shire, Scotland. +Pop. (1901) 2087. It lies at the north-eastern end of Loch Linnhe, +an arm of the sea, about 62 m. S.S.W. of Inverness by road or +canal, and was, in bygone days, one of the keys of the Highlands. +It is 122½ m. N.E. of Glasgow by the West Highland railway. +The fort, at first called Kilmallie, was built by General Monk in +1655 to hold the Cameron men in subjection, and was enlarged +in 1690 by General Hugh Mackay, who renamed it after William +III., the burgh then being known as Maryburgh in honour of +his queen. Here the perpetrators of the massacre of Glencoe +met to share their plunder. The Jacobites unsuccessfully +besieged it in 1715 and 1746. The fort was dismantled in 1860, +and demolished in 1890 to provide room for the railway and the +station. Amongst the public buildings are the Belford hospital, +public hall, court house and the low-level meteorological +observatory, constructed in 1891, which was in connexion with +the observatory on the top of Ben Nevis, until the latter was +closed in 1904. Its great industry is distilling, and the distilleries, +about 2 m. N.E., are a familiar feature in the landscape. +Beyond the railway station stands the obelisk to the memory +of Ewen Maclachlan (1775-1822), the Gaelic poet, who was born +in the parish. Fort William is a popular tourist resort and place +of call for the steamers passing through the Caledonian canal. +The town is the point from which the ascent of Ben Nevis—4½ m. +E.S.E. as the crow flies—is commonly made. At Corpach, +about 2 m. N., the Caledonian canal begins, the series of locks +between here and Banavie—within little more than a mile—being +known as “Neptune’s Staircase.” Both the Lochy and +the Nevis enter Loch Linnhe immediately to the north of Fort +William. A mile and a half from the town, on the Lochy, stands +the grand old ruin of Inverlochy Castle, a massive quadrangular +pile with a round tower at each corner, a favourite subject with +landscape painters. Close by is the scene of the battle of the +2nd of February 1645, in which Montrose completely defeated +the earl of Argyll. The modern castle, in the Scottish Baronial +style, 1½ m. to the N.E. of this stronghold and farther from the +river, is the seat of Lord Abinger.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORT WORTH,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Tarrant county, +Texas, U.S.A., about 30 m. W. of Dallas, on the S. bank of the +West Fork of the Trinity river. Pop. (1880) 6663; (1890) +23,076; (1900) 26,688, of whom 1793 were foreign-born and +4249 were negroes; (1910, census) 73,312. It is served by the +Chicago, Rock Island & Gulf, the Fort Worth & Denver City, +the Fort Worth & Rio Grande, and the St Louis, San Francisco +& Texas of the “Frisco” system, the Gulf, Colorado & Santa +Fé, the Houston & Texas Central, the International & Great +Northern, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the St Louis South-Western, +the Texas & Pacific, and the Trinity & Brazos Valley +(Colorado & Southern) railways. Fort Worth is beautifully +situated on a level space above the river. It is the seat of Fort +Worth University (coeducational), a Methodist Episcopal institution, +which was established as the Texas Wesleyan College +in 1881, received its present name in 1889, comprises an academy, +a college of liberal arts and sciences, a conservatory of music, a +law school, a medical school, a school of commerce, and a department +of oratory and elocution, and in 1907 had 802 students; +the Polytechnic College (coeducational; Methodist Episcopal, +South), which was established in 1890, has preparatory, collegiate, +normal, commercial, and fine arts departments and a summer +school, and in 1906 had 12 instructors and (altogether) 696 +students; the Texas masonic manual training school; a kindergarten +training school; St Andrews school (Protestant +Episcopal), and St Ignatius Academy (Roman Catholic). There +are several good business, municipal and county buildings, and +a Carnegie library. On the 3rd of April 1909 a fire destroyed +ten blocks in the centre of the city. Fort Worth lies in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page729" id="page729"></a>729</span> +midst of a stock-raising and fertile agricultural region; there +is an important stockyard and packing establishment just +outside the city; and considerable quantities of cotton are +raised in the vicinity. Among the products are packed meats, +flour, beer, trunks, crackers, candy, paint, ice, paste, cigars, +clothing, shoes, mattresses, woven wire beds, furniture and +overalls; and there are foundries, iron rolling mills and tanneries. +In 1905 the total value of the city’s factory product +was $5,668,391, an increase of 62.5% since 1900; Fort +Worth in 1900 ranked fifth among the cities of the state in the +value of its factory product; in 1905 it ranked fourth. Fort +Worth’s numerous railways have given it great importance +as a commercial centre. The municipality owns and operates +the waterworks and the electric-lighting plant.</p> + +<p>A military post was established here in 1849, being called +first Camp Worth and then Fort Worth. It was abandoned in +1853. A settlement grew up about the fort, and the city was +incorporated in 1873. The fort and the settlement were named +in honour of General William Jenkins Worth (1794-1849), a +native of Hudson, New York, who served in the War of 1812, +commanded the United States forces against the Seminole +Indians in 1841-1842, served under both General Taylor and +General Scott in the Mexican War, distinguishing himself at +Monterey (where he earned the brevet of major-general) and in +other engagements, and later commanded the department of +Texas. In 1907 Fort Worth adopted a commission form of +government.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORTY,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> the cardinal number equal to four tens. The word +is derived from the O. Eng. <i>feówertig</i>, a combination of <i>feówer</i>, +four, and <i>tig</i>, an old form of “ten,” used as a suffix, cf. Icel. +<i>tiu</i>, Dan. <i>ti</i>, ten, and Ger. <i>vierzig</i>, forty. The name “The Forty” +has been given to various bodies composed of that number of +members, particularly to a judicial body in ancient Athens, +who tried small cases in the rural districts, and to a court of +criminal jurisdiction and two civil appeal courts in the Venetian +republic. The French Academy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Academies</a></span>) has also been +known as “The Forty” or “The Forty Immortals.” The +period just before the repeal of the corn laws in the United +Kingdom is frequently alluded to, particularly by the free trade +school, as the “hungry forties”; and the “roaring forties” +is a sailor’s name for the stormy region between the 40th and +50th latitudes N. and S., but more particularly applied to the +portion of the north Atlantic lying between those latitudes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORUM<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (Lat. from <i>foris</i>, “out of doors”), in Roman +antiquity, any open place used, like the Greek <span class="grk" title="agora">ἀγορά</span>, for the +transaction of mercantile, judicial or political business, sometimes +merely as a promenade. It was level, rectangular in form, +surrounded by porticoes, basilicas, courts of law and other +public buildings. In the laws of the Twelve Tables the word is +used of the vestibule of a tomb (Cicero, <i>De legibus</i>, ii. 24); in +a Roman camp the forum was an open place immediately beside +the praetorium; and the term was no doubt originally applied +generally to the space in front of any public building or gateway. +In Rome (<i>q.v.</i>) itself, however, during the period of the early +history, forum was almost a proper name, denoting the flat and +formerly marshy space between the Palatine and Capitoline hills +(also called Forum Romanum), which probably even during the +regal period afforded the accommodation necessary for such +public meetings as could not be held within the area Capitolina. +In early times the Forum Romanum was used for athletic games, +and over the porticoes were galleries for spectators; there were +also shops of various kinds. But with the growth of the city +and the increase of provincial business, more than one forum +became necessary, and under the empire a considerable number +of <i>civilia</i> (judicial) and <i>venalia</i> (mercantile) fora came into +existence. In addition to the Forum Romanum, the Fora of +Caesar and Augustus belonged to the former class; the Forum +<i>boarium</i> (cattle), <i>holitorium</i> (vegetable), <i>piscarium</i> (fish), +<i>pistorium</i> (bread), <i>vinarium</i> (wine), to the latter. The Fora of +Nerva (also called <i>transitorium</i> or <i>pervium</i>, because a main road +led through it to the Forum Romanum), Trajan, and Vespasian, +although partly intended to facilitate the course of public +business, were chiefly erected to embellish the city. The construction +of separate markets was not, however, necessarily the +rule in the provincial fora; thus, in Pompeii, at the north-east end +of the forum, there was a <i>macellum</i> (market), and shops for +provisions and possibly money changers, and on the east side a +building supposed to have been the clothworkers’ exchange, +and at Timgad in North Africa (a military colony founded under +Trajan) the whole of the south side of the forum was occupied by +shops. The forum was usually paved, and although on festal +occasions chariots were probably driven through, it was not a +thoroughfare and was enclosed by gates at the entrances, of +which traces have been found at Pompeii. When the sites for +new towns were being selected, that for the forum was in the +centre, and the two main streets crossed one another close to +but not through it. At Timgad the main streets are some 5 or +6 ft. lower than the forum. The word <i>forum</i> frequently appears +in the names of Roman market towns; as, for example, in +Forum Appii, Forum Julii (<i>Fréjus</i>), Forum Livii (<i>Forli</i>), Forum +Sempronii (<i>Fossombrone</i>). These <i>fora</i> were distinguished from +mere <i>vici</i> by the possession of a municipal organization, which, +however, was less complete than that of a prefecture. In legal +phraseology, which distinguishes the <i>forum commune</i> from the +<i>forum privilegiatum</i>, and the <i>forum generale</i> from the <i>forum +speciale</i>, the word is practically equivalent to “court” or +“jurisdiction.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the fora at Rome, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>Archaeology</i>, and works quoted.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORUM APPII,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> an ancient post station on the Via Appia, +43 m. S.E. of Rome, founded, no doubt, by the original constructor +of the road. Horace mentions it as the usual halt at +the end of the first day’s journey from Rome, and describes it +as full of boatmen and cheating innkeepers. The presence of +the former was due to the fact that it was the starting-point of +a canal which ran parallel to the road through the Pomptine +Marshes, and was used instead of it at the time of Strabo and +Horace (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Appia, Via</a></span>). It is mentioned also as a halting place +in the account of Paul’s journey to Rome (Acts xxviii. 15). +Under Nerva and Trajan the road was repaired; one inscription +records expressly the paving with silex (replacing the former +gravelling) of the section from Tripontium, 4 m. N.W., to Forum +Appii; the bridge near Tripontium was similarly repaired, and +that at Forum Appii, though it bears no inscription, is of the +same style. Only scanty relics of antiquity have been found +here; a post station was placed here by Pius VI. when the Via +Appia was reconstructed.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORUM CLODII,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> a post station on the Via Clodia, about +23 m. N.W. of Rome (not 32 m. as in the <i>Antonine Itinerary</i>), +situated above the western bank of the Lacus Sabatinus (mod. +Lake of Bracciano), and connected with the Via Cassia at +Vacanae by a branch road which ran round the N. side of the +lake (<i>Ann. Inst.</i>, 1859, 43). The site is marked by the church of +SS. Marcus, Marcianus and Liberatus, which was founded in the +8th or 9th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Inscriptions mentioning the Foro-Clodienses +have come to light on the spot; and an inscription +of the Augustan period, which probably stood over the door of a +villa, calls the place Pausilypon—a name justified by the beauty +of the site.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Notizie degli scavi</i> (1889), 5; D. Vaglieri, <i>ibid.</i> (1895), 342.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FORUM TRAIANI<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (mod. <i>Fordongianus</i>), an ancient town of +Sardinia, on the river Thyrsus (Tirso), and a station on the +Roman road through the centre of the island from Carales to +Olbia and Turris Libisonis. Many of its ruins have been +destroyed since 1860. The best preserved are the baths, erected +over hot mineral springs. The tanks for collecting the water +and the large central <i>piscina</i> are noteworthy. The bridge over +the Tirso has been to some extent modernized. On the opposite +bank are the scanty remains of an amphitheatre. Not far off +is a group of <i>nuraghi</i>, of which that of St Barbara in the commune +of Villanova Truschedda is one of the finest.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Taramelli in <i>Notizie degli scavi</i> (1903), 469.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOSBROKE, THOMAS DUDLEY<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1770-1842), English antiquary, +was born in London on the 27th of May 1770. He was +educated at St Paul’s school and Pembroke College, Oxford, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page730" id="page730"></a>730</span> +graduating M.A. in 1792. In that year he was ordained and +became curate of Horsley, Gloucestershire, where he remained +till 1810. He then removed to Walford in Herefordshire, and +remained there the rest of his life, as curate till 1830, and afterwards +as vicar. His first important work, <i>British Monachism</i> +(2 vols., 1802), was a compilation, from manuscripts in the +British Museum and Bodleian libraries, of facts relating to +English monastic life. In 1799 Fosbroke had been elected +fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. The work for which he +is best remembered, the <i>Encyclopaedia of Antiquities</i>, appeared +in 1824. A sequel to this, <i>Foreign Topography</i>, was published +in 1828. Fosbroke published many other volumes. He died +at Walford on the 1st of January 1842.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOSCARI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1373-1457), doge of Venice, belonged +to a noble Venetian family, and held many of the highest offices +of the republic—ambassador, president of the Forty, member +of the Council of Ten, inquisitor, procurator of St Mark, <i>avvogadore +di comun</i>, &c. His first wife was Maria Priuli and his +second Maria Nani; of his many children all save one son +(Jacopo) died young. But although a capable administrator +he was ambitious and adventurous, and the reigning doge +Tommaso Mocenigo, when speaking on his deathbed of the +various candidates for the succession, warned the council against +electing Foscari, who, he said, would perpetually plunge the +republic into disastrous and costly wars. Nevertheless Foscari +was elected (1423) and reigned for thirty-four years. In proclaiming +the new doge the customary formula which recognized +the people’s share in the appointment and asked for their +approval—the last vestige of popular government—was finally +dropped.</p> + +<p>Foscari’s reign bore out Mocenigo’s warning and was full of +wars on the <i>terra ferma</i>, and through the doge’s influence Venice +joined the Florentines in their campaign against Milan, which was +carried on with varying success for eight years. In 1430 an +attempt was made on Foscari’s life by a noble to whom he had +refused an appointment; and three years later a conspiracy of +young bloods to secure the various offices for themselves by +illicit intrigues was discovered. These events, as well as the +long and expensive wars and the unsatisfactory state of Venetian +finances, induced Foscari to ask permission to abdicate, which +was, however, refused. In 1444 began that long domestic tragedy +by which the name of Foscari has become famous. The doge’s +son Jacopo, a cultivated and intelligent but frivolous and +irresponsible youth, was in that year accused of the serious +crime of having accepted presents from various citizens and +foreign princes who either desired government appointments or +wished to influence the policy of the republic. Jacopo escaped, +but was tried in contumacy before the Council of Ten and +condemned to be exiled to Napoli di Romania (Nauplia) and +to have his property confiscated. But the execution of the +sentence was delayed, as he was lying ill at Trieste, and eventually +the penalty was commuted to banishment at Treviso (1446). +Four years later Ermolao Donato, a distinguished official who +had been a member of the Ten at the time of the trial, was +assassinated and Jacopo Foscari was suspected of complicity +in the deed. After a long inquiry he was brought to trial for +the second time, and although all the evidence clearly pointed +to his guilt the judges could not obtain a confession from the +accused, and so merely banished him to Candia for the rest of his +life, with a pension of two hundred ducats a year. In 1456 the +council received information from the rector (governor) of Candia +to the effect that Jacopo Foscari had been in treasonable correspondence +with the duke of Milan and the sultan of Turkey. +He was summoned to Venice, tried and condemned to a year’s +imprisonment, to be followed by a return to his place of exile. +His aged father was allowed to see him while in prison, and to +Jacopo’s entreaties that he should obtain a full pardon for him, +he replied advising him to bear his punishment without protest. +When the year was up Jacopo returned to Candia, where he died +in January 1457. The doge was overwhelmed with grief at this +bereavement and became quite incapable of attending to business. +Consequently the council decided to ask him to abdicate; +at first he refused, but was finally obliged to conform to their +wishes and retired on a yearly pension of 1500 ducats. Within +a week Pasquale Malipiero was elected in his place and two days +later (1st of November 1457) Francesco Foscari was dead.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The story is a very sad and pathetic one, but legend has added +many picturesque though quite apocryphal details, most of them +tending to show the iniquity and harshness of Jacopo’s judges and +accusers, whereas, as we have shown, he was treated with exceptional +leniency. The most accurate account is contained in S. Romanin’s +<i>Storia documentata di Venezia</i>, lib. x. cap. iv. vii. and x. (Venice, +1855); where the original authorities are quoted; see also Berlan, +<i>I due Foscari</i> (Turin, 1852). Among the poetical works on the +subject Byron’s tragedy is the most famous (1821), and Roger’s +poem <i>Italy</i> (1821); Giuseppe Verdi composed an opera on the +subject entitled <i>I due Foscari</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOSCOLO, UGO<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1778-1827), Italian writer, was born at +Zante in the Ionian Isles on the 26th of January 1778. On the +death of his father, a physician at Spalatro, in Dalmatia, the +family removed to Venice, and in the University of Padua +Foscolo prosecuted the studies begun in the Dalmatian grammar +school. The fact that amongst his Paduan masters was the abbé +Cesarotti, whose version of Ossian had made that work highly +popular in Italy, was not without influence on Foscolo’s literary +tastes, and his early knowledge of modern facilitated his studies +in ancient Greek. His literary ambition revealed itself by the +appearance in 1797 of his tragedy <i>Tieste</i>—a production which +obtained a certain degree of success. Foscolo, who, from +causes not clearly explained, had changed his Christian name +Niccolo to that of Ugo, now began to take an active part in the +stormy political discussions which the fall of the republic of +Venice had provoked. He was a prominent member of the +national committees, and addressed an ode to Napoleon the +liberator, expecting from the military successes of the French +general, not merely the overthrow of the effete Venetian oligarchy, +but the establishment of a free republican government.</p> + +<p>The treaty of Campo Formio (17th Oct. 1797), by which +Napoleon handed Venice over to the Austrians, gave a rude +shock to Foscolo, but did not quite destroy his hopes. The state +of mind produced by that shock is reflected in the <i>Letters of +Jacopo Ortis</i> (1798), a species of political <i>Werther</i>,—for the hero +of Foscolo embodies the mental sufferings and suicide of an +undeceived Italian patriot just as the hero of Goethe places before +us the too delicate sensitiveness embittering and at last cutting +short the life of a private German scholar. The story of Foscolo, +like that of Goethe, had a groundwork of melancholy fact. +Jacopo Ortis had been a real personage; he was a young student +of Padua, and committed suicide there under circumstances +akin to those described by Foscolo. At this period Foscolo’s +mind appears to have been only too familiar with the thought +of suicide. Cato and the many classical examples of self-destruction +scattered through the pages of Plutarch appealed to the +imaginations of young Italian patriots as they had done in France +to those of the heroes and heroines of the Gironde. In the case +of Foscolo, as in that of Goethe, the effect produced on the +writer’s mind by the composition of the work seems to have been +beneficial. He had seen the ideal of a great national future +rudely shattered; but he did not despair of his country, and +sought relief in now turning to gaze on the ideal of a great national +poet. At Milan, whither he repaired after the fall of Venice, he +was engaged in other literary pursuits besides the composition +of <i>Ortis</i>. The friendship formed there with the great poet Parini +was ever afterwards remembered with pride and gratitude. +The friendship formed with another celebrated Milanese poet soon +gave place to a feeling of bitter enmity. Still hoping that his +country would be freed by Napoleon, he served as a volunteer +in the French army, took part in the battle of the Trebbia and +the siege of Genoa, was wounded and made prisoner. When +released he returned to Milan, and there gave the last touches +to his <i>Ortis</i>, published a translation of and commentary upon +<i>Callimachus</i>, commenced a version of the <i>Iliad</i>, and began his +translation of Sterne’s <i>Sentimental Journey</i>. The result of a +memorandum prepared for Lyons, where, along with other +Italian delegates, he was to have laid before Napoleon the state +of Italy, only proved that the views cherished by him for his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page731" id="page731"></a>731</span> +country were too bold to be even submitted to the dictator of +France. The year 1807 witnessed the appearance of his <i>Carme +sui sepolcri</i>, of which the entire spirit and language may be +described as a sublime effort to seek refuge in the past from the +misery of the present and the darkness of the future. The +mighty dead are summoned from their tombs, as ages before +they had been in the masterpieces of Greek oratory, to fight +again the battles of their country. The inaugural lecture on +the origin and duty of literature, delivered by Foscolo in January +1809 when appointed to the chair of Italian eloquence at Pavia, +was conceived in the same spirit. In this lecture Foscolo urged +his young countrymen to study letters, not in obedience to +academic traditions, but in their relation to individual and +national life and growth. The sensation produced by this +lecture had no slight share in provoking the decree of Napoleon +by which the chair of national eloquence was abolished in all the +Italian universities. Soon afterwards Foscolo’s tragedy of <i>Ajax</i> +was represented but with little success at Milan, and its supposed +allusions to Napoleon rendering the author an object of suspicion, +he was forced to remove from Milan to Tuscany. The chief +fruits of his stay in Florence are the tragedy of <i>Ricciarda</i>, the +<i>Ode to the Graces</i>, left unfinished, and the completion of his +version of the <i>Sentimental Journey</i> (1813). His version of Sterne +is an important feature in his personal history. When serving +with the French he had been at the Boulogne camp, and had +traversed much of the ground gone over by Yorick; and in his +memoir of Didimo Cherico, to whom the version is ascribed, +he throws much curious light on his own character. He returned +to Milan in 1813, until the entry of the Austrians; thence he +passed into Switzerland, where he wrote a fierce satire in Latin +on his political and literary opponents; and finally he sought the +shores of England at the close of 1816.</p> + +<p>During the eleven years passed by Foscolo in London, until +his death there, he enjoyed all the social distinction which the +most brilliant circles of the English capital confer on foreigners +of political and literary renown, and experienced all the misery +which follows on a disregard of the first conditions of domestic +economy. His contributions to the <i>Edinburgh</i> and <i>Quarterly +Reviews</i>, his dissertations in Italian on the text of Dante and +Boccaccio, and still more his English essays on Petrarch, of +which the value was enhanced by Lady Dacre’s admirable +translations of some of Petrarch’s finest sonnets, heightened his +previous fame as a man of letters. But his want of care and +forethought in pecuniary matters involved him in much embarrassment, +and at last consigned him to a prison; and when +released he felt bitterly the change in his social position, and the +coldness now shown to him by many whom he had been +accustomed to regard as friends. His general bearing in society—if +we may accept on this point the testimony of so keen an +observer and so tolerant a man as Sir Walter Scott—had unhappily +not been such as to gain and retain lasting friendships. +He died at Turnham Green on the 10th of October 1827. Forty-four +years after his death, in 1871, his remains were brought to +Florence, and with all the pride, pomp and circumstance of a +great national mourning, found their final resting-place beside +the monuments of <span class="correction" title="amended from Macchiavelli">Machiavelli</span> and Alfieri, of Michelangelo +and Galileo, in Italy’s Westminster Abbey, the church of Santa +Croce. To that solemn national tribute Foscolo was fully +entitled. For the originality of his thoughts and the splendour +of his diction his country honours him as a great classic author. +He had assigned to the literature of his nation higher aims than +any which it previously recognized. With all his defects of +character, and through all his vicissitudes of fortune, he was +always a sincere and courageous patriot.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Ample materials for the study of Foscolo’s character and career +may be found in the complete series of his works published in +Florence by Le Monnier. The series consists of <i>Prose letterarie</i>, +(4 vols., 1850); <i>Epistolario</i> (3 vols., 1854); <i>Prose politiche</i> (1 vol., +1850); <i>Poesie</i> (1 vol., 1856); <i>Lettere di Ortis</i> (1 vol., 1858); <i>Saggi +di critica storico-letteraria</i> (1st vol., 1859; 2nd vol., 1862). To this +series must be added the very interesting work published at Leghorn +in 1876, <i>Lettere inedite del Foscolo, del Giordani, e della Signora di +Staël, a Vincenzo Monti</i>. The work published at Florence in the +summer of 1878, <i>Vita di Ugo Foscolo, di Pellegrino Artusi</i>, throws +much doubt on the genuineness of the text in Foscolo’s writings as +given in the complete Florence edition, whilst it furnishes some +curious and original illustrations of Foscolo’s familiarity with the +English language.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. M. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOSS, EDWARD<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1787-1870), English lawyer and biographer, +was born in London on the 16th of October 1787. He was a +solicitor by profession, and on his retirement from practice in +1840, he devoted himself to the study of legal antiquities. His +<i>Judges of England</i> (9 vols., 1848-1864) is a standard work, +characterized by accuracy and extensive research. <i>Biographia +Juridica</i>, <i>a Biographical Dictionary of English Judges</i>, appeared +shortly after his death. He assisted in founding the Incorporated +Law Society, of which he was president in 1842 and 1843. He +died of apoplexy on the 27th of July 1870.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOSSANO<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span>, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, +in the province of Cuneo, 15 m. N.E. of it by rail, 1180 ft. above +sea-level. Pop. (1901) 7696 (town), 18,175 (commune). It has +an imposing castle with four towers, begun by Filippo d’Acaia +in 1314. The cathedral was reconstructed at the end of the +18th century. The place began to acquire some importance in +the 13th century. It appears as a commune in 1237, but in +1251 had to yield to Asti. It finally surrendered in 1314 to +<span class="correction" title="amended from Fillippo">Filippo</span> d’Acaia, whose successor handed it over to the house of +Savoy. It lies on the main line from Turin to Cuneo, and has +a branch line to Mondovì.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOSSANUOVA<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span>, an abbey of Italy, in the province of Rome, +near the railway station of Sonnino, 64 m. S.E. of Rome. It +is the finest example of a Cistercian abbey, and of the Burgundian +Early Gothic style, in Italy, and dates from the end of the 12th +to the end of the 13th century. The church (1187-1208) is +closely similar to that of Casamari. The other conventual +buildings also are noteworthy. Thomas Aquinas died here in +1274.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Enlart, <i>Origines françaises de l’architecture gothique en +Italie</i> (Paris, 1894) (<i>Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d’Athènes et +de Rome</i>, fasc. 66).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOSSE<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Foss</span>) <b>WAY</b>, the Early English name of a Roman +road or series of roads in Britain, used later by the English, +running from Lincoln by Leicester and Bath to Exeter. Almost +all the Roman line is still in use as modern road or lane. It +passes from Lincoln through Newark and Leicester (the Roman +<i>Ratae</i>) to High Cross (<i>Venonae</i>), where it intersects Watling Street +at a point often called “the centre of England.” Hence it runs to +Moreton-in-the-Marsh, Cirencester, Bath and Ilchester, crosses +the hills near Chard, Axminster and Honiton, and enters Exeter. +Antiquaries have taken it farther, usually to Totnes, but without +warrant. (See further under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ermine Street</a></span>.)</p> +<div class="author">(F. J. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOSSICK<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (probably an English dialectical expression, meaning +fussy or troublesome), a term applied by the gold diggers of +Australia to the search for gold by solitary individuals, in +untried localities or in abandoned diggings. A “fossicker,” +or pocket miner, is one who buys up the right to search old +claims, in the hope of finding gold overlooked by previous +diggers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOSSOMBRONE<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (anc. <i>Forum Sempronii</i>), a town and episcopal +see of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Pesaro and Urbino, +11 m. E.S.E. of the latter by road, 394 ft. above sea-level. Pop. +(1901) town, 7531, commune, 10,847. The town is situated +in the valley of the Metauro, in the centre of fine scenery, at the +meeting-point of roads to Fano, to the Furlo pass and Fossato +di Vico (the ancient Via Flaminia), to Urbino and to Sinigaglia, +the last crossing the river by a fine bridge. The cathedral, +rebuilt in 1772-1784, contains the chief work of the sculptor +Domenico Rosselli of Rovezzano, a richly sculptured <i>ancona</i> +of 1480. S. Francesco has a lunette by him over the portal. +The library, founded by a nephew of Cardinal Passionei, contains +some antiquities. Above the town is a medieval castle. There +is a considerable trade in silk.</p> + +<p>The ancient Forum Sempronii lay about 2 m. to the N.E. +at S. Martino al Piano, where remains still exist. It was a station +on the Via Flaminia and a <i>municipium</i>. The date of its foundation +is not known. Excavations in 1879-1880 led to the discovery +of a house and of other buildings on the ancient road (A. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page732" id="page732"></a>732</span> +Vernarecci in <i>Notizie degli scavi</i>, 1880, 458). It already had +a bishop in the years 499-502. In 1295 the Malatesta obtained +possession of it, and kept it until 1444, when it was sold, with +Pesaro, to Federico di Montefeltro of Urbino, and with the +latter it passed to the papacy under Urban VIII. in 1631.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOSSOMBRONI, VITTORIO<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Count</span> (1754-1844), Tuscan +statesman and mathematician, was born at Arezzo. He was +educated at the university of Pisa, where he devoted himself +particularly to mathematics. He obtained an official appointment +in Tuscany in 1782, and twelve years later was entrusted +by the grand duke with the direction of the works for the drainage +of the Val di Chiana, on which subject he had published a treatise +in 1789. In 1796 he was made minister for foreign affairs, but +on the French occupation of Tuscany in 1799 he fled to Sicily. +On the erection of the grand duchy into the ephemeral kingdom +of Etruria, under the queen-regent Maria Louisa, he was appointed +president of the commission of finance. In 1809 he went +to Paris as one of the senators for Tuscany to pay homage to +Napoleon. He was made president of the legislative commission +on the restoration of the grand duke Ferdinand III. in 1814, +and subsequently prime minister, which position he retained +under the grand duke Leopold II. His administration, which +was only terminated by his death, greatly contributed to promote +the well-being of the country. He was the real master of Tuscany, +and the bases of his rule were equality of all subjects before the +law, honesty in the administration of justice and toleration of +opinion, but he totally neglected the moral improvement of the +people. At the age of seventy-eight he married, and twelve +years afterwards died, in 1844.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Gino Capponi, <i>Il Conte V. Fossombroni</i>, A. von +Reumont, <i>Geschichte Toscanas unter dem Hause Lothringen-Habsburg</i> +(Gotha, 1877); Zobi, <i>Storia civile delta Toscana</i> (Florence, 1850-1853); +Galeotti, <i>Delle Leggi e dell’ amministrazione della Toscana</i> +(Florence, 1847); Baldasseroni, <i>Leopoldo II</i>. (Florence, 1871); see +also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Capponi, Gino</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ferdinand III.</a></span>, of Tuscany, and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leopold II.</a></span>, of Tuscany.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1841-1904), English +geologist and mineralogist, the second son of Peter Le Neve +Foster (for many years secretary of the Society of Arts), was +born at Camberwell on the 23rd of March 1841. After receiving +his early education at Boulogne and Amiens, he studied successively +at the Royal School of Mines in London and at the mining +college of Freiburg in Saxony. In 1860 he joined the Geological +Survey in England, working in the Wealden area and afterwards +in Derbyshire. Conjointly with William Topley (1841-1894) +he communicated to the Geological Society of London in 1865 +the now classic paper “On the superficial deposits of the Valley +of the Medway, with remarks on the Denudation of the Weald.” +In this paper the sculpturing of the Wealden area by rain and +rivers was ably advocated. Retiring from the Geological +Survey in 1865, Foster devoted his attention to mineralogy +and mining in Cornwall, Egypt and Venezuela. In 1872 he was +appointed an inspector of mines under the home office for +the S.W. of England, and in 1880 he was transferred to the N. +Wales district. In 1890 he was appointed professor of mining +at the Royal College of Science and he held this post until the +close of his life. His later work is embodied largely in the reports +of mines and quarries issued annually by the home office. He +was distinguished for his extensive scientific and practical +knowledge of metalliferous mining and stone quarrying. He +was elected F.R.S. in 1892 and was knighted in 1903. While +investigating the cause of a mining disaster in the Isle of Man +in 1897 his constitution suffered much injury from carbonic-oxide +gas, and he never fully recovered from the effects. He +died in London on the 19th of April 1904. He published <i>Ore and +Stone Mining</i>, 1894 (ed. 5, 1904); and <i>The Elements of Mining +and Quarrying</i>, 1903.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1847-  ), Canadian politician +and financier, was born in New Brunswick on the 3rd of +September 1847, of U.E. Loyalist descent. After a brilliant +university career at the university of Brunswick, at Edinburgh +and Heidelberg, he returned to Canada and taught in various +local schools, eventually becoming professor of classics and +history in the local university. In 1882 he became Conservative +member for King’s County, N.B., in the Dominion parliament, +and in 1885 entered the cabinet of Sir John Macdonald as minister +of marine and fisheries; in 1888 he became minister of finance, +which position he held till the defeat of his party in 1896. A +careful and even brilliant financier, and a keen debater, he +became known as a strong believer in protection for Canadian +industries and in preferential trade within the British empire.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOSTER, JOHN<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1770-1843), English author and dissenting +minister, generally known as the “Essayist,” was born in a small +farmhouse near Halifax, Yorkshire, on the 17th of September +1770. Partly from constitutional causes, but partly also from +the want of proper companions, as well as from the grave and +severe habits of his parents, his earlier years were enshrouded +in a somewhat gloomy and sombre atmosphere, which was never +afterwards wholly dissipated. His youthful energy, finding no +proper outlet, developed within him a tendency to morbid +intensity of thought and feeling; and, according to his own +testimony, before he was twelve years old he was possessed of +a “painful sense of an awkward but entire individuality.”</p> + +<p>The small income accruing to Foster’s parents from their +farm they supplemented by weaving, and at an early age he +began to assist them by spinning wool by the hand wheel, and +from his fourteenth year by weaving double stuffs. Even “when +a child,” however, he had the “feelings of a foreigner in the +place”; and though he performed his monotonous task with +conscientious diligence, he succeeded so indifferently in fixing +his wandering thoughts upon it that his work never without +difficulty passed the ordeal of inspection. He had acquired a +great taste for reading, to gratify which he sometimes shut +himself up alone in a barn, afterwards working at his loom +“like a horse,” to make up for lost time. He had also at this +period “a passion for making pictures with a pen.” Shortly +after completing his seventeenth year he became a member of +the Baptist church at Hebden Bridge, with which his parents +were connected; and with the view of preparing himself for +the ministerial office he began about the same time to attend +a seminary at Brearley Hall conducted by his pastor Dr Fawcett.</p> + +<p>After remaining three years at Brearley Hall he was admitted +to the Baptist College, Bristol, and on finishing his course of +study at this institution he obtained an engagement at Newcastle-on-Tyne, +where he preached to an audience of less than a hundred +persons, in a small and dingy room situated near the river at the +top of a flight of steps called Tuthill Stairs. At Newcastle he +remained only three months. In the beginning of 1793 he proceeded +to Dublin, where, after failing as a preacher, he attempted +to revive a classical and mathematical school, but with so little +success that he did not prosecute the experiment for more than +eight or nine months. From 1797 to 1799 he was minister of a +Baptist church at Chichester, but though he applied himself +with more earnestness and perseverance than formerly to the +discharge of his ministerial duties, his efforts produced little +apparent impression, and the gradual diminution of his hearers +necessitated his resignation. After employing himself for a few +months at Battersea in the instruction of twenty African youths +brought to England by Zachary Macaulay, with the view of +having them trained to aid as missionaries to their fellow-countrymen, +he in 1800 accepted the charge of a small congregation at +Downend, Bristol, where he continued about four years. In +1804, chiefly through the recommendation of Robert Hall, he +became pastor of a congregation at Frome, but a swelling in the +thyroid gland compelled him in 1806 to resign his charge. In the +same year he published the volume of <i>Essays</i> on which his +literary fame most largely if not mainly rests. They were +written in the form of letters addressed to the lady whom he +afterwards married, and consist of four papers,—“On a Man +writing Memoirs of himself”; “On Decision of Character”; +“On the Application of the Epithet Romantic”; and “On some +Causes by which Evangelical Religion has been rendered unacceptable +to Men of Cultivated Taste.” The success of this +work was immediate, and was so considerable that on resigning +his charge he determined to adopt literature as his profession. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page733" id="page733"></a>733</span> +The <i>Eclectic Review</i> was the only periodical with which he established +a connexion; but his contributions to that journal, +which were begun in 1807, number no fewer than 185 articles. +On his marriage in May 1808 he removed to Bourton-on-the-Water, +a small village in Gloucestershire, where he remained +till 1817, when he returned to Downend and resumed his duties +to his old congregation. Here he published in 1820 his <i>Essay +on Popular Ignorance</i>, which was the enlargement of a sermon +originally preached on behalf of the British and Foreign School +Society. In 1821 he removed to Stapleton near Bristol, and in +1822 he began a series of fortnightly lectures at Broadmead +chapel, Bristol, which were afterwards published. On the +settlement of Robert Hall at Bristol this service was discontinued, +as in such circumstances it appeared to Foster to be “altogether +superfluous and even bordering on impertinent.” The health +of Foster during the later years of his life was somewhat infirm, +the result chiefly of the toil and effort of literary composition; +and the death of his only son, his wife and the greater number +of his most intimate friends combined with his bodily ailments +to lend additional sombreness to his manner of regarding the +events and arrangements of the present world—the “visage of +death” being almost his “one remaining luminary.” He died +at Stapleton on the 15th of October 1843.</p> + +<p>The cast of Foster’s mind was meditative and reflective rather +than logical or metaphysical, and though holding moderately +Calvinistic views, his language even in preaching very seldom +took the mould of theological forms. Though always retaining +his connexion with the Baptist denomination, the evils resulting +from organized religious communities seemed to him so +great that he came to be “strongly of opinion that churches are +useless and mischievous institutions, and the sooner they are +dissolved the better.” The only Christian observances which +he regarded as of any importance were public worship and the +Lord’s Supper, and it so happened that he never administered +the ordinance of baptism. His cast of thought is largely coloured +by a constant reference to the “endless future.” He was a firm +believer in supernatural appearances, and cherished a longing +hope that a ray of light from the other world might sometimes +in this way be vouchsafed to mortals. As a writer he was most +painstaking and laborious in his choice of diction, and his style +has its natural consequent defects, though the result is eloquent +in its way.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides the works already alluded to, Foster was the author of a +<i>Discourse on Missions</i> (1818); “Introductory Essay” to Doddridge’s +<i>Rise and Progress of Religion</i> (1825); “Observations on +Mr Hall’s Character as a Preacher,” prefixed to the collected edition +of Hall’s <i>Works</i> (1832); an “Introduction” to a pamphlet by Mr +Marshman on the Serampore Missionaries; several political letters +to the <i>Morning Chronicle</i>, and contributions to the <i>Eclectic Review</i>, +published posthumously in 2 vols., 1844. <i>His Life and Correspondence</i>, +edited by J.E. Ryland, was published in 1846.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1836-1907), English physiologist, +was born at Huntingdon on the 8th of March 1836. After +graduating in medicine at London University in 1859, he began +to practise in his native town, but in 1867 he returned to London +as teacher of practical physiology at University College, where +two years afterwards he became professor. In 1870 he was +appointed by Trinity College, Cambridge, to its praelectorship in +physiology, and thirteen years later he became the first occupant +of the newly-created chair of physiology in the university, +holding it till 1903. He excelled as a teacher and administrator, +and had a very large share in the organization and development +of the Cambridge biological school. From 1881 to 1903 he was +one of the secretaries of the Royal Society, and in that capacity +exercised a wide influence on the study of biology in Great +Britain. In 1899 he was created K.C.B., and served as president +of the British Association at its meeting at Dover. In the +following year he was elected to represent the university of +London in parliament. Though returned as a Unionist, his +political action was not to be dictated by party considerations, +and he gravitated towards Liberalism; but he played no +prominent part in parliament and at the election of 1906 was +defeated. His chief writings were a <i>Textbook of Physiology</i> +(1876), which became a standard work, and <i>Lectures on the +History of Physiology in the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries</i> (1901), +which consisted of lectures delivered at the Cooper Medical +College, San Francisco, in 1900. He died suddenly in London +on the 29th of January 1907.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1825-1899), English painter, +was born at North Shields. At the age of sixteen he entered the +workshop of Ebenezer Landells, a wood engraver, with whom +he worked for six years as an illustrative draughtsman, devoting +himself mainly to landscape. During the succeeding fifteen +years he became famous as a prolific and accomplished illustrator, +but about 1861 abandoned illustration for painting, and gained +wide popularity by his pictures, chiefly in water colours, of +landscapes and rustic subjects, with figures, mainly of children. +He was elected in 1860 associate and in 1862 full member of the +Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours. His work is memorable +for its delicacy and minute finish, and for its daintiness and +pleasantness of sentiment.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Birket Foster, his Life and Work</i> (extra number of the <i>Art +Journal</i>) by Marcus B. Huish (1890), an interesting sketch; and +<i>Birket Foster, R.W.S.</i>, by H.M. Cundall (London, 1906), a very +complete and fully illustrated biography.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1826-1864), American song +and ballad writer, was born near Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the +4th of July 1826. He was the youngest child of a merchant of +Irish descent who became a member of the state legislature +and was related by marriage to President Buchanan. Stephen +early showed talent for music, and played upon the flageolet, +the guitar and the banjo; he also acquired a fair knowledge +of French and German. He was sent to school in Towanda, +Pennsylvania, and later to Athens, Pennsylvania, and when +thirteen years old he wrote the song “Sadly to Mine Heart +Appealing.” At sixteen he wrote “Open thy Lattice, Love”; +at seventeen he entered his brother’s business house, Cincinnati, +Ohio, where he remained about three years, composing meanwhile +such popular pieces as “Old Uncle Ned,” “O Susannah!” and +others. He then adopted song-writing as a profession. His chief +successes were songs written for the negro melodists or Christy +minstrels. Besides those mentioned the following attained +great popularity: “Nelly was a Lady,” “Old Kentucky Home,” +“Old Folks at Home,” “Massa’s in de Cold, Cold Ground,” &c. +For these and other songs the composer received considerable +sums, “Old Folks at Home” bringing him, it is said, 15,000 +dollars. For most of his songs Foster wrote both songs and music. +In 1850 he married and moved to New York, but soon returned +to Pittsburg. His reputation rests chiefly on his negro melodies, +many of which have been popular on both sides of the Atlantic +and sung in many tongues. “Old Black Joe,” the last of these +negro melodies, appeared in 1861. His later songs were sentimental +ballads. Among these are “Old Dog Tray,” “Gentle +Annie,” “Willie, we have missed you,” &c. His “Come where +my Love lies Dreaming” is a well known vocal quartet. Although +as a musician and composer Foster has little claim to high +rank, his song-writing gives him a prominent place in the modern +developments of popular music. He died at New York on the +13th of January 1864.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOSTORIA,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a city, partly in Seneca, partly in Hancock, and +partly in Wood county, Ohio, U.S.A., 35 m. S. by E. of Toledo. +Pop. (1890) 7070; (1900) 7730 (584 foreign-born); (1910) 9597. +It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the New York, Chicago & +St Louis, the Ohio Central, the Lake Erie & Western, and the +Hocking Valley railways, and by two interurban electric lines. +The city is situated in an agricultural region, and oil abounds in +the vicinity. Among the city’s manufactures are glass, flour, +planing mill products, brass and iron, carriages, barrels, incandescent +lamps, carbons, wire nails and fences, automobile +engines and parts, railway torpedoes and muslin underwear. +The waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality. +In 1832, upon the coming of the first settlers, two towns, Rome +and Risdon, were laid out on the site of what is now Fostoria. +A bitter rivalry arose between them, but they were finally united +under one government, and the city thus formed was named in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page734" id="page734"></a>734</span> +honour of Charles W. Foster, whose son Charles Foster (1828-1904), +governor of the state from 1880 to 1884 and secretary of +the United States treasury from 1891 to 1893, did much to promote +its growth. Fostoria was chartered as a city in 1854.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOTHERGILL, JOHN<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1712-1780), English physician, was +born of a Quaker family on the 8th of March 1712 at Carr End +in Yorkshire. He took the degree of M.D. at Edinburgh in 1736, +and after visiting the continent of Europe he in 1740 settled in +London, where he gained an extensive practice. In the epidemics +of influenza in 1775 and 1776 he is said to have had sixty patients +daily. In his leisure he made a study of conchology and botany; +and at Upton, near Stratford, he had an extensive botanical +garden where he grew many rare plants obtained from various +parts of the world. He was the patron of Sidney Parkinson, the +South Sea voyager. A translation of the Bible (1764 sq.) by +Anthony Purver, a Quaker, was made and printed at his expense. +His pamphlet entitled “Account of the Sore Throat attended +with Ulcers” (1748) contains one of the first descriptions of +diphtheria in English, and was translated into several languages. +He died in London on the 26th of December 1780.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOTHERINGHAY,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> a village of Northamptonshire, England, +picturesquely situated on the left bank of the river Nene, 1½ m. +from Elton station on the Peterborough branch of the London +& North-Western railway. The castle, of which nothing but the +earthworks and foundations remain, is famous as the scene +of the imprisonment of Mary queen of Scots from September +1586 to her trial and execution on the 8th of February 1587. The +earthworks, commanding a ford of the river, are apparently of +very early date, and probably bore a castle from Norman times. +It became an important stronghold of the Plantagenets from +the time of Edward III., and was the birthplace of Richard III. +in 1452. The church of St Mary and All Saints, originally +collegiate, is Perpendicular, and only the nave with aisles, and +the tower surmounted by an octagon, remain; but the building +is in the best style of its period. Edward, second duke of York, +who was killed at the battle of Agincourt in 1415, Richard, the +third duke, and his duchess, Cicely (d. 1495), also his son the +earl of Rutland, who with Richard himself, fell at the battle of +Wakefield in 1460, are buried in the church. Their monuments +were erected by Queen Elizabeth, who found the choir and tombs +in ruins.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOUCAULT, JEAN BERNARD LÉON<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1819-1868), French +physicist, was the son of a publisher at Paris, where he was born +on the 18th of September 1819. After an education received +chiefly at home, he studied medicine, which, however, he speedily +abandoned for physical science, the improvement of L.J.M. +Daguerre’s photographic processes being the object to which +he first directed his attention. During three years he was experimental +assistant to Alfred Donné (1801-1878) in his course of +lectures on microscopic anatomy. With A.H.L. Fizeau he +carried on a series of investigations on the intensity of the light +of the sun, as compared with that of carbon in the electric arc, +and of lime in the flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe; on the +interference of heat rays, and of light rays differing greatly in +lengths of path; and on the chromatic polarization of light. +In 1849 he contributed to the <i>Comptes Rendus</i> a description +of an electromagnetic regulator for the electric arc lamp, and, +in conjunction with H.V. Regnault, a paper on binocular vision. +By the use of a revolving mirror similar to that used by Sir +Charles Wheatstone for measuring the rapidity of electric +currents, he was enabled in 1850 to demonstrate the greater +velocity of light in air than in water, and to establish that the +velocity of light in different media is inversely as the refractive +indices of the media. For his demonstration in 1851 of the +diurnal motion of the earth by the rotation of the plane of oscillation +of a freely suspended, long and heavy pendulum exhibited +by him at the Pantheon in Paris, and again in the following +year by means of his invention the gyroscope, he received the +Copley medal of the Royal Society in 1855, and in the same year +he was made physical assistant in the imperial observatory at +Paris. In September of that year he discovered that the force +required for the rotation of a copper disk becomes greater when +it is made to rotate with its rim between the poles of a magnet, +the disk at the same time becoming heated by the eddy or +“Foucault currents” induced in its metal. Foucault invented +in 1857 the polarizer which bears his name, and in the succeeding +year devised a method of giving to the speculum of reflecting +telescopes the form of a spheroid or a paraboloid of revolution. +With Wheatstone’s revolving mirror he in 1862 determined the +absolute velocity of light to be 298,000 kilometres (about 185,000 +m.) a second, or 10,000 kilom. less than that obtained by previous +experimenters. He was created in that year a member of the +Bureau des Longitudes and an officer of the Legion of Honour, +in 1864 a foreign member of the Royal Society of London, +and next year a member of the mechanical section of the +Institute. In 1865 appeared his papers on a modification of +Watt’s governor, upon which he had for some time been experimenting +with a view to making its period of revolution constant, +and on a new apparatus for regulating the electric light; and in +the following year (<i>Compt. Rend.</i> lxiii.) he showed how, by the +deposition of a transparently thin film of silver on the outer side +of the object glass of a telescope, the sun could be viewed without +injuring the eye by excess of light. Foucault died of paralysis +on the 11th of February 1868 at Paris. From the year 1845 +he edited the scientific portion of the <i>Journal des Débats</i>. His +chief scientific papers are to be found in the <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, +1847-1869.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Revue cours scient.</i> vi. (1869), pp. 484-489; <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> +xvii. (1869), pp. lxxxiii.-lxxxiv.; Lissajous, <i>Notice historique sur la +vie et les travaux de Léon Foucault</i> (Paris, 1875).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOUCHÉ, JOSEPH,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke of Otranto</span> (1763-1820), French +statesman, was born in a small village near Nantes on the 21st +of May 1763. His father, a seafaring man, destined him for the +sea; but the weakness of his frame and the precocity of his +talents soon caused this idea to be given up. He was educated +at the college of the Oratorians at Nantes, and showed marked +aptitude for studies both literary and scientific. Desiring to +enter the teaching profession he was sent to an institution kept +by brethren of the same order at Paris. There also he made +rapid progress, and soon entered upon tutorial duties at the +colleges of Niort, Saumur, Vendôme, Juilly and Arras. At Arras +he had some dealings with Robespierre at the time of the beginning +of the French Revolution (1789).</p> + +<p>In October 1790 he was transferred by the Oratorians to +their college at Nantes, owing to irregularities due to his zeal +for revolutionary principles; but at Nantes he showed even +more democratic fervour. His abilities and the zeal with which +he espoused the most subversive notions brought him into +favour with the populace at Nantes; he became a leading +member of the local Jacobin club; and on the dissolution of the +college of the Oratorians at Nantes in May 1792, Fouché gave +up all connexion with the church, whose major vows he had +not taken. After the downfall of the monarchy on the 10th of +August 1792, he was elected as deputy for the department of +the Lower Loire to the National Convention which met at the +autumnal equinox and proclaimed the republic. The literary +and pedagogic sympathies of Fouché at first brought him into +touch with Condorcet and the party, or group, of the Girondists; +but their vacillation at the time of the trial and execution of +Louis XVI. (December 1792-January 21, 1793) led him to +espouse the cause of the Jacobins, the less scrupulous and more +thoroughgoing champions of revolutionary doctrine. On the +question of the execution of the king, Fouché, after some preliminary +hesitations, expressed himself with the utmost vigour +in favour of immediate execution, and denounced those who +“wavered before the shadow of a king.”</p> + +<p>The crisis which resulted from the declaration of war by the +Convention against England and Holland (Feb. 1, 1793), and +a little later against Spain, brought Fouché into notoriety as +one of the fiercest of the Jacobinical fanatics who then held +power at Paris. While the armies of the first coalition threatened +the north-east of France, a revolt of the royalist peasants of +Brittany and la Vendée menaced the Convention on the west. +That body deputed Fouché with a colleague, Villers, to proceed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page735" id="page735"></a>735</span> +to the west as commissioners invested with almost dictatorial +powers for the crushing of the revolt of “the whites.” The +vigour with which he carried out these duties earned him other +work, and he soon held the post of commissioner of the republic +in the department of the Nièvre. Together with Chaumette, +he helped to initiate the atheistical movement, the founders of +which in the autumn of 1793 began to aim at the extinction of +Christianity in France. In the department of the Nièvre he +ransacked the churches, sent their spoils to the treasury and +established the cult of the goddess of Reason. Over the +cemeteries, he ordered these words to be inscribed: “Death is +an eternal sleep.” He also waged war against luxury and +wealth, and desired to abolish the use of money. The new cult +was inaugurated at Paris at Notre Dame by the strange orgy +known as “The Festival of Reason” (November 10, 1793).</p> + +<p>Fouché then proceeded to Lyons to execute the vengeance +of the Convention on that city, which had revolted against the +new Jacobin tyranny. Preluding his work by a festival remarkable +for its obscene parody of religious rites, he then, along with +his colleague, Collot d’Herbois, set the guillotine and cannon to +work with a rigour which made his name odious. Modern +research, however, proves that at the close of those horrors +Fouché exercised a moderating influence. Outwardly his +conduct was marked by the utmost rigour, and on his return +to Paris early in April 1794, he thus characterised his policy: +“The blood of criminals fertilises the soil of liberty and establishes +power on sure foundations.” By that time Robespierre +had struck down the other leaders of the atheistical party; but +early in June 1794, at the time of the “Festival of the Supreme +Being,” Fouché ventured to mock at the theistic revival which +Robespierre then inaugurated. Sharp passages of arms took +place between them, and Robespierre procured the ejection of +Fouché from the Jacobin Club (July 14, 1794). Fouché, however, +was working with his customary skill and energy, and along with +Tallien and others, managed to effect the overthrow of the +theistic dictator on Thermidor 10 (July 28), 1794. The ensuing +reaction in favour of more merciful methods of government +threatened to sweep away the group of Terrorists who had been +mainly instrumental in carrying through the <i>coup d’état</i> of +Thermidor; but, thanks largely to the skill of Fouché in intrigue, +they managed for a time to keep at the head of affairs. Discords, +however, crept in which left him for a time almost isolated, and +it needed all his ability to withstand the attacks of the moderates. +A vigorous attack on him by Boissy d’Anglas, on the 9th of +August 1795, caused him to be arrested, but the troubles which +ensued in Vendémiaire averted the doom that seemed to be +pending; and he owed his release to the amnesty which was +passed on the proclamation of the new constitution of the year +1795.</p> + +<p>In the ensuing period, known as that of the Directory (1795-1799), +Fouché remained at first in obscurity, but the relations +which he had with the communists, once headed by Chaumette +and now by François N. (“Gracchus”) Babeuf (<i>q.v.</i>), helped +him to rise once more. He is said to have betrayed to the +director Barras the secret of the strange plot which Babeuf and +a few accomplices hatched in the year 1796; but recent research +has tended to throw doubt on the assertion. His rise from +poverty was slow, but in 1797 he gained an appointment for the +supply of military <i>matériel</i>, which offered opportunities direct +and indirect. After offering his services to the royalists, whose +movement was then gathering force, he again decided to support +the Jacobins and the director Barras (<i>q.v.</i>). In the <i>coup d’état</i> +of Fructidor 1797 he made himself serviceable to Barras, who in +1798 appointed him to be French ambassador to the Cisalpine +republic. At Milan he carried matters with so high a hand +against the Gallophobes of that government that his actions +were disavowed and he himself was removed; but in the confused +state in which matters then were, he was able for a time to hold +his own and to intrigue successfully against his successor. Early +in 1799 he returned to Paris, and after a brief tenure of office +as ambassador at The Hague, he became minister of police at +Paris (July 20, 1799). The newly elected director, Sieyès (<i>q.v.</i>), +was then in the ascendant and desired to curb the excesses of +the Jacobins, who had recently reopened their club. Fouché, +casting consistency to the winds, closed the Jacobins club in a +manner at once daring and clever. Thereupon he hunted down +the pamphleteers and editors, whether Jacobins or royalists, +who were obnoxious to the government, so that at the time of +the return of Bonaparte from Egypt (October 1799) the ex-Jacobin +was one of the most powerful men in France.</p> + +<p>Knowing well the unpopularity of the directors, Fouché lent +himself to the schemes of Bonaparte and Sieyès for their overthrow. +His activity in furthering the <i>coup d’état</i> of Brumaire +18-19 (November 9-10), 1799, procured him the favour of +Bonaparte, who kept him in office (v. Napoleon I.). In the +ensuing period of the Consulate (1799-1804) Fouché behaved +with the utmost adroitness. While curbing the royalists and +extreme Jacobins who at first alone opposed Bonaparte, Fouché +was careful to temper as far as possible the arbitrary actions of +the new master of France. In this difficult task he acquitted +himself with so much skill as to earn at times the gratitude +even of the royalists. Thus, while countermining a foolish +intrigue of theirs in which the duchesse de Guiche was the chief +agent, Fouché took care that she should escape. Equally skilful +was his action in the affair of the so-called Aréna-Ceracchi plot, +in which the <i>agents provocateurs</i> of the police were believed to +have played a sinister part. The chief “conspirators” were +easily ensnared and were executed when the affair of Nivôse +(December 1800) enabled Bonaparte to act with rigour. This +far more serious attempt (in which royalist conspirators exploded +a bomb near the First Consul’s carriage with results disastrous +to the bystanders) was soon seen by Fouché to be the work of +royalists; and when the First Consul, eager to entrap the still +formidable Jacobins, sought to fasten the blame on them, Fouché +firmly declared that he would not only assert but would prove +that the outrage was the work of royalists. All his efforts, +however, failed to avert the punishment which Bonaparte was +resolved to inflict on the leading Jacobins. In other matters +(especially in that known as the Plot of the Placards in the +spring of 1802) Fouché was thought to have secured the Jacobins +concerned from the vengeance of the First Consul. In any case +the latter resolved to rid himself of a man who had too much +power and too much skill in intrigue to be desirable as a subordinate. +On the proclamation of Bonaparte as First Consul +for life (August 1, 1802) Fouché was deprived of his office; +but the blow was softened by the suppression of the ministry of +police and by the attribution of most of its duties to an extended +ministry of justice. Fouché also became a senator and received +half of the reserve funds of the police which had accumulated +during his tenure of office. He continued, however, to intrigue +through his spies, whose information was so superior to that of +the new minister of police as to render great services to Napoleon +at the time of the Cadoudal-Pichegru conspiracy (February-March +1804).</p> + +<p>As a result Napoleon, now emperor, brought back Fouché +to the re-constituted ministry of police (July 1804); he also +later on entrusted to him that of the interior. His work was no +less important than at the time of the Consulate. His police +agents were ubiquitous, and the terror which Napoleon and +Fouché inspired, owing to their proven ability to benefit by plots, +partly accounts for the absence of conspiracies after 1804. After +Austerlitz (December 1805) Fouché uttered the <i>mot</i> of the +occasion: “Sire, Austerlitz has shattered the old aristocracy; +the boulevard St Germain no longer conspires.”</p> + +<p>That Napoleon retained some feeling of distrust, or even of +fear, of Fouché was proved by his conduct in the early days +of 1808. While engaged in the campaign of Spain, the emperor +heard rumours that Fouché and Talleyrand, once bitter enemies, +were having interviews at Paris in which Murat, king of Naples, +was concerned. At once the sensitive autocrat hurried to Paris, +but found nothing to incriminate Fouché. In that year Fouché +received the title of duke of Otranto. During the absence of +Napoleon in Austria in the campaign of 1809, the British +Walcheren expedition threatened for a time the safety of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page736" id="page736"></a>736</span> +Antwerp. Fouché thereupon issued an order to the prefects of +the northern departments of the empire for the mobilization of +60,000 National Guards. He added to the order a statement +in which occurred the words: “Let us prove to Europe that +although the genius of Napoleon can throw lustre on France, +his presence is not necessary to enable us to repulse the enemy.” +The emperor’s approval of the measure was no less marked +than his disapproval of the words just quoted. The next months +brought further causes of friction between emperor and minister. +The latter, knowing the desire of his master for peace at the +close of the year 1809, undertook on his own account to make +secret overtures to the British ministry. A little later Napoleon +opened negotiations and found that Fouché had forestalled him. +His rage against his minister was extreme, and on the 3rd of June +1810 he dismissed him from his office. However, as it was not +the emperor’s custom completely to disgrace a man who might +again be useful, Fouché received the governorship of Rome. +He went thither, not as governor but as fugitive, for on receiving +the emperor’s order to give up certain important documents of +his former ministry, he handed over only a few, declaring that +the rest were destroyed. At this the emperor’s anger burst +forth again, and Fouché on learning, after his arrival at Florence, +that the storm was still raging at Paris, prepared to sail to the +United States. Compelled, however, by stress of weather and +sickness to put back again, he found a mediator in Elisa Bonaparte, +grand duchess of Tuscany, thanks to whom he was allowed +to settle at Aix and finally to return to his domain of Point +Carré. In 1812 he sought vainly to turn Napoleon from the +projected invasion of Russia; and on the return of the emperor +in haste from Smorgoni to Paris at the close of that year, the +ex-minister of police was suspected of complicity in the conspiracy +of General Malet, which came so strangely near to success. +From this suspicion Fouché cleared himself and gave the emperor +useful advice concerning internal affairs and the diplomatic +situation. Nevertheless, the emperor, still distrustful of the +arch-intriguer, ordered him to undertake the government of the +Illyrian provinces. On the break-up of the Napoleonic system +in Germany in October 1813 Fouché was ordered to repair to +Rome and thence to Naples, in order to watch the movements of +Murat. Before Fouché arrived at Naples Murat threw off the +mask and invaded the Roman territory, whereupon Fouché +received orders to return to France. He arrived at Paris on the +10th of April 1814 at the time when Napoleon was being constrained +by his marshals to abdicate.</p> + +<p>The conduct of Fouché at this crisis was characteristic. As +senator he advised the senate to send a deputation to the comte +d’Artois, brother of Louis XVIII., with a view to a reconciliation +between the monarchy and the nation. A little later he addressed +to Napoleon, then at Elba, a letter begging him in the +interests of peace and of France to withdraw to the United +States. To the new sovereign Louis XVIII. he sent an appeal +in favour of liberty and recommending the adoption of measures +which would conciliate all interests. It was not successful, but +Fouché remained unmolested.</p> + +<p>This was far from satisfying him, and when he found that +there were no hopes of advancement, he entered into relations +with conspirators who sought the overthrow of the Bourbons. +Lafayette and Davout were concerned in the affair, but their +refusal to take the course desired by Fouché and other bold +spirits led to nothing being done. Soon Napoleon escaped from +Elba and made his way in triumph to Paris. Shortly before +his arrival at Paris (March 19, 1815) Louis XVIII. sent to +Fouché an offer of the ministry of police, which he declined, +saying, “It is too late; the only plan to adopt is to retreat.” +He then foiled an attempt of the royalists to arrest him, and on +the arrival of Napoleon he received for the third time the portfolio +of police. That, however, did not prevent him from +entering into secret relations with Metternich at Vienna, his aim +being then, as always, to prepare for all eventualities. Meanwhile +he used all his powers to induce the emperor to popularise his +rule, and he is said to have caused the insertion of the words +“The sovereignty resides in the people; it is the source of +power” in the declaration of the council of state. But the +autocratic tendencies of Napoleon could scarcely be held in +check, and Fouché seeing the fall of the emperor to be imminent, +took measures to expedite it and secure his own interests. On +the 22nd of June Napoleon abdicated for the second time, and +Fouché was next day elected president of the commission which +provisionally governed France. Already he was in touch with +Louis XVIII., then at Ghent, and now secretly received the +overtures of his agent at Paris. While ostensibly working for +the recognition of Napoleon II., he facilitated the success of the +Bourbon cause, and thus procured for himself a place in the +ministry of Louis XVIII. Even his skill, however, was unequal +to the task of conciliating hot-headed royalists who remembered +his vote as regicide and his fanaticism as terrorist. He resigned +office, and after acting for a brief space as ambassador at Dresden, +he retired to Prague. Finally he settled at Trieste, where he +died on the 25th of December 1820. He had accumulated great +wealth.</p> + +<p>Marked at the outset by fanaticism, which, though cruel, was +at least conscientious, Fouché’s character deteriorated in and +after the year 1794 into one of calculating cunning. The transition +represented all that was worst in the life of France during +the period of the Revolution and Empire. In Fouché the +enthusiasm of the earlier period appeared as a cold, selfish and +remorseless fanaticism; in him the bureaucracy of the period +1795-1799 and the autocracy of Napoleon found their ablest +instrument. Yet his intellectual pride prevented him sinking +to the level of a mere tool. His relations to Napoleon were +marked by a certain aloofness. He multiplied the means of +resistance even to that irresistible autocrat, so that though +removed from office, he was never wholly disgraced. Despised +by all for his tergiversations, he nevertheless was sought by all +on account of his cleverness. He repaid the contempt of his +superiors and the adulation of his inferiors by a mask of impenetrable +reserve or scorn. He sought for power and neglected +no means to make himself serviceable to the party whose success +appeared to be imminent. Yet, while appearing to be the +servant of the victors, present or prospective, he never gave +himself to any one party. In this versatility he resembles +Talleyrand, of whom he was a coarse replica. Both professed, +under all their shifts and turns, to be desirous of serving France. +Talleyrand certainly did so in the sphere of diplomacy; Fouché +may occasionally have done so in the sphere of intrigue.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Fouché wrote some political pamphlets and reports, +the chief of which are <i>Réflexions sur le jugement de Louis Capet</i> (1793); +<i>Réflexions sur l’éducation publique</i> (1793); <i>Rapport et projet de loi +relatif aux collèges</i> (1793); <i>Rapport sur la situation de Commune-Affranchie</i> +[<i>Lyons</i>] (1794); <i>Lettre aux préfets concernant les prêtres</i>, +&c. (1801); also the letters of 1815 noted above, and a <i>Lettre au +duc de Wellington</i> (1817). The best life of Fouché is that by L. +Madelin, <i>Fouché</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1901). The so-called <i>Fouché Memoirs</i> +are not genuine, but they were apparently compiled, at least in +part, from notes written by Fouché, and are often valuable, though +their account of events (<i>e.g.</i> of the negotiations of 1809-1810) is +not seldom untrustworthy. For those negotiations see Coquelle, +<i>Napoléon et l’Angleterre</i> (Paris, 1903, Eng. trans., London, 1904). +For the plots with which Fouché had to deal see E. Daudet, <i>La +Police et les Chouans sous le Consulat et l’Empire</i> (Paris, 1895); +P.M.C. Desmarest, <i>Témoignages historiques, ou quinze ans de haute +police</i> (Paris, 1833, 2nd ed., 1900); É. Picard, <i>Bonaparte et Moreau</i> +(Paris, 1905); G.A. Thierry, <i>Conspirateurs et gens de police</i>; <i>le +complot de libelles</i> (Paris, 1903) (Eng. trans., London, 1903); H. +Welschinger, <i>Le Duc d’Enghien</i> (Paris, 1888); E. Guillon, <i>Les Complots +militaires sous le Consulat et l’Empire</i> (Paris, 1894).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOUCHER, SIMON<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1644-1696), French philosopher, was +born at Dijon on the 1st of March 1644. He was the son of a +merchant, and appears to have taken orders at a very early age. +For some years he held the position of honorary canon at Dijon, +but this he resigned in order to take up his residence in Paris. +He graduated at the Sorbonne, and spent the remainder of his +life in literary work in Paris, where he died on the 27th of April +1696. In his day Foucher enjoyed considerable repute as a keen +opponent of Malebranche. His philosophical standpoint was +one of scepticism in regard to external perception. He revived +the old arguments of the Academy, and advanced them with +much ingenuity against Malebranche’s doctrine. Otherwise +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page737" id="page737"></a>737</span> +his scepticism is subordinate to orthodox belief, the fundamental +dogmas of the church seeming to him intuitively evident. His +object was to reconcile his religious with his philosophical creed, +and to remain a Christian without ceasing to be an academician. +His writings against Malebranche were collected under the +title <i>Dissertations sur la recherche de la vérité</i>, 1693.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Rabbe, <i>L’Abbé Simon Foucher</i> (1867); C. Jourdain in +<i>Dictionnaire des sciences philosophiques</i> (1875), pp. 557-559.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOUCQUET, JEAN,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Jehan</span> (<i>c.</i> 1415-1485), French painter, +born at Tours, is the most representative and national French +painter of the 15th century. Of his life little is known, but it is +certain that he was in Italy about 1437, where he executed the +portrait of Pope Eugenius IV., and that upon his return to +France, whilst retaining his purely French sentiment, he grafted +the elements of the Tuscan style, which he had acquired during +his sojourn in Italy, upon the style of the Van Eycks, which was +the basis of early 15th-century French art, and thus became +the founder of an important new school. He was court painter +to Louis XI. Though his supreme excellence as an illuminator +and miniaturist, of exquisite precision in the rendering of the +finest detail, and his power of clear characterization in work on +this minute scale, have long since procured him an eminent +position in the art of his country, his importance as a painter +was only realized when his portraits and altarpieces were for +the first time brought together from various parts of Europe +in 1904, at the exhibition of the French Primitives held at the +Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. One of Foucquet’s most +important paintings is the diptych, formerly at Notre Dame +de Melun, of which one wing, depicting Agnes Sorel as the +Virgin, is now at the Antwerp Museum and the other in the +Berlin Gallery. The Louvre has his oil portraits of Charles +VII., of Count Wilczek, and of Jouvenal des Ursins, besides a +portrait drawing in crayon; whilst an authentic portrait from +his brush is in the Liechtenstein collection. Far more numerous +are his illuminated books and miniatures that have come down +to us. The Brentano-Laroche collection at Frankfort contains +forty miniatures from a Book of Hours, painted in 1461 for +Etienne Chevalier who is portrayed by Foucquet on the Berlin +wing of the Melun altarpiece. From Foucquet’s hand again +are eleven out of the fourteen miniatures illustrating a translation +of Josephus at the Bibliothèque Nationale. The second volume +of this MS., unfortunately with only one of the original thirteen +miniatures, was discovered and bought in 1903 by Mr Henry +Yates Thompson at a London sale, and restored by him to France.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Œuvres de Jehan Foucquet</i> (Curmer, Paris, 1866-1867); +A. de Champeaux and P. Gauchery, <i>Œuvres d’art exécutées pour le duc +de Berry</i>; “Facsimiles of two histories by Jean Foucquet” from +vols. i. and ii. of the <i>Anciennetés des Juifs</i> (London, 1902); Charles +Blanc, <i>Histoire des peintres de toutes les écoles</i> (introduction); and +Georges Lafenestre, <i>Jehan Fouquet</i> (Paris, 1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOUGÈRES,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> a town of north-western France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, 30 m. +N.E. of Rennes by rail. Pop. (1906) 21,847. Fougères is +built on the summit and slopes of a hill on the left bank of the +Nançon, a tributary of the Couesnon. It was formerly one of +the strongest places on the frontier towards Normandy, and it +still preserves some portions of its medieval fortifications, +notably a gateway of the 15th century known as the Porte St +Sulpice. The castle, which is situated in the lower part of the +town, directly overlooking the Nançon, is now a picturesque +ruin, but gives abundant evidence in its towers and outworks of +its former strength and magnificence. The finest of the towers +was erected in 1242 by Hugues of Lusignan, and named after +Mélusine, the mythical foundress of the family. The churches +of St Léonard and St Sulpice both date, at least in part, from +the 15th century. An hôtel de ville and a belfry, both of the 15th +century, are of architectural interest, and the town possesses +many curious old houses. There is a statue of General B. de +Lari Coisière (d. 1812), born in the town. Fougères is the seat +of a subprefect, and has a tribunal of first instance, a chamber +of commerce and a communal college. It is the chief industrial +town of its department, being a centre for the manufacture of +boots and shoes; tanning and leather-dressing and the manufacture +of sail-cloth and other fabrics are also important industries. +Trade is in dairy produce and in the granite of the +neighbouring quarries. Fougères frequently figures in Breton +history from the 11th to the 15th century. It was taken by the +English in 1166, and again in 1448; and the name of Surienne, +the captor on the second occasion, is still borne by one of the +towers of the castle. In 1488 it was taken by the troops of +Charles VIII. under la Trémoille. In the middle ages Fougères +was a lordship of some importance, which in the 13th century +passed into the possession of the family of Lusignan, and in +1307 was confiscated by the crown and afterwards changed +hands many times. In 1793, during the wars of the Vendée, +it was occupied by the insurgents.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOUILLÉE, ALFRED JULES EMILE<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (1838-  ), French +philosopher, was born at La Pouëze on the 18th of October +1838. He held several minor philosophical lectureships, and +from 1864 was professor of philosophy at the lycées of Douai, +Montpellier and Bordeaux successively. In 1867 and 1868 he +was crowned by the Academy of Moral Science for his work +on Plato and Socrates. In 1872 he was elected master of conferences +at the École Normale, and was made doctor of philosophy +in recognition of his two treatises, <i>Platonis Hippias Minor sive +Socratica contra liberum arbitrium argumenta</i> and <i>La Liberté et le +déterminisme</i>. The strain of the next three years’ continuous +work undermined his health and his eyesight, and he was compelled +to retire from his professorship. During these years he +had published works on Plato and Socrates and a history of +philosophy (1875); but after his retirement he further developed +his philosophical position, a speculative eclecticism through +which he endeavoured to reconcile metaphysical idealism with +the naturalistic and mechanical standpoint of science. In +<i>L’Évolutionnisme des idées-forces</i> (1890), <i>La Psychologie des +idées-forces</i> (1893), and <i>La Morale des idées-forces</i> (1907), is +elaborated his doctrine of <i>idées-forces</i>, or of mind as efficient +cause through the tendency of ideas to realize themselves in +appropriate movement. Ethical and sociological developments +of this theory succeed its physical and psychological treatment, +the consideration of the antinomy of freedom being especially +important. Fouillée’s wife, who by a previous marriage was the +mother of the poet and philosopher Jean Marie Guyau (1854-1888), +is well known, under the pseudonym of “G. Bruno,” +as the author of educational books for children.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His other chief works are: <i>L’Idée moderne du droit en Allemagne, +en Angleterre et en France</i> (Paris, 1878); <i>La Science sociale contemporaine</i> +(1880); <i>La Propriété sociale et la démocratie</i> (1884); +<i>Critique des systèmes de morale contemporains</i> (1883); <i>La Morale, +l’art et la religion d’après Guyau</i> (1889); <i>L’Avenir de la métaphysique +fondée sur l’expérience</i> (1889); <i>L’Enseignement au point de vue national</i> +(1891); <i>Descartes</i> (1893); <i>Tempérament et caractère</i> (2nd ed., 1895); +<i>Le Mouvement positiviste et la conception sociologique du monde</i> (1896); +<i>Le Mouvement idéaliste et la réaction contre la science positive</i> (1896); +<i>La Psychologie du peuple français</i> (2nd ed., 1898); <i>La France au +point de vue moral</i> (1900); <i>L’Esquisse psychologique des peuples +européens</i> (1903); <i>Nietzsche et l’ “immoralisme”</i> (1903); <i>Le Moralisme +de Kant</i> (1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOULD, ACHILLE<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (1800-1867), French financier and politician, +was born at Paris on the 17th of November 1800. The son of +a rich Jewish banker, he was associated with and afterwards +succeeded his father in the management of the business. As +early as 1842 he entered political life, having been elected in +that year as a deputy for the department of the Hautes Pyrénées. +From that time to his death he actively busied himself with the +affairs of his country. He readily acquiesced in the revolution +of February 1848, and is said to have exercised a decided influence +in financial matters on the provisional government then formed. +He shortly afterwards published two pamphlets against the use +of paper money, entitled, <i>Pas d’Assignats!</i> and <i>Observations +sur la question financière</i>. During the presidency of Louis +Napoleon he was four times minister of finance, and took a +leading part in the economical reforms then made in France. +His strong conservative tendencies led him to oppose the doctrine +of free trade, and disposed him to hail the <i>coup d’état</i> and the +new empire. On the 25th of January 1852, in consequence of +the decree confiscating the property of the Orleans family, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page738" id="page738"></a>738</span> +he resigned the office of minister of finance, but was on the +same day appointed senator, and soon after rejoined the government +as minister of state and of the imperial household. In +this capacity he directed the Paris exhibition of 1855. The +events of November 1860 led once more to his resignation, but +he was recalled to the ministry of finance in November of the +following year, and retained office until the publication of the +imperial letter of the 19th of January 1867, when Émile Ollivier +became the chief adviser of the emperor. During his last tenure +of office he had reduced the floating debt, which the Mexican +war had considerably increased, by the negotiation of a loan +of 300 millions of francs (1863). Fould, besides uncommon +financial abilities, had a taste for the fine arts, which he developed +and refined during his youth by visiting Italy and the eastern +coasts of the Mediterranean. In 1857 he was made a member +of the Academy of the Fine Arts. He died at Tarbes on the 5th +of October 1867.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOULIS, ANDREW<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1712-1775) and <b>ROBERT</b> (1707-1776), +Scottish printers and publishers, were the sons of a Glasgow +maltman. Robert was apprenticed to a barber; but his ability +attracted the attention of Dr Francis Hutcheson, who strongly +recommended him to establish a printing press. After spending +1738 and 1739 in England and France in company with his +brother Andrew, who had been intended for the church and had +received a better education, he started business in 1741 in +Glasgow, and in 1743 was appointed printer to the university. +In this same year he brought out <i>Demetrius Phalereus de +elocutione</i>, in Greek and Latin, the first Greek book ever printed +in Glasgow; and this was followed in 1774 by the famous 12mo +edition of Horace which was long but erroneously believed to +be immaculate: though the successive sheets were exposed in +the university and a reward offered for the discovery of any +inaccuracy, six errors at least, according to T.F. Dibdin, escaped +detection. Soon afterwards the brothers entered into partnership, +and they continued for about thirty years to issue carefully +corrected and beautifully printed editions of classical works in +Latin, Greek, English, French and Italian. They printed more +than five hundred separate publications, among them the small +editions of Cicero, Tacitus, Cornelius Nepos, Virgil, Tibullus and +Propertius, Lucretius and Juvenal; a beautiful edition of the +Greek Testament, in small 4to; Homer (4 vols. fol., 1756-1758); +Herodotus, Greek and Latin (9 vols. 12mo, 1761); Xenophon, +Greek and Latin (12 vols. 12mo, 1762-1767); Gray’s Poems; +Pope’s Works; Milton’s Poems. The Homer, for which Flaxman’s +designs were executed, is perhaps the most famous production +of the Foulis press. The brothers spared no pains, and +Robert went to France to procure manuscripts of the classics, +and to engage a skilled engraver and a copper-plate printer. +Unfortunately it became their ambition to establish an institution +for the encouragement of the fine arts; and though one of their +chief patrons, the earl of Northumberland, warned them to +“print for posterity and prosper,” they spent their money in +collecting pictures, pieces of sculpture and models, in paying +for the education and travelling of youthful artists, and in +copying the masterpieces of foreign art. Their countrymen +were not ripe for such an attempt, and the “Academy” not only +proved a failure but involved the projectors in ruin. Andrew +died on the 18th of September 1775, and his brother went to +London, hoping to realize a large sum by the sale of his pictures. +They were sold for much less than he anticipated, and Robert +returned broken-hearted to Scotland, where he died at Edinburgh +on the 2nd of June 1776. Robert was the author of a <i>Catalogue +of Paintings with Critical Remarks</i>. The business was afterwards +carried on under the same name by Robert’s son Andrew.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.J. Duncan, <i>Notices and Documents illustrative of the Literary +History of Glasgow</i>, printed for the Maitland Club (1831), which +<i>inter alia</i> contains a catalogue of the works printed at the Foulis +press, and another of the pictures, statues and busts in plaster of +Paris produced at the “Academy” in the university of Glasgow.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOULLON, JOSEPH FRANÇOIS<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1717-1789), French administrator, +was born at Saumur. During the Seven Years’ War he +was intendant-general of the armies, and intendant of the army +and navy under Marshal de Belle-Isle. In 1771 he was appointed +intendant of finances. In 1789, when Necker was dismissed, +Foullon was appointed minister of the king’s household, and +was thought of by the reactionary party as a substitute. But +he was unpopular on all sides. The farmers-general detested +him on account of his severity, the Parisians on account of +his wealth accumulated in utter indifference to the sufferings +of the poor; he was reported, probably quite without foundation, +to have said, “If the people cannot get bread, let them eat hay.” +After the taking of the Bastille on the 14th of July, he withdrew +to his estate at Vitry and attempted to spread the news of his +death; but he was recognized, taken to Paris, carried off with +a bundle of hay tied to his back to the hôtel de ville, and, in spite +of the intervention of Lafayette, was dragged out by the populace +and hanged to a lamp-post on the 22nd of July 1789.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Eugène Bonnemère, <i>Histoire des paysans</i> (4th ed., 1887), +tome iii.; C.L. Chassin, <i>Les Élections et les cahiers de Paris en 1789</i>. +(Paris, 1889), tomes iii. and iv.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOUNDATION<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (Lat. <i>fundatio</i>, from <i>fundare</i>, to found), the +act of building, constituting or instituting on a permanent +basis; especially the establishing of any institution by endowing +or providing it with funds for its continual maintenance. The +word is thus applied also to the institutions so established, such +as a college, monastery or hospital; and the terms “on the +foundation,” or “foundationer,” are used of members of such a +college or society who enjoy, as fellows, scholars, &c., the benefits +of the endowment. Formerly “foundation” also meant the +charter or incorporation of any such institution or society, and +it is still applied to the funds used for the endowment of such +institutions.</p> + +<p>The terms “old foundation” and “new foundation” used in +connexion with the organizing of English cathedral chapters +have no reference to the age of the cathedrals. At the time +of the Reformation under Henry VIII. the old college chapters +were left unchanged, and are referred to as the “old foundations,” +but the monastic chapters were all suppressed, consequently +new chapters had to be formed for their cathedrals and these +constitute the “new foundations.”</p> + +<p>“Foundation” also means the base (natural or artificial) +on which any erection is built up; generally made below the +level of the ground (see Foundations below). A foundation-stone +is one of the stones at the base of a building, generally a +corner-stone, frequently laid with a public ceremony to celebrate +the commencement of the building. The term is also applied +to the ground-work of any structure, such as, in dress-making, +the underskirt over which the real skirt is hung, any material +used for stiffening purposes, as “foundation muslin or net.” +In knitting or crochet the first stitches onto which all the rest +are worked are called the “foundation chain.” In gem-cutting +the “foundation-square” is the first of eight squares round the +edges of a brilliant made in bevel planes and from which the +angles are all removed to form three-corner facets.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOUNDATIONS,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> in building. The object of foundations is +to distribute the weight of a structure equally over the ground. +In the construction of a building the weights are concentrated +at given points on piers, columns, &c., and these foundations +require to be spread so as to reduce the weight to an average. +In the preparation of a foundation care must be taken to prevent +the lateral escape of the soil or the movement of a bed upon +sloping ground, and it is also necessary to provide against any +damage by the action of the atmosphere. The soils met with +in ordinary practice, such as rock, gravel, chalk, clay and sand, +vary as to their capabilities of bearing weight. There is no +provision in any English building acts as to the load that may +be placed on any of these soils, but under the New York Building +Code it is provided that, where no test of the sustaining power +of the soil is made, different soils, excluding mud, at the bottom +of the footings shall be deemed to safely sustain the following +loads to the superficial foot:</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">per sq. ft.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Soft clay</td> <td class="tcl cl">1 ton.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ordinary soft clay and sand, together in layers, wet and springy</td> <td class="tcl">2 tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Loam, clay or fine sand, firm and dry</td> <td class="tcl cl">3 tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Very firm coarse sand, stiff gravel or hard clay</td> <td class="tcl">4 tons.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page739" id="page739"></a>739</span></p> + +<p>A comparison of the pressure exerted on an ordinary foundation +by the walls of the several thicknesses and heights provided +for by the London Building Act of 1894, and a comparison +of a few of the principal authorities, will be +<span class="sidenote">Load on foundation.</span> +found useful in helping us to arrive at a decision as to +what can safely be allowed. Take as an example a +wall of the warehouse class, 70 ft. high, whose section at the base +for a height of 27 ft. is 2½ bricks thick (or 22½ in.), and for the +same distance in height again is 2 bricks thick (or 18 in.), the +remainder to the top being 1½ bricks thick (or 14 in.). The +weight of brickwork per foot run of such a wall is 4.05 tons on +any area of 3.75 ft. super. of brickwork. According to the act +the concrete is to project 4 in. on each side; we have then an +additional area of .66 ft. super. to add, thus making the total +foundation area of each foot run of wall 4.41 ft. super. to take +a weight of 4.05 tons or nearly a ton per foot super. (viz. +.9 ton.)</p> + +<p>Another factor must, however, be taken into consideration, +viz. the weight distributed from the loaded floor and from the +roof. In this case there would be at least six floors, and the +entire weight could hardly be taken at less than 6 tons, which +would give a total weight of 10.05 tons on an area of 4.41 ft. +super. or a load of 2.28 tons per foot super. This is on the +assumption that no extra weight has been thrown on the foundations +by openings or piers, or by girders, &c., in which case, in +addition to the work being executed in cement, the foundations +should be increased in area. Piers always involve a great +increase of weight on the foundations, and in very many instances +this increased weight, instead of being provided for by increasing +the area of the foundations and so reducing the weight per foot +super., is only partly met by the improper method of merely +increasing the depth of the concrete, while keeping the same +projection of concrete round the footings as for the walls. As an +example take an iron column to carry a safe load of 80 tons, +standing on a York stone template, and in turn supported by +a brick pier 22½ in. square. In this case we should have, after +allowing for the projection of concrete on either side, an area of +4 ft. 5 in. square, or 19.6 ft. super., and this would give a pressure +of 4.1 tons per foot on the foundations, or almost twice as much +as in the previous example of a warehouse wall. Here, instead +of increasing the depth of the concrete, it would be necessary +to increase its width; if it were made 6 ft. square, we should have +an area of 36 ft. super. to take the 80 tons, and thus the pressure +would only be 2.2 tons per foot, and the cost of the foundation +be much the same.</p> + +<p>If we compare a section of wall of the dwelling-house class, +as prescribed by the London Building Act, we find that, taking a +wall 50 ft. high and having a thickness at base of 22½ in. as for +the warehouse wall to which we have referred, we have a wall +weighing 3.75 tons per foot super. on an area of 4.41 feet super., +or .85 ton per foot without weight of floors and roof as against +the .9 ton in the warehouse example. To this must be added the +weight of, say, 5 floors and roof at a total of 3 tons per foot run +of wall, and we then have an aggregate of 6.75 tons per foot run +and 1.50 tons per foot super. as against 2.28 tons in the warehouse +class.</p> + +<p>If we turn from the act to text-books we find that Colonel +Seddon in the <i>Aide Memoir</i> gives the load which ordinary foundations +will bear as a safe load per foot super. as follows:</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Rock, moderately hard</td> <td class="tcl cl"> 9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Rock of strength of good concrete</td> <td class="tcl"> 3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Rock, very soft</td> <td class="tcl cl">1.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Firm earth</td> <td class="tcl">1 to 1½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Hard clay</td> <td class="tcl cl">1 to 1½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Clean dry gravel and clean sharp sand prevented from spreading sideways</td> <td class="tcl">1 to 1½</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Most of the work in London may be classed under one of the +latter heads, and according to this table we have, when we erect +walls in accordance with the building act, to overload our +foundations.</p> + +<p>As to the possibility of spreading weights, we have as an +example the chimney at Adkin’s Soap Works in Birmingham, +312 ft. high, so arranged that its pressure on the foundations is +only 1½ tons per foot super.; also the great St Rollox chimney +at Glasgow, which has a pressure of 1¾ tons; the weight of the +Eiffel Tower (7500 tons) is so spread over 4 bases, each 130 ft. +square, that the pressure is only .117 ton, or 2<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> cwt., per foot +super. The Tower Bridge has a load of 16 tons per foot on the +granite bed under the columns of towers, reduced by spreading +to an actual pressure on the clay foundation of 4 tons. The piers +under the Holborn Viaduct have a load of 2¼ tons only, those of +the Imperial Institute 2¼ tons, and those of the destructor cells +and chimney shaft at Great Yarmouth 4 tons 6¾ cwt. per foot +super. From these various examples it would appear that on +sound clay or gravel foundation a load of from 2¼ to 4 tons may +be employed with safety.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>One of the first and most important requirements in preparing +drawings for a large building is to ascertain the nature of the subsoil +and strata at different levels over the proposed site, +so as to be able to arrange the footings accordingly at the +<span class="sidenote">Trial borings.</span> +various depths and to decide as to the various forms and +methods to be employed. For this purpose trial holes or borings +are sunk until a suitable bed or bottom is found, upon which the +concrete foundation may safely be put. If no such solid bottom is +found, as often happens near the water side, special foundations +must be employed, such as dock, gridiron, cantilever and pile foundations, +&c., all of which will be described hereafter. As examples +of the varying subsoils we may mention the following, in which will +be noticed the great depths dug before getting through the made +ground: At the Bank of England there were 22 ft. of made ground +resting on 4 ft. of gravel. Some of the made ground was of ancient +date, and preserved relics of Roman occupation. In some parts the +subsoils have been excavated for ballast or gravel, as at Kensington, +or for brick earth, as at Highbury, and the pits filled in with rubbish. +Rock, which forms an excellent and unchanging foundation in one +situation, may prove a dangerous foundation in another. Thus +chalk forms a good limestone foundation in certain positions, but +when it dips towards a slope or a cliff with an outcrop of the gault +or underlying clay, it is a very unsuitable foundation for any building, +as the landslips in the Isle of Wight and on the Dorsetshire coast +bear witness. A boring made in Tallis Street, near the Thames +embankment, showed: (1) 18 in. ballast, dirty; (2) 6 in. greensand, +wet and dirty; (3) 2 ft. peat clay; (4) 6 in. greensand; (5) 5½ ft. peaty +bog; (6) 9 ft. running sand; and (7) 4 ft. clean ballast, resting at a +depth of 23 ft. below the ground line upon blue clay. A boring at +Highbury New Park gave: (1) 2 ft. made ground, (2) 18 ft. loam, +(3) 9 ft. sand, (4) 4 ft. peat, and (5) 8 ft. gravel and sand. These +examples show that while trial holes should always be made before +designing a foundation, to ascertain the nature of the subsoil, care +must be taken not to calculate upon uniformity. Thus at the block +2 of the admiralty extension new buildings (London), one of the trial +holes upon the south-west side of the old buildings showed the clay +to be about 29½ ft. below the surface of the ground, while actual +excavation proved the dip of the clay to be such that in the execution +of the new building it became necessary to underpin the north-west +corner of the old building at the deepest part 42 ft. below the ground. +The foundations of block 1 of the new admiralty buildings are placed +in a dock, built upon the London clay at a depth of 30 ft. in solid +concrete 6 ft. thick. At the Hotel Victoria, in Northumberland +Avenue (London), the various subsoils are as follows: (1) 38½ ft. +made ground clay and gravel mixed, (2) 4 ft. gravel and sand, (3) +6 ft. rising sand; (4) 2 ft. fine ballast, and at a depth of 50 ft. blue +clay. At the south end the clay was 43 ft. down and at the north +end 37 ft. The front wall was constructed on a concrete bed 9 ft. +wide. The site was surrounded by a similar wall of concrete about +6 ft. wide, forming a species of boxes, and the whole was covered +with a depth of 6 ft. of concrete upon which the walls were raised. +The foundation for 53 Parliament Street, where running sand was +encountered, was constructed with short piles, 7 or 8 ft. long and +6 in. diam., pointed and placed as close together as possible over +the whole foundation, the tops were then sawn off level, and a +concrete raft, 7 or 8 ft. thick, was built over the whole area. At the +Institution of Civil Engineers, Great George Street, Westminster, +the foundations to the two party walls upon each side of the +building were carried down about 22 ft. below the pavement level, +that on the west side being 22 ft. deep and that on the east side +24 ft.</p> + +<p>The London Building Act and the model by-laws prohibit the +erection of buildings on sites that have been used as “shoots” for +faecal matter or vegetable refuse, and in such cases the +objectionable material must be removed prior to the +<span class="sidenote">Construction.</span> +commencement of building operations, and the holes +from which it was taken filled up with dry brick or other rubbish +well rammed. Foundations are usually executed by excavators or +navvies, and the tools and implements used are boning rods, level +pegs, lines, spirit level, pickaxe, various shovels, wheel-barrow, +rammer or punner, &c. In digging the ordinary trenches and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740"></a>740</span> +excavations, should the ground be loose, planking and strutting have +to be employed. This consists of rough boarding put along the sides +of the trenches and wedged tight with waling pieces and struts; +this work is done by navvies. Figs. 1 and 2 show the general forms +of planking and strutting for the different soils.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:273px; height:349px" src="images/img740a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:353px; height:373px" src="images/img740b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>In very large works of excavation in soft soil a steam digger is +used for the bulk of the work. It consists of a large steel bucket +with a cutting edge; this is lowered by means of a crane into the +excavation, and on being +withdrawn cuts off a portion +of soil which is hoisted and +deposited in carts for removal +to any desired position +within the radius commanded +by the crane. The +work of trimming the excavation +to a regular shape +must always be done by +manual labour.</p> + +<p>Concrete for filling into +the foundations is usually +mixed by navvies; for large +works it is sometimes mixed +by machinery.</p> + +<p>In order that the work of +excavating and constructing +the foundations may proceed +in a water-logged site, pumps +have to be employed, and +where the inrush of water is +great it is usual to sink a sump +hole lower than the depth +required for the foundations, +and to use a steam pump +kept going day and night.</p> + +<p>The foundation of a wall is required to be as follows in accordance +with the London Building and Amendment Acts: “The projection +of the bottom of the footings of every wall on each side of the wall +shall be at least equal to half of the thickness of the wall at its base, +unless an adjoining wall interferes, in which case the projection may +be omitted where that wall adjoins, and the diminution of the +footings of every wall shall be formed in regular offsets and the +height from the bottom of such footing to the base of the wall shall +be at least equal to two-thirds of the thickness of the wall at its +base.” (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brickwork</a></span>.) The base of a wall is the thickness above +the footing; the footing is the brickwork built directly on the top +of the concrete and diminishing in width in every course. Thus: +“The projection of the bottom footing to be equal to one-half the +thickness of wall on +both sides” means +that a 13½-in. wall +would require to +have three courses +of footings, the +bottom one being +27 in. wide. “The +height from the +bottom of such +footing to the base +of the wall shall be +at least equal to +two-thirds the +thickness of wall at +its base” means +that in the case of +a 13½-in. wall the +height of footings +would have to be +9 in., or three +courses of brickwork, +each measuring +3 in.</p> + +<p>The New York +Building Code +enters more fully +into the requirements +for the foundation of walls as regards depth than that in use +in London. Section 25, Part 5, requires that every building, except +buildings erected upon solid rock, or upon wharves and piers on the +water front, shall have foundations of brick, stone, iron or concrete +laid not less then 4 ft. below the surface of the earth, on the solid +ground or level surface of rock, or upon piles or ranging timbers +when solid earth or rock is not found. Piles intended to sustain a +wall, pier or post, shall be spaced not more than 36 in. nor less than +20 in. on centres; they must be driven to a solid bearing if practicable, +and their number must be sufficient to support the superstructure +proposed. No pile shall be used of less dimensions than +5 in. at the small end and 10 in. at the butt for short piles, or piles +20 ft. or less in length. No pile shall be weighted with a load exceeding +40,000 ℔. When a pile is not driven to refusal, its safe sustaining +power shall be determined by the following formula: twice the +weight of the hammer in tons multiplied by the height of the fall +in feet divided by the least penetration of pile under the last blow +in inches plus one. There are also further requirements as to piles, +&c., and the commissioner of buildings must be notified when the +piles are to be driven.</p> + +<p>The New York Code, Section 26, further goes on to say that +foundation walls shall be constructed to include all walls and piers +built below the curb level or nearest tier of beams to the curb, to +serve as supports for the walls, piers, columns, girders, posts or +beams. Foundation walls shall be built of stone, brick, Portland +cement concrete, iron or steel. If built of rubble stone or Portland +cement concrete, they shall be at least 8 in. thicker than the wall +above them to a depth of 12 ft. below the curb level, and for every +additional 10 ft. or part thereof deeper, they shall be increased 4 in. +in thickness. If built of brick, they shall be at least 4 in. thicker +than the wall next above them to a depth of 12 ft. below the curb +level, and for every additional 10 ft. or part thereof deeper, they +shall be increased 4 in. in thickness. The footing or base course +shall be of stone or concrete, or both, or of concrete and stepped up +brickwork of sufficient thickness and area to bear safely the weight +to be imposed thereon. If the footing or base course be of concrete, +the concrete shall not be less than 12 in. thick; if of stone, the stones +shall not be less than 2 × 3 ft. and at least 8 in. in thickness for walls, +and not less than 10 in. in thickness if under piers, columns or posts. +The footing or base course, whether formed of concrete or stone, shall +be at least 12 in. wider than the bottom width of walls, and at least +12 in. wider on all sides than the bottom width of said piers, columns +or posts. If the superimposed load is such as to cause undue transverse +strain on a footing projecting 12 in., the thickness of such +footing is to be increased so as to carry the load with safety. For +small structures and for small piers sustaining light loads the commissioner +of buildings having jurisdiction may, in his discretion, +allow a reduction in the thickness and projection specified for +footing or base courses. All base stones shall be bedded and laid +crosswise, edge to edge. If stepped-up footing of brick is used in place +of stone above the concrete, the offsets if laid in single courses shall +each not exceed 1½ in., or, if laid in double courses, then each shall +not exceed 3 in. offsetting the first course of brickwork back one-half +the thickness of the concrete base, so as properly to distribute the +load to be imposed thereon. It will be seen by the foregoing that +the American acts are far more extensive than in London. The +London Building Act mentions that the footings of a wall shall rest +upon the solid ground or concrete or upon other solid substructure. +The building act amendment says: “The foundations of the walls +of every house or building shall be formed of a bed of good concrete +not less than 9 in. thick, and projecting at least 4 in. on each side +of the lowest course of footings.”</p> + +<p><i>Various Types of Foundations.</i>—The most natural foundations +for walls are those constructed where the walls are built directly +upon the ground; this is only possible where the ground is very hard +or consists of rock, and in either of these cases the ground is simply +levelled and the building commenced.</p> + +<p>The next and most universally recognized method, which might +safely be said to be adopted in 95% of all modern buildings, is the +system of placing a bed of concrete under the walls, digging trenches +where the walls are to come until a solid bottom is reached, and +in these laying the concrete. The London Building Act requires this +concrete bed to be at least 4 in. wider than the bottom course of +footings on each side of the wall, but it is generally made 6 in. wider +on each side and in general circumstances the depth of the concrete +is varied according to the weight placed upon it.</p> + +<p>Where a site is in close proximity to a river or old water-course, +&c., where deep basements are excavated, or where the ground lies +low, naturally water is met with, and where water is the ground is +soft. It is here that special foundations are required.</p> + +<p>In certain cases it is necessary to use concrete legs or stilts. These +are placed in such positions as to take the weights of the building, +and sunk to depths of 40 ft. more or less as the case may +require according to the nature of the ground; and on +<span class="sidenote">Concrete piers, legs, or stilts.</span> +the tops of these stilts concrete arches or lintels are +turned over (fig. 3). As an example of the stilt principle, +mention may be made of some premises at Stratford and +a church at South Bermondsey, London, in which concrete piers +were sunk at 12 ft. centres apart and 4½ ft. square, in pot holes dug +out of made ground; then concrete arches were formed over the +intervening untrustworthy ground with a minimum thickness of +18 in. or the piers were connected by concrete lintels 3 ft. thick in +which steel joists were embedded. At Sion College, Victoria Embankment, +London, the foundations were formed with cement +concrete stilts or piers 8 ft. square, and going down to the London +clay; from the tops of these stilts brick arches were turned, spanning +the spaces between the piers, and upon these arches the walls were +built.</p> + +<p>Pile foundations, used in the case of soft ground, for small works, +consist either of stout scaffold poles or of timbers varying from 6 in. +to 12 in. square according to requirements (fig. 4). The bottom +ends of these timbers have an iron shoe with a point, so as to +<span class="sidenote">Pile foundations.</span> +be easily driven into the ground, and the tops of the timbers have +an iron band round, so that when the timbers are being driven in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span> +the band prevents them from splitting (fig. 5). The methods of +driving these piles are various. The usual plan is to erect a temporary +structure, upon one side of which is a guide path +faced with sheet-iron so as to give a smooth face. Up +and down this guide path a heavy iron weight, called a +monkey, is worked; the monkey is hoisted to the top of +the guide path by means of a crab worked by hand or steam, and +when released descends with a good force, and so drives the piles into +the ground. The monkey usually weighs from 2 cwt. to 10 cwt. +and is allowed a drop of 15 to 40 ft.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:373px; height:346px" src="images/img741a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Piles are driven all round under the walls at varying intervals or +under piers where the weights of a building are to be concentrated. In +the erection of the Chicago public library four Norway pine piles, each +with an average diameter of 13 in., were driven to a depth of 52½ ft. +and loaded with a dead load of 50.7 tons per pile for a period of two +weeks, and no settlement taking place 30 tons per pile was adopted +as a safe load. The following are some examples of loads used in +practice: passenger station, Harrison Street, Chicago, piles 50 ft. +in length, each carrying 25 tons; elevator, Buffalo, N.Y., piles 20 ft. +in length, weight 25 tons; Trinity church, Boston, 2 tons; Schiller +building, Chicago, 55 tons per pile, but in this case the building +settled considerably. All timber grillage and the tops of all piles +should be kept below the lowest water level, and be capped with +concrete or stone. In Boston it is obligatory to cap with blocks +of granite.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:483px; height:372px" src="images/img741b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Another form of foundation takes the shape of Portland cement +concrete blocks, and is used chiefly for bridges and in marshy land, +&c. In some cases cylinders of brickwork are built, and +the centres are filled with blocks of concrete and grouted +<span class="sidenote">Concrete piles.</span> +in. The Yarmouth destructor cells and chimney shaft +were built in this way; the cylinders were constructed of 9 in. +brickwork built in Portland cement, the lower 4 ft. being encased +in a wooden drum with cutting edge sunk into the gravel and sand +at least 2 ft. The cylinders were sunk by the aid of a grab, the +bottom being levelled and the concrete blocks laid by a diver. +Use is also made of piles consisting of Portland cement concrete +having steel rods embedded in it, and provided with iron shoes and +head for driving (fig. 6).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:523px; height:250px" src="images/img741c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Cast iron screw piles (fig. 7) used in very loose sandy soils, consist +of large hollow cast iron columns with flat screw blades cast on the +lower ends. The projection of this screw from the pile may vary +from 9 in. to 18 in. with a pitch of from one-quarter to one-half of +the projection, the blade making a little over one turn round the +shaft. For most requirements a diameter of screw from 3½ to 4½ ft. +will be found sufficient, a sandy foundation requiring the largest. +The lower end of the tube is generally left open, the edge being +bevelled and occasionally provided with teeth to assist in cutting +into and penetrating the soil.</p> + +<p>Another system of piling known as sheet piling (fig. 8), consists +in driving piles into the ground at intervals, and between these, +also driven into the ground, are timbers measuring 3 in. by 9 in., +which form a wall to keep the soft earth up under the building. In +this way the earth is prevented from spreading out and so causing +the building to settle unevenly.</p> + +<p>Another kind of foundation, known as plank foundation (fig. 9), +<span class="sidenote">Plank foundations.</span> +consists of elm planks, about 9 in. by 3 in. laid across the +trench and spiked together; on the top of these are laid +similar planks but at right angles to the last, and upon +the platform thus formed the wall is built. This method +is used in soft ground.</p> + +<p>Caissons are usually employed by engineers for the construction +of the foundations of bridge piers, but instances of their use in +<span class="sidenote">Caissons.</span> +foundations for buildings are to be found in the American +Surety and the Manhattan Life Insurance buildings, +New York City. The latter building is 242 ft. high to the parapet, +and the dome and tower rise 108 ft. higher. The building is carried +on 16 solid masonry piers, taken down 54 ft. below the street level +to solid rock, and these piers support the 34 cast iron columns upon +which the building is erected. The piers to each building were +constructed by the pneumatic caisson process (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caisson</a></span>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:378px; height:306px" src="images/img741d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>A good plan for foundations when the ground is loose and sandy +is to build upon wells of brickwork, a method which has been successfully +practised in Madras. The wells are made +circular, about 3 ft. in diameter and one brick thick. +<span class="sidenote">Well foundations.</span> +The first course is laid and cemented together on the +surface of the ground when it is dry, and the earth is +excavated inside and round about it to allow it to sink. Then another +is laid over it and again sunk. The well is thus built downwards. +The brickwork is sunk bodily to a depth of 10 ft. or more, according +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span> +to building to be erected upon it, and the interior is filled up with +rubble work. All the public buildings at Madras were erected upon +foundations of this kind. Well foundations were employed under +the city hall, Kansas City, and the Stock Exchange, Chicago.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:593px; height:714px" src="images/img742a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Coffer dams are wooden structures used to keep back the water +whilst putting in foundations on the waterside, and are constructed +with two rows of timbers, 12 in. square as piles spaced +about 6 ft. apart, and filled in between with a double row +<span class="sidenote">Coffer dams.</span> +of 2 in. or 3 in. boards, the space between the rows being +packed with clay puddle (fig. 10). The general rule for the thickness of +a coffer dam is to make it equal to the depth of water. An interesting +example of a coffer dam is that at the Keyham dock extension, +where piles varied in length from 65 ft. to 85 ft. They were driven in +a double row 5 ft. apart, and over 13,000 were used.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:371px; height:101px" src="images/img742b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Dock foundations are constructed after the fashion of a large +concrete tank, and are adapted to large sites where a difficulty +arises as to the ingress of water. They are considered +the best method of constructing a building on soft ground +<span class="sidenote">Dock foundations.</span> +and of keeping a building dry (fig. 11). This type of +foundation was used at the new colonial office, Whitehall, +London, and the new admiralty buildings at St James’s Park, +London. A few buildings treated after the style of a dock, but in +some instances without the enclosing walls, are the following: +At the admiralty buildings already mentioned a concrete retaining +wall completely surrounds the exterior below the ground, and is +joined up to the underpinning work; the whole site being covered +with concrete 6 ft. thick, a huge tank is formed of an average inside +clear depth of 20 ft. in which the basements are built. The new +“Old Bailey” buildings in Newgate Street, London, are constructed +on a concrete table 5 ft. thick, as also are the Army and Navy +Auxiliary Stores, Victoria Street. At Kennet’s Wharf, near Southwark +Bridge, a concrete table, 8 ft. thick, was spread all over the +site, with an extra thickness under the walls. Foundations formed +similarly to dock foundations, but in addition having steel joists and +rods inserted in the thickness of the concrete table, to tie the whole +together, are known as <i>gridiron</i> foundations.</p> + +<p>In the Hennebique concrete system, all beams, &c., are formed +with small rods and then surrounded with concrete; it is designed +for floors and for spreading the weight of a building over an extended +foundation on soft ground.</p> + +<p>Where a heavy wall is to be built against an old one and there is +not sufficient room for the foundations, the plan is adopted of +building pier foundations at some distance from the proposed +new wall. On the top of these piers rest +<span class="sidenote">Cantilever foundations.</span> +steel cantilevers over steel pin rockers upon cast +iron bedplates; the cantilevers are secured at one +end to a column, while the other ends go through the full +thickness of the new wall. Upon these last ends is placed a +steel girder upon which the wall is built. This construction +(fig. 12) has been used in America, and in the Ritz Hotel, +Piccadilly, London.</p> + +<p>Another form of cantilever foundations was employed in +the case of some premises at Carr’s Lane, Birmingham, +partly built over the Great Western railway tunnel (fig. 13). +In this instance large piers were built below the ground at +the side of the tunnel. From the tops of these piers large +steel cantilevers were erected projecting over the crown of +the tunnel, and on these steel girders were fixed and the +building constructed upon them.</p> + +<p>In modern Tunis, a section of which city is built on marshy +ground, the subsoil is an oozy sediment, largely deposited +by the sewage water from the ancient or Arab +quarter of the city, which is situated on an adjacent +<span class="sidenote">Foundations in Tunis.</span> +hill. This semi-fluid mud has a depth of about +33 ft. To prepare the soil for supporting an +ordinary house, pits from 8 ft. to 10 ft. square are excavated +to a depth of about 10 ft., to the level of the ground +water. A mixture is made of the excavated soil and +powdered fat lime, procured from clinkers and unburnt +stone from the lime-kilns, which soon crumbles to fine dust +when exposed to the air. The mixture is thrown into pits in +layers about 12 in. thick and rammed down for a very long +time by specially trained labourers. A gang of 15 or 20 +men will work at least 10 or 12 days ramming for the +foundations of a moderate-sized house. An extremely hard +bed is thus obtained, reaching to within 18 in. of the surface +of the ground, and on this artificial bed the foundations of +the building are laid. Although this method of construction +is crude, it is stated that the practical results are +superior to those obtained by using piles, concrete or other +recognized methods, and in all cases the cost is much less, +for labour is cheap.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:528px; height:287px" src="images/img742c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>A novel and interesting foundation was designed for a +signal station at Cape Henlopen, Delaware. This is built on +top of the highest sandhill at Cape Henlopen, so +that the observer may have an unobstructed +<span class="sidenote">Building on sand.</span> +view; it rises about 80 ft. above the level of the +sea and is exposed to all winds and weather, while it is +absolutely required that it shall stand firmly planted in +such a way that even a hurricane shall not shake it or +make it tremble, since that would affect the sight of the telescope +in the observatory. The usual mode of securing such a building is +by means of a foundation of screw piles or of heavy timbers sunk +into the sand; this method, however, has the disadvantage that if +the wind shifts the sand away from around the foundation, it +becomes undermined and its effect is destroyed. To avoid such an +accident, recourse was had to the following design, which was +considered to be cheap and at the same time to provide an effective +anchorage. The building is entirely of wood; it has a cellar, +above which are two rooms one above the other, and the whole is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span> +surmounted by the observatory proper. First, the ground sill is a +square of 20 ft., made of yellow pine sticks mortised together and +pinned with stout trunnels. The sill of the observatory is made +likewise of heavy timbers, 12 ft. long. The two sills are joined +together by four stout yellow pine corner posts, which in turn are +mortised into both sills. The posts are 26 ft. in length. Five feet +above the lower sill is the sill which supports the floor of the first +room. Ten feet above this is the sill which supports the upper +room. Both these sills again are mortised into the corner posts. +The structure is sheathed outside with German siding, and inside +with rough boards covered with felt, and again by tongued and +grooved yellow pine boards. The observatory proper, octagonal +in shape, is securely mortised into the top sill and covered with a +corrugated iron roof conical in shape. The cellar is floored with +3 in. wood, and boarded all round on the inside of the posts. A pit +was first dug in the sand about 6 ft. deep and fully 20 ft. wide on +the bottom. The cellar sill was laid on this bottom, and the structure +built upon it; thus the whole depth of cellar is sunk below the top +of the hill or the level of the sand. The cellar was then filled up +with sand and packed solid all round, consequently the building is +anchored in its place by the load in the cellar, about 100 tons in +weight.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:465px; height:742px" src="images/img743a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—Cantilever Foundation over Railway Tunnel.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The subject of foundations, being naturally of the first importance, +is one that calls for most careful study. It is not of so much importance +that the ground be hard or even rocky as that it be compact +and of similar consistency throughout. It is not always that a site +answers to this description, and the problem of what will be the best +form of foundation to use in placing a building, more especially if +that building be of large dimensions and consequently great weight, +on a site of soft yielding soil, is one that is often most difficult of +solution. The foregoing article indicates in a brief manner some of +the obstacles the architect or engineer is required to surmount before +his work can even be started on its way to completion.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The principal books for reference on this subject +are: <i>A Practical Treatise on Foundations</i>, by W.M. Patron, C. E.; +<i>Building Construction and Superintendence</i>, part i., by F.E. Kidder; +<i>Notes on Building Construction</i>, vols. i. ii. and iii.; <i>Aide Memoir</i>, +vol. ii., by Colonel Seddon, R.E.; <i>Advanced Building Construction</i>, +by C.F. Mitchell; <i>Modern House Construction</i>, by G.L. Sutcliffe; +<i>Building Construction</i>, by Professor Henry Adams; <i>Practical +Building Construction</i>, by J.P. Allen.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Bt.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOUNDING<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>fundere</i>, to pour), the process of casting +in metal, of making a reproduction of a given object by running +molten metal into a mould taken in sand, loam or plaster from +that object. To enable the founder to prepare a mould for the +casting, he must receive a pattern similar to the casting required. +Some few exceptions occur, to be noted presently, but the above +statement is true of perhaps 98% of all castings produced. The +construction of such patterns gives employment to a large +number of highly skilled men, who can only acquire the necessary +knowledge through an apprenticeship lasting from five to seven +years. A knowledge of two trades at least is involved in the +work of pattern construction—that of the craft itself and that +of the moulder and founder. Patterns have to be constructed +strongly. They are generally of wood, and they thus require +skill in the use of woodworking tools and the making of timber +joints, together with a knowledge of the behaviour of timber, +&c. Some few patterns are made in iron, brass or white metal +alloys. They have to be embedded in a matrix of sand by the +founder, and being enclosed, they have to be withdrawn without +inflicting any damage in the way of fracture in the sand. Since +cast work involves shapes that are often very intricate, including +projections and hollow spaces of all forms, it is obvious that the +withdrawal of the patterns without entailing tearing up and +fracture of the sand must involve many difficult problems that +have to be as fully understood by the pattern-maker as by the +moulder. It is from this point of view that the work of the pattern-maker +should be approached in the first place. No closed mould +can possibly be made without one or more joints, for if a pattern +is wholly enclosed in a matrix of sand it cannot be withdrawn +except by making a parting in the sand, and it is not difficult to +conceive that the parting in the pattern might advantageously +be made to coincide, either exactly or approximately, with that +of the mould. Nor must obstacles exist to the free withdrawal +of patterns. They must therefore not be wider or larger in the +lower than in the upper parts; actually they are made a trifle +smaller or “tapered.” Nor may they have any lateral extensions +into the lower sand, unless these can be made to withdraw +separately from the main portion of the pattern. Finally, there +are many internal spaces which cannot be formed by a pattern +directly in the sand, but provision for which must be made by +some means extraneous to the pattern, as by cores.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:471px; height:351px" src="images/img743b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A single example must illustrate the main principles which have +just been stated. The object selected is a bracket which involves +questions of joints, of cores, of pattern construction and of moulding. +The casting, the pattern, and its mould are illustrated. Fig. 1 +illustrates in plan the casting of a double bracket, the end elevation +of which is seen in fig. 2; the pattern of which presents obvious +difficulties in the way of withdrawal from a mould, supposing it +were made just like its casting. But if it be made as in fig. 3, with +the open spaces A, B, in fig. 2, occupied with core prints, and the +pieces A, A in fig. 3 left loosely skewered on, everything will “deliver” +freely. Moreover the pattern might be made solidly as +shown in fig. 3, or else jointed and dowelled in the plane a-a, as +in fig. 4, or along the upper faces of the prints b-b, fig. 3. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span> +timber shadings in figs. 3 and 4 illustrate points in the most suitable +arrangement of material. The prints are “boxed up.” Fig. 4 +shows a certain stage of the moulding, in which one half of the pattern +has been “rammed” in sand, and turned over in the “bottom box,” +and the upper half is ready to be rammed in the “top box,” with +“runner pin” or “git stick” A, set in place. The lower loose piece +has had its skewer removed during the ramming. Fig. 5 illustrates +the mould completed and ready for pouring. The boxes have been +parted, the pattern has +been withdrawn, cores +inserted in the impressions +left by the prints, +vents taken from the +central body of +cinders, the pouring +basin made and the +boxes cottered +together.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:332px; height:271px" src="images/img744a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Every single detail +now briefly noted in +connexion with this +bracket is applied and +modified in an almost +infinite number of +ways to suit the ever +varying character of +foundry work. Yet +this process does not +touch some of the great subdivisions of moulding and casting. +There is a large volume of large and heavy work for which complete +patterns and core boxes are never made, because of the great expense +that would be involved in the pattern construction. There are also +some cases in which the methods adopted would not permit of the +use of patterns, as in that group of work in which the sand or loam +is “swept” to the form required for the moulds and cores by means +of striking boards, loam boards, core boards or strickles. In these +classes of moulding the loose green sands and core sands are not +much used; instead, loam—a wet and plastic sand mixture—is +employed, supported against bricks (loam moulds) or against core +bars and plates, and hay ropes (loam cores). All heavy marine +engine cylinders are thus made by sweeping, and all massive cores +for engine cylinders and large pipes, besides much large circular and +cylindrical work, as foundation cylinders, soap pans, lead pans, +mortar pans, large propeller blades, &c. In these cases the edge of +the striking board is a counterpart of the profile of the work swept +up. Joints also have to be made in such moulds, not of course in +order to provide for the removal of a pattern, but for the exposure +of the separate parts in course of construction, and for closing them +up, or putting them together in their due relations. These joints +also are swept by the boards, generally cut to produce suitable +“checks,” or “registers” to ensure that they accurately fit together. +Fig. 6, showing a portion of a swept-up mould, illustrates the general +arrangement. A plate, A, carries a quantity of bricks, B, which are +embedded in loam, and break joint. To a striking bar, C, supported +in a step, a striking board or sweeping board, D, is bolted, +and is swept round against plastic loam, which is afterwards dried. +The check on the board at A corresponds with a similar check on the +board which strikes the interior of the pan, and by which top and +bottom portions of the mould are registered together. This is +indicated in dotted outline. Its mould also is swept on bricks, and +turned over into place, and the metal is poured into the space b, b, +between the two moulds. There is also a large group of swept-up +work which is not symmetrical about a centre of rotation. Then +the movements of the sweeping boards are controlled by the edges +of “core plates,” or of “core irons” (fig. 7). Bend pipes, and the +volute casings of centrifugal pumps and pipes, afford examples of +this kind. In fig. 7, A is the core iron, held down by weights, and +B the “strickle,” sweeping up the half bend C, two such halves +pasted together completing the core.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:510px; height:441px" src="images/img744b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:516px; height:432px" src="images/img744c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:462px; height:335px" src="images/img744d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Core-making is a special department of foundry work, often +involving as much detail as the construction and moulding of +patterns. Two perfectly plain boxes are shown in figs. 8 and 9, in +both of which provision exists for removing the box parts from the +core after the latter has been rammed. Core boxes are jointed and +tapered, and often have loose pieces within them, and also prints, +into the impressions of which other cores are inserted.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:525px; height:255px" src="images/img744e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Machine-moulding.</i>—There is a development of modern +methods of founding which is effecting radical changes in some +departments of foundry practice, namely, moulding by machines. +The advantages of this method are manifold, and its limitations +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span> +are being lessened continually. There are two broad departments +between which machine-moulding is divided. One, of less +importance, is that of toothed wheels; the other is that of general +work, except of a very massive character.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:177px; height:132px" src="images/img745a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:296px; height:275px" src="images/img745b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Gear-wheel moulding machines are essentially a special +adaptation of the mechanism of the dividing engine, by means +of which, instead of using a complete pattern of a toothed wheel, +two or three pattern teeth +are used, and the machine +takes charge of the correct +pitching or division of the +teeth moulded therefrom, +leaving to the moulder the +work only of turning the handle of the division plate, and +ramming the sand around the pattern teeth. The result is +accurate pitching, and the use of two or three teeth instead of a +full pattern, together with any core boxes and striking boards +that are necessary for the arms.</p> + +<p>The other department of machine moulding includes nearly +every conceivable class of work of small and medium dimensions. +There are some dozens of distinct types of machines in use, for +no one type is suitable for all classes of moulds, while some are +designed specially for one or two kinds only.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 440px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:390px; height:590px" src="images/img745c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The fundamental principles of operation are briefly these: The +pattern parts constitute, by their method of attachment to a plate +or table A (fig. 10), an integral portion of the machine, so that they +must partake of +certain movements +which +are imparted to +it. Often patterns +mounted, +as in fig. 10, are +moulded by +hand, without +any aid from +a machine, by +methods of +“plate-moulding.” +The delivery +of the +pattern from +the sand is invariably +accomplished +by +a perpendicular +movement of a +portion of the +machine (fig. +11), withdrawing +either the +pattern from +the mould or +the mould from +the pattern. +The important +point is that +the perpendicular +movement, +being under the +coercion of the +vertical guides +provided in the +hand machines, +or the hydraulic +ram in fig. 11, is free from the unsteadiness which is incidental +to withdrawal by the hands of the moulder; and if the machine +performed nothing more than this it would justify its existence. +Little or no taper is required in the pattern, and the moulds +are more nearly uniform in dimensions than hand-made moulds. +But there are other advantages. In machine-moulding the joint +faces for parting moulds are produced by the faces of the plates +on which the pattern is mounted (figs. 10 and 11), instead of by +the hands and trowel of the moulder. When the joint face is of +irregular outline, as it often is, this item alone saves a good deal of +time, which again is multiplied by the number of moulds repeated, +often amounting to thousands. Further, provision is generally +made on machine plates for the ingates and runners (fig. 10) +through which the metal enters the mould, the preparation of which +in hand work occupies a considerable amount of time. Another +great advantage applies especially to the case of deep moulds. +These give much trouble in hand-moulding in consequence of the +liability of the sand to become torn up during the withdrawal of +the pattern. But in machine-moulding such patterns are encircled +by a plate, termed a “stripping plate,” which is pierced to allow +the patterns to pass through, and which, being maintained firmly +on the sand during the lifting of the pattern, prevents it from +becoming torn up. This is not merely a matter of convenience, but +is a necessity in numerous instances. The most familiar example +is that of the teeth of gear wheels, in which even a very slight amount +of taper interferes with accurate engagement, and this is representative +of many other portions of mechanism. These stripping +plates are of metal, but in order to save the cost of filing them in +iron or steel, many are cheaply made by casting a white metal alloy +round the actual pattern itself in the first place, the white metal +being enclosed and retained in a plain iron frame which forms the +body of the plate. Lastly, many machines, but not the majority, +include provision for mechanically ramming the sand around the +pattern by power instead of by hand. This is really the least +valuable feature of a moulding machine, because it is not applicable +to any but rather shallow moulds. It is commonly used for these, +but the consistence and homogeneity of a mass of sand round a +pattern having deep perpendicular sides can only be ensured by +careful hand ramming.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:513px; height:553px" src="images/img745d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The highest economies of machine-moulding are obtained when +(1) several small patterns are mounted and moulded at once on a +single plate (fig. 10); (2) when top and bottom parts of a mould +are produced on different machines, carrying each its moiety of +the pattern; (3) when the machine and pattern details are simplified +so much that the labour of trained moulders is displaced by that of +unskilled attendants who are taught in a month or two the few +simple operations required. That is the direction in which repetitive +casting is now rapidly tending.</p> + +<p>In fig. 11 A is the plate, which in its essentials corresponds with +the plate A in fig. 10, but which in the machine is made to swivel so +as to bring each half of the pattern B, B in turn uppermost for +ramming in the box parts C, C. The ramming is done by hand, the +final squeeze being imparted against the presser D by the action of +the hydraulic ram E pushing the plate, mould and box up against D. +The plate being then lowered, and turned over, the further descent +of the ram withdraws the bottom box from the pattern, which is the +stage seen in the illustration. Then the half mould is run away on +the carriage F, provided with wheels to run on rails.</p> + +<p>Though casting in iron, steel, the bronzes, aluminium, &c., is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span> +carried on by different men in distinct shops, yet the foregoing +principles and methods apply to all alike. Work is done in green, +<i>i.e.</i> moist sand, in dry sand (the moulds being dried before being +used), and in plastic loam (which is subsequently dried). Hand and +machine moulding are practised in each, the last-named excepted. +The differences in working are those due to the various characteristics +of the different metals and alloys, which involve differences in the +sand mixtures used, in the dimensions of the pouring channels, of +the temperature at which the metal or alloy must be poured, of the +fluxing and cleansing of the metal, and other details of a practical +character. Hence the practice which is suitable for one department +must be modified in others. Many castings in steel would inevitably +fracture if poured into moulds prepared for iron, many iron castings +would fracture if poured into moulds suitable for brass, and neither +brass nor steel would fill a mould having ingates proportioned +suitably for iron.</p> + +<p>A special kind of casting is that into “chill moulds,” adopted in +a considerable number of iron castings, such as the railway wheels +in the United States, ordinary tramway wheels, the rolls of iron and +steel rolling mills, the bores of cast wheel hubs, &c. The chill ranges +in depth from ¼ in. to 1 in., and is produced by pouring a special +mixture of mottled, or strong, iron against a cold iron surface, the +parts of the casting which are not required to be chilled being surrounded +by an ordinary mould of sand. The purpose of chill-casting +is to produce a surface hardness in the metal.</p> + +<p>The shrinkage of metal is a fact which has to be taken account +of by the pattern-maker and moulder. A pattern and mould are +made larger than the size of the casting required by the exact amount +that the metal will shrink in cooling from the molten to the cold +state. This amount varies from <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. in 15 in., in thin iron castings, +to <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. in 12 in. in heavy ones. It ranges from <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> in. to <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> in. per +foot in steel, brass and aluminium. Its variable amount has to be +borne in mind in making light and heavy-castings, and castings with +or without cores, for massive cores retard shrinkage. It is also a +fruitful cause of fracture in badly proportioned castings, particularly +of those in steel. Brass is less liable to suffer in this respect than +iron, and iron much less than steel.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. G. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOUNDLING HOSPITALS,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> originally institutions for the +reception of “foundlings,” <i>i.e.</i> children who have been abandoned +or exposed, and left for the public to find and save. The early +history of such institutions is connected with the practice of +infanticide, and in western Europe where social disorder was +rife and famine of frequent occurrence, exposure and extensive +sales of children were the necessary consequences. Against these +evils, which were noticed by several councils, the church provided +a rough system of relief, children being deposited (<i>jactati</i>) in +marble shells at the church doors, and tended first by the +<i>matricularii</i> or male nurses, and then by the <i>nutricarii</i> or foster-parents.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +But it was in the 7th and 8th centuries that definite +institutions for foundlings were established in such towns as +Trèves, Milan and Montpellier. In the 15th century Garcias, +archbishop of Valencia, was a conspicuous figure in this charitable +work; but his fame is entirely eclipsed by that of St Vincent de +Paul, who in the reign of Louis XIII., with the help of the +countess of Joigny, Mme le Gras and other religious ladies, +rescued the foundlings of Paris from the horrors of a primitive +institution named La Couche (rue St Landry), and ultimately +obtained from Louis XIV. the use of the Bicêtre for their accommodation. +Letters patent were granted to the Paris hospital +in 1670. The Hôtel-Dieu of Lyons was the next in importance. +No provision, however, was made outside the great towns; the +houses in the cities were overcrowded and administered with +laxity; and in 1784 Necker prophesied that the state would yet +be seriously embarrassed by this increasing evil.<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> From 1452 +to 1789 the law had imposed on the <i>seigneurs de haute justice</i> the +duty of succouring children found deserted on their territories. +The first constitutions of the Revolution undertook as a state +debt the support of every foundling. For a time premiums were +given to the mothers of illegitimate children, the “enfants de la +patrie.” By the law of 12 Brumaire, An II. “Toute recherche +de la paternité est interdite,” while by art. 341 of the Code +Napoléon, “la recherche de la matérnité est admise.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>France.</i>—The laws of France relating to this part of what is called +L’Assistance Publique are the decree of January 1811, the instruction +of February 1823, the decree of the 5th of March 1852, the law of +the 5th of May 1869, the law of the 24th of July 1889 and the law +of the 27th of June 1904. These laws carry out the general principles +of the law of 7 Frimaire An V., which completely decentralized the +system of national poor relief established by the Revolution. The +<i>enfants assistés</i> include, besides (1) orphans and (2) foundlings +proper, (3) children abandoned by their parents, (4) ill-treated, +neglected or morally abandoned children whose parents have been +deprived of their parental rights by the decision of a court of justice, +(5) children, under sixteen years of age, of parents condemned for +certain crimes, whose parental rights have been delegated by a +tribunal to the state. Children classified under 1-5 are termed +<i>pupilles de l’assistance</i>, “wards of public charity,” and are distinguished +by the law of 1904 from children under the protection of the +state, classified as: (1) <i>enfants secourus</i>, <i>i.e.</i> children whose parents +or relatives are unable, through poverty, to support them; (2) +<i>enfants en dépôt</i>, <i>i.e.</i> children of persons undergoing a judicial sentence +and children temporarily taken in while their parents are in hospital, +and (3) <i>enfants en garde</i>, <i>i.e.</i> children who have either committed or +been the victim of some felony or crime and are placed under state +care by judicial authority. The asylum which receives all these +children is a departmental (<i>établissement dépositaire</i>), and not a +communal institution. The établissement dépositaire is usually +the ward of an hospice, in which—with the exception of children +<i>en dépôt</i>—the stay is of the shortest, for by the law of 1904, continuing +the principle laid down in 1811, all children under thirteen years of +age under the guardianship of the state, except the mentally or +physically infirm, must be boarded out in country districts. They +are generally apprenticed to some one engaged in the agricultural +industry, and until majority they remain under the guardianship +of the administrative commissioners of the department. The state +pays the whole of the cost of inspection and supervision. The +expenses of administration, the “home” expenses, for the nurse +(<i>nourrice sédentaire</i>) or the wet nurse (<i>nourrice au sein</i>), the <i>prime +de survie</i> (premium on survival), washing, clothes, and the “outdoor” +expenses, which include (1) temporary assistance to unmarried +mothers in order to prevent desertion; (2) allowances to the +foster-parents (<i>nourriciers</i>) in the country for board, school-money, +&c.; (3) clothing; (4) travelling-money for nurses and children; +(5) printing, &c.; (6) expenses in time of sickness and for burials +and apprentice fees—are borne in the proportion of two-fifths by +the state two-fifths by the department, and the remaining fifth by +the communes. The following figures show the number of children +(exclusive of <i>enfants secourus</i>) relieved at various periods:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc">Year.</td> <td class="tcc">Number relieved.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1890</td> <td class="tcl">95,701</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1895</td> <td class="tcl">121,201</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1900</td> <td class="tcl">138,308</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1905</td> <td class="tcl">149,803</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The <i>droit de recherche</i> is conceded to the parent on payment of a +small fee. The decree of 1811 contemplated the repayment of all +expenses by a parent reclaiming a child. The same decree directed +a <i>tour</i> or revolving box (<i>Drehcylinder</i> in Germany) to be kept at +each hospital. These have been discontinued. The “Assistance +Publique” of Paris is managed by a “directeur” appointed by the +minister of the interior, and associated with a representative <i>conseil +de surveillance</i>. The Paris Hospice des Enfants-Assistés contains +about 700 beds. There are also in Paris numerous private charities +for the adoption of poor children and orphans. It is impossible +here to give even a sketch of the long and able controversies which +have occurred in France on the principles of management of foundling +hospitals, the advantages of <i>tours</i> and the system of admission +<i>à bureau ouvert</i>, the transfer of orphans from one department to +another, the hygiene and service of hospitals and the inspection of +nurses, the education and reclamation of the children and the rights +of the state in their future. Reference may be made to the works +noticed at the end of this article.</p> + +<p><i>Belgium.</i>—In this country the arrangements for the relief of +foundlings and the appropriation of public funds for that purpose +very much resemble those in France, and can hardly be usefully +described apart from the general questions of local government and +poor law administration. The Commissions des Hospices Civiles, +however, are purely communal bodies, although they receive +pecuniary assistance from both the departments and the state. A +decree of 1811 directed that there should be an asylum and a wheel +for receiving foundlings in every arrondissement. The last “wheel,” +that of Antwerp, was closed in 1860. (See <i>Des Institutions de +bienfaisance et de prévoyance en Belgique</i>, 1850 à 1860, par M.P. +Lentz.)</p> + +<p><i>Italy</i> is very rich in foundling hospitals, pure and simple, orphans +and other destitute children being separately provided for. (See +<i>Della carità preventiva in Italia</i>, by Signor Fano.) In Rome one +branch of the Santo Spirito in Sassia (so called from the Schola +Saxonum built in 728 by King Ina in the Borgo) has, since the time +of Pope Sixtus IV., been devoted to foundlings. The average annual +number of foundlings supported is about 3000. (See <i>The Charitable +Institutions of Rome</i>, by Cardinal Morichini.) In Venice the Casa +degli Esposti or foundling hospital, founded in 1346, and receiving +450 children annually, is under provincial administration. The +splendid legacy of the last doge, Ludovico Manin, is applied to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747"></a>747</span> +support of about 160 children by the “Congregazione di Carità” +acting through 30 parish boards (<i>deputazione fraternate</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Austria.</i>—In Austria foundling hospitals occupied a very prominent +place in the general instructions which, by rescript dated 16th of April +1781, the emperor Joseph II. issued to the charitable endowment +commission. In 1818 foundling asylums and lying-in houses were +declared to be state institutions. They were accordingly supported +by the state treasury until the fundamental law of 20th October +1860 handed them over to the provincial committees. They are +now local institutions, depending on provincial funds, and are quite +separate from the ordinary parochial poor institute. Admission is +gratuitous when the child is actually found on the street, or is sent +by a criminal court, or where the mother undertakes to serve for +four months as nurse or midwife in an asylum, or produces a +certificate from the parish priest and “poor-father” (the parish +inspector of the poor-law administration) that she has no money. +In other cases payments of 30 to 100 florins are made. When two +months old the child is sent for six or ten years to the houses in the +neighbourhood of respectable married persons, who have certificates +from the police or the poor-law authorities, and who are inspected +by the latter and by a special medical officer. These persons receive +a constantly diminishing allowance, and the arrangement may be +determined by 14 days’ notice on either side. The foster-parents +may retain the child in their service or employment till the age of +twenty-two, but the true parents may at any time reclaim the +foundling on reimbursing the asylum and compensating the +foster-parents.</p> + +<p><i>Russia.</i>—Under the old Russian system of Peter I. foundlings +were received at the church windows by a staff of women paid by +the state. But since the reign of Catherine II. the foundling hospitals +have been in the hands of the provincial officer of public charity +(prykaz obshestvennago pryzrenya). The great central institutions +(Vospitatelnoi Dom), at Moscow and St Petersburg (with a branch +at Gatchina), were founded by Catherine. When a child is brought +the baptismal name is asked, and a receipt is given, by which the +child may be reclaimed up to the age of ten. The mother may nurse +her child. After the usual period of six years in the country very +great care is taken with the education, especially of the more promising +children. The hospital is a valuable source of recruits for the +public service. Malthus (<i>The Principles of Population</i>, vol. i. p. 434) +has made a violent attack on these Russian charities. He argues +that they discourage marriage and therefore population, and that +the best management is unable to prevent a high mortality. He +adds: “An occasional child murder from false shame is saved +at a very high price if it can be done only by the sacrifice of some +of the best and most useful feelings of the human heart in a great +part of the nation.” It does not appear, however, that the rate of +illegitimacy in Russia is comparatively high; it is so in the two great +cities. The rights of parents over the children were very much restricted, +and those of the government much extended by a ukase +issued by the emperor Nicholas in 1837. The most eminent Russian +writer on this subject is M. Gourov. See his <i>Recherches sur les +enfants trouvés</i>, and <i>Essai sur l’histoire des enfants trouvés</i> (Paris, +1829).</p> + +<p>In <i>America</i>, foundling hospitals, which are chiefly private charities, +exist in most of the large cities.</p> + +<p><i>Great Britain.</i>—The Foundling Hospital of London was incorporated +by royal charter in 1739 “for the maintenance and education +of exposed and deserted young children.” The petition of Captain +Thomas Coram, who is entitled to the whole credit of the foundation,<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +states as its objects “to prevent the frequent murders of poor +miserable children at their birth, and to suppress the inhuman +custom of exposing new-born infants to perish in the streets.” At +first no questions were asked about child or parent, but a distinguishing +mark was put on each child by the parent. These were +often marked coins, trinkets, pieces of cotton or ribbon, verses +written on scraps of paper. The clothes, if any, were carefully +recorded. One entry is, “Paper on the breast, clout on the head.” +The applications became too numerous, and a system of balloting +with red, white and black balls was adopted. In 1756 the House of +Commons came to a resolution that all children offered should be +received, that local receiving places should be appointed all over +the country, and that the funds should be publicly guaranteed. A +basket was accordingly hung outside the hospital; the maximum +age for admission was raised from two to twelve months, and a flood +of children poured in from the country workhouses. In less than +four years 14,934 children were presented, and a vile trade grew up +among vagrants of undertaking to carry children from the country +to the hospital,—an undertaking which, like the French <i>meneurs</i>, +they often did not perform or performed with great cruelty. Of +these 15,000 only 4400 lived to be apprenticed out. The total expense +was about £500,000. This alarmed the House of Commons. +After throwing out a bill which proposed to raise the necessary +funds by fees from a general system of parochial registration, they +came to the conclusion that the indiscriminate admission should be +discontinued. The hospital, being thus thrown on its own resources, +adopted a pernicious system of receiving children with considerable +sums (<i>e.g.</i> £100), which sometimes led to the children being reclaimed +by the parent. This was finally stopped in 1801; and it +is now a fundamental rule that no money is received. The committee +of inquiry must now be satisfied of the previous good character +and present necessity of the mother, and that the father of the +child has deserted it and the mother, and that the reception of +the child will probably replace the mother in the course of virtue +and in the way of an honest livelihood. All the children at the +Foundling hospital are those of unmarried women, and they are all +first children of their mothers. The principle is in fact that laid +down by Fielding in <i>Tom Jones</i>—“Too true I am afraid it is that +many women have become abandoned and have sunk to the last +degree of vice by being unable to retrieve the first slip.” At present +the hospital supports about 500 children up to the age of fifteen. +The average annual number of applications is over 200, and of +admissions between 40 and 50. The children used to be named +after the patrons and governors, but the treasurer now prepares a +list. Children are seldom taken after they are twelve months old. +On reception they are sent down to the country, where they stay +until they are about four or five years old. At sixteen the girls +are generally apprenticed as servants for four years, and the boys at +the age of fourteen as mechanics for seven years. There is a small +benevolent fund for adults. The musical service, which was originally +sung by the blind children only, was made fashionable by the +generosity of Handel, who frequently had the “Messiah” performed +there, and who bequeathed to the hospital a MS. copy (full +score) of his greatest oratorio. The altar-piece is West’s picture of +Christ presenting a little Child. In 1774 Dr Burney and Signor +Giardini made an unsuccessful attempt to form in connexion with +the hospital a public music school, in imitation of the Conservatorium +of the Continent. In 1847, however, a successful “Juvenile +Band” was started. The educational effects of music have been +found excellent, and the hospital supplies many musicians to the best +army and navy bands. The early connexion between the hospital +and the eminent painters of the reign of George II. is one of extreme +interest. The exhibitions of pictures at the Foundling, which were +organized by the Dilettanti Club, undoubtedly led to the formation +of the Royal Academy in 1768. Hogarth painted a portrait of +Captain Coram for the hospital, which also contains his March to +Finchley, and Roubillac’s bust of Handel. (See <i>History and Objects of +the Foundling Hospital, with Memoir of its Founder</i>, by J. Brownlow.)</p> + +<p>In 1704 the Foundling hospital of Dublin was opened. No +inquiry was made about the parents, and no money received. From +1500 to 2000 children were received annually. A large income was +derived from a duty on coal and the produce of car licences. In +1822 an admission fee of £5 was charged on the parish from which +the child came. This reduced the annual arrivals to about 500. +In 1829 the select committee on the Irish miscellaneous estimates +recommended that no further assistance should be given. The +hospital had not preserved life or educated the foundlings. The +mortality was nearly 4 in 5, and the total cost £10,000 a year. +Accordingly in 1835 Lord Glenelg (then Irish Secretary) closed the +institution.</p> + +<p>Scotland never seems to have possessed a foundling hospital. In +1759 John Watson left funds which were to be applied to the pious +and charitable purpose “of preventing child murder” by the +establishment of a hospital for receiving pregnant women and +taking care of their children as foundlings. But by an act of parliament +in 1822, which sets forth “doubts as to the propriety” of the +original purpose, the money was given to trustees to erect a hospital +for the maintenance and education of destitute children.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<i>Histoire statistique et morale des enfants trouvés</i> +by MM. Terme et Montfalcon (Paris, 1837) (the authors were eminent +medical men at Lyons, connected with the administration of the +foundling hospital); Remacle, <i>Des hospices d’enfants trouvés en +Europe</i> (Paris, 1838); Hügel <i>Die Findelhäuser und das Findelwesen +Europas</i> (Vienna, 1863); Emminghaus, “Das Armenwesen und die +Armengesetzgebung,” in <i>Europäischen Staaten</i> (Berlin, 1870); +Sennichon, <i>Histoire des enfants abandonnés</i> (Paris, 1880); the annual +<i>Rapport sur le service des enfants assistés du département de la Seine</i>; +Epstein, <i>Studien zur Frage der Findelanstalten</i> (Prague, 1882); +Florence D. Hill, <i>Children of the State</i> (2nd ed., 1889). For United +States, see H. Folks, <i>Care of Neglected and Dependent Children</i> (1901); +A.G. Warner, <i>American Charities</i> (enlarged, 1908) and <i>Reports of +Massachusetts State Board of Charities</i>. Information may also be got +in the <i>Reports on Poor Laws in Foreign Countries</i>, communicated to +the Local Government Board by the foreign secretary; <i>Accounts and +Papers</i> (1875), vol. lxv. c. 1225; <i>Report of Committee on the Infant +Life Protection Bill</i> (1890); <i>Report of Lords Committee on the Infant +Life Protection Bill</i> (1896). (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charity and Charities</a></span>.)</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See <i>Capitularia regum Francorum</i>, ii. 474.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>De l’administration des finances</i>, iii. 136; see also the article +“Enfant exposé” in Diderot’s <i>Encyclopédie</i>, 1755, and Chamousset’s +<i>Mémoire politique sur les enfants,</i> 1757.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Addison had suggested such a charity (<i>Guardian</i>, No. 3).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOUNTAIN<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (Late Lat. <i>fontana</i>, from <i>fons</i>, a spring), a term +applied in a restricted sense to such outlets of water as, whether +fed by natural or artificial means, have contrivances of human +art at a point where the water emerges. A very early existing +example is preserved in the carved Babylonian basin (about 3000 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>) found at Tello, the ancient Lagash, and Layard mentions +an Assyrian fountain, found by him in a gorge of the river Gomel, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748"></a>748</span> +which consists of a series of basins cut in the solid rock and +descending in steps to the stream. The water had been originally +led from one to the other by small conduits, the lowest of which +was ornamented by two rampant lions in relief. The term is +applied equally to the simpler arrangements for letting water +gush into an ornamental basin or to the more elaborate ones +by which water is mechanically forced into high jets; and a +“fountain” may be either the ornamental receptacle or the jet +of water itself. In modern times the examples of ornamental +or useful fountains are legion, and it will suffice here to mention +some of the more important facts of historical interest.</p> + +<p>Among the Greeks fountains were very common in the cities. +Springs being very plentiful in Greece, little engineering skill +was required to convey the water from place to place. Receptacles +of sufficient size were made for it at the springs; and to maintain +its purity, structures were raised enclosing and covering the +receptacle. In Greece they were dedicated to gods and goddesses, +nymphs and heroes, and were frequently placed in or near temples. +That of Pirene at Corinth (mentioned also by Herodotus) was +formed of white stone, and contained a number of cells from which +the pleasant water flowed into an open basin. Legend connects +it with the nymph Pirene, who shed such copious tears, when +bewailing her son who had been slain by Diana, that she was +changed into a fountain. The city of Corinth possessed +many fountains. In one near the statues of Diana and Bellerophon +the water flowed through the hoofs of the horse +Pegasus. The fountain of Glauce, enclosed in the Odeum, was +dedicated to Glauce, because she was said to have thrown +herself into it believing that its waters could counteract the +poisons of Medea. Another Corinthian fountain had a bronze +statue of Poseidon standing on a dolphin from which the water +flowed. The fountain constructed by Theagenes at Megara +was remarkable for its size and decorations, and for the number +of its columns. One at Lerna was surrounded with pillars, and +the structure contained a number of seats affording a cool +summer retreat. Near Pharae was a grove dedicated to Apollo, +and in it a fountain of water. Pausanias gives a definite architectural +detail when he says that a fountain at Patrae was +reached from without by descending steps. Mystical, medicinal, +surgical and other qualities, as well as supernatural origin, +were ascribed to fountains. One at Cyane in Lycia was said +to possess the quality of endowing all persons descending into +it with power to see whatever they desired to see; while the +legends of fountains and other waters with strange powers to +heal are numerous in many lands. The fountain Enneacrunus +at Athens was called Callirrhoe before the time the water was +drawn from it by the nine pipes from which it took its later name. +Two temples were above it, according to Pausanias, one dedicated +to Demeter and Persephone, and the other to Triptolemus. The +fountain in the temple of Erechtheus at Athens was supplied +by a spring of salt water, and a similar spring supplied that in +the temple of Poseidon Hippios at Mantinea.</p> + +<p>The water-supply of Rome and the works auxiliary to it were +on a scale to be expected from a people of such great practical +power. The remains of the aqueducts which stretched from the +city across the Campagna are amongst the most striking monuments +of Italy. Vitruvius (book viii.) gives minute particulars +concerning the methods to be employed for the discovery, +testing and distribution of water, and describes the properties +of different waters with great care, proving the importance which +was attached to these matters by the Romans. The aqueducts +supplied the baths and the public fountains, from which last +all the populace, except such as could afford to pay for a separate +pipe to their houses, obtained their water. These fountains +were therefore of large size and numerous. They were formed +at many of the <i>castella</i> of the aqueducts. According to Vitruvius, +each <i>castellum</i> should have three pipes,—one for public fountains, +one for baths and the third for private houses. Considerable +revenue was drawn from the possessors of private water-pipes. +The Roman fountains were generally decorated with figures +and heads. Fountains were often also the ornament of Roman +villas and country houses; in those so situated the water generally +ally fell from above into a large marble basin, with at times a +second fall into a still lower receptacle. Two adjacent houses +in Pompeii had very remarkable fountains. One, says Gell, +“is covered with a sort of mosaic consisting of vitrified tesserae +of different colours, but in which blue predominates. These are +sometimes arranged in not inelegant patterns, and the grand +divisions as well as the borders are entirely formed and ornamented +with real sea-shells, neither calcined by the heat of the +eruption nor changed by the lapse of so many centuries” (<i>Pompeiana</i>, +i. 196). Another of large size was similarly decorated +with marine shells, and is supposed to have borne two sculptured +figures, one of which, a bronze, is in the museum at Naples. +This fountain projects 5 ft. 7 in. from the wall against which it is +placed, and is 7 ft. wide in front, while the height of the structure +up to the eaves of the pediment is 7 ft. 7 in. On a central column +in the piscina was a statue of Cupid, with a dove, from the mouth +of which water issued. Cicero had, at his villa at Formiae, a +fountain which was decorated with marine shells.</p> + +<p>Fountains were very common in the open spaces and at the +crossways in Pompeii. They were supplied by leaden pipes +from the reservoirs, and had little ornament except a human +or animal head, from the mouth of which it was arranged that the +water should issue. Not only did simple running fountains +exist, but the remains of <i>jets d’eau</i> have been found; and a +drawing exists representing a vase with a double jet of water, +standing on a pedestal placed in what is supposed to have been +the impluvium of a house. There was also a <i>jet d’eau</i> at the +eastern end of the peristyle of the Fullonica at Pompeii.</p> + +<p>As among the Greeks, so with the early Celts, traces of superstitious +beliefs and usages with relation to fountains can be +traced in monumental and legendary remains. Near the village +of Primaleon in Brittany was a very remarkable monument,—one +possibly unique, as giving distinct proof of the existence +of an ancient cult of fountains. Here is a dolmen composed of a +horizontal table supported by two stones only, one at each end. +All the space beneath this altar is occupied by a long square +basin formed of large flat stones, which receives a fountain of +water. At Lochrist is another vestige of the Celtic cult of +fountains. Beneath the church, and at the foot of the hill upon +which it is built, is a sacred fountain, near which is erected an +ancient chapel, which with its ivy-covered walls has a most +romantic appearance. A Gothic vault protects this fountain. +Miraculous virtues are still attributed to its water, and on +certain days the country people still come with offerings to draw +it (see La Poix de Freminville, <i>Antiquités de la Bretagne</i>, i. p. 101). +In the enchanted forest of Brochelande, so famous from its +connexion with Merlin, was the fountain of Baranton, which was +said to possess strange characteristics. Whoever drew water +from it, and sprinkled the steps therewith, produced a tremendous +storm of thunder and hail, accompanied with thick darkness.</p> + +<p>Christianity transferred to its own uses the ancient religious +feeling concerning fountains. Statues of the Virgin or of saints +were erected upon the rude structures that collected the water +and preserved its purity. There is some uniformity in the +architectural characteristics of these structures during the +middle ages. A very common form in rural districts was that +in which the fountain was reached by descending steps (<i>fontaine +grotte</i>). A large basin received the water, sometimes from a +spout, but often from the spring itself. This basin was covered +by a sort of porch or vault, with at times moulded arches and +sculptured figures and escutcheons. On the bank of the Clain +at Poitiers is a fountain of this kind, the Fontaine Joubert, +which though restored in 1597 was originally a structure of the +14th century. This kind of fountain is frequently decorated with +figures of the Virgin or of saints, or with the family arms of its +founder; often, too, the water is the only ornament of the +structure, which bears a simple inscription. A large number +of these fountains are to be found in Brittany and indeed throughout +France, and the great antiquity of some of them is proved +by the superstitions regarding them which still exist amongst +the peasantry. A form more common in populous districts was +that of a large open basin, round, square, polygonal, or lobed in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749"></a>749</span> +form, with a columnar structure at the centre, from the lower +part of which it was arranged that spouts should issue, playing +into an open basin, and supplying vessels brought for the purpose +in the cleanest and quickest manner. The columns take very +various forms, from that of a simple regular geometrical solid, +with only grotesque masks at the spouts, to that of an elaborate +and ornate Gothic structure, with figures of virgins, saints and +warriors, with mouldings, arches, crockets and finials. At +Provins there is a fountain said to be of the 12th century, which +is in form an hexagonal vase with a large column in the centre, +the capital of which is pierced by three mouths, which are +furnished with heads of bronze projecting far enough to cast the +water into the basin. In the public market-place at Brunswick +is a fountain of the 15th century, of which the central structure +is made of bronze. Many fountains are still existing in France +and Germany which, though their actual present structure may +date no earlier than the 15th or 16th century, have been found +on the place of, and perhaps may almost be considered as restorations +of, pre-existing fountains. Except in Italy few fountains +are of earlier date than the 14th century. Two of that date are +at the abbey of Fontaine Daniel, near Mayenne, and another, +of granite, is at Limoges. Some of these middle-age fountains +are simple, open reservoirs enclosed in structures which, however +plain, still carry the charm that belongs to the stone-work of +those times. There is one of this kind at Cully, Calvados, walled +on three sides, and fed from the spring by two circular openings. +Its only ornamentation is a small empty niche with mouldings. +At Lincoln is a fountain of the time of Henry VIII., in front of +the church of St Mary Wickford. At Durham is one of octangular +plan, which bears a statue of Neptune.</p> + +<p>The decay of architectural taste in the later centuries is shown +by the fountain of Limoges. It is in form a rock representing +Mount Parnassus, upon which are carved in relief Apollo, the +horse Pegasus, Philosophy and the Nine Muses. At the top +Apollo, in the 16th-century costume, plays a harp. Rocks, grass +and sheep fill up the scene.</p> + +<p>Purely ornamental fountains and <i>jets d’eau</i> are found in or +near many large cities, royal palaces and private seats. The +celebrated Fontana di Trevi, at Rome, was erected early in the +18th century under Pope Clement XII., and has all the characteristics +of decadence. La Fontana Paolina and those in the piazza +of St Peter’s are perhaps next in celebrity to that of Trevi, and +are certainly in better taste. At Paris the Fontaine des Innocens +(the earliest) and those of the Place Royal, of the Champs Elysées +and of the Place de la Concorde are the most noticeable. The +fountain of the lions and other fountains in the Alhambra palace +are, with their surroundings, a very magnificent sight. The +largest <i>jets d’eau</i> are those at Versailles, at the Sydenham +Crystal Palace and at San Ildefonso.</p> + +<p>About the earliest drawing of any drinking fountain in England +occurs in Moxon’s <i>Tutor to Astronomie and Geographie</i> (1659); +it is “surmounted by a diall, which was made by Mr John Leak, +and set upon a composite column at Leadenhall corner, in the +majoralty of Sir John Dethick, Knight.” The water springs +from the top and base of the column, which stands upon a square +pedestal and bears four female figures, one at least of which +represents the costume of the period.</p> + +<p>In the East the public drinking fountains are a very important +institution. In Cairo alone there are three hundred. These +“sebeels” are not only to be seen in the cities, but are plentiful +in the fields and villages.</p> + +<p>The Metropolitan Drinking Fountain Association (1859) has +done much to provide facilities in London for both man and +beast to get water to drink in the streets. And in the United +States liberal provision has also been made by private and public +enterprise.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOUNTAINS ABBEY,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> one of the most celebrated ecclesiastical +ruins in England. It lies in the sequestered valley of the river +Skell, 3 m. S.W. of the city of Ripon in Yorkshire. The situation +is most beautiful. The little Skell descends from the uplands +of Pateley Moor to the west a clear swift stream, traversing a +valley clothed with woods, conspicuous among which are some +ancient yew trees which may have sheltered the monks who +first sought retreat here. Steep rocky hills enclose the vale. +Mainly on the north side of the stream, in an open glade, rise +the picturesque and extensive ruins, the church with its stately +tower, and the numerous remnants of domestic buildings which +enable the great abbey to be almost completely reconstructed +in the mind. The arrangements are typical of a Cistercian +house (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abbey</a></span>). Building began in earnest about 1135, +and was continued steadily until the middle of the 13th century, +after which the only important erection was Abbot Huby’s +tower (<i>c.</i> 1500). The demesne of Studley Royal (marquess of +Ripon) contains the ruins. It is in part laid out in the formal +Dutch style, the work of John Aislabie, lord of the manor in the +early part of the 18th century. Near the abbey is the picturesque +Jacobean mansion of Fountains Hall.</p> + +<p>In 1132 the prior and twelve monks of St Mary’s abbey, York, +being dissatisfied with the easy life they were living, left the +monastery and with the assistance of Thurstan, archbishop of +York, founded a house in the valley of the Skell, where they +adopted the Cistercian rule. While building their monastery +the monks are said to have lived at first under an elm and then +under seven yew trees called the Seven Sisters. Two years +later they were joined by Hugh, dean of St Peter’s, York, who +brought with him a large sum of money and a valuable collection +of books. His example was followed by Serlo, a monk of St +Mary’s abbey, York, and by Tosti, a canon of York, and others. +Henry I. and succeeding sovereigns granted them many privileges. +During the reign of Edward I. the monks appear to have again +suffered from poverty, partly no doubt owing to the invasion of +the Scots, but partly also through their own “misconduct and extravagance.” +On account of this Edward I. in 1291 appointed +John de Berwick custodian of the abbey so that he might pay +their debts from the issues of their estates, allowing them enough +for their maintenance, and Edward II. in 1319 granted them +exemption from taxes. After the Dissolution Henry VIII. sold +the manor and site of the monastery to Sir Richard Gresham, +and from him after passing through several families it came to +the marquess of Ripon.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Yorkshire</i>; Dugdale, <i>Monasticon</i>; +Surtees Society, <i>Memorials of the Abbey of St Mary of Fountains</i>, +collected and edited by J.R. Walbran (1863-78).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOUQUÉ, FERDINAND ANDRÉ<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1828-1904), French geologist +and petrologist, was born at Mortain, dept. of La Manche, on +the 21st of June 1828. At the age of twenty-one he entered the +<i>École Normale</i> in Paris, and from 1853 to 1858 he held the appointment +of keeper of the scientific collections. In 1877 he +became professor of natural history at the <i>Collège de France</i>, +in Paris, and in 1881 he was elected a member of the Academy +of Sciences. As a stratigraphical geologist he rendered much +assistance on the Geological Survey of France, but in the course +of time he gave his special attention to the study of volcanic +phenomena and earthquakes, to minerals and rocks; and he was +the first to introduce modern petrographical methods into France. +His studies of the eruptive rocks of Corsica, Santorin and elsewhere; +his researches on the artificial reproduction of eruptive +rocks, and his treatise on the optical characters of felspars +deserve special mention; but he was perhaps best known for +the joint work which he carried on with his friend Michel Lévy. +He died on the 7th of March 1904. His chief publications +were: <i>Santorin et ses éruptions</i>, 1879; (with A. Michel Lévy) +<i>Minéralogie micrographique, Roches éruptives françaises</i> (2 vols., +1879); and <i>Synthèse des minéraux et des roches</i> (1882).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOUQUÉ, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH KARL DE LA MOTTE,<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> +<span class="sc">Baron</span> (1777-1843), German writer of the romantic movement, +was born on the 12th of February 1777 at Brandenburg. His +grandfather had been one of Frederick the Great’s generals +and his father was a Prussian officer. Although not originally +intended for a military career, Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué +ultimately gave up his university studies at Halle to join the +army, and he took part in the Rhine campaign of 1794. The rest +of his life was devoted mainly to literary pursuits. Like so many +of the younger romanticists, Fouqué owed his introduction to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span> +literature to A.W. Schlegel, who published his first book, +<i>Dramatische Spiele von Pellegrin</i> in 1804. His next work, +<i>Romanzen vom Tal Ronceval</i> (1805), showed more plainly his +allegiance to the romantic leaders, and in the <i>Historie vom edlen +Ritter Galmy</i> (1806) he versified a 16th-century romance of +medieval chivalry. <i>Sigurd der Schlangentöter, ein Heldenspiel</i> +(1808), the first modern German dramatization of the <i>Nibelungen</i> +saga, attracted attention to him, and influenced considerably +subsequent versions of the story, such as Hebbel’s <i>Nibelungen</i> +and Wagner’s <i>Ring des Nibelungen</i>. These early writings indicate +the lines which Fouqué’s subsequent literary activity followed; +his interests were divided between medieval chivalry on the one +hand and northern mythology on the other. In 1813, the year +of the rising against Napoleon, he again fought with the Prussian +army, and the new patriotism awakened in the German people +left its mark upon his writings.</p> + +<p>Between 1810 and 1815 Fouqué’s popularity was at its height; +the many romances and novels, plays and epics, which he turned +out with extraordinary rapidity, appealed exactly to the mood +of the hour. The earliest of these are the best—<i>Undine</i>, which +appeared in 1811, being, indeed, one of the most charming of all +German <i>Märchen</i> and the only work by which Fouqué’s memory +still lives to-day. A more comprehensive idea of his powers +may, however, be obtained from the two romances <i>Der Zauberring</i> +(1813) and <i>Die Fahrten Thiodulfs des Isländers</i> (1815). From 1820 +onwards the quality of Fouqué’s work rapidly degenerated, partly +owing to the fatal ease with which he wrote, partly to his inability +to keep pace with the changes in German taste. He remained +the belated romanticist, who, as the reading world turned to +new interests, clung the more tenaciously to the paraphernalia +of romanticism; but in the cold, sober light of the post-romantic +age, these appeared merely flimsy and theatrical. The vitalizing +imaginative power of his early years deserted him, and the +sobriquet of a “Don Quixote of Romanticism” which his +enemies applied to him was not unjustified.</p> + +<p>Fouqué’s first marriage had been unhappy and soon ended +in divorce. His second wife, Karoline von Briest (1773-1831) +enjoyed some reputation as a novelist in her day. After her +death Fouqué married a third time. Some consolation for the +ebbing tide of popular favour was afforded him by the munificence +of Frederick William IV. of Prussia, who granted him a +pension which allowed him to spend his later years in comfort. +He died in Berlin on the 23rd of January 1843.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fouqué’s <i>Ausgewählte Werke</i>, edited by himself, appeared in 12 +vols. (Berlin, 1841); a selection, edited by M. Koch, will be found +in Kürschner’s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i>, vol. 146, part ii. (Stuttgart, +1893); <i>Undine</i>, <i>Sintram</i>, &c., in innumerable reprints. Bibliography +in Goedeke’s <i>Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung</i> +(2nd ed., vi. pp. 115 ff., Dresden, 1898). Most of Fouqué’s works +have been translated, and the English versions of <i>Aslauga’s Knight</i> +(by Carlyle), <i>Sintram and his Companions</i> and <i>Undine</i>, have been +frequently republished. For Fouqué’s life cp. <i>Lebensgeschichte des +Baron Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué. Aufgezeichnet durch ihn selbst</i> +(Halle, 1840), (only to the year 1813), and also the introduction to +Koch’s selections in the <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. G. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOUQUET<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Foucquet</span>), <b>NICOLAS</b> (1615-1680), viscount of +Melun and of Vaux, marquis of Belle-Isle, superintendent of +finance in France under Louis XIV., was born at Paris in 1615. +He belonged to an influential family of the <i>noblesse de la robe</i>, +and after some preliminary schooling with the Jesuits, at the age +of thirteen was admitted as <i>avocat</i> at the parlement of Paris. +While still in his teens he held several responsible posts, and in +1636, when just twenty, he was able to buy the post of <i>maître +des requêtes</i>. From 1642 to 1650 he held various intendancies at +first in the provinces and then with the army of Mazarin, and, +coming thus in touch with the court, was permitted in 1650 to +buy the important position of <i>procureur général</i> to the parlement +of Paris. During Mazarin’s exile Fouquet shrewdly remained +loyal to him, protecting his property and keeping him informed +of the situation at court.</p> + +<p>Upon the cardinal’s return, Fouquet demanded and received +as reward the office of superintendent of the finances (1653), a +position which, in the unsettled condition of the government, +threw into his hands not merely the decision as to which funds +should be applied to meet the demands of the state’s creditors, +but also the negotiations with the great financiers who lent +money to the king. The appointment was a popular one with +the moneyed class, for Fouquet’s great wealth had been largely +augmented by his marriage in 1651 with Marie de Castille, +who also belonged to a wealthy family of the legal nobility. His +own credit, and above all his unfailing confidence in himself, +strengthened the credit of the government, while his high position +at the parlement (he still remained <i>procureur général</i>) secured +financial transactions from investigation. As minister of finance, +he soon had Mazarin almost in the position of a suppliant. +The long wars, and the greed of the courtiers, who followed the +example of Mazarin, made it necessary at times for Fouquet to +meet the demands upon him by borrowing upon his own credit, +but he soon turned this confusion of the public purse with his own +to good account. The disorder in the accounts became hopeless; +fraudulent operations were entered into with impunity, and the +financiers were kept in the position of clients by official favours +and by generous aid whenever they needed it. Fouquet’s fortune +now surpassed even Mazarin’s, but the latter was too deeply +implicated in similar operations to interfere, and was obliged to +leave the day of reckoning to his agent and successor Colbert. +Upon Mazarin’s death Fouquet expected to be made head of the +government; but Louis XIV. was suspicious of his poorly +dissembled ambition, and it was with Fouquet in mind that he +made the well-known statement, upon assuming the government, +that he would be his own chief minister. Colbert fed the +king’s displeasure with adverse reports upon the deficit, and +made the worst of the case against Fouquet. The extravagant +expenditure and personal display of the superintendent served to +intensify the ill-will of the king. Fouquet had bought the port +of Belle Isle and strengthened the fortifications, with a view to +taking refuge there in case of disgrace. He had spent enormous +sums in building a palace on his estate of Vaux, which in extent, +magnificence, and splendour of decoration was a forecast of +Versailles. Here he gathered the rarest manuscripts, the finest +paintings, jewels and antiques in profusion, and above all surrounded +himself with artists and authors. The table was open +to all people of quality, and the kitchen was presided over by +Vatel. Lafontaine, Corneille, Scarron, were among the multitude +of his clients. In August 1661 Louis XIV., already set upon his +destruction, was entertained at Vaux with a <i>fête</i> rivalled in +magnificence by only one or two in French history, at which +Molière’s <i>Les Fâcheux</i> was produced for the first time. The +splendour of the entertainment sealed Fouquet’s fate. The king, +however, was afraid to act openly against so powerful a minister. +By crafty devices Fouquet was induced to sell his office of <i>procureur +général</i>, thus losing the protection of its privileges, and he +paid the price of it into the treasury.</p> + +<p>Three weeks after his visit to Vaux the king withdrew to +Nantes, taking Fouquet with him, and had him arrested when he +was leaving the presence chamber, flattered with the assurance +of his esteem. The trial lasted almost three years, and its violation +of the forms of justice is still the subject of frequent monographs +by members of the French bar. Public sympathy was +strongly with Fouquet, and Lafontaine, Madame de Sévigné +and many others wrote on his behalf; but when Fouquet was +sentenced to banishment, the king, disappointed, “commuted” +the sentence to imprisonment for life. He was sent at the +beginning of 1665 to the fortress of Pignerol, where he undoubtedly +died on the 23rd of March 1680.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Louis acted throughout “as +though he were conducting a campaign,” evidently fearing that +Fouquet would play the part of a Richelieu. Fouquet bore +himself with manly fortitude, and composed several mediocre +translations in prison. The devotional works bearing his name +are apocryphal. A report of his trial was published in Holland, +in 15 volumes, in 1665-1667, in spite of the remonstrances +which Colbert addressed to the States-General. A second +edition under the title of <i>Œuvres de M. Fouquet</i> appeared +in 1696.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751"></a>751</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Chéruel, <i>Mémoires sur la vie publique et privée de Fouquet ... +d’après ses lettres et des pièces inédites</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1864); J. Lair, +<i>Nicolas Foucquet, procureur général, surintendant des finances, +ministre d’État de Louis XIV</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1890); U.V. Châtelain, +<i>Le Surintendant Nicolas Fouquet, protecteur des lettres, des arts et +des sciences</i> (Paris, 1905); R. Pfnor et A. France, <i>Le Château de +Vaux-le-Vicomte dessiné et gravé</i> (Paris, 1888).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Fouquet has been identified with the “Man with the Iron Mask” +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Iron Mask</a></span>), but this theory is quite impossible.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, ANTOINE QUENTIN<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1746-1795), +French revolutionist, was born at Hérouel, a village in the +department of the Aisne. Originally a <i>procureur</i> attached to +the Châtelet at Paris, he sold his office in 1783, and became a +clerk under the lieutenant-general of police. He seems to have +early adopted revolutionary ideas, but little is known of the part +he played at the outbreak of the Revolution. When the Revolutionary +Tribunal of Paris was established on the 10th of March +1793, he was appointed public prosecutor to it, an office which +he filled until the 28th of July 1794. His activity during this +time earned him the reputation of one of the most terrible and +sinister figures of the Revolution. His function as public +prosecutor was not so much to convict the guilty as to see that +the proscriptions ordered by the faction for the time being in +power were carried out with a due regard to a show of legality. +He was as ruthless and as incorrupt as Robespierre himself; he +could be moved from his purpose neither by pity nor by bribes; +nor was there in his cruelty any of that quality which made the +ordinary Jacobin <i>enragé</i> by turns ferocious and sentimental. It +was this very quality of passionless detachment that made him +so effective an instrument of the Terror. He had no forensic +eloquence; but the cold obstinacy with which he pressed his +charges was more convincing than any rhetoric, and he seldom +failed to secure a conviction.</p> + +<p>His horrible career ended with the fall of Robespierre and the +terrorists on the 9th Thermidor. On the 1st of August 1794 he +was imprisoned by order of the Convention and brought to trial. +His defence was that he had only obeyed the orders of the Committee +of Public Safety; but, after a trial which lasted forty-one +days, he was condemned to death, and guillotined on the 7th of +May 1795.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Mémoire pour A.Q. Fouquier ex-accusateur public près le +tribunal révolutionnaire</i>, &c. (Paris, 1794); Domenget, <i>Fouquier-Tinville +et le tribunal révolutionnaire</i> (Paris, 1878); H. Wallon, +<i>Histoire du tribunal révolutionnaire de Paris</i> (1880-1882) (a work +of general interest, but not always exact); George Lecocq, <i>Notes et +documents sur Fouquier-Tinville</i> (Paris, 1885). See also the documents +relating to his trial enumerated by M. Tourneux in <i>Bibliographie +de l’histoire de Paris pendant la Révolution Française</i>, vol. i. +Nos. 4445-4454 (1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOURCHAMBAULT,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> a town of central France in the department +of Nièvre, on the right bank of the Loire, 4½ m. N.W. of +Nevers, on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4591. It owes +its importance to its extensive iron-works, established in 1821, +which give employment to 2000 workmen and produce engineering +material for railway, military and other purposes. Among +the more remarkable <i>chefs-d’œuvre</i> which have been produced at +Fourchambault are the metal portions of the Pont du Carrousel, +the iron beams of the roof of the cathedral at Chartres, and the +vast spans of the bridge over the Dordogne at Cubzac. A small +canal unites the works to the Lateral canal of the Loire.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1755-1809), +French chemist, the son of an apothecary in the household of +the duke of Orleans, was born at Paris on the 15th of June 1755. +He took up medical studies by the advice of the anatomist +Félix Vicq d’Azyr (1748-1794), and after many difficulties +caused by lack of means finally in 1780 obtained his doctor’s +diploma. His attention was specially turned to chemistry by +J.B.M. Bucquet (1746-1780), the professor of chemistry at the +Medical School of Paris, and in 1784 he was chosen to succeed +P.J. Macquer (1718-1784) as lecturer in chemistry at the college +of the Jardin du Roi, where his lectures attained great popularity. +He was one of the earliest converts to the views of Lavoisier, +which he helped to promulgate by his voluminous writings, +but though his name appears on a large number of chemical +and also physiological and pathological memoirs, either alone or +with others, he was rather a teacher and an organizer than an +original investigator. A member of the committees for public +instruction and public safety, and later, under Napoleon, +director general of instruction, he took a leading part in the +establishment of schools for both primary and secondary education, +scientific studies being especially provided for. Fourcroy +died at Paris on the 16th of December 1809, the very day on +which he had been created a count of the French empire. By +his conduct as a member of the Convention he has been accused +of contributing to the death of Lavoisier. Baron Cuvier in his +<i>Éloge historique</i> of Fourcroy repels the charge, but he can +scarcely be acquitted of time-serving indifference, if indeed +active, though secret, participation be not proved against him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Royal Society’s <i>Catalogue of Scientific Papers</i> enumerates 59 +memoirs by Fourcroy himself, and 58 written jointly by him and +others, mostly L.N. Vauquelin.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOURIER, FRANÇOIS CHARLES MARIE<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1772-1837), +French socialist writer, was born at Besançon in Franche-Comté +on the 7th of April 1772. His father was a draper in good +circumstances, and Fourier received an excellent education at +the college in his native town. After completing his studies +there he travelled for some time in France, Germany and Holland. +On the death of his father he inherited a considerable amount of +property, which, however, was lost when Lyons was besieged +by the troops of the Convention. Being thus deprived of his +means of livelihood Fourier entered the army, but after two +years’ service as a chasseur was discharged on account of ill-health. +In 1803 he published a remarkable article on European +politics which attracted the notice of Napoleon, some of whose +ideas were foreshadowed in it. Inquiries were made after the +author, but nothing seems to have come of them. After leaving +the army Fourier entered a merchant’s office in Lyons, and +some years later undertook on his own account a small business +as broker. He obtained in this way just sufficient to supply his +wants, and devoted all his leisure time to the elaboration of his +first work on the organization of society.</p> + +<p>During the early part of his life, and while engaged in commerce, +he had become deeply impressed with the conviction that +social arrangements resulting from the principles of individualism +and competition were essentially imperfect and immoral. He +proposed to substitute for these principles co-operation or united +effort, by means of which full and harmonious development +might be given to human nature. The scheme, worked out in +detail in his first work, <i>Théorie des quatre mouvements</i> (2 vols., +Lyons, 1808, published anonymously), has for foundation a +particular psychological proposition and a special economical +doctrine. Psychologically Fourier held what may with some +laxity of language be called natural optimism,—the view that +the full, free development of human nature or the unrestrained +indulgence of human passion is the only possible way to happiness +and virtue, and that misery and vice spring from the unnatural +restraints imposed by society on the gratification of desire. +This principle of harmony among the passions he regarded as his +grandest discovery—a discovery which did more than set him on +a level with Newton, the discoverer of the principle of attraction +or harmony among material bodies. Throughout his works, +in uncouth, obscure and often unintelligible language, he +endeavours to show that the same fundamental fact of harmony +is to be found in the four great departments,—society, animal +life, organic life and the material universe. In order to give +effect to this principle and obtain the resulting social harmony, +it was needful that society should be reconstructed; for, as +the social organism is at present constituted, innumerable +restrictions are imposed upon the free development of human +desire. As practical principle for such a reconstruction Fourier +advocated co-operative or united industry. In many respects +what he says of co-operation, in particular as to the enormous +waste of economic force which the actual arrangements of +society entail, still deserves attention, and some of the most +recent efforts towards extension of the co-operative method, +<i>e.g.</i> to house-keeping, were in essentials anticipated by him. +But the full realization of his scheme demanded much more than +the mere admission that co-operation is economically more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752"></a>752</span> +efficacious than individualism. Society as a whole must be +organized on the lines requisite to give full scope to co-operation +and to the harmonious evolution of human nature. The details +of this reorganization of the social structure cannot be given +briefly, but the broad outlines may be thus sketched. Society, +on his scheme, is to be divided into departments or <i>phalanges</i>, +each <i>phalange</i> numbering about 1600 persons. Each <i>phalange</i> +inhabits a <i>phalanstère</i> or common building, and has a certain +portion of soil allotted to it for cultivation. The <i>phalanstères</i> +are built after a uniform plan, and the domestic arrangements +are laid down very elaborately. The staple industry of the +<i>phalanges</i> is, of course, agriculture, but the various <i>series</i> and +<i>groupes</i> into which the members are divided may devote themselves +to such occupations as are most to their taste; nor need +any occupation become irksome from constant devotion to it. +Any member of a group may vary his employment at pleasure, +may pass from one task to another. The tasks regarded as +menial or degrading in ordinary society can be rendered attractive +if advantage is taken of the proper principles of human nature: +thus children, who have a natural affinity for dirt, and a fondness +for “cleaning up,” may easily be induced to accept with eagerness +the functions of public scavengers. It is not, on Fourier’s +scheme, necessary that private property should be abolished, +nor is the privacy of family life impossible within the <i>phalanstère</i>. +Each family may have separate apartments, and there may +be richer and poorer members. But the rich and poor are to be +locally intermingled, in order that the broad distinction between +them, which is so painful a feature in actual society, may become +almost imperceptible. Out of the common gain of the <i>phalange</i> +a certain portion is deducted to furnish to each member the +minimum of subsistence; the remainder is distributed in shares +to labour, capital and talent,—five-twelfths going to the first, +four-twelfths to the second and three-twelfths to the third. +Upon the changes requisite in the private life of the members +Fourier was in his first work more explicit than in his later +writings. The institution of marriage, which imposes unnatural +bonds on human passion, is of necessity abolished; a new and +ingeniously constructed system of licence is substituted for it. +Considerable offence seems to have been given by Fourier’s +utterances with regard to marriage, and generally the later +advocates of his views are content to pass the matter over in +silence or to veil their teaching under obscure and metaphorical +language.</p> + +<p>The scheme thus sketched attracted no attention when the +<i>Théorie</i> first appeared, and for some years Fourier remained in +his obscure position at Lyons. In 1812 the death of his mother +put him in possession of a small sum of money, with which he +retired to Bellay in order to perfect his second work. The +<i>Traité de l’association agricole domestique</i> was published in 2 vols. +at Paris in 1822, and a summary appeared in the following year. +After its publication the author proceeded to Paris in the hope +that some wealthy capitalist might be induced to attempt the +realization of the projected scheme. Disappointed in this +expectation he returned to Lyons. In 1826 he again visited +Paris, and as a considerable portion of his means had been +expended in the publication of his book, he accepted a clerkship +in an American firm. In 1829 and 1830 appeared what is +probably the most finished exposition of his views, <i>Le Nouveau +Monde industriel</i>. In 1831 he attacked the rival socialist doctrines +of Saint-Simon and Owen in the small work <i>Pièges et +charlatanisme de deux sectes, St Simon et Owen</i>. His writings now +began to attract some attention. A small body of adherents +gathered round him, and the most ardent of them was Victor +Considérant (<i>q.v.</i>). In 1832 a newspaper, <i>Le Phalanstère ou la +réforme industrielle</i> was started to propagate the views of the +school, but its success was not great. In 1833 it declined from +a weekly to a monthly, and in 1834 it died of inanition. It was +revived in 1836 as <i>Le Phalange</i>, and in 1843 became a daily paper, +<i>La Démocratie pacifique</i>. In 1850 it was suppressed.</p> + +<p>Fourier did not live to see the success of his newspaper, and +the only practical attempt during his lifetime to establish a +<i>phalanstère</i> was a complete failure. In 1832 M. Baudet Dulary, +deputy for Seine-et-Oise, who had become a convert, purchased +an estate at Condé-sur-Vesgre, near the forest of Rambouillet, +and proceeded to establish a socialist community. The capital +supplied was, however, inadequate, and the community broke +up in disgust. Fourier was in no way discouraged by this failure, +and till his death, on the 10th of October 1837, he lived in daily +expectation that wealthy capitalists would see the merits of his +scheme and be induced to devote their fortunes to its realization. +It may be added that subsequent attempts to establish the +<i>phalanstère</i> have been uniformly unsuccessful.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>Fourier seems to have been of an extremely retiring and sensitive +disposition. He mixed little in society, and appeared, indeed, +as if he were the denizen of some other planet. Of the true +nature of social arrangements, and of the manner in which they +naturally grow and become organized, he must be pronounced +extremely ignorant. The faults of existing institutions presented +themselves to him in an altogether distorted manner, and he +never appears to have recognized that the evils of actual society +are immeasurably less serious than the consequences of his +arbitrary scheme. Out of the chaos of human passion he supposed +harmony was to be evolved by the adoption of a few theoretically +disputable principles, which themselves impose restraints even +more irksome than those due to actual social facts. With regard +to the economic aspects of his proposed new method, it is of course +to be granted that co-operation is more effective than individual +effort, but he has nowhere faced the question as to the probable +consequences of organizing society on the abolition of those +great institutions which have grown with its growth. His +temperament was too ardent, his imagination too strong, and +his acquaintance with the realities of life too slight to enable him +justly to estimate the merits of his fantastic views. That this +description of him is not expressed in over-strong language +must be clear to any one who not only considers what is true in +his works,—and the portion of truth is by no means a peculiar +discovery of Fourier’s,—but who takes into account the whole +body of his speculations, the cosmological and historical as well +as the economical and social. No words can adequately describe +the fantastic nonsense which he pours forth, partly in the form +of general speculation on the universe, partly in the form of +prophetic utterances with regard to the future changes in +humanity and its material environment. From these extraordinary +writings it is no extreme conclusion that there was much +of insanity in Fourier’s mental constitution.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Ch. Pellarin, <i>Fourier, sa vie et sa théorie</i> (5th ed., +1872); Sargant, <i>Social Innovators</i> (1859); Reybaud, <i>Réformateurs +modernes</i> (7th ed., 1864); Stein, <i>Socialismus und Communismus des +heutigen Frankreichs</i> (2nd ed., 1848); A.J. Booth, <i>Fortnightly +Review</i>, N. S., vol. xii.; Czynski, <i>Notice bibliographique sur C. +Fourier</i> (1841); Ferraz, <i>Le Socialisme, le naturalisme et le positivisme</i> +(1877); Considérant, <i>Exposition abrégée du système de Fourier</i> (1845); +Transon, <i>Théorie sociétaire de Charles Fourier</i> (1832); Stein, +<i>Geschichte der sozialen Bewegung in Frankreich</i> (1850); Marlo, +<i>Untersuchungen über die Organisation der Arbeit</i> (1853); J.H. Noyes, +<i>History of American Socialisms</i> (1870); Bebel, <i>Charles Fourier</i> +(1888); Varschauer, <i>Geschichte des Sozialismus und Kommunismus +im 19. Jahrhundert</i> (1903); Sambuc, <i>Le Socialisme de Fourier</i> (1900); +M. Hillquit, <i>History of Socialism in the United States</i> (1903); +H. Bourgin, <i>Fourier, contribution à l’étude de socialisme français</i> +(1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. Ad.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Several experiments were made to this end in the United States +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Communism</a></span>) by American followers of Fourier, whose doctrines +were introduced there by Albert Brisbane (1809-1890). Indeed, in +the years between 1840 and 1850, during which the movement +waxed and waned, no fewer than forty-one <i>phalanges</i> were founded, +of which some definite record can be found. The most interesting +of all the experiments, not alone from its own history, but also from +the fact that it attracted the support of many of the most intellectual +and cultured Americans was that of Brook Farm (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOURIER, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1768-1830), French +mathematician, was born at Auxerre on the 21st of March 1768. +He was the son of a tailor, and was left an orphan in his eighth +year; but, through the kindness of a friend, admission was gained +for him into the military school of his native town, which was then +under the direction of the Benedictines of Saint-Maur. He soon +distinguished himself as a student and made rapid progress, +especially in mathematics. Debarred from entering the army +on account of his lowness of birth and poverty, he was appointed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753"></a>753</span> +professor of mathematics in the school in which he had been a +pupil. In 1787 he became a novice at the abbey of St Benoît-sur-Loire; +but he left the abbey in 1789 and returned to his college, +where, in addition to his mathematical duties, he was frequently +called to lecture on other subjects,—rhetoric, philosophy and +history. On the institution of the École Normale at Paris in +1795 he was sent to teach in it, and was afterwards attached +to the École Polytechnique, where he occupied the chair of +analysis. Fourier was one of the savants who accompanied +Bonaparte to Egypt in 1798; and during this expedition he +was called to discharge important political duties in addition to +his scientific ones. He was for a time virtually governor of half +Egypt, and for three years was secretary of the Institut du +Caire; he also delivered the funeral orations for Kléber and +Desaix. He returned to France in 1801, and in the following +year he was nominated prefect of Isère, and was created baron +and chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He took an important +part in the preparation of the famous <i>Description de l’Égypte</i> +and wrote the historical introduction. He held his prefecture +for fourteen years; and it was during this period that he carried +on his elaborate and fruitful investigations on the conduction +of heat. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, in 1815, Fourier +published a royalist proclamation, and left Grenoble as Napoleon +entered it. He was then deprived of his prefecture, and, although +immediately named prefect of the Rhone, was soon after again +deprived. He now settled at Paris, was elected to the Académie +des Sciences in 1816, but in consequence of the opposition of +Louis XVIII. was not admitted till the following year, when he +succeeded the Abbé Alexis de Rochon. In 1822 he was made +perpetual secretary in conjunction with Cuvier, in succession to +Delambre. In 1826 Fourier became a member of the French +Academy, and in 1827 succeeded Laplace as president of the +council of the École Polytechnique. In 1828 he became a +member of the government commission established for the +encouragement of literature. He died at Paris on the 16th of +May 1830.</p> + +<p>As a politician Fourier achieved uncommon success, but his +fame chiefly rests on his strikingly original contributions to +science and mathematics. The theory of heat engaged his +attention quite early, and in 1812 he obtained a prize offered +by the Académie des Sciences with a memoir in two parts, +<i>Théorie des mouvements de la chaleur dans les corps solides</i>. The +first part was republished in 1822 as <i>La Théorie analytique de la +chaleur</i>, which by its new methods and great results made an +epoch in the history of mathematical and physical science +(see below: <span class="sc"><a href="#ar143">Fourier’s Series</a></span>). An English translation has +been published by A. Freeman (Cambridge, 1872), and a German +by Weinstein (Berlin, 1884). His mathematical researches +were also concerned with the theory of equations, but the +question as to his priority on several points has been keenly +discussed. After his death Navier completed and published +Fourier’s unfinished work, <i>Analyse des équations indéterminées</i> +(1831), which contains much original matter. In addition to the +works above mentioned, Fourier wrote many memoirs on +scientific subjects, and <i>éloges</i> of distinguished men of science. +His works have been collected and edited by Gaston Darboux +with the title <i>Œuvres de Fourier</i> (Paris, 1889-1890).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a list of Fourier’s publications see the <i>Catalogue of Scientific +Papers of the Royal Society of London</i>. Reference may also be made +to Arago, “Joseph Fourier,” in the <i>Smithsonian Report</i> (1871).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOURIER’S SERIES,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> in mathematics, those series which +proceed according to sines and cosines of multiples of a variable, +the various multiples being in the ratio of the natural numbers; +they are used for the representation of a function of the variable +for values of the variable which lie between prescribed finite +limits. Although the importance of such series, especially in the +theory of vibrations, had been recognized by D. Bernoulli, +Lagrange and other mathematicians, and had led to some discussion +of their properties, J.B.J. Fourier (see above) was the +first clearly to recognize the arbitrary character of the functions +which the series can represent, and to make any serious attempt +to prove the validity of such representation; the series are +consequently usually associated with the name of Fourier. +More general cases of trigonometrical series, in which the +multiples are given as the roots of certain transcendental equations, +were also considered by Fourier.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Before proceeding to the consideration of the special class of +series to be discussed, it is necessary to define with some precision +what is to be understood by the representation of an arbitrary +function by an infinite series. Suppose a function of a variable x +to be arbitrarily given for values of x between two fixed values a +and b; this means that, corresponding to every value of x such +that a ≦ x ≦ b, a definite arithmetical value of the function is assigned +by means of some prescribed set of rules. A function so defined +may be denoted by ƒ(x); the rules by which the values of the +function are determined may be embodied in a single explicit +analytical formula, or in several such formulae applicable to different +portions of the interval, but it would be an undue restriction of +the nature of an arbitrarily given function to assume <i>à priori</i> that +it is necessarily given in this manner, the possibility of the representation +of such a function by means of a single analytical expression +being the very point which we have to discuss. The +variable x may be represented by a point at the extremity of an +interval measured along a straight line from a fixed origin; thus +we may speak of the point c as synonymous with the value x = c +of the variable, and of ƒ(c) as the value of the function assigned to +the point c. For any number of points between a and b the function +may be discontinuous, <i>i.e.</i> it may at such points undergo abrupt +changes of value; it will here be assumed that the number of such +points is finite. The only discontinuities here considered will be +those known as ordinary discontinuities. Such a discontinuity +exists at the point c if ƒ(c + ε), ƒ(c − ε) have distinct but definite +limiting values as ε is indefinitely diminished; these limiting values +are known as the limits on the right and on the left respectively +of the function at c, and may be denoted by ƒ(c + 0), ƒ(c − 0). The +discontinuity consists therefore of a sudden change of value of the +function from ƒ(c − 0) to ƒ(c + 0), as x increases through the value c. +If there is such a discontinuity at the point x = 0, we may denote +the limits on the right and on the left respectively by ƒ(+0), +ƒ(−0).</p> + +<p>Suppose we have an infinite series u<span class="su">1</span>(x) + u<span class="su">2</span>(x) + ... + u<span class="su">n</span>(x) + ... +in which each term is a function of x, of known analytical form; +let any value x = c (a = c = b) be substituted in the terms of the +series, and suppose the sum of n terms of the arithmetical series so +obtained approaches a definite limit as n is indefinitely increased; +this limit is known as the sum of the series. If for every value of +c such that a ≦ c ≦ b the sum exists and agrees with the value of +ƒ(c), the series Σ <span class="sp1">∞</span> <span class="su1">1</span> u<span class="su">n</span>(x) is said to represent the function (ƒx) between +the values a, b of the variable. If this is the case for all points +within the given interval with the exception of a finite number, at +any one of which either the series has no sum, or has a sum which +does not agree with the value of the function, the series is said to +represent “in general” the function for the given interval. If +the sum of n terms of the series be denoted by S<span class="su">n</span>(c), the condition +that S<span class="su">n</span>(c) converges to the value ƒ(c) is that, corresponding to any +finite positive number δ as small as we please, a value n<span class="su">1</span> of n can +be found such that if n ≧ n<span class="su">1</span>, |ƒ(c) − Sn(c)| < δ.</p> + +<p>Functions have also been considered which for an infinite number +of points within the given interval have no definite value, and series +have also been discussed which at an infinite number of points in +the interval cease either to have a sum, or to have one which agrees +with the value of the function; the narrower conception above will +however be retained in the treatment of the subject in this article, +reference to the wider class of cases being made only in connexion +with the history of the theory of Fourier’s Series.</p> + +<p><i>Uniform Convergence of Series.</i>—If the series u<span class="su">1</span>(x) + u<span class="su">2</span>(x) + ... + +u<span class="su">2</span>(x) + ... converge for every value of x in a given interval a to b, +and its sum be denoted by S(x), then if, corresponding to a finite +positive number δ, as small as we please, a finite number n<span class="su">1</span> can be +found such that the arithmetical value of S(x) − S<span class="su">n</span>(x), where n ⋝ n<span class="su">1</span> +is less than δ for every value of x in the given interval, the series is +said to converge uniformly in that interval. It may however happen +that as x approaches a particular value the number of terms of the +series which must be taken so that |S(x) − S<span class="su">n</span>(x)| may be < δ, increases +indefinitely; the convergence of the series is then infinitely +slow in the neighbourhood of such a point, and the series is not uniformly +convergent throughout the given interval, although it converges +at each point of the interval. If the number of such points +in the neighbourhood of which the series ceases to converge uniformly +be finite, they may be excluded by taking intervals of finite +magnitude as small as we please containing such points, and considering +the convergence of the series in the given interval with +such sub-intervals excluded; the convergence of the series is now +uniform throughout the remainder of the interval. The series is +said to be <i>in general</i> uniformly convergent within the given interval +a to b if it can be made uniformly convergent by the exclusion +of a finite number of portions of the interval, each such portion +being arbitrarily small. It is known that the sum of an infinite +series of continuous terms can be discontinuous only at points in +the neighbourhood of which the convergence of the series is not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754"></a>754</span> +uniform, but non-uniformity of convergence of the series does not +necessarily imply discontinuity in the sum.</p> + +<p><i>Form of Fourier’s Series.</i>—If it be assumed that a function ƒ(x) +arbitrarily given for values of x such that o ≦ x ≦ l is capable of +being represented in general by an infinite series of the form</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">A<span class="su">1</span> sin</td> <td>πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ A<span class="su">2</span> sin</td> <td>2πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ... + A<span class="su">n</span> sin</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ...,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and if it be further assumed that the series is in general uniformly +convergent throughout the interval 0 to l, the form of the coefficients +A can be determined. Multiply each term of the series +by sin nπx / l, and integrate the product between the limits 0 and l, +then in virtue of the property <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span><span class="su1">0</span> sin (nπx / l) sin (n′πx / l) dx = 0, or ½ l, according +as n′ is not, or is, equal to n, we have ½ lA<span class="su">n</span>= <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span><span class="su1">0</span> ƒ(x) sin (nπx / l) dx, and +thus the series is of the form 2/l Σ <span class="sp1">∞</span><span class="su1">1</span> sin (nπx / l) <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span><span class="su1">0</span> sin (nπx / l) dx ...</p> +<div class="author">(1)</div> + +<p>This method of determining the coefficients in the series would +not be valid without the assumption that the series is in general +uniformly convergent, for in accordance with a known theorem +the sum of the integrals of the separate terms of the series is otherwise +not necessarily equal to the integral of the sum. This assumption +being made, it is further assumed that ƒ(x) is such that <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ƒ(x)sin (nπx /l) dx +has a definite meaning for every value of n.</p> + +<p>Before we proceed to examine the justification for the assumptions +made, it is desirable to examine the result obtained, and to deduce +other series from it. In order to obtain a series of the form</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">B<span class="su">0</span> + B<span class="su">1</span> cos</td> <td>πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ B<span class="su">2</span> cos</td> <td>2πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ... + B<span class="su">n</span> cos</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ...</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td><td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">for the representation of ƒ(x) in the interval o to l, let us apply the +series (1) to represent the function ƒ(x) sin (πx / l); we thus find</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>2</td> +<td rowspan="2">Σ<span class="sp2">∞</span> <span class="su1">1</span> sin</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ƒ(x) sin</td> <td>πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> +<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">or</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">Σ<span class="sp2">∞</span> <span class="su1">1</span> sin</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ƒ(x) <span class="f150">{</span> cos</td> <td>(n − 1) πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">− cos</td> <td>(n + 1) πx</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">}</span> dx.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> +<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p>On rearrangement of the terms this becomes</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>πx</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ƒ(x) dx +</td> <td>2</td> +<td rowspan="2">Σ sin</td> <td>πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">cos</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ƒ(x) cos</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> +<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> +<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p>hence ƒ(x) is represented for the interval 0 to l by the series of cosines</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ƒ(x) dx +</td> <td>2</td> +<td rowspan="2">Σ<span class="sp2">∞</span> <span class="su1">1</span> cos</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ƒ(x) cos</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> +<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<div class="author">(2)</div> + +<p>We have thus seen, that with the assumptions made, the arbitrary +function ƒ(x) may be represented, for the given interval, either by a +series of sines, as in (1), or by a series of cosines, as in (2). Some +important differences between the two series must, however, be +noticed. In the first place, the series of sines has a vanishing sum +when x = 0 or x = l; it therefore does not represent the function at +the point x = 0, unless ƒ(0) = 0, or at the point x = l, unless ƒ(l) = 0, +whereas the series (2) of cosines may represent the function at both +these points. Again, let us consider what is represented by (1) and +(2) for values of x which do not lie between o and l. As ƒ(x) is given +only for values of x between 0 and l, the series at points beyond these +limits have no necessary connexion with ƒ(x) unless we suppose that +ƒ(x) is also given for such general values of x in such a way that the +series continue to represent that function. If in (1) we change x into +−x, leaving the coefficients unaltered, the series changes sign, +and if x be changed into x + 2l, the series is unaltered; we infer that +the series (1) represents an odd function of x and is periodic of +period 2l; thus (1) will represent ƒ(x) in general for values of x +between ±∞, only if ƒ(x) is odd and has a period 2l. If in (2) we +change x into −x, the series is unaltered, and it is also unaltered +by changing x into x + 2l; from this we see that the series (2) represents +ƒ(x) for values of x between ±∞, only if ƒ(x) is an even function, +and is periodic of period 2l. In general a function ƒ(x) arbitrarily +given for all values of x between ±∞ is neither periodic nor odd, +nor even, and is therefore not represented by either (1) or (2) except +for the interval 0 to l.</p> + +<p>From (1) and (2) we can deduce a series containing both sines +and cosines, which will represent a function ƒ(x) arbitrarily given +in the interval −l to l, for that interval. We can express by (1) +the function ½ {ƒ(x) − ƒ(−x)} which is an odd function, and thus +this function is represented for the interval −l to +l by</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>2</td> +<td rowspan="2">Σ sin</td> <td>nπx </td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ½ {ƒ(x) − ƒ(−x)} sin</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">we can also express ½ {ƒ(x) + ƒ(−x)}, which is an even function, by +means of (2), thus for the interval −l to +l this function is represented +by</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ½ {ƒ(x) + ƒ(−x)} dx +</td> <td>2</td> +<td rowspan="2">Σ<span class="sp2">∞</span> <span class="su1">1</span> cos</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ½ {ƒ(x) + ƒ(−x)} cos</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> +<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">It must be observed that ƒ(−x) is absolutely independent of ƒ(x), +the former being not necessarily deducible from the latter by putting +−x for x in a formula; both ƒ(x) and ƒ(−x) are functions given +arbitrarily and independently for the interval 0 to l. On adding the +expressions together we obtain a series of sines and cosines which +represents ƒ(x) for the interval −l to l. The integrals</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ƒ(−x) cos</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx,   <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ƒ(−x) sin</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">are equivalent to</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">− <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">−l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ƒ(x) cos</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx,   + <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">−l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ƒ(x) sin</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">thus the series is</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">−l</span> ƒ(x) dx +</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">Σ<span class="sp2">∞</span> <span class="su1">1</span> cos</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">−l</span> ƒ(x) cos</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx +</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">Σ<span class="sp2">∞</span> <span class="su1">1</span> sin</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">−l</span> ƒ(x) sin</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> +<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> +<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> +<td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">which may be written</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">−l</span> ƒ(x′) dx′ +</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">Σ<span class="sp2">∞</span> <span class="su1">1</span> <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">−l</span> ƒ(x′) cos</td> <td>nπ (x − x′)</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx′.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<div class="author">(3)</div> + +<p>The series (3), which represents a function ƒ(x) arbitrarily given +for the interval −l to l, is what is known as Fourier’s Series; the +expressions (1) and (2) being regarded as the particular forms which +(3) takes in the two cases, in which ƒ(−x) = −ƒ(x), or ƒ(−x) = ƒ(x) +respectively. The expression (3) does not represent ƒ(x) at points +beyond the interval −l to l, unless ƒ(x) has a period 2l. For a value +of x within the interval, at which ƒ(x) is discontinuous, the sum of +the series may cease to represent ƒ(x), but, as will be seen hereafter, +has the value ½ {ƒ(x + 0) + ƒ(x − 0)}, the mean of the limits at the +points on the right and the left. The series represents the function +at x = 0, unless the function is there discontinuous, in which case +the series is ½ {ƒ(+0) + ƒ(−0)}; the series does not necessarily +represent the function at the points l and −l, unless ƒ(l) = ƒ(−l). +Its sum at either of these points is ½ {ƒ(l) + ƒ(−l)}.</p> + +<p><i>Examples of Fourier’s Series.</i>—(<i>a</i>) Let ƒ(x) be given from 0 to l, +by ƒ(x) = c, when 0 ≦ x < ½ l, and by f(x)= −c from ½ l to l; it is +required to find a sine series, and also a cosine series, which shall +represent the function in the interval.</p> + +<p>We have</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ƒ(x) sin</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx = c <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">½ l</span> <span class="su2">0</span> sin</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx − c <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">½l</span> sin</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>cl</td> +<td rowspan="2">(cos nπ − 2 cos ½nπ + 1).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">nπ</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">This vanishes if n is odd, and if n = 4m, but if n = 4m + 2 it is equal to +4cl / nπ; the series is therefore</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>4c</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>l</td> +<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>2πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>6πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>10πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ... <span class="f150">)</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">π</td> <td class="denom">2</td> +<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">3</td> +<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">5</td> +<td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p>For unrestricted values of x, this series represents the ordinates +of the series of straight lines in fig. 1, except that it vanishes at +the points 0, ½ l, l, <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span> l ...</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:341px; height:159px" src="images/img754a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>We find similarly that the same function is represented by the +series</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>4c</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span> cos</td> <td>πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">−</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">cos</td> <td>3πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">cos</td> <td>5πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">− + ... <span class="f150">)</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">π</td> <td class="denom">l</td> +<td class="denom">3</td> <td class="denom">l</td> +<td class="denom">5</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">during the interval 0 to l; for general values of x the series represents +the ordinate of the broken line in fig. 2, except that it vanishes +at the points ½ l, <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span> l ...</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:335px; height:147px" src="images/img754b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Let ƒ(x) = x from 0 to ½ l, and f(x) = l − x, from ½ l to l; then</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ƒ(x) sin</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx = <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">½ l</span> <span class="su2">0</span> x sin</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx + <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">½ l</span> (l − x) sin</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">= −</td> <td>l²</td> +<td rowspan="2">cos</td> <td>nπ</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>l²</td> +<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>nπ</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>l²n</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span> cos</td> <td>nπ</td> +<td rowspan="2">− cos nπ <span class="f150">)</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2nπ</td> <td class="denom">2</td> +<td class="denom">n²π²</td> <td class="denom">2</td> +<td class="denom">nπ</td> <td class="denom">2</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>l²</td> +<td rowspan="2">cos nπ −</td> <td>l²</td> +<td rowspan="2">cos</td> <td>nπ</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>l²</td> +<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>nπ</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>2l²</td> +<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>nπ</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">nπ</td> <td class="denom">2nπ</td> +<td class="denom">2</td> <td class="denom">n²π²</td> +<td class="denom">2</td> <td class="denom">n²π²</td> +<td class="denom">2</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755"></a>755</span></p> + +<p>hence the sine series is</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>4l</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span> sin</td> <td>nx</td> +<td rowspan="2">−</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>3πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">sin</td> <td>5πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">− ... <span class="f150">)</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">π²</td> <td class="denom">l</td> +<td class="denom">3²</td> <td class="denom">l</td> +<td class="denom">5²</td><td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p>For general values of x, the series represents the ordinates of the +row of broken lines in fig. 3.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:339px; height:138px" src="images/img755a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The cosine series, which represents the same function for the +interval 0 to l, may be found to be</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">l −</td> <td>2l</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span> cos</td> <td>2πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">cos</td> <td>6πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">cos</td> <td>10πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ... <span class="f150">)</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">4</td> <td class="denom">π²</td> +<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">3²</td> +<td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">5²</td> +<td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">This series represents for general values of x the ordinate of the +set of broken lines in fig. 4.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:335px; height:134px" src="images/img755b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Dirichlet’s Integral.</i>—The method indicated by Fourier, but first +carried out rigorously by Dirichlet, of proving that, with certain +restrictions as to the nature of the function ƒ(x), that function is in +general represented by the series (3), consists in finding the sum of +n+1 terms of that series, and then investigating the limiting value +of the sum, when n is increased indefinitely. It thus appears that +the series is convergent, and that the value towards which its sum +converges is ½ {ƒ(x + 0) + ƒ(x − 0)}, which is in general equal to ƒ(x). +It will be convenient throughout to take −π to π as the given interval; +any interval −l to l may be reduced to this by changing x +into lx / π, and thus there is no loss of generality.</p> + +<p>We find by an elementary process that</p> + +<p class="center">½ + cos (x − x′) + cos 2(x − x′) + ... + cos n(x − x′)</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>sin ½ (2n + 1) (x′ − x)</td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2 sin ½ (x′ − x)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Hence, with the new notation, the sum of the first n+1 terms +of (3) is</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">= <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π</span> <span class="su1">−π</span> ƒ(x′)</td> <td>sin ½ (2n + 1) (x′ − x)</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx′.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2 sin ½ (x′ − x)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">If we suppose ƒ(x) to be continued beyond the interval −π to π, in +such a way that ƒ(x) = ƒ(x + 2π), we may replace the limits in this +integral by x + π, x − π respectively; if we then put x′ − x = 2z, and +let ƒ(x′) = F(z), the expression becomes 1/π <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π/2</span> <span class="su2">−π/2</span> F(z) (sin mz) / (sin z) dz, where +m = 2n + 1; this expression may be written in the form</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(z)</td> <td>sin mz</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz +</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(−z)</td> <td>sin mz</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">π</td> <td class="denom">sin z</td> +<td class="denom">π</td> <td class="denom">sin z</td></tr></table> + +<div class="author">(4)</div> + +<p>We require therefore to find the limiting value, when m is +indefinitely increased, of <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(z) (sin mz) / (sin z) dz; the form of the second +integral being essentially the same. This integral, or rather the +slightly more general one <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">h</span> <span class="su1">0</span> F(z) (sin mz) / (sin z) dz, when 0 < h ≦ ½π, is known +as Dirichlet’s integral. If we write X(z) = F(z) (z / sin z), the integral +becomes <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">h</span> <span class="su1">0</span> X(z) (sin mz) / z dz, which is the form in which the integral +is frequently considered.</p> + +<p><i>The Second Mean-Value Theorem.</i>—The limiting value of Dirichlet’s +integral may be conveniently investigated by means of a +theorem in the integral calculus known as the second mean-value +theorem. Let a, b be two fixed finite numbers such that a < b, +and suppose ƒ(x), φ(x) are two functions which have finite and +determinate values everywhere in the interval except for a finite +number of points; suppose further that the functions ƒ(x), φ(x) +are integrable throughout the interval, and that as x increases +from a to b the function ƒ(x) is monotone, <i>i.e.</i> either never diminishes +or never increases; the theorem is that</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">b</span> <span class="su1">a</span> +ƒ(x) φ(x) dx = ƒ(a + 0) <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">ξ</span> <span class="su1">a</span> +φ(x) dx + ƒ(b − 0) <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">b</span> <span class="su1">ξ</span> φ(x) dx</p> + +<p class="noind">when ξ is some point between a and b, and ƒ(a), ƒ(b) may be written +for ƒ(a + 0), ƒ(b − 0) unless a or b is a point of discontinuity of the +function ƒ(x).</p> + +<p>To prove this theorem, we observe that, since the product of two +integrable functions is an integrable function, <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">b</span> <span class="su1">a</span> ƒ(x) φ(x) dx exists, +and may be regarded as the limit of the sum of a series</p> + +<p class="center">ƒ(x<span class="su">0</span>) φ(x<span class="su">0</span>) (x<span class="su">1</span> − x<span class="su">0</span>) + ƒ(x<span class="su">1</span>) φ(x<span class="su">1</span>) (x<span class="su">2</span> − x<span class="su">1</span>) + ... + ƒ(x<span class="su">n−1</span>) φ(x<span class="su">n−1</span>) (x<span class="su">n</span> − x<span class="su">n−1</span>)</p> + +<p class="noind">where x<span class="su">0</span> = a, x<span class="su">n</span> = b and x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span> ... x<span class="su">n−1</span> are n − 1 intermediate +points. We can express φ(x<span class="su">r</span>) (x<span class="su">r+1</span> − x<span class="su">r</span>) in the form Y<span class="su">r+1</span> − Y<span class="su">r</span>, by putting</p> + +<p class="center">Y<span class="su">r</span> = Σ<span class="sp2">K=r</span> <span class="su2">K=1</span> φ (x<span class="su">K-1</span>) (x<span class="su">K</span> − x<span class="su">K−1</span>), Y<span class="su">0</span> = 0.</p> + +<p>Writing X<span class="su">r</span> for ƒ(x<span class="su">r</span>), the series becomes</p> + +<p class="center">X<span class="su">0</span> (Y<span class="su">1</span> − Y<span class="su">0</span>) + X<span class="su">1</span> (Y<span class="su">2</span> − Y<span class="su">1</span>) + ... + X<span class="su">n−1</span> (Y<span class="su">n</span> − Y<span class="su">n−1</span>)</p> + +<p class="noind">or</p> + +<p class="center">Y<span class="su">1</span> (X<span class="su">0</span> − X<span class="su">1</span>) + Y<span class="su">2</span> (X<span class="su">1</span> − X<span class="su">2</span>) + ... + Y<span class="su">n</span>(X<span class="su">n−1</span> − X<span class="su">n</span>) + Y<span class="su">n</span>X<span class="su">n</span>.</p> + +<p class="noind">Now, by supposition, all the numbers Y<span class="su">1</span>, Y<span class="su">2</span> ... Y<span class="su">n</span> are finite, +and all the numbers X<span class="su">r−1</span> − X<span class="su">r</span> are of the same sign, hence by a known +algebraical theorem the series is equal to M (X<span class="su">0</span> − X<span class="su">n</span>) + Y<span class="su">n</span>X<span class="su">n</span>, where +M is a number intermediate between the greatest and the least of +the numbers Y<span class="su">1</span>, Y<span class="su">2</span>, ... Y<span class="su">n</span>. This remains true however many +partial intervals are taken, and therefore, when their number is +increased indefinitely, and their breadths are diminished indefinitely +according to any law, we have</p> + +<p class="center">Y <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">b</span> <span class="su1">a</span> ƒ(x) φ(x) dx = {ƒ(a) − ƒ(b)} <span class="ov">M</span> + ƒ(b) <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">b</span> <span class="su1">a</span> φ(x) dx</p> + +<p class="noind">when M is intermediate between the greatest and least values +which <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">x</span> <span class="su1">a</span> φ(x) dx can have, when x is in the given integral. Now +this integral is a continuous function of its upper limit x, and therefore +there is a value of x in the interval, for which it takes any +particular value between the greatest and least values that it has. +There is therefore a value ξ between a and b, such that <span class="ov">M</span> = <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">ξ</span> <span class="su1">a</span> φ(x) dx, +hence</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">b</span> <span class="su1">a</span> ƒ(x) φ(x) dx = {ƒ(a) − ƒ(b)} <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">ξ</span> <span class="su1">a</span> φ(x) dx + ƒ(b) <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">b</span> <span class="su1">a</span> φ(x) dx</p> + +<p class="center">= ƒ(a) <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">ξ</span> <span class="su1">a</span> φ(x) dx + ƒ(b) <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">b</span> <span class="su1">ξ</span> φ(x) dx.</p> + +<p class="noind">If the interval contains any finite numbers of points of discontinuity +of ƒ(x) or φ(x), the method of proof still holds good, provided these +points are avoided in making the subdivisions; in particular if +either of the ends be a point of discontinuity of ƒ(x), we write ƒ(a + 0) +or ƒ(b − 0), for ƒ(a) or ƒ(b), it being assumed that these limits exist.</p> + +<p><i>Functions, with Limited Variation.</i>—The condition that ƒ(x), in the +mean-value theorem, either never increases or never diminishes as x +increases from a to b, places a restriction upon the applications of the +theorem. We can, however, show that a function ƒ(x) which is finite +and continuous between a and b, except for a finite number of +ordinary discontinuities, and which only changes from increasing to +diminishing or vice versa, a finite number of times, as x increases +from a to b, may be expressed as the difference of two functions +ƒ<span class="su">1</span>(x), ƒ<span class="su">2</span>(x), neither of which ever diminishes as x passes from a to b, +and that these functions are finite and continuous, except that one +or both of them are discontinuous at the points where the given +function is discontinuous. Let α, β be two consecutive points at +which ƒ(x) is discontinuous, consider any point x<span class="su">1</span>, such that α ≦ x<span class="su">1</span> ≦ β, +and suppose that at the points M<span class="su">1</span>, M<span class="su">2</span> ... M<span class="su">r</span> between α and x<span class="su">1</span>, +ƒ(x) is a maximum, and at m<span class="su">1</span>, m<span class="su">2</span> ... m<span class="su">r</span>, it is a minimum; we will +suppose, for example, that the ascending order of values is α, M<span class="su">1</span>, m<span class="su">1</span>, +M<span class="su">2</span>, m<span class="su">2</span> ... M<span class="su">r</span>, m<span class="su">r</span>, x<span class="su">1</span>; it will make no essential difference in the +argument if m<span class="su">1</span> comes before M<span class="su">1</span>, or if M<span class="su">r</span> immediately precedes x<span class="su">1</span>, +M<span class="su">r−1</span> being then the last minimum.</p> + +<p>Let</p> + +<p class="center">ψ(x<span class="su">1</span>) = [ƒ(M<span class="su">1</span>) − ƒ(α + 0)] + [ƒ(M<span class="su">2</span>) − ƒ(m<span class="su">1</span>)] + ... ++ [ƒ(M<span class="su">r</span>) − ƒ(m<span class="su">r−1</span>)] + [ƒ(x<span class="su">1</span>) − ƒ(m<span class="su">r</span>)];</p> + +<p class="noind">now let (x<span class="su">1</span>) increase until it reaches the value (M<span class="su">r+1</span>) at which ƒ(x) is +again a maximum, then let</p> + +<p class="center">ψ(x<span class="su">1</span>) = [ƒ(M<span class="su">1</span>) − ƒ(α + 0)] + [ƒ(M<span class="su">2</span>) − ƒ(m<span class="su">1</span>)] + ... ++ [ƒ(M<span class="su">r</span>) − ƒ(m<span class="su">r−1</span>)] + [ƒ(M<span class="su">r+1</span>) − ƒ(m<span class="su">r</span>)];</p> + +<p class="noind">and suppose as x increases beyond the value M<span class="su">r+1</span>, ψ(x<span class="su">1</span>) remains +constant until the next minimum m<span class="su">r+1</span> is reached, when it again +becomes variable; we see that ψ(x<span class="su">1</span>) is essentially positive and +never diminishes as x increases.</p> + +<p>Let</p> + +<p class="center">χ(x<span class="su">1</span>) = [ƒ(M<span class="su">1</span>) − f(m<span class="su">1</span>)] + [ƒ(M<span class="su">2</span>) − ƒ(m<span class="su">1</span>)] + ... + [ƒ(M<span class="su">r</span>) − ƒ(m<span class="su">r</span>)],</p> + +<p class="noind">then let x<span class="su">1</span> increase until it is beyond the next maximum M<span class="su">r+1</span>, +and then let</p> + +<p class="center">χ(x<span class="su">1</span>) = [ƒ(M<span class="su">1</span>) − ƒ(m<span class="su">1</span>)] + [ƒ(M<span class="su">2</span>) − ƒ(m<span class="su">1</span>)] + ... ++ [ƒ(M<span class="su">r</span>) − ƒ(m<span class="su">r</span>)] + [ƒ(M<span class="su">r+1</span>) − ƒ(x<span class="su">1</span>)]</p> + +<p class="noind">thus χ(x<span class="su">1</span>) never diminishes, and is alternately constant and variable. +We see that ψ(x<span class="su">1</span>) − χ(x<span class="su">1</span>) is continuous as x<span class="su">1</span> increases from α to β, +and that ψ(x<span class="su">1</span>) − χ(x<span class="su">1</span>) = ƒ(x<span class="su">1</span>) − ƒ(α + 0), and when x<span class="su">1</span> reaches β, we have +ψ(β) − χ(x<span class="su">1</span>) = ƒ(β − 0) − ƒ(α + 0). Hence it is seen that between α and +β, ƒ(x) = [ψ(x) + ƒ(α + 0)] − χ(x), where ψ(x) + ƒ(α + 0), χ(x) are continuous +and never diminish as x increases; the same reasoning +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page756" id="page756"></a>756</span> +applies to every continuous portion of ƒ(x), for which the functions +ψ(x), χ(x) are formed in the same manner; we now take ƒ<span class="su">1</span>(x) = ψ(x) + +ƒ(α + 0) + C, ƒ<span class="su">2</span>(x) = χ(x) + C, where C is constant between consecutive +discontinuities, but may have different values in the next interval +between discontinuities; the C can be so chosen that neither ƒ<span class="su">1</span>(x) +nor ƒ<span class="su">2</span>(x) diminishes as x increases through a value for which ƒ(x) is +discontinuous. We thus see that ƒ(x) = ƒ<span class="su">1</span>(x) − ƒ<span class="su">2</span>(x), where ƒ<span class="su">1</span>(x), ƒ<span class="su">2</span>(x) +never diminish as x increases from a to b, and are discontinuous only +where ƒ(x) is so. The function ƒ(x) is a particular case of a class of +functions defined and discussed by Jordan, under the name “functions +with limited variation” (<i>fonctions à variation bornée</i>); in +general such functions have not necessarily only a finite number of +maxima and minima.</p> + +<p><i>Proof of the Convergence of Fourier’s Series.</i>—It will now be +assumed that a function ƒ(x) arbitrarily given between the values +−π and +π, has the following properties:—</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The function is everywhere numerically less than some fixed +positive number, and continuous except for a finite number of values +of the variable, for which it may be ordinarily discontinuous.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) The function only changes from increasing to diminishing or +vice versa, a finite number of times within the interval; this is +usually expressed by saying that the number of maxima and minima +is finite.</p> + +<p>These limitations on the nature of the function are known as +Dirichlet’s conditions; it follows from them that the function is +integrable throughout the interval.</p> + +<p>On these assumptions, we can investigate the limiting value of +Dirichlet’s integral; it will be necessary to consider only the case +of a function F(z) which does not diminish as z increases from 0 to +½ π, since it has been shown that in the general case the difference +of two such functions may be taken. The following lemmas will +be required:</p> + +<p>1. Since</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span></td> <td>sin mz</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz = <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> {1 + 2cos 2z + 2cos 4z + ... + 2cos 2nz} dz =</td> <td>π</td> +<td rowspan="2">;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">2</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">this result holds however large the odd integer m may be.</p> + +<p>2. If 0 < α < β ≦ π/2,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">β</span> <span class="su1">α</span></td> <td>sin mz</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz =</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">γ</span> <span class="su1">α</span> sin mz dz +</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">β</span> <span class="su1">γ</span> sin mz dz</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">sin α</td> <td class="denom">sin β</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">where α < γ < β, hence</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">| ∫</span> <span class="sp2">β</span> <span class="su1">α</span></td> <td>sin mz</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz <span class="f150">|</span> <</td> <td>2</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> <</td> <td>4</td> +<td rowspan="2">;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">m</td> +<td class="denom">sin α</td> <td class="denom">sin β</td> <td class="denom">m sin α</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">a precisely similar proof shows that <span class="f150">| ∫</span> <span class="sp2">β</span> <span class="su1">α</span> (sin mz / z) dz <span class="f150">|</span> < 4 / mα, +hence the integrals <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">β</span> <span class="su1">α</span> (sin mz / sin z) dz, <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">β</span> <span class="su1">α</span> (sin mz / z) dz, converge to the limit +zero, as m is indefinitely increased.</p> + +<p>3. If α > 0, <span class="f150">| ∫</span> <span class="sp2">∞</span> <span class="su1">α</span> (sin θ / θ) dθ <span class="f150">|</span> cannot exceed ½ π. For by the mean-value +theorem <span class="f150">| ∫</span> <span class="sp2">h</span> <span class="su1">α</span> (sin θ / θ) dθ <span class="f150">|</span> < 2/α + 2/h,</p> + +<p class="noind">hence <span class="f150">|</span> Lh = ∞ <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">h</span> <span class="su1">α</span> (sin θ / θ) dθ <span class="f150">|</span> ≦ 2/α</p> + +<p class="noind">in particular if α ≧ π <span class="f150">| ∫</span> <span class="sp2">∞</span> <span class="su1">α</span> (sin θ / θ) dθ <span class="f150">|</span> ≦ 2/π < π/2.</p> + +<p class="noind">Again d/dα <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">∞</span> <span class="su1">α</span> (sin θ / θ) dθ = − (sin α) / α, α > 0,</p> + +<p class="noind">therefore <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">∞</span> <span class="su1">α</span> (sin θ / θ) dθ increases as α diminishes, when θ < α < π;</p> + +<p class="noind">but lim <span class="su">α=0</span><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">∞</span> <span class="su1">α</span> (sin θ / θ) dθ = π/2, hence <span class="f150">| ∫</span> <span class="sp2">∞</span> <span class="su1">α</span> (sin θ / θ) dθ <span class="f150">|</span> < π/2,</p> + +<p class="noind">where α < π, and < 2/π where α ≧ π. It follows that</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">| ∫</span> <span class="sp2">β</span> <span class="su1">α</span></td> <td>sinθ</td> +<td rowspan="2">dθ <span class="f150">|</span> ≦ π, provided 0 ≦ α < β.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">θ</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">To find the limit of <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(z) (sin mz / sin z) dz, we observe that it may be +written in the form</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">F(0) <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span></td> <td>sin mz</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz + <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">μ</span> <span class="su1">0</span> {F(z) − F(0)}</td> <td>sin mz</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz + <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π/2</span> <span class="su2">μ</span> {F(z) − F(0)}</td> <td>sin mz</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">sin z</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">where μ is a fixed number as small as we please; hence if we use +lemma (1), and apply the second mean-value theorem,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(z)</td> <td>sin mz</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz −</td> <td>π</td> +<td rowspan="2">F(0) = <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">μ</span> <span class="su1">0</span> {F(z) − F(0)}</td> <td>z</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>sin mz</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">2</td> +<td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">z</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">+ {F(μ + 0) − F(0)} <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">ξ1</span> <span class="su2">μ</span></td> <td>sin mz</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz + [F (½ π − 0) − F(0)] <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π/2</span> <span class="su2">ξ1</span></td> <td>sin mz</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">sin z</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">when ξ¹ lies between μ and ½ π. When m is indefinitely increased, +the two last integrals have the limit zero in virtue of lemma (2). +To evaluate the first integral on the right-hand side, let G(z) = +{F(z) − F(0)} (z / sin z), and observe that G(z) increases as z increases +from 0 to μ, hence if we apply the mean value theorem</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">| ∫</span> <span class="sp2">μ</span> <span class="su1">0</span> G(μ)</td> <td>sin mz</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz <span class="f150">|</span> = <span class="f150">|</span> G(μ) <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">μ</span> <span class="su1">ξ</span></td> <td>sin mz</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz <span class="f150">|</span> = <span class="f150">|</span> G(μ) <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">mμ</span> <span class="su2">mξ</span></td> <td>sinθ</td> +<td rowspan="2">dθ <span class="f150">|</span> < πG(μ),</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">z</td> <td class="denom">z</td> <td class="denom">θ</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">where 0 < ξ < μ, since G(z) has the limit zero when z = 0. If ε be an +arbitrarily chosen positive number, a fixed value of μ may be so +chosen that πG(μ) < ½ ε, and thus that <span class="f150">| ∫</span> <span class="sp2">μ</span> <span class="su1">0</span> G(z) (sin mx / z) dz <span class="f150">|</span> < ½ ε. When +μ has been so fixed, m may now be so chosen that</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">| ∫</span> <span class="sp2">½ π</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(z)</td> <td>sin mz</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz −</td> <td>π</td> +<td rowspan="2">F(0) <span class="f150">|</span> < ε.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">2</td></tr></table> + +<p>It has now been shown that when m is indefinitely increased +<span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(z) (sin mz / sin z) dz − (π/2) F(0) has the limit zero.</p> + +<p>Returning to the form (4), we now see that the limiting value of</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(z)</td> <td>sin mz</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(−z)</td> <td>sin mz</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz is ½ {F(+0) + F(−0)};</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">π</td> <td class="denom">sin z</td> +<td class="denom">π</td> <td class="denom">sin z</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">hence the sum of n + 1 terms of the series</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">−l</span> ƒ(x) dx +</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">Σ <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">−l</span> ƒ(x¹) cos</td> <td>nπ(x − x¹)</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">converges to the value ½ {ƒ(x + 0) + ƒ(x − 0)}, or to ƒ(x) at a point +where ƒ(x) is continuous, provided ƒ(x) satisfies Dirichlet’s conditions +for the interval from −l to l.</p> + +<p><i>Proof that Fourier’s Series is in General Uniformly Convergent</i>.—To +prove that Fourier’s Series converges uniformly to its sum +for all values of x, provided that the immediate neighbourhoods +of the points of discontinuity of ƒ(x) are excluded, we have</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">| ∫</span> <span class="sp2">π/2</span> F(z)</td> <td>sin mz</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz −</td> <td>π</td> +<td rowspan="2">F(0) <span class="f150">|</span> < πG(μ) +</td> <td>4</td> +<td rowspan="2">{F(μ + 0) − F(0)} +</td> <td>4</td> +<td rowspan="2">{F(½ π − 0) − F(0)}</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">sin z</td> <td class="denom">2</td> +<td class="denom">m sin μ</td> <td class="denom">m sin ξ¹</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><</td> <td>πμ</td> +<td rowspan="2">{ƒ(x + 2μ) − ƒ(x)} +</td> <td>4</td> +<td rowspan="2">{ƒ(x + 2μ) − ƒ(x)} +</td> <td>4</td> +<td rowspan="2">{ƒ(x + π) − ƒ(x)}.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">sin μ</td> <td class="denom">m sin μ</td> <td class="denom">m sin ξ¹</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Using this inequality and the corresponding one for F(−z), we have</p> + +<p class="center">|S<span class="su">2n+1</span>(x) − ƒ(x)| < μ cosec μ [|ƒ(x + 2μ) − ƒ(x)| + |ƒ(x − 2μ) − ƒ(x)|] ++ A|m cosec μ,</p> + +<p class="noind">where A is some fixed number independent of m. In any +interval (a, b) in which ƒ(x) is continuous, a value μ<span class="su">1</span> of μ can be +chosen such that, for every value of x in (a, b), |ƒ(x + 2μ) − ƒ(x)|, +|ƒ(x − 2μ) − ƒ(x)| are less than an arbitrarily prescribed positive +number ε, provided μ = μ<span class="su">1</span>. Also a value μ<span class="su">2</span> of μ can be so chosen +that εμ<span class="su">2</span> cosec μ<span class="su">2</span> < ½ η, where η is an arbitrarily assigned positive +number. Take for μ the lesser of the numbers μ<span class="su">1</span>, μ<span class="su">2</span>, then |S<span class="su">2n+1</span> − ƒ(x)| < η + A|m cosec μ +for every value of x in (a, b). It follows that, +since η and m are independent of x, |S<span class="su">2n+1</span> − ƒ(x)| < 2ε, provided n is +greater than some fixed value n<span class="su">1</span> dependent only on ε. Therefore +S<span class="su">2n+1</span> converges to ƒ(x) uniformly in the interval (a, b).</p> + +<p><i>Case of a Function with Infinities</i>.—The limitation that ƒ(x) must +be numerically less than a fixed positive number throughout the +interval may, under a certain restriction, be removed. Suppose F(z) +is indefinitely great in the neighbourhood of the point z = c, and is +such that the limits of the two integrals <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">c±ε</span> <span class="su2">c</span> F(z) dz are both zero, as ε +is indefinitely diminished, then +<span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π/2</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(z) (sin mz / sin z) dz denotes the limit when ε = 0, ε¹ = 0 of +<span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">c-ε</span> <span class="su2">0</span> F(z) (sin mz / sin z) dz + +<span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π/2</span> <span class="su2">c+ε¹</span> F(z) (sin mz / sin z) dz, both these limits existing; the +first of these integrals has ½ πF(+0) for its limiting value when m is indefinitely +increased, and the second has zero for its limit. The theorem +therefore holds if F(z) has an infinity up to which it is absolutely +integrable; this will, for example, be the case if F(z) near the point +C is of the form x(z)(z − c)<span class="sp">−μ</span> + ψ(z), where χ(c), ψ(c) are finite, and +0 < μ < 1. It is thus seen that ƒ(x) may have a finite number of +infinities within the given interval, provided the function is integrable +through any one of these points; the function is in that +case still representable by Fourier’s Series.</p> + +<p><i>The Ultimate Values of the Coefficients in Fourier’s Series</i>.—If +ƒ(x) is everywhere finite within the given interval −π to +π, it +can be shown that a<span class="su">n</span>, b<span class="su">n</span>, the coefficients of cos nx, sin nx in the +series which represent the function, are such that na<span class="su">n</span>, nb<span class="su">n</span>, however +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page757" id="page757"></a>757</span> +great n is, are each less than a fixed finite quantity. For writing +ƒ(x) = ƒ<span class="su">1</span>(x) − ƒ<span class="su">2</span>(x), we have</p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π</span> <span class="su1">−π</span> ƒ<span class="su">1</span>(x) cos nxdx = ƒ<span class="su">1</span>(−π + 0) <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">ξ</span> <span class="su1">−π</span> cos nxdx + ƒ<span class="su">1</span>(π − 0) <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π</span> <span class="su1">ξ</span> cos nxdx</p> + +<p class="noind">hence</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π</span> <span class="su1">−π</span> ƒ<span class="su">1</span>(x) cos nxdx = ƒ<span class="su">1</span>(−π + 0)</td> <td>sin nξ</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ƒ<span class="su">1</span>(π − 0)</td> <td>sin nξ</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">n</td> <td class="denom">n</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">with a similar expression, with ƒ<span class="su">2</span>(x) for ƒ<span class="su">1</span>(x), ξ being between π +and −π; the result then follows at once, and is obtained similarly +for the other coefficient.</p> + +<p>If ƒ(x) is infinite at x = c, and is of the form φ(x) / (x − c)<span class="sp">K</span> near the point +c, where 0 < K < 1, the integral +<span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π</span> <span class="su1">−π</span> ƒ(x)cos nxdx contains portions of the form <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">ε+ε</span> <span class="su2">c</span> [φ(x) / (x − c)<span class="sp">K</span>] cos nxdx +<span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">c</span> <span class="su1">c−ε</span> [φ(x) / (x − c)<span class="sp">K</span>] cos nxdx; consider the first of these, and put x = c + u, +it thus becomes <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">ε</span> <span class="su1">0</span> [φ(c + u) / u<span class="sp">K</span>] cos n(c + u) du, which is of the form +φ(c + θε) <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">ε</span> <span class="su1">0</span> [cos n(c + u) / u<span class="sp">K</span>] du; now let nu = v, the integral becomes</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">φ(c + θε) <span class="f150">{</span></td> <td>cos nc</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">θε</span> <span class="su2">0</span></td> <td>cos v</td> +<td rowspan="2">dv −</td> <td>sin nc</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">θε</span> <span class="su2">0</span></td> <td>sin v</td> +<td rowspan="2">dv <span class="f150">}</span>;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">n<span class="sp">1−K</span></td> <td class="denom">v<span class="sp">K</span></td> +<td class="denom">n<span class="sp">1−K</span></td> <td class="denom">v<span class="sp">K</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">hence n<span class="sp">1−K</span> <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π</span> <span class="su1">−π</span> ƒ(x) cos nxdx becomes, as n is definitely increased, +of the form</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">φ(c) <span class="f150">{</span> cos nc <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">∞</span> <span class="su1">0</span></td> <td>cos v</td> +<td rowspan="2">dv − sin nc <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">∞</span> <span class="su1">0</span></td> <td>sin v</td> +<td rowspan="2">dv <span class="f150">}</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">v<span class="sp">K</span></td> <td class="denom">v<span class="sp">K</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">which is finite, both the integrals being convergent and of known +value. The other integral has a similar property, and we infer +that n<span class="sp">1−K</span> a<span class="su">n</span>, n<span class="sp">1−K</span> b<span class="su">n</span> are less than fixed finite numbers.</p> + +<p><i>The Differentiation of Fourier’s Series</i>.—If we assume that the +differential coefficient of a function ƒ(x) represented by a Fourier’s +Series exists, that function ƒ’(x) is not necessarily representable by +the series obtained by differentiating the terms of the Fourier’s +Series, such derived series being in fact not necessarily convergent. +Stokes has obtained general formulae for finding the series which +represent ƒ′(x), ƒ″(x)—the successive differential coefficients of a +limited function ƒ(x). As an example of such formulae, consider +the sine series (1); ƒ(x) is represented by</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>2</td> +<td rowspan="2">Σ sin</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ƒ(x) sin</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">on integration by parts we have</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ƒ(x) sin</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx =</td> <td>l</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">[</span> ƒ(+0) ± ƒ(l − 0) + Σ cos</td> <td>nπa</td> +<td rowspan="2">{ƒ(α + 0) − ƒ(α − 0)} <span class="f150">]</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">nπ</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>l</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">l</span> <span class="su1">0</span> ƒ′(x) cos</td> <td>nπx</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">nπ</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">where α represent the points where ƒ(x) is discontinuous. Hence +if f(x) is represented by the series Σa<span class="su">n</span> sin (nπx / l), and ƒ′(x) by the +series Σb<span class="su">n</span> cos (nπx / l), we have the relation</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">b<span class="su">n</span> =</td> <td>nπ</td> +<td rowspan="2">a<span class="su">n</span> −</td> <td>2</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">[</span> ƒ(+0) = ƒ(l − 0) + Σ cos</td> <td>nπα</td> +<td rowspan="2">{ƒ(α + 0) − ƒ(α − 0)} <span class="f150">]</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">hence only when the function is everywhere continuous, and ƒ(+0) +ƒ(l − 0) are both zero, is the series which represents ƒ′(x) obtained +at once by differentiating that which represents ƒ(x). The form +of the coefficient a<span class="su">n</span> discloses the discontinuities of the function and +of its differential coefficients, for on continuing the integration +by parts we find</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">α<span class="su">n</span> =</td> <td>2</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">[</span> ƒ(+0) = ƒ(l − 0) + Σ cos</td> <td>nπα</td> +<td rowspan="2">{ƒ(α + 0) − ƒ(α − 0)} <span class="f150">]</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">nπ</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>2l</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">[</span> ƒ′(+0) = ƒ′(l − 0) + Σ cos</td> <td>nπβ</td> +<td rowspan="2">{ƒ′(β + 0) − ƒ′(β − 0)} <span class="f150">]</span> + &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">n²π²</td> <td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">where β are the points at which ƒ′(x) is discontinuous.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">History and Literature of the theory</p> + +<p>The history of the theory of the representation of functions by +series of sines and cosines is of great interest in connexion with +the progressive development of the notion of an arbitrary function +of a real variable, and of the peculiarities which such a function +may possess; the modern views on the foundations of the infinitesimal +calculus have been to a very considerable extent formed in +this connexion (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Function</a></span>). The representation of functions by +these series was first considered in the 18th century, in connexion +with the problem of a vibrating cord, and led to a controversy as to +the possibility of such expansions. In a memoir published in 1747 +(<i>Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin</i>, vol. iii.) D’Alembert showed that +the ordinate y at any time t of a vibrating cord satisfies a differential +equation of the form δ²y / δt² = a² (δ²y / δx²), where x is measured along the +undisturbed length of the cord, and that with the ends of the cord of +length l fixed, the appropriate solution is y = ƒ(at + x) − ƒ(at − x), where +ƒ is a function such that ƒ(x) = ƒ(x + 2l); in another memoir in the +same volume he seeks for functions which satisfy this condition. +In the year 1748 (<i>Berlin Memoirs</i>, vol. iv.) Euler, in discussing +the problem, gave ƒ(x) = α sin (πx / l) + β sin (2πx / l) + ... as a particular +solution, and maintained that every curve, whether regular or +irregular, must be representable in this form. This was objected +to by D’Alembert (1750) and also by Lagrange on the ground that +irregular curves are inadmissible. D. Bernoulli (<i>Berlin Memoirs</i>, +vol. ix., 1753) based a similar result to that of Euler on physical +intuition; his method was criticized by Euler (1753). The question +was then considered from a new point of view by Lagrange, in a +memoir on the nature and propagation of sound (<i>Miscellanea +Taurensia</i>, 1759; <i>Œuvres</i>, vol. i.), who, while criticizing Euler’s +method, considers a finite number of vibrating particles, and then +makes the number of them infinite; he did not, however, quite fully +carry out the determination of the coefficients in Bernoulli’s Series. +These mathematicians were hampered by the narrow conception of +a function, in which it is regarded as necessarily continuous; a +discontinuous function was considered only as a succession of +several different functions. Thus the possibility of the expansion +of a broken function was not generally admitted. The first cases +in which rational functions are expressed in sines and cosines were +given by Euler (<i>Subsidium calculi sinuum</i>, Novi Comm. Petrop., +vol. v., 1754-1755), who obtained the formulae</p> + +<p class="center">½ φ = sin φ − ½ sin 2φ + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> sin 3φ ...</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>π²</td> +<td rowspan="2">−</td> <td>φ²</td> +<td rowspan="2">= cos φ − ¼ cos 2φ + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">9</span> cos 3φ ...</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">12</td> <td class="denom">4</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">In a memoir presented to the Academy of St Petersburg in 1777, +but not published until 1798, Euler gave the method afterwards +used by Fourier, of determining the coefficients in the expansions; +he remarked that if Φ is expansible in the form</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">A + B cos φ + C cos 2φ + ..., then A =</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π</span> <span class="su1">0</span> Φ dφ, B =</td> <td>2</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π</span> <span class="su1">0</span> Φ cos φ dφ, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">π</td> <td class="denom">π</td></tr></table> + +<p>The second period in the development of the theory commenced +in 1807, when Fourier communicated his first memoir on the Theory +of Heat to the French Academy. His exposition of the present +theory is contained in a memoir sent to the Academy in 1811, of +which his great treatise the <i>Théorie analytique de la chaleur</i>, published +in 1822, is, in the main, a reproduction. Fourier set himself +to consider the representation of a function given graphically, +and was the first fully to grasp the idea that a single function may +consist of detached portions given arbitrarily by a graph. He +had an accurate conception of the convergence of a series, and +although he did not give a formally complete proof that a function +with discontinuities is representable by the series, he indicated in +particular cases the method of procedure afterwards carried out by +Dirichlet. As an exposition of principles, Fourier’s work is still +worthy of careful perusal by all students of the subject. Poisson’s +treatment of the subject, which has been adopted in English works +(see the <i>Journal de l’école polytechnique</i>, vol. xi., 1820, and vol. +xii., 1823, and also his treatise, <i>Théorie de la chaleur</i>, 1835), +depends upon the equality</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π</span> <span class="su1">−π</span> ƒ(α)</td> <td>1 − h²</td> +<td rowspan="2">dα =</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π</span> <span class="su1">−π</span> ƒ(α) dα +</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">Σ h<span class="sp">n</span> <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp2">π</span> <span class="su1">−π</span> ƒ(α) cos n(x − α) dα</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">1 − 2h cos (x − α) + h²</td> <td class="denom">2π</td> +<td class="denom">π</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">where 0 < h < 1; the limit of the integral on the left-hand side is +evaluated when h = 1, and found to be ½ {ƒ(x + 0) + ƒ(x − 0)}, the +series on the right-hand side becoming Fourier’s Series. The +equality of the two limits is then inferred. If the series is assumed +to be convergent when h = 1, by a theorem of Abel’s its sum is +continuous with the sum for values of h less than unity, but a +proof of the convergency for h = 1 is requisite for the validity of +Poisson’s proof; as Poisson gave no such proof of convergency, +his proof of the general theorem cannot be accepted. The deficiency +cannot be removed except by a process of the same nature as that +afterwards applied by Dirichlet. The definite integral has been +carefully studied by Schwarz (see two memoirs in his collected +works on the integration of the equation (δ²u / δx²) + (δ²u / δy²) = 0), who showed +that the limiting value of the integral depends upon the manner +in which the limit is approached. Investigations of Fourier’s +Series were also given by Cauchy (see his “Mémoire sur les développements +des fonctions en séries périodiques,” <i>Mém. de l’Inst</i>., vol. vi., +also <i>Œuvres complètes</i>, vol. vii.); his method, which depends upon +a use of complex variables, was accepted, with some modification, +as valid by Riemann, but one at least of his proofs is no longer +regarded as satisfactory. The first completely satisfactory investigation +is due to Dirichlet; his first memoir appeared in <i>Crelle’s +Journal</i> for 1829, and the second, which is a model of clearness, in +Dove’s <i>Repertorium der Physik</i>. Dirichlet laid down certain definite +sufficient conditions in regard to the nature of a function which +is expansible, and found under these conditions the limiting value +of the sum of n terms of the series. Dirichlet’s determination +of the sum of the series at a point of discontinuity has been criticized +by Schläfli (see <i>Crelle’s Journal</i>, vol. lxxii.) and by Du Bois-Reymond +(<i>Mathem. Annalen</i>, vol. vii.), who maintained that the sum is really +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page758" id="page758"></a>758</span> +indeterminate. Their objection appears, however, to rest upon a +misapprehension as to the meaning of the sum of the series; if x<span class="su">1</span> be +the point of discontinuity, it is possible to make x approach x<span class="su">1</span>, +and n become indefinitely great, so that the sum of the series +takes any assigned value in a certain interval, whereas we ought +to make x = x<span class="su">1</span> first and afterwards n = ∞, and no other way of +going to the double limit is really admissible. Other papers by +Dircksen (<i>Crelle</i>, vol. iv.) and Bessel (<i>Astronomische Nachrichten</i>, vol. +xvi.), on similar lines to those by Dirichlet, are of inferior importance. +Many of the investigations subsequent to Dirichlet’s have the object +of freeing a function from some of the restrictions which were imposed +upon it in Dirichlet’s proof, but no complete set of necessary and +sufficient conditions as to the nature of the function has been obtained. +Lipschitz (“De explicatione per series trigonometricas,” +<i>Crelle’s Journal</i>, vol. lxiii., 1864) showed that, under a certain condition, +a function which has an infinite number of maxima and +minima in the neighbourhood of a point is still expansible; his +condition is that at the point of discontinuity β, |ƒ(β + δ) − f(β)| < Bδ<span class="sp">α</span> +as δ converges to zero, B being a constant, and α a positive exponent. +A somewhat wider condition is</p> + +<p class="center">{ƒ(β + δ) − ƒ(β)} log δ = 0,<br /> + δ = 0</p> + +<p class="noind">for which Lipschitz’s results would hold. This last condition is +adopted by Dini in his treatise (<i>Sopra la serie di Fourier</i>, &c., Pisa, +1880).</p> + +<p>The modern period in the theory was inaugurated by the publication +by Riemann in 1867 of his very important memoir, written +in 1854, <i>Über die Darstellbarkeit einer Function durch eine trigonometrische +Reihe</i>. The first part of his memoir contains a historical +account of the work of previous investigators; in the second part +there is a discussion of the foundations of the Integral Calculus, +and the third part is mainly devoted to a discussion of what can +be inferred as to the nature of a function respecting the changes in +its value for a continuous change in the variable, if the function is +capable of representation by a trigonometrical series. Dirichlet +and probably Riemann thought that all continuous functions were +everywhere representable by the series; this view was refuted by Du +Bois-Reymond (<i>Abh. der Bayer. Akad.</i> vol. xii. 2). It was shown +by Riemann that the convergence or non-convergence of the series +at a particular point x depends only upon the nature of the function +in an arbitrarily small neighbourhood of the point x. The first to call +attention to the importance of the theory of uniform convergence of +series in connexion with Fourier’s Series was Stokes, in his memoir +“On the Critical Values of the Sums of Periodic Series” (<i>Camb. Phil. +Trans.</i>, 1847; <i>Collected Papers</i>, vol. i.). As the method of determining +the coefficients in a trigonometrical series is invalid unless the +series converges in general uniformly, the question arose whether +series with coefficients other than those of Fourier exist which +represent arbitrary functions. Heine showed (<i>Crelle’s Journal</i>, +vol. lxxi., 1870, and in his treatise <i>Kugelfunctionen</i>, vol. i.) that +Fourier’s Series is in general uniformly convergent, and that if +there is a uniformly convergent series which represents a function, +it is the only one of the kind. G. Cantor then showed (<i>Crelle’s +Journal</i>, vols. lxxii. lxxiii.) that even if uniform convergence be +not demanded, there can be but one convergent expansion for a +function, and that it is that of Fourier. In the <i>Math. Ann.</i> vol. +v., Cantor extended his investigation to functions having an infinite +number of discontinuities. Important contributions to the +theory of the series have been published by Du Bois-Reymond +(<i>Abh. der Bayer. Akademie</i>, vol. xii., 1875, two memoirs, also in +Crelle’s Journal, vols. lxxiv. lxxvi. lxxix.), by Kronecker (<i>Berliner +Berichte</i>, 1885), by O. Hölder (<i>Berliner Berichte</i>, 1885), by Jordan +(<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1881, vol. xcii.), by Ascoli (<i>Math. Annal.</i>, 1873, +and <i>Annali di matematica</i>, vol. vi.), and by Genocchi (<i>Atti della +R. Acc. di Torino</i>, vol. x., 1875). Hamilton’s memoir on “Fluctuating +Functions” (<i>Trans. R.I.A.</i>, vol. xix., 1842) may also be studied +with profit in this connexion. A memoir by Brodén (<i>Math. Annalen</i>, +vol. lii.) contains a good investigation of some of the most recent +results on the subject. The scope of Fourier’s Series has been +extended by Lebesgue, who introduced a conception of integration +wider than that due to Riemann. Lebesgue’s work on Fourier’s +Series will be found in his treatise, <i>Leçons sur les séries trigonométriques</i> +(1906); also in a memoir, “Sur les séries trigonométriques,” +<i>Annales sc. de l’école normale supérieure</i>, series ii. vol. xx. (1903), +and in a paper “Sur la convergence des séries de Fourier,” <i>Math. +Annalen</i>, vol. lxiv. (1905).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The foregoing historical account has been mainly drawn +from A. Sachse’s work, “Versuch einer Geschichte der +Darstellung willkürlicher Functionen einer Variabeln durch trigonometrische +Reihen,” published in <i>Schlömilch’s Zeitschrift für Mathematik</i>, +Supp., vol. xxv. 1880, and from a paper by G.A. Gibson +“On the History of the Fourier Series” (<i>Proc. Ed. Math. Soc.</i> vol. +xi.). Reiff’s <i>Geschichte der unendlichen Reihen</i> may also be consulted, +and also the first part of Riemann’s memoir referred to above. +Besides Dini’s treatise already referred to, there is a lucid treatment +of the <span class="correction" title="amended from subejct">subject</span> from an elementary point of view in C. Neumann’s +treatise, <i>Über die nach Kreis-, Kugel- und Cylinder-Functionen +fortschreitenden Entwickelungen</i>. Jordan’s discussion of the subject +in his <i>Cours d’analyse</i> is worthy of attention: an account of functions +with limited variation is given in vol. i.; see also a paper by Study +in the <i>Math. Annalen</i>, vol. xlvii. On the second mean-value theorem +papers by Bonnet (Brux. Mémoires, vol. xxiii., 1849, <i>Lionville’s +Journal</i>, vol. xiv., 1849), by Du Bois-Reymond (<i>Crelle’s Journal</i>, vol. +lxxix., 1875), by Hankel (<i>Zeitschrift für Math. und Physik</i>, vol. xiv., +1869), by Meyer (<i>Math. Ann.</i>, vol. vi., 1872) and by Hölder (<i>Göttinger +Anzeigen</i>, 1894) may be consulted; the most general form of the +theorem has been given by Hobson (<i>Proc. London Math. Soc.</i>, Series +II. vol. vii., 1909). On the theory of uniform convergence of series, +a memoir by W.F. Osgood (<i>Amer. Journal of Math.</i> xix.) may be with +advantage consulted. On the theory of series in general, in relation +to the functions which they can represent, a memoir by Baire +(<i>Annali di matematica</i>, Series III. vol. iii.) is of great importance. +Bromwich’s <i>Theory of Infinite Series</i> (1908) contains much +information on the general theory of series. Bôcher’s “Introduction +to the Theory of Fourier’s Series,” <i>Annals of Math.</i>, Series +II. vol. vii., 1906, will be found useful. See also Carslaw’s <i>Introduction +to the Theory of Fourier’s Series and Integrals, and the +Mathematical Theory of the Conduction of Heat</i> (1906). A full account +of the theory will be found in Hobson’s treatise <i>On the Theory +of Functions of a Real Variable and on the Theory of Fourier’s Series</i> +(1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. W. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOURMIES<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span>, a town of northern France, in the department +of Nord, on an affluent of the Sambre, 39 m. S.E. of Valenciennes +by rail. Pop. (1906) 13,308. It is one of the chief centres in +France for wool combing and spinning, and produces a great +variety of cloths. The glass-works of Fourmies date from +1599, and were the first established in the north of France. Iron +is worked in the vicinity, and there are important forges and +foundries. Enamel-ware is also manufactured. In 1891 labour +troubles brought about military intervention and consequent +bloodshed. A board of trade arbitration and a school of commerce +and industry are among the public institutions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOURMONT, ÉTIENNE<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1683-1745), French orientalist, was +born at Herbelai, near Saint Denis, on the 23rd of June 1683. +He studied at the Collège Mazarin, Paris, and afterwards in the +Collège Montaigu, where his attention was attracted to Oriental +languages. Shortly after leaving the college he published a +<i>Traduction du commentaire du Rabbin Abraham Aben Esra sur +l’ecclésiast</i>e. In 1711 Louis XIV. appointed Fourmont to +assist a young Chinese, Hoan-ji, in compiling a Chinese grammar. +Hoan-ji died in 1716, and it was not until 1737 that Fourmont +published <i>Meditationes Sinicae</i> and in 1742 <i>Grammatica Sinica</i>. +He also wrote <i>Réflexions critiques sur les histoires des anciens +peuples</i> (1735), and several dissertations printed in the <i>Mémoires</i> +of the Academy of Inscriptions. He became professor of Arabic +in the Collège de France in 1715. In 1713 he was elected a +member of the Academy of Inscriptions, in 1738 a member +of the Royal Society of London, and in 1742 a member of that +of Berlin. He died at Paris on the 19th of December 1745.</p> + +<p>His brother, Michel Fourmont (1690-1746), was also a member +of the Academy of Inscriptions, and professor of the Syriac +language in the Royal College, and was sent by the government +to copy inscriptions in Greece.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An account of Étienne Fourmont’s life and a catalogue of his +works will be found in the second edition (1747) of his <i>Réflexions +critiques</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOURNET, JOSEPH JEAN BAPTISTE XAVIER<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1801-1869), +French geologist and metallurgist, was born at Strassburg on +the 15th of May 1801. He was educated at the École des Mines +at Paris, and after considerable experience as a mining engineer +he was in 1834 appointed professor of geology at Lyons. He was +a man of wide knowledge and extensive research, and wrote +memoirs on chemical and mineralogical subjects, on eruptive +rocks, on the structure of the Jura, the metamorphism of the +Western Alps, on the formation of oolitic limestones, on kaolinization +and on metalliferous veins. On metallurgical subjects +also he was an acknowledged authority; and he published +observations on the order of sulphurability of metals (<i>loi de +Fournet</i>). He died at Lyons on the 8th of January 1869. His +chief publications were: <i>Études sur les dépôts métallifères</i> (Paris, +1834); <i>Histoire de la dolomie</i> (Lyons, 1847); <i>De l’extension +des terrains houillers</i> (1855); <i>Géologie lyonnaise</i> (Lyons, 1861).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOURNIER, PIERRE SIMON<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1712-1768), French engraver +and typefounder, was born at Paris on the 15th of September +1712. He was the son of a printer, and was brought up to his +father’s business. After studying drawing under the painter +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page759" id="page759"></a>759</span> +Colson, he practised for some time the art of wood-engraving, +and ultimately turned his attention to the engraving and casting +of types. He designed many new characters, and his foundry +became celebrated not only in France, but in foreign countries. +Not content with his practical achievements, he sought to +stimulate public interest in his art by the production of various +works on the subject. In 1737 he published his <i>Table des +proportions qu’il faut observer entre les caractères</i>, which was +followed by several other technical treatises. In 1758 he assailed +the title of Gutenberg to the honour awarded him as inventor +of printing, claiming it for Schöffer, in his <i>Dissertation sur +l’origine et les progrès de l’art de graver en bois</i>. This gave rise +to a controversy in which Schöpflin and Baer were his opponents. +Fournier’s contributions to this debate were collected and reprinted +under the title of <i>Traités historiques et critiques sur +l’origine de l’imprimerie</i>. His principal work, however, was the +<i>Manuel typographique</i>, which appeared in 2 vols. 8vo in 1764, +the first volume treating of engraving and type-founding, the +second of printing, with examples of different alphabets. It +was the author’s design to complete the work in four volumes, +but he did not live to execute it. He died at Paris on the 8th of +October 1768.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOURNIER L’HÉRITIER, CLAUDE<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1745-1825), French +revolutionist, called “l’Américain,” was born at Auzon (Haute-Loire) +on the 21st of December 1745, the son of a poor weaver. +He went to America to seek his fortune, and started at San +Domingo an establishment for making <i>tafia</i> (an inferior quality +of rum), but lost his money in a fire. Returning to France +he threw himself into the Revolution with enthusiasm, and +specially distinguished himself by the active part he took in the +organization of the popular armed force by means of which the +most famous of the revolutionary <i>coups</i> were effected. His +influence was principally manifested in the insurrections of the +5th and 6th of October 1789, the 17th of July 1791, and the +20th of June and the 10th of August 1792. He was on bad +terms with the majority of the politicians, and particularly +with Marat, and spent a great part of his time in prison, all the +governments regarding him as an agitator and accusing him of +inciting to insurrection. Arrested for the first time for trying +to force an entrance into the club of the Cordeliers, from which +he had been expelled, he was released, but was in prison from +the 12th of December 1793 to the 21st of September 1794, and +again from the 9th of March 1795 to the 26th of October 1795. +After the attempt on the First Consul in the rue Sainte-Nicaise +he was deported to Guiana, but was allowed to return to France +in 1809. In 1811, while under surveillance at Auxerre, he was +accused of having provoked an <i>émeute</i> against taxes known as +the <i>droits réunis</i> (afterwards called <i>contributions indirectes</i>), +and was imprisoned in the Château d’If, where he remained till +1814. On the second restoration of the Bourbons Fournier +was confined for about nine months in the prison of La Force. +After 1816 he was left unmolested, turned royalist, and passed +his last years in importuning the Restoration government for +compensation for his lost property in San Domingo. He died +in obscurity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further details see preface to F.A. Aulard’s edition of Fournier’s +<i>Mémoires secrets</i> (Paris, 1890), published by the Société de l’histoire +de la Révolution.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOURTOU, MARIE FRANÇOIS OSCAR BARDY DE<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (1836-1897), +French politician, was born at Ribérac (Dordogne) on +the 3rd of January 1836, and represented his native department +in the National Assembly after the Franco-German War. There +he proved a useful adherent to Thiers, who made him minister +of public works in December 1872. He was minister of religion +in the cabinet of May 18-24, 1873, being the only member of the +Right included by Thiers in that short-lived ministry. As +minister of education, religion and the fine arts in the reconstructed +cabinet of the duc de Broglie he had used his administrative +powers to further clerical ends, and as minister of the +interior in Broglie’s cabinet in 1877 he resumed the administrative +methods of the Second Empire. With a well-known +Bonapartist, Baron R.C.F. Reille, as his secretary, he replaced +republican functionaries by Bonapartist partisans, reserving +a few places for the Legitimists. In the general elections of +that year he used the whole weight of officialdom to secure a +majority for the Right, to support a clerical and reactionary +programme. He accompanied Marshal MacMahon in his tour +through southern France, and the presidential manifesto of +September, stating that the president would rely solely on the +Senate should the elections prove unfavourable, was generally +attributed to Fourtou. In spite of these efforts the cabinet fell, +and a commission was appointed to inquire into their unconstitutional +abuse of power. Fourtou was unseated in consequence +of the revelations made in the report of the commission. In the +Chamber of Deputies Gambetta gave the lie direct to Fourtou’s +allegation that the republican party opposed every republican +principle that was not antiquated. A duel was fought in consequence, +but neither party was injured. He was re-elected to +the chamber in 1879 and entered the Senate the next year. +Failing to secure re-election to the Senate in 1885 he again entered +the popular chamber as Legitimist candidate in 1889, but he +took no further active part in politics. He died in Paris in 1897.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works include <i>Histoire de Louis XVI</i> (1840); <i>Histoire de +Saint Pie V</i> (1845); <i>Mme Swetchine, sa vie et ses œuvres</i> (2 vols., +1859); <i>La Question italienne</i> (1860); <i>De la contre-révolution</i> (1876); +and <i>Mémoires d’un royaliste</i> (2 vols., 1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOUSSA<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Fossa</span>, the native name of <i>Cryptoprocta ferox</i>, a +somewhat cat-like or civet-like mammal peculiar to Madagascar, +where it is the largest carnivorous animal. It is about twice +the size of a cat (5 ft. from nose to end of tail), with short close +fur of nearly uniform pale brown. Little is known of its habits, +except that it is nocturnal, frequently attacks and carries off +goats, and especially kids, and shows great ferocity when +wounded, on which account it is much dreaded by the natives. +An example lived in the London zoological gardens for nearly +fourteen years. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carnivora</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOWEY<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (usually pronounced <i>Foy</i>), a seaport and market-town +in the Bodmin parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, +on the Great Western railway, 25 m. by sea W. of Plymouth. +Pop. (1901) 2258. It lies on the west shore of the picturesque +estuary of the river Fowey, close to the water’s edge, and +sheltered by a screen of hills. Its church of St Nicholas is said +to have been built in the 14th century, on the site of a still older +edifice dedicated to St Finbar of Cork. It has a fine tower and +late Norman doorway. Within are a priest’s chamber over the +porch, a handsome oak ceiling, a 15th-century pulpit, and some +curious monuments and brasses. Place House, adjacent to the +church, is a highly ornate Tudor building. A few ancient +houses remain in the town. Deep-sea fishing is carried on; +but the staple trade consists in the export of china clay and +minerals, coal being imported. Fowey harbour, which is easy +of access in clear weather, will admit large vessels at any state +of the tide. St Catherine’s Fort, dating from the days of Henry +VIII. and now ruined, stands at the harbour’s mouth, and +once formed the main defence of the town. Opposite the town, +and connected with it by Bodeneck Ferry, is the village of Polruan. +Its main features are St Saviour’s Chapel, with an ancient rood-stone, +and the remains of Hall House, which was garrisoned +during the civil wars of the 17th century.</p> + +<p>Fowey (Fawy, Vawy, Fowyk) held a leading position amongst +Cornish ports from the reign of Edward I. to the days of the +Tudors. The numerous references to the privateering exploits +of its ships in the Patent and Close Rolls and the extraordinary +number of them at the siege of Calais in 1346 alike testify to its +importance. During this period the king’s mandates were +addressed to the bailiffs or to the mayor and bailiffs, and no +charter of incorporation appears to have been granted until the +reign of James II. Under the second charter of 1690 the common +council consisted of a mayor and eight aldermen and these +with a recorder elected the free burgesses. A member for Fowey +and Looe was summoned to a council at Westminster in 1340, +but from that date until 1571, when it was entrusted with the +privilege of returning two members, it had no parliamentary +representation. By the Reform Act of 1832 it lost both its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span> +members. It had ceased to exercise its municipal functions a +few years previously. In 1316 the prior of Tywardreath, as +lord of the manor, obtained the right to hold a Monday market +and two fairs on the feasts of St Finbar and St Lucy, but by the +charter of 1690 provision was made for a Saturday market and +three fairs, on the 1st of May, 10th of September and Shrove +Tuesday, and only these three continue to be held.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOWL<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (Dan. <i>Fugl</i>, Ger. <i>Vogel</i>), a term originally used in the +sense that bird<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> now is, but, except in composition,—as sea-fowl, +wild-fowl and the like,—practically almost confined<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> at present +to designate the otherwise nameless species which struts on our +dunghills, gathers round our barn-doors, or stocks our poultry +yards—the type of the genus <i>Gallus</i> of ornithologists, of which +four well-marked species are known. The <i>first</i> of these is the +red jungle-fowl of the greater part of India, <i>G. ferrugineus</i>,—called +by many writers <i>G. bankiva</i>,—which is undoubtedly the +parent stock of all the domestic races (cf. Darwin, <i>Animals and +Plants under Domestication</i>, i. pp. 233-246). It inhabits northern +India from Sind to Burma and Cochin China, as well as the Malay +Peninsula and many of the islands as far as Timor, besides the +Philippines. It occurs on the Himalayas up to the height of +4000 ft., and its southern limits in the west of India proper are, +according to Jerdon, found on the Raj-peepla hills to the south +of the Nerbudda, and in the east near the left bank of the +Godavery, or perhaps even farther, as he had heard of its being +killed at Cummum. This species resembles in plumage what is +commonly known among poultry-fanciers as the “Black-breasted +game” breed, and this is said to be especially the case with +examples from the Malay countries, between which and examples +from India some differences are observable—the latter having +the plumage less red, the ear-lappets almost invariably white, +and slate-coloured legs, while in the former the ear-lappets are +crimson, like the comb and wattles, and the legs yellowish. If +the Malayan birds be considered distinct, it is to them that the +name <i>G. bankiva</i> properly applies. This species is said to be +found in lofty forests and in dense thickets, as well as in ordinary +bamboo-jungles, and when cultivated land is near its haunts, +it may be seen in the fields after the crops are cut in straggling +parties of from 10 to 20. The crow to which the cock gives +utterance morning and evening is just like that of a bantam, +never prolonged as in most domestic birds. The hen breeds +from January to July, according to the locality; and lays from +8 to 12 creamy-white eggs, occasionally scraping together a few +leaves or a little dry grass by way of a nest. The so-called <i>G. +giganteus</i>, formerly taken by some ornithologists for a distinct +species, is now regarded as a tame breed of <i>G. ferrugineus</i> or +<i>bankiva</i>. The <i>second</i> good species is the grey jungle-fowl, <i>G. +sonnerati</i>, whose range begins a little to the northward of the +limits of the preceding, and it occupies the southern part of the +Indian peninsula, without being found elsewhere. The cock +has the end of the shaft of the neck-hackles dilated, forming a +horny plate, like a drop of yellow sealing-wax. His call is very +peculiar, being a broken and imperfect kind of crow, quite unlike +that of <i>G. ferrugineus</i> and more like a cackle. The two species +where their respective ranges overlap, occasionally interbreed +in a wild state, and the present readily crosses in confinement +with domestic poultry, but the hybrids are nearly always sterile. +The <i>third</i> species is the Sinhalese jungle-fowl, <i>G. stanleyi</i> (the +<i>G. lafayettii</i> of some authors), peculiar to Ceylon. This also +greatly resembles in plumage some domestic birds, but the cock +is red beneath, and has a yellow comb with a red edge and +purplish-red cheeks and wattles. He has also a singularly +different voice, his crow being dissyllabic. This bird crosses +readily with tame hens, but the hybrids are believed to be infertile. +The <i>fourth</i> species, <i>G. varius</i> (the <i>G. furcatus</i> of some authors), +inhabits Java and the islands eastwards as far as Flores. This +differs remarkably from the others in not possessing hackles, and +in having a large unserrated comb of red and blue and only a +single chin wattle. The predominance of green in its plumage +is another easy mark of distinction. Hybrids between this +species and domestic birds are often produced, but they are most +commonly sterile. Some of them have been mistaken for distinct +species, as those which have received the names of <i>G. aeneus</i> +and <i>G. temmincki</i>.</p> + +<p>Several circumstances seem to render it likely that fowls +were first domesticated in Burma or the countries adjacent +thereto, and it is the tradition of the Chinese that they received +their poultry from the West about the year 1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> By the +Institutes of Manu, the tame fowl is forbidden, though the wild +is allowed to be eaten—showing that its domestication was +accomplished when they were written. The bird is not mentioned +in the Old Testament nor by Homer, though he has <span class="grk" title="’Alektôr">Ἀλέκτωρ</span> +(cock) as the name of a man, nor is it figured on ancient Egyptian +monuments. Pindar mentions it, and Aristophanes calls it the +Persian bird, thus indicating it to have been introduced to Greece +through Persia, and it is figured on Babylonian cylinders between +the 6th and 7th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It is sculptured on the Lycian +marbles in the British Museum (<i>c.</i> 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and E. Blyth +remarks (<i>Ibis</i>, 1867, p. 157) that it is there represented with the +appearance of a true jungle-fowl, for none of the wild <i>Galli</i> +have the upright bearing of the tame breed, but carry their +tail in a drooping position. For further particulars of these +breeds see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poultry</a></span>.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Bird</i> (cognate with <i>breed</i> and <i>brood</i>) was originally the young of +any animal, and an early Act of the Scottish parliament speaks of +“Wolf-birdis,” <i>i.e.</i> Wolf-cubs.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Like <i>Deer</i> (Dan. <i>Dyr</i>, Ger. <i>Tier</i>). <i>Beast</i>, too, with some men +has almost attained as much specialization.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOWLER, CHARLES<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (1792-1867), English architect, was +born at Cullompton, Devon, on the 17th of May 1792. After +serving an apprenticeship of five years at Exeter, he went to +London in 1814, and entered the office of David Laing, where +he remained till he commenced practice for himself. His first +work of importance was the court of bankruptcy in Basinghall +Street, finished in 1821. In the following year he gained the +first premium for a design for the new London bridge, which, +however, was ultimately built according to the design of another +architect. Fowler’s other designs for bridges include one constructed +across the Dart at Totnes. He was also the architect +for the markets of Covent Garden and Hungerford, the new +market at Gravesend, and Exeter lower market, and besides +several churches he designed Devon lunatic asylum (1845), +the London fever hospital (1849), and the hall of the Wax +Chandlers’ Company, Gresham Street (1853). For some years +he was honorary secretary of the institute of British architects, +and he was afterwards created vice-president. He retired from +his profession in 1853, and died at Great Marlow, Bucks, on the +26th of September 1867.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOWLER, EDWARD<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1632-1714), English divine, was born +in 1632 at Westerleigh, Gloucestershire, and was educated at +Corpus Christi College, Oxford, afterwards migrating to Trinity +College, Cambridge. He was successively rector of Norhill, +Bedfordshire (1656) and of All Hallows, Bread Street, London +(1673), and in 1676 was elected a canon of Gloucester, his friend +Henry More, the Cambridge Platonist, resigning in his favour. +In 1681 he became vicar of St Giles, Cripplegate, but after four +years was suspended for Whiggism. When the Declaration +of Indulgence was published in 1687 he successfully influenced +the London clergy against reading it. In 1691 he was consecrated +bishop of Gloucester and held the see until his death on the +26th of August 1714. Fowler was suspected of Pelagian tendencies, +and his earliest book was a <i>Free Discourse</i> in defence of +<i>The Practices of Certain Moderate Divines called Latitudinarians</i> +(1670). <i>The Design of Christianity</i>, published by him in the +following year, in which he laid stress on the moral design of +revelation, was criticized by Baxter in his <i>How far Holiness +is the Design of Christianity</i> (1671) and by Bunyan in his <i>Defence +of the Doctrine of Justification by Faith</i> (1672), the latter describing +the <i>Design</i> as “a mixture of Popery, Socinianism and Quakerism,” +a horrid accusation to which Fowler replied in a scurrilous +pamphlet entitled <i>Dirt Wip’d Off</i>. He also published, in 1693, +<i>Twenty-Eight Propositions, by which the Doctrine of the Trinity +is endeavoured to be explained</i>, challenging with some success the +Socinian position.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page761" id="page761"></a>761</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOWLER, JOHN<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (1826-1864), English inventor, was born +at Melksham, Wilts, on the 11th of July 1826. He learned +practical engineering at Middlesborough-on-Tees, and about +1850 invented a mechanical system for the drainage of land. +In 1852 he began experiments in steam cultivation, and in 1858 +the Royal Agricultural Society awarded him the prize of £500 +which it had offered for a steam-cultivator that should be an +economic substitute for the plough or the spade. In 1860 he +founded at Hunslet, Leeds, the firm of Fowler & Co., manufacturers +of agricultural machinery, traction engines, &c. He +died at Ackworth, Yorkshire, on the 4th of December 1864.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOWLER, SIR JOHN<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1817-1898), English civil engineer, +was born on the 15th of July 1817 at Wadsley Hall, near Sheffield, +where his father was a land-surveyor. At the age of sixteen +he became a pupil of John Towlerton Leather, the engineer of +the Sheffield water-works. The latter’s uncle, George Leather, +was engineer of the Great Aire and Calder Navigation Company, +of the Goole Docks, and other similar works, and Fowler passed +occasionally into his employment, in which he acquired a +thorough knowledge of hydraulic engineering. The era of +railway construction soon swept both Fowler and his employers +into its service, and one of his first employments was to oppose +the route of the Midland railway, chosen by the Stephensons, +which left Sheffield on a branch line, and was therefore strongly +resented by the inhabitants. The prestige of the Stephensons +carried all before it, but in later life Sir John Fowler had the +satisfaction of seeing the opposition of his clients justified, and +Sheffield placed on the main line. In 1838 he went into the +office of John Urpeth Rastrick, one of the leading railway +engineers of the day, where he was employed in designing bridges +for the line from London to Brighton, and also in surveying for +railways in Lancashire. In 1839 he went as representative of +Mr Leather to take charge of the construction of the Stockton +& Hartlepool railway and remained as manager of the line after +it was finished. In 1844 he began his independent career as an +engineer, and from the first was largely employed, more particularly +in laying out the small railway systems which eventually +were amalgamated under the title of the Manchester, Sheffield +& Lincolnshire. In the course of this work he designed a +bridge known as Torksey Bridge, which was disallowed by the +Board of Trade inspector, Captain (afterwards Field-Marshal Sir) +Lintorn Simmons. The engineering profession espoused Fowler’s +side in the controversy which followed, and as a result the verdict +of the Board of Trade was modified. The episode was the +beginning of a warm friendship between these distinguished +representatives of civil and military engineering. Fowler was +engineer of the London Metropolitan railway, the pioneer of +underground railways, and noteworthy in that it was mostly +made not by tunnelling, but by excavating from the surface and +then covering in the permanent way; and he lived to be one of +the engineers officially connected with the deep tunnelling “tube” +system extensively adopted for electric railways in London. +He was also engaged in the making of railways in Ireland, and +in 1867 he was selected by Disraeli to serve on a commission to +advise the government in respect of a proposal for a state-purchase +of the Irish railway system. He also carried out +considerable works in relation to the Nene Valley drainage and +the reclamation of land at the Norfolk estuary.</p> + +<p>In 1865 he was elected president of the Institution of Civil +Engineers, the youngest president who had ever sat in the chair. +He was strongly opposed to the project of a Channel tunnel to +France, and in 1872 he endeavoured to obtain the consent of +parliament to a Channel ferry scheme, whereby trains were to be +transported across the strait in large ferry steamers. The +proposal involved the making of enlarged harbours at Dover +and Audresselles on the French coast, and the bill, after passing +the Commons, was thrown out by the casting vote of the chairman +of a committee of the House of Lords. In 1875 he was enabled +to render, in his private capacity, a signal service to the Italian +government, which was much embarrassed by impracticable +proposals pressed on it by Garibaldi for a rectification of the +course of the Tiber and other engineering works. He had +several interviews with the Italian patriot, and persuaded him +of the impracticable nature of his plan, thereby obtaining for +the government leisure to devise a more reasonable scheme. +For eight years from 1871 he acted as general engineering adviser +in Egypt to the Khedive Ismail. He projected a railway to the +Sudan, and also the reparation of the barrage. These and many +other plans came to an end owing to financial reasons. But the +maps and surveys for the railway were given to the war office, +and proved most useful to Lord Wolseley in his Nile expedition. +For his service Fowler was made K.C.M.G. (1885). He was +created a baronet in 1890 on the completion of the Forth bridge, +of which with his partner Sir Benjamin Baker he was joint +engineer. He died at Bournemouth on the 20th of November +1898.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOWLER, WILLIAM<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1560-1614), Scottish poet, was born +about the year 1560. He attended St Leonard’s college, St +Andrews, between 1574 and 1578, and in 1581 he was in Paris +studying civil law. In 1581 he issued a pamphlet against John +Hamilton and other Catholics, who had, he said, driven him from +his country. He subsequently (about ?1590) became private +secretary and Master of Requests to Anne of Denmark, wife of +James VI., and was renominated to these offices when the queen +went to England. In 1609 his services were rewarded by a grant +of 2000 acres in Ulster. His sister Susannah Fowler married +Sir John Drummond, and was mother of the poet William +Drummond of Hawthornden. On the title-page of <i>The Triumphs +of Petrarke</i>, Fowler styles himself “P. of Hawick,” which has +been held to mean that he was parson of Hawick, but this is +doubtful. A MS. collection of seventy-two sonnets, entitled +<i>The Tarantula of Love</i>, and a translation (1587) from the Italian +of the <i>Triumphs of Petrarke</i> are preserved in the library of the +university of Edinburgh, in the collection bequeathed by his +nephew, William Drummond. Two other volumes of his manuscript +notes, scrolls of poems, &c., are preserved among the +Drummond MSS., now in the library of the Society of Antiquaries +of Scotland. Specimens of Fowler’s verses were published +in 1803 by John Leyden in his <i>Scottish Descriptive Poems</i>. +Fowler contributed a prefatory sonnet to James VI.’s <i>Furies</i>; +and James, in return, commended, in verse, Fowler’s <i>Triumphs</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOX, CHARLES JAMES<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> (1749-1806), British statesman and +orator, was the third son of Henry Fox, 1st Lord Holland, and +his wife. Lady Caroline Lennox, eldest daughter of Charles +Lennox, 2nd duke of Richmond. He was born at 9 Conduit +Street, Westminster, on the 24th of January 1749. The father, +who treated his children with extreme indulgence, allowed him +to choose his school, and he elected to go to one kept at Wandsworth +by a French refugee, named Pampelonne. In a very short +time he asked to be sent to Eton, where he went in 1757. At +Eton he did no more work than was acceptable to him, but he +had an inborn love of literature, and he laid the foundation of +that knowledge of the classic languages which in after years was +the delight of his life. The vehemence of his temper was controlled +by an affectionate disposition. When quite a boy he +checked his own tendency to fits of passion on learning that his +father trusted him to cure his defects.</p> + +<p>That he learnt anything, and that he grew up an amiable and +magnanimous man, were solely due to his natural worth, for no +one ever owed less to education or to family example. The +relations of Lord Holland to his sons would be difficult to parallel. +He not only treated them, and in particular Charles, as friends +and companions in pleasure from the first, but he did his best +to encourage them in dissipation. In 1763 he took Charles for +a tour on the continent, introduced him to the most immoral +society of the time and gave him money with which to gamble. +The boy came back to Eton a precocious rake. It was his good +fortune that he did go back, for he was subjected to a wholesome +course of ridicule by the other boys, and was flogged by Dr +Barnard, the headmaster. In 1764 Charles proceeded to +Hertford College, Oxford. At Oxford, as at Eton, he read +literature from natural liking, and he paid some attention to +mathematics. His often quoted saying that he found mathematics +entertaining was probably meant as a jest at the expense +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page762" id="page762"></a>762</span> +of Sir G. Macartney, to whom he was writing, and who was +known to maintain that it was useless. His own account of his +school and college training, given in a letter to the same correspondent +(6th August 1767), is: “I employed almost my +whole time at Oxford in the mathematical and classical knowledge, +but more particularly in the latter, so that I understand +Latin and Greek tolerably well. I am totally ignorant in every +part of useful knowledge. I am more convinced every day how +little advantage there is in being what at school and the university +is called a good scholar: one receives a good deal of +amusement from it, but that is all. At present I read nothing +but Italian, which I am immoderately fond of, particularly of +the poetry.... As for French, I am far from being so thorough +a master of it as I could wish, but I know so much of it that I +could perfect myself in it at any time with very little trouble, +especially if I pass three or four months in France.” The passage +is characteristic. It shows at once his love of good literature +and his thoroughness. Fox’s youth was disorderly, but it was +never indolent. He was incapable of half doing anything which +he did at all. He did perfect himself in French, and he showed +no less determination to master mere sports. At a later period +when he had grown fat he accounted for his skill in taking “cut +balls” at tennis by saying that he was a very “painstaking +man.” He was all his life a great and steady walker.</p> + +<p>The disorders of his early years were notorious, and were a +common subject of gossip. In the spring of 1767 he left Oxford +and joined his father on the continent during a tour in France +and Italy. In 1768 Lord Holland bought the pocket borough +of Midhurst for him, and he entered on his parliamentary career, +and on London society, in 1769. Within the next few years Lord +Holland reaped to the full the reward for all that was good, and +whatever was evil, in the training he had given his son. The +affection of Charles Fox for his father was unbounded, but the +passion for gambling which had been instilled in him as a boy +proved the ruin of the family fortune. He kept racehorses, +and bet on them largely. On the racecourse he was successful, +and it is another proof of his native thoroughness that he gained +a reputation as a handicapper. It is said that he won more than +he lost on the course. At the gambling table he was unfortunate, +and there can be little question that he was fleeced both in +London and in Paris by unscrupulous players of his own social +rank, who took advantage of his generosity and whose worthlessness +he knew. In the ardour of his passion Fox took his +losses and their consequences with an attractive gaiety. He +called the room in which he did business with the Jew moneylenders +his “Jerusalem chamber.” When his elder brother had +a son, and his prospects were injured, he said that the boy was +a second Messiah, who had appeared for the destruction of the +Jews. “He had his jest, and they had his estate.” In 1774 +Lord Holland had to find £140,000 to pay the gambling debts of +his sons. For years Charles lived in pecuniary embarrassment, +and during his later years, when he had given up gambling, he +was supported by the contributions of wealthy friends, who in +1793 formed a fund of £70,000 for his benefit.</p> + +<p>His public career did not supply him with a check on habits +of dissipation in the shape of the responsibilities of office. He +began, as was to be expected in his father’s son, by supporting +the court; and in 1770, when only twenty-one, he was appointed +a junior lord of the admiralty with Lord North. During the +violent conflict over the Middlesex election (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wilkes, John</a></span>) +he took the unpopular side, and vehemently asserted the right +of the House of Commons to exclude Wilkes. In 1772 during +the proceedings against Crosby and Oliver—a part of the “Wilkes +and liberty” agitation—he and Lord North were attacked by +a mob and rolled in the mud. But Fox’s character was incompatible +with ministerial service under King George III. The +king, himself a man of orderly life, detested him as a gambler +and a rake. And Fox was too independent to please a master +who expected obedience. In February 1772 he threw up his +place to be free to oppose the Royal Marriage Act, on which +the king’s heart was set. He returned to office as junior lord +of the treasury in December. But he was insubordinate; his +sympathy with the American colonies, which were now beginning +to resist the claims of the mother country to tax them, made +him intolerable to the king and he was dismissed in February +1774. The death of his father on the 1st of July of that year +removed an influence which tended to keep him subordinate to +the court, and his friendship for Burke drew him into close +alliance with the Rockingham Whigs. From the first his ability +had won him admiration in the House of Commons. He had +prepared to distinguish himself as an orator by the elaborate +cultivation of his voice, which was naturally harsh and shrill. +His argumentative force was recognized at once, but the full scope +of his powers was first shown on the 2nd of February 1775, when +he spoke on the disputes with the colonies. The speech is +unfortunately lost, but Gibbon, who heard it, told his friend +Holroyd (afterwards Earl of Sheffield) that Fox, “taking the +vast compass of the question before us, discovered powers for +regular debate which neither his friends hoped nor his enemies +dreaded.”</p> + +<p>His great political career dates from that day. It is unique +among the careers of British statesmen of the first rank, for it was +passed almost wholly in opposition. Except for a few months in +1782 and 1783, and again for a few months before his death in +1806, he was out of office. If he was absolutely sincere in the +statement he made to his friend Fitzpatrick, in a letter of the +3rd of February 1778, his life was all he could have wished. +“I am,” he wrote, “certainly ambitious by nature, but I really +have, or think I have, totally subdued that passion. I have still +as much vanity as ever, which is a happier passion by far, because +great reputation I think I may acquire and keep, great situation +I never can acquire, nor if acquired keep, without making +sacrifices that I never will make.” His words show that he judged +himself and read the future accurately. Yet it was certainly +a cause of bitter disappointment to him that he had to stand by +while the country was in his opinion not only misgoverned, but +led to ruin. His reputation as an orator and a political critic, +which was great from the first and grew as he lived, most assuredly +did not console him for his impotence as a statesman. Of the +causes which rendered his brilliant capacity useless for the +purpose of obtaining practical success the most important, +perhaps the only one of real importance, was his personal +character. Lord John Russell (afterwards Earl Russell), his +friendly biographer, has to confess that Fox might have joined in +the confession of Mirabeau: “The public cause suffers for the +immoralities of my youth.” His reputation as a rake and +gambler was so well established at the very beginning of his +career that when he was dismissed from office in 1774 there was +a general belief among the vulgar that he had been detected in +actual theft. His perfect openness, the notoriety of his bankruptcies +and of the seizure of his books and furniture in execution, +kept him before the world as a model of dissipation. In 1776, +when he was leading the resistance to Lord North’s colonial +policy, he “neither abandoned gaming nor his rakish life. He +was seldom in bed before five in the morning nor out of it before +two at noon.” At the most important crisis of his life in 1783, +he almost made an ostentation of disorder and of indifference not +only to appearances, but even to decency. Horace Walpole has +drawn a picture of him at that time which Lord Holland, Fox’s +beloved and admiring nephew, speaking from his early recollections +of his uncle, confesses has “some justification.” Coming +from such an authority the certificate may be held to confirm the +substantial accuracy of Walpole. “Fox lodged in St James’s +Street, and as soon as he rose, which was very late, had a levée +of his followers and of the gaming club at Brooks’s—all his +disciples. His bristly black person, and shagged breast quite +open and rarely purified by any ablutions, was wrapped in a foul +linen nightgown and his bushy hair dishevelled. In these cynic +weeds and with Epicurean good humour did he dictate his politics, +and in this school did the heir of the empire attend his lessons +and imbibe them.” That this cynic manner, and Epicurean +speech, were only the outside of a manly and generous nature +was well known to the personal friends of Fox, and is now +universally allowed. But by the bulk of his contemporaries, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page763" id="page763"></a>763</span> +who could not fail to see the weaknesses he ostentatiously +displayed, Fox was, not unnaturally, suspected as being immoral +and untrustworthy. Therefore when he came into collision with +the will of the king he failed to secure the confidence of the nation +which was his only support. Nor ought any critical admirer +of Fox to deny that George III. was not wholly wrong when +he said that the great orator “was totally destitute of discretion +and sound judgment.” Fox made many mistakes, due in some +cases to vehemence of temperament, and in others only to be +ascribed to want of sagacity. That he fought unpopular causes +is a very insufficient explanation of his failure as a practical +statesman. He could have profited by the reaction which +followed popular excitement but for his bad reputation and his +want of discretion.</p> + +<p>During the eight years between his expulsion from office in +1774 and the fall of Lord North’s ministry in March 1782 he +may indeed be said to have done one very great thing in politics. +He planted the seed of the modern Liberal party as opposed to +the pure Whigs. In political allegiance he became a member +of the Rockingham party and worked in alliance with the marquis +and with Burke, whose influence on him was great. In opposing +the attempt to coerce the American colonists, and in assailing +the waste and corruption of Lord North’s administration, as +well as the undue influence of the crown, he was at one with the +Rockingham Whigs. During the agitation against corruption, +and in favour of honest management of the public money, +which was very strong between 1779 and 1782, he and they +worked heartily together. It had a considerable effect, and +prepared the way for the reforms begun by Burke and continued +by Pitt. But if Fox learnt much from Burke he learnt with +originality. He declined to accept the revolution settlement +as final, or to think with Burke that the constitution of the House +of Commons could not be bettered. Fox acquired the conviction +that, if the House was to be made an efficient instrument for +restraining the interference of the king and for securing good +government, it must cease to be filled to a very large extent +by the nominees of boroughmongers and the treasury. He became +a strong advocate for parliamentary reform. In all ways +he was the ardent advocate of what have in later times been +known as “Liberal causes,” the removal of all religious disabilities +and tests, the suppression of private interests which +hampered the public good, the abolition of the slave trade, and +the emancipation of all classes and races of men from the strict +control of authority.</p> + +<p>A detailed account of his activity from 1774 to 1782 would +entail the mention of every crisis of the American War of Independence +and of every serious debate in parliament. Throughout +the struggle Fox was uniformly opposed to the coercion of +the colonies and was the untiring critic of Lord North. While +the result must be held to prove that he was right, he prepared +future difficulties for himself by the fury of his language. He +was the last man in the world to act on the worldly-wise maxim +that an enemy should always be treated as if he may one day +be a friend, and a friend as if he might become an enemy. On +the 29th of November 1779 Fox was wounded in a duel with +Mr William Adam, a supporter of Lord North’s whom he had +savagely denounced. He assailed Lord North with unmeasured +invective, directed not only at his policy but at his personal +character, though he well knew that the prime minister was an +amiable though pliable man, who remained in office against +his own wish, in deference to the king who appealed to his +loyalty. When the disasters of the American war had at last +made a change of ministry necessary, and the king applied to +the Whigs, through the intermediary of Lord Shelburne, Fox +made a very serious mistake in persuading the marquess of +Rockingham not to insist on dealing directly with the sovereign. +The result was the formation of a cabinet belonging, in Fox’s +own words, partly to the king and partly to the country—that +is to say, partly of Whigs who wished to restrain the king, and +partly of the king’s friends, represented by Lord Shelburne, +whose real function was to baffle the Whigs. Dissensions began +from the first, and were peculiarly acute between Shelburne +and Fox, the two secretaries of state. The old division of duties +by which the southern secretary had the correspondence with +the colonies and the western powers of Europe, and the northern +secretary with the others, had been abolished on the formation +of the Rockingham cabinet. All foreign affairs were entrusted +to Fox. Lord Shelburne meddled in the negotiations for the +peace at Paris. He also persuaded his colleagues to grant some +rather scandalous pensions, and Fox’s acquiescence in this abuse +after his recent agitation against Lord North’s waste did him +injury. When the marquess of Rockingham died on the 1st of +July 1782, and the king offered the premiership to Shelburne, +Fox resigned, and was followed by a part of the Rockingham +Whigs.</p> + +<p>In refusing to serve under Shelburne he was undoubtedly +consistent, but his next step was ruinous to himself and his +party. On the 14th of February 1783 he formed a coalition +with Lord North, based as they declared on “mutual goodwill +and confidence.” Plausible excuses were made for the alliance, +but to the country at large this union, formed with a man whom +he had denounced for years, had the appearance of an unscrupulous +conspiracy to obtain office on any terms. In the +House of Commons the coalition was strong enough to drive +Shelburne from office on the 24th of February. The king made +a prolonged resistance to the pressure put on him to accept Fox +and North as his ministers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pitt, William</a></span>). On the 2nd +of April he was constrained to submit to the formation of a new +ministry, in which the duke of Portland was prime minister and +Fox and North were secretaries of state. The new administration +was ill liked by some of the followers of both. Fox increased its +unpopularity both in the House and in the country by consenting +against the wish of most of his colleagues to ask for the grant +of a sum of £100,000 a year to the prince of Wales. The act had +the appearance of a deliberate offence to the king, who was on +bad terms with his son. The magnitude of the sum, and his +acquiescence in the grant of pensions by the Shelburne ministry, +convinced the country that his zeal for economy was hypocritical. +The introduction of the India Bill in November 1783 alarmed +many vested interests, and offended the king by the provision +which gave the patronage of India to a commission to be named +by the ministry and removable only by parliament. The +coalition, and Fox in particular, were assailed in a torrent of +most telling invective and caricature. Encouraged by the +growing unpopularity of his ministers, George III. gave it to +be understood that he would not look upon any member of the +House of Lords who voted for the India Bill as his friend. The +bill was thrown out in the upper House on the 17th of December, +and next day the king dismissed his ministers.</p> + +<p>Fox now went into opposition again. The remainder of his +life may be divided into four portions—his opposition to Pitt +during the session of 1784; his parliamentary activity till his +secession in 1797; his retirement till 1800; his return to +activity and his short tenure of office before his death in 1806. +During the first of these periods he deepened his unpopularity +by assailing the undoubted prerogatives of the crown, by claiming +for the House of Commons the right to override not only the +king and the Lords but the opinion of the country, and by +resisting a dissolution. This last pretension came very ill from +a statesman who in 1780 had advocated yearly elections. He +lost ground daily before the steady good judgment and unblemished +character of Pitt. When parliament was dissolved +at the end of the session of 1784, the country showed its sentiments +by unseating 180 of the followers of Fox and North. +Immense harm was done to both by the publication of a book +called <i>The Beauties of Fox, North and Burke</i>, a compilation of +their abuse of one another in recent years.</p> + +<p>Fox himself was elected for Westminster with fewer votes +than Admiral Lord Hood, but with a majority over the ministerial +candidate, Sir Cecil Wray. The election was marked by an +amazing outflow of caricatures and squibs, by weeks of rioting +in which Lord Hood’s sailors fought pitched battles in St James’s +Street with Fox’s hackney coachmen, and by the intrepid +canvassing of Whig ladies. The beautiful duchess of Devonshire +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page764" id="page764"></a>764</span> +(Georgiana Spencer) is said to have won at least one vote for +Fox by kissing a shoemaker who had a romantic idea of what +constituted a desirable bribe. The high bailiff refused to make +a return, and the confirmation of Fox’s election was delayed +by the somewhat mean action of the ministry. He had, however, +been chosen for Kirkwall, and could fight his cause in the House. +In the end he recovered damages from the high bailiff. In his +place in parliament he sometimes supported Pitt and sometimes +opposed him with effect. His criticism on the ministers’ bill +for the government of India was sound in principle, though the +evils he foresaw did not arise. Little excuse can be made for +his opposition to Pitt’s commercial policy towards Ireland. +But as Fox on this occasion aided the vested interests of some +English manufacturers he secured a certain revival of popularity. +His support of Pitt’s Reform Bill was qualified by a just dislike +of the ministers’ proposal to treat the possession of the franchise +by a constituency as a property and not as a trust. His unsuccessful +opposition to the commercial treaty with France in +1787 was unwise and most injurious to himself. He committed +himself to the proposition that France was the natural enemy +of Great Britain, a saying often quoted against him in coming +years. It has been excused on the ground that when he said +France he meant the aggressive house of Bourbon. A statesman +whose words have to be interpreted by an esoteric meaning +cannot fairly complain if he is often misunderstood. In 1788 +he travelled in Italy, but returned in haste on hearing of the +illness of the king. Fox supported the claim of the prince of +Wales to the regency as a right, a doctrine which provoked Pitt +into declaring that he would “unwhig the gentleman for the rest +of his life.” The friendship between him and the prince of +Wales (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">George IV.</a></span>) was always injurious to Fox. In 1787 +he was misled by the prince’s ambiguous assurances into denying +the marriage with Mrs Fitzherbert. On discovering that he had +been deceived he broke off all relations with the prince for a +year, but their alliance was renewed. During these years he +was always in favour of whatever measures could be described +as favourable to emancipation and to humanity. He actively +promoted the impeachment of Warren Hastings, which had the +support of Pitt. He was always in favour of the abolition of +the slave trade (which he actually effected during his short +tenure of office in 1806), of the repeal of the Test Acts, and of +concessions to the Roman Catholics, both in Great Britain and +in Ireland.</p> + +<p>The French Revolution affected Fox profoundly. Together +with almost all his countrymen he welcomed the meeting of the +states-general in 1789 as the downfall of a despotism hostile +to Great Britain. But when the development of the Revolution +caused a general reaction, he adhered stoutly to his opinion that +the Revolution was essentially just and ought not to be condemned +for its errors or even for its crimes. As a natural +consequence he was the steady opponent of Pitt’s foreign policy, +which he condemned as a species of crusade against freedom in +the interest of despotism. Between 1790 and 1800 his unpopularity +reached its height. He was left almost alone in +parliament, and was denounced as the enemy of his country. +On the 6th of May 1791 occurred the painful scene in the House +of Commons, in which Burke renounced his friendship. In 1792 +there was some vague talk of a coalition between him and Pitt, +which came to nothing. It should be noted that the scene with +Burke took place in the course of the debate on the Quebec Bill, +in which Fox displayed real statesmanship by criticizing the +division of Upper from Lower Canada, and other provisions of +the bill, which in the end proved so injurious as to be unworkable. +In this year he carried the Libel Bill. In 1792 his ally, the duke +of Portland, and most of his party left him. In 1797 he withdrew +from parliament, and only came forward in 1798 to reaffirm +the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people at a great Whig +dinner. On the 9th of May he was dismissed from the privy +council.</p> + +<p>The interval of secession was perhaps the happiest in his life. +In 1783 he formed a connexion with Elizabeth Bridget Cane, +commonly known as Mrs Armstead or Armistead, an amiable +and well-mannered woman to whom he was passionately +attached. In company with her he established himself at St +Anne’s Hill near Chertsey in Surrey. In 1795 he married her +privately, but did not avow his marriage till 1802. In his letters +he spoke of her always as Mrs Armistead, and some of his friends—Mr +Coke of Holkham, afterwards Lord Leicester, with whom he +stayed every year, being one of them—would not invite her to +their houses. It is hard to explain this solitary instance of +shabby conduct in a thoroughly generous man towards a person +to whom he was unalterably attached and who fully deserved his +affection. Fox’s time at St Anne’s was largely spent in gardening, +in the enjoyment of the country, and in correspondence on +literary subjects with his nephew, the 3rd Lord Holland, and +with Gilbert Wakefield, the editor of Euripides. His letters +show that he had a very sincere love for, and an enlightened +appreciation of, good literature. Greek and Italian were his first +favourites, but he was well read in English literature and in +French, and acquired some knowledge of Spanish. His favourite +authors were Euripides, Virgil and Racine, whom he defends +against the stock criticisms of the admirers of Corneille with +equal zeal and insight.</p> + +<p>Fox reappeared in parliament to take part in the vote of +censure on ministers for declining Napoleon’s overtures for a +peace. The fall of Pitt’s first ministry and the formation of the +Addington cabinet, the peace of Amiens, and the establishment +of Napoleon as first consul with all the powers of a military +despot, seemed to offer Fox a chance of resuming power in public +life. The struggle with Jacobinism was over, and he could have +no hesitation in supporting resistance to a successful general who +ruled by the sword, and who pursued a policy of perpetual +aggression. During 1802 he visited Paris in company with his +wife. An account of his journey was published in 1811 by his +secretary, Mr Trotter, in an otherwise poor book of reminiscence. +It gives an attractive picture of Fox’s good-humour, and of his +enjoyment of the “species of minor comedy which is constantly +exhibited in common life.” His main purpose in visiting Paris +was to superintend the transcription of the correspondence of +Barillon, which he needed for his proposed life of James II. The +book was never finished, but the fragment he completed was +published in 1808, and was translated into French by Armand +Carrel in 1846. Fox was not favourably impressed by Napoleon. +He saw a good deal of French society, and was himself much +admired for his hearty defence of his rival Pitt against a foolish +charge of encouraging plots for Napoleon’s assassination. On +his return he resumed his regular attendance in the House of +Commons. The history of the renewal of the war, of the fall of +Addington’s ministry, and of the formation of Pitt’s second +administration is so fully dealt with in the article on Pitt (<i>q.v.</i>) +that it need not be repeated here.</p> + +<p>The death of Pitt left Fox so manifestly the foremost man in +public life that the king could no longer hope to exclude him +from office. The formation of a ministry was entrusted by the +king to Lord Grenville, but when he named Fox as his proposed +secretary of state for foreign affairs George III. accepted him +without demur. Indeed his hostility seems to a large extent +to have died out. A long period of office might now have +appeared to lie before Fox, but his health was undermined. Had +he lived it may be considered as certain that the war with +Napoleon would have been conducted with a vigour which was +much wanting during the next few years. In domestic politics +Fox had no time to do more than insist on the abolition of the +slave trade. He, like Pitt, was compelled to bow to the king’s +invincible determination not to allow the emancipation of the +Roman Catholics. When a French adventurer calling himself +Guillet de la Gevrillière, whom Fox at first “did the honour to +take for a spy,” came to him with a scheme for the murder of +Napoleon, he sent a warning on the 20th of February to Talleyrand. +The incident gave him an opportunity for reopening +negotiations for peace. A correspondence ensued, and British +envoys were sent to Paris. But Fox was soon convinced that the +French ministers were playing a false game. He was resolved +not to treat apart from Russia, then the ally of Great Britain, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page765" id="page765"></a>765</span> +nor to consent to the surrender of Sicily, which Napoleon insisted +upon, unless full compensation could be obtained for King +Ferdinand. The later stages of the negotiation were not +directed by Fox, but by colleagues who took over his work at +the foreign office when his health began to fail in the summer +of 1806. He showed symptoms of dropsy, and operations only +procured him temporary relief. After carrying his motion for +the abolition of the slave trade on the 10th of June, he was forced +to give up attendance in parliament, and he died in the house of +the duke of Devonshire, at Chiswick, on the 13th of September +1806. His wife survived him till the 8th of July 1842. No +children were born of the marriage. Fox is buried in Westminster +Abbey by the side of Pitt.</p> + +<p>The striking personal appearance of Fox has been rendered +very familiar by portraits and by innumerable caricatures. The +latter were no doubt deliberately exaggerated, and yet a comparison +between the head of Fox in Sayer’s plate “Carlo Khan’s +triumphal entry into Leadenhall,” and in Abbot’s portrait, shows +that the caricaturist did not depart from the original. Fox was +twice painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, once when young in a +group with Lady Sarah Bunbury and Lady Susan Strangeways, +and once at full length. A half-length portrait by the German +painter, Karl Anton Hickel, is in the National Portrait Gallery, +where there is also a terra-cotta bust by Nollekens.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The materials for a life of Fox were first collected +by his nephew, Lord Holland, and were then revised and rearranged +by Mr Allen and Lord John Russell. These materials appear as +<i>Memoirs and Correspondence of C.J. Fox</i> (London, 1853-1857). On +them Lord John Russell based his <i>Life and Times of C.J. Fox</i> +(London, 1859-1866); Sir G.O. Trevelyan’s <i>Early History of C.J. +Fox</i> (London. 1880) brings new evidence; <i>Charles James Fox, a +Political Study</i>, by J.L. Le B. Hammond (London, 1903), is a series +of studies written by an extreme admirer. His <i>Speeches</i> were +collected and published in 1815. The newspaper articles (<i>e.g.</i> in +<i>The Times</i>) published on the occasion of the centenary of his death +contain interesting appreciations. See also Lloyd Sanders, <i>The +Holland House Circle</i> (1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FOX, EDWARD<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1496-1538), bishop of Hereford, was born +about 1496 at Dursley in Gloucestershire; he is said on very +doubtful authority to have been related to Richard Fox (<i>q.v.</i>). +From Eton he proceeded to King’s College, Cambridge, and after +graduating was made secretary to Wolsey. In 1528 he was sent +with Gardiner to Rome to obtain from Clement VII. a decretal +commission for the trial and decision of the case between Henry +VIII. and Catherine of Aragon. On his return he was elected +provost of King’s College, and in August 1529 was the means of +conveying to the king Cranmer’s historic advice that he should +apply to the universities of Europe rather than to the pope. This +introduction led eventually to Cranmer’s promotion over Fox’s +head to the archbishopric of Canterbury. After a brief mission +to Paris in October 1529, Fox in January 1530 befriended +Latimer at Cambridge and took an active part in persuading that +university and Oxford to decide in the king’s favour. He was +sent to employ similar methods of persuasion at the French +universities in 1530-1531, and was also engaged in negotiating a +closer league between England and France. In April 1533 he +was prolocutor of convocation when it decided against the validity +of Henry’s marriage with Catherine, and in 1534 published his +treatise <i>De vera differentia regiae potestatis et ecclesiae</i> (second +ed. 1538, English transl. 1548). Various ecclesiastical preferments +were now granted him, including the archdeaconry of +Leicester (1531) and the bishopric of Hereford (1535). In 1535-1536 +he was sent to Germany to discuss the basis of a political +and theological understanding with the Lutheran princes and +divines, and had several interviews with Luther, who could not +be persuaded of the justice of Henry VIII.’s divorce. The +principal result of the mission was the Wittenberg articles of +1536, which had no slight influence on the English Ten Articles +of the same year. Bucer dedicated to him in 1536 his <i>Commentaries +on the Gospels</i>, and Fox’s Protestantism was also +illustrated by his patronage of Alexander Aless, whom he defended +before Convocation. Fox is credited with the authorship of +several proverbial sayings, such as “the surest way to peace is a +constant preparedness for war” and “time and I will challenge +any two in the world.” The former at any rate is only a variation +of the Latin <i>si vis pacem, para bellum</i>, and probably the latter is +not more original in Fox than in Philip II., to whom it is usually +ascribed. Fox died on the 8th of May 1538 and was buried in the +church of St Mary Mounthaw, London. His chief distinction is +perhaps that he was the most Lutheran of Henry VIII.’s bishops, +and was largely responsible for the Ten Articles of 1536.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.</i>, vols. iv.-xiv.; Cooper’s +<i>Athenae Cantabrigienses</i>; <i>Dict. Nat. Biogr.</i>; R.W. Dixon’s <i>Church +History</i>; G. Mentz, <i>Die Wittenberger Artikel von 1536</i> (1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 10, Slice 6, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 35925-h.htm or 35925-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/9/2/35925/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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